X .•i>o5Vti-
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A NEW
Diftionary of Arts, Sciences, &c.
GAB
G, THE feventh letter, and fifth confonant, of our
V-T? alphabet; tho’ in the alphabets of all the oriental
languages, the Hebrew, Phoenician, Chaldee, Syriac,
Samaritan, Arabic, and even Greek, G is the third
letter. See Letter.
The Hebrews call xlghiwlel, orgimel, q. d. “ camel;”
by reafon it refembles the neck of that animal ; and
the fame appellation it bears in the Samaritan, Phoeni¬
cian, and Chaldee : in the Syriac it is called ga7uel, in
Arabic g:iw, and in Greek gamma.
The letter G is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any way founded without the help of a vowel. It is
formed by the reflexion of the air againft the palate,
made by the tongue as the air pafies out of the throat:
which Martianus Capella exprefles thus, G fpiritus cum
palate ; fo that G is a palatal letter.
The form of our G is taken from that of the La¬
tins, who borrowed.it from the Greeks ; the Latin G
being certainly a corruption of the Greek gamma, r,
as might eafily be (hewn, had our Printers all thecha-
rafters and forms of this letter which we meet withal
in the Greek and Latin MSS thro’ which the letter
pafled from r to G.
In Englifh it has a hard and foft found : hard, as
in the worfe gatue, gun, &c.; and foft, as in the words
gejlure, giant, &c. At the end of words, gh is pro¬
nounced like ff, as in the words rough, tough, &c.
The letter g is alfo ufed in many words where the
found is not perceived, as \x\fign, reign, &c.
As a numeral, G was anciently ufed to denote 400;
and with a dalh over it thus G> 40,000. In mufic, it
is the charafter or mark of the treble cleff; and from
its being placed at the head, or marking the firft found,
in Guido’s fcale, the whole fcale took the name gamut.
See the articles Cleff and Gamut.
As an abbreviature, G. (lands for Gains, Gdlius,
gens, .genius, &c. G. G. for gemina, gejfit, gejje-
runt, &c. G. C. for genio civitatis or Cafar is. G. L.
for Gains libertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genio
urbis facrum. G. B. for genio bono. And G. T. for
genio tutelari.
GABARA, or Gabbara, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in
their houfes, efpecially thofe of fuch of their friends as
GAB
died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs, Ga'nel
or as martyrs. See Embalming, and Mummy. j|
GABEL, ( Gabella, Gablurn, Gablagium), in French Gj<1-
Gabelle, i. e. Vettigal, hath the fame lignification a-
mongthe ancient Englifli writers, x\\z\. gabelle hath in
France- It is a tax ; but hath been varioufly ufed, as
for a rent, cuftom, fervice, &e. And where it was a
payment of rent, thofe who payed it were termed gq^
blatores. When the word gabel was formerly men¬
tioned without any addition to it, it fignified the tax
on fait, though afterwards it was applied to all other
taxes.
GABIONS, in fortification, bafkets made of ozier-
twigs, of a cylindrical form, fix feet high, and four
wide; which, being filled with earth, ferve as a {bel¬
ter from the enemy’s fire.
GABLE, or GABLE-is/n/ of a houfe (from gaval,
Welfii), is the upright triangular end, from the cornice
or eaves, to the top of the houfe.
GABRIEL, the name of one of the principal an¬
gels in heaven. It fignifies the Jlrength of God. There
are a few events, in which this exalted being was con¬
cerned, recorded in feripture. He was fent to the
prophet Daniel, to explain to him the vifion of the ram
and goat, and the myftery of thefeventy weeks, which
had been revealed to him. He was fent to Zecharias,
to declare to him the future birth of John the baptift.
Six months after, he was fent to Nazareth, to the Vir¬
gin Mary, to warn her of the birth of Jefus Chrift.
The Oriefitaluls add feveaal particulars to what the
feriptures inform us concerning the angel Gabriel. The
Mahometans call him the faithfulfpirit; and the Per-
fians, by way of metaphor, the peacock of heaven. We
read, in the fecond chapter of the Koran, that nuhofo- •
ever is an enemy to Gabriel, fall be confounded. It
was Gabriel, they believe, who brought to Mahomet,
their falfe prophet, the revelations which he publiftred;
and it was he, who conducted him to heaven mounted
upon the animal Borak.
GAD, among miners, a fmall punch of iron, with
a long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.
One of the miners holds this in his hand, directing
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by linking it with a fledge-hammer.
j8 E 2 Gad-
GAD [31
Cad, Gad-Z?^, or Gad-fly, in natural hiftory, the common
Gadus. name for a winged infeft, called alfo the dun-fly or ox-fly;
~ a creature very troublefome to cows, horfes, &c. This
creature examined by the microfcope hath fome pecu¬
liarities worthy of obfervation. It has, like the gnat,
a long probofcis, with a (harp dart or two darts flieath-
ed within it; the ufe of thefe darts is to'penetrate the
fiefh of animals for the fucking their blood, whereas
the probofcis can only ferve to fuck the dews from
flowers, &c.
The eggs of this fly are laid in the waters, and there
produce a very remarkable fort of maggot. It is a
brown one of a long flatted figure, with a pencil of
down-hairs at its fail, which it fpreads into a circular
form on the furface of the water, while its head is funk
down in fearch of food. When the creature would de-
fcend towards the bottom, thefe hairs are made to ap¬
proach one another in an oval form ; and in this date
• they inclofe a bubble of air, by means of which it is
able to rife again ; and if this bubble by any accident
efcapes, the creature immediately fqueezes out of its
own body another to fupply its place. The fnout of
this maggot'hath three divifions; whence are thru ft
out three little pointed bodies like ferpents tongues.
Thefe maggots are very common on the furface of
ditch-water ; and the motion of their inteftines is very
Angular and obfervable.
GADUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of jugulares. The head is fmooth ;
there are feven cylindrical rays in the branchioftege
membrane ; the body is oblong, with deciduous fcales;
the whole fins are covered with the common llcin of the
fifti; the rays of the back-fins are blunt, and thofe of
the bread are ftiarp. There are 17 fpecies, principally
diftinguifhed by their cirri and the number of back-
fins. The moft remarkable are,
1. The morhua, or common cod, is found only in
the northern parts of the world ; it is, as Rondeletius
calls it, an ocean fifli, and never met with in the Me-
Th« Cod. diterranean fea. It affe&s cold climates, and feems
Confined between the latitudes 66° and' 50° : what are
caught north and fouth of thofe degrees being either
few in quantity or bad in quality. TheGeenland fifti
are fmall, and emaciated through want of food; being
very voracious, and having in thofe fess a fcareity of
provifion. This locality of fituation is common to ma¬
ny other fpecies of this genus, moft of them being in¬
habitants of the cold feas, or fuch as lie within regions
that can juft claim the title of temperate. There are
neverthelefs certain fpecies found near the Canary-
iflands, called cherny, of which we know no more than
the name; but which, according to Captain Glafs, are
better tafted than the Newfoundland kind.
The great rendezvous of thecod-fifti is on the banks
of Newfoundland, and the other fand-banks that lie
off the coafts of Cape Breton,. Nova Scotia, and New
England. They prefer thofe fituations, by reafon of
the quantity of worms produced in thofe fandy bot¬
toms, which tempt them to refort there for food : but
another caufe of the particular attachment the fifli have
to thefe fpots, is their vicinity to the polar feas, where
they return to fpawn ; there they depofit their roes in
lull fecurity; but want of food forces them, as foon as
the firft more fouthern feas are open, to repair thither
for fubfiftence. Few are taken north of Iceland, but on
60 ] GAD
the fouth and weft coafts they abound : they are again Ga
found to fwarm on the coafts of Norway, in the Bal-  
tic, off the Orkney and the Weftern ifles ; after
which their number? decreafe, in proportion as they'
advance towards the fouth, when they feem quite to
ceafe before they reach the mouth of the Straits of Gi¬
braltar.
Before the difeovery of Newfoundland, the greater
fiftieries of cod were on the feas of Iceland, and off our
Weftern Ifles, which were the grand refort of (hips
from all the commercial nations; but it feems-that the
greateft plenty was met with near Iceland. The Eng-
lifti reforttd thither before the year 1415 : for we find
that Henry V. was difpofed to give the king of Den¬
mark fatisfaftion for certain irregularities committed on
thofe feas by his fubje&s. In the reign of Edward IV.
the Englilh were excluded from the fiftiery by treaty ;
and forbidden to refort there under pain of forfeiture of
life and goods. Notwithftanding this, that monarch after¬
wards gave licence to a ftiipof Hull to fail to Iceland, and
there relade fifti and other goods, without regard to any
reftri&ions to the contrary. The right of the Englifti
in latter times was far from being confirmed : for ive
find queen Elizabeth condefcending to aflt permilfion
to fifti in thofe feas from Chriftian IV. of Denmark;
yet afterwards {he fp far repented her requeft, asto iii-
liruft her ambaffatlors at that Court to infill on the
right of a free and urriverfai fi.(hefy. In the reign of
her fticceffor, however, they had not fewer than ryO
ftlips employed in the Iceland fiftiery ; which indul¬
gence might arife from the marriage of James with a
princefs of Denmark. But the Spanifh, the French,
and the Bretons, had much the advantage of the Eng¬
lifti in all fiftieries at the beginning, as appears by the
ft ate of that in the feas of Newfoundland in the year
1578, when the number of {hips belonging to each na¬
tion flood thus;
Spaniards, too,’befules 20 or 30 that came from
Bifcay to take whale for train, being about five
or fix thoufand tons.
Portuguefe 50, or three thoufand tons.
French and Bretons 150, or feven thoufand tons.
Englifti, from 30 to 50.
The increafe of (hipping that refort to thofe fertile
banks, is now nnfpenkable. Britain ftiil enjoys the
greateft ftiare; which ought to beefteemed our chiefeft
treafure, as it brings wealth to individuals, and llrength
to the ftate. See Fishery.
All this imtnenfe fiftiery is carried on by the hook
and line only. We have been informed that they fiftt
from the depth of 16 to 60 fathoms, according to the
inequality of the bank, which is reprefented as a vaft
mountain, under water, above 500 miles long, and near
300 broad; and that feamen know when they approach
it by the great fwell of the feas and the thick mifts
that impend over it. The bait is herring, a fmall fifti
called a capelin, z ftleil-fifti called clams, and bits of
fea-fowl; and with thefe are caught fifh fuffleient to
find employ for near 15,000 Britifti feamen, and to af¬
ford fubfiftance to a much more numerous body of peo¬
ple at home, who are engaged in the various manufac¬
tures which fo vaft a fiftiery demands.
The food of the cod is either fmall fifti, worms, te-
ftaceous or cruftaceous animals, fuch as crabs, large
whelks, See.; and their digeftion is fo powerful, as to
diffolyc
GAD [ 3'
Gs'du?. diffolve the greateft part of the (hells they fwallow.
“ They are very voracious, and catch at any fmall body
they perceive moved by the water, even (tones and
pebbles, which are often found in their (loraaclis.
Fifnermen are well acquainted with the ufe of the air-
bladder or found of the cod; and are very dexterous in
perforating this part of a live fifli with a needle, in or-
The Cod. ()ei. t0 difcngage the inclofed air : for without this o-
peration it could not be kept under water in the well-
boats, and brought freih to market. The founds of
the cod failed is a delicacy often brought from New¬
foundland. Ifinglafs is alfo made of this part by the
Iceland filhermen: a procefs which deferves the atten-
tiotf of the natives of the north of Scotland, where thefe
fi(h are plentiful. It is given under the article Ich-
THYOCOLLA,
Providence hath kindly ordained, that this fi(h, fo
ufeful to mankind, (hould be fo very prolific as to fup-
ply more than the deficiencies of the multitudes annual¬
ly taken. Leuwenhoeck counted 9,384,000 eggs in a
cod-fifh of a middling fize ; a number, fore, that will
baffle all the efforts of man, or the voracity of the in¬
habitants of the ocean, to exterminate, and which will
fecure to all ages an inexhaudible fupply of grateful
provifion.
In our feas they begin to fpawn in January, and
depofite their eggs in rough ground, among rocks.
Some continue in roe till the beginning of April. The
cod-fi(h in general recover quicker after fpawning than
any other fifh, therefore it is common to take fome
good ones all the fummer. When they are out of fea-
fon, they are thin-tailed and loufy; and the lice chiefly
fix themfelves on theinfide of their mouths.
The fifh of a middling fize are moft efteemed for
the table; and are chofen by their plumpnefs and
roundnefs, efpecially near the tail, by the depth of the
fulcus or pit behind the head, and by the regular un¬
dulated appearance of the fides, as if they were ribbed.
The glutinous parts about the head lofe their delicate
flavour after it has been 24 hours out of the water,
even in winter, in which thefe and other fifh of this
genus are in higheft feafon.
The larged that we ever heard of taken on our
coafts, weighed 78 pounds : the length was five feet
eight inches; and the girth round the flioulders, five
feet. It was taken at Scarborough in 1755, and was
fold for one (hilling. But the general weight of thefe
fifh in the Yorklhire feas, is from 14 to 40 pounds.
This fpecies is fhort in proportion to its bulk, the
belly being very large and prominent.
The jaws are of an equal length, and at the end of
the lower is a fmall beard ; the teeth are difpofed in
the palate as well as in the jaws.
The colour of this fifh is cinereous on the back and
fides, and commonly fpotted with yellow: the belly
rs white; but they vary much, not only in colour but
in fliape, particularly that of the head. The fide line
is white and broad, ftraight till it reaches oppofite
the vent, when it bends towards the tail. Codlings
are often taken of a yellow, orange, and even red co¬
lour, while they remain among the rocks; but, on
changingtheir place, affume the colour ofothercod-fifh.
2. The Eglejintts, or Haddock. Large haddocks
begin to be in roe in tha middle of November, and
continue fo till the end of January; from that time
61 ] GAD
till May they are very thin tailed, and much out of Cidht.
feafon. In May they begin to recover; and fome of
the middling-iized fifh are then very good, and continue
improving till the tirneof their greateft perfection. The
fmall ones are extremely good from May till February,
and fome even in February, March, and April, viz.
thofe which are not old enough to breed.
The fifhermen affert, that in rough weather had- -rTl16,
docks fink down into the fand vand ooze in the hot- a oc *
tom of the fea, and fhelter themfelves there till the
flora is over ; becaufe in ftormy weather they take
none, and thofe that are taken immediately after a
flora are covered with mud on their backs.
In fummer they live on young herrings and other
fmall fifh ; in winter, on the flone-coated worms *, * a fptefes
which the fifhermen call haddock-meat. of Scrfula.
The grand (lioal of haddocks comes periodically
on the Yorkfhire coafts. It is remarkable that they
appeared in 1766 on the 10th of December, and ex¬
actly on the fame day in 1767 : thefe fhoals extended
from the fhore near three miles in breadth, and in
length from Flamborough-head to Tinmouth-caftle,
and perhaps much farther northwards. An idea may
be given of their numbers by the following faCt: Three
fifhermen, within the diftance of a mile from Scarbo¬
rough harbour, frequently loaded their coble or boat
with them twice a-day, taking each time about a ton
of fifh : when they put down their lines beyond the
diftance of three miles from the fhore, they caught
nothing but dog-fifh, which fhows how exai&ly thefe
fifh keep their limits.
The beft haddocks were fold from eightpence to a
(hilling per fcore; and the poor had the fmaller fort at
a penny and fometimes a halfpenny per fcore.
The large haddocks quit the eoaft as foon as they
go out of feafon^ and leave behind great plenty of
fmall ones. It is faid that the large ones vifit the
coafts of Hamburgh and Jutland in the fummer.
It is no lefs remarkable than providential, that all
kinds of fifh (except mackrel) which frequent the
Yorkfhire coaft, approach the fhore, and as it were
offer themfelves to us, generally remaining there as
long as they are in high feafon, and retire from us
when they become unfit for ufe. It is the commonefl
fpecies in the London markets. They do not grow
to a great bulk, one of 14 pounds being of an uncom¬
mon fize, but thofe are extremely coarfe ; the beft for
the table weighing from two to three pounds.
The body of the haddock is long: the head (lopes
down to the nofe: the fpace between the hind-part of
the firft dorfal-fm is rigid : on the chin is a fhort beard.
On the back are three fins refembling thofe of the
common cod-fifit: on each fide beyond the gills is a
large black fpot. Superftition affigns this mark to the
impreffion St Peter left with his finger and thumb
when he took the tribute out of the mouth of a fifh of
this fpecies, which has been continued to the whole
race of haddocks ever fince that miracle. The lateral
line is black : the tail is forked. The colour of the
upper part of the body is dufky or brown ; the belly
and lower part of the fides filvery.
3. The Barhatus, or pout, never grows to a large
fize, feldom exceeding a foot in length. It is diftin-
guifhed from all others by its great depth ; one of
the lize abovementioned being near four inches deep
in
GAD r <162 I GAD
Gadus. in the broadeft part. The back is very much arched,
' and carinated : the colour of the fins and tail are black :
at the bottom of the pe&oral fins is a black fpot. The
lateral line is white, broad, and crooked. The tail
is even at the end, and of a dulky colour. The co¬
lour of the body is white, but more obfcure on the
back than the belly, and tinged with yellow.—It is
called at Scarborough a kleg, and is a very delicate fifh.
4. The Minutus, or poor, is- the only fpecies of
cod-fifli with three dorfal fins that we (at this time)
are aflured is found in the Mediterranean fea. It is
taken near Marfeilles, and fometimes in fuch quanti-
The ties as to become a nufance ; for no other kinds of fifh
Poor-fifli. are taken during their feafon. It is efteemed good,
but incapable of being faked or dried: Belon fays,
that when it is dried in the fun, it grows as hard as
horn. It is the fmalleft fpecies yet difcovered, being
little more than fix inches long. On the chin is a
fmall beard : the eyes are covered with a loofe mem¬
brane : on the gill-covers and the jaws, there are, on
each fide, nine pun&ures. The colour on the back is a
light brown ; on the belly a dirty white.—We owe
the difcovery of this kind in our feas to the Reverend
Mr Jago.
5. The Carlonarius, or coal-fish, takes its name
from the black colour that it fometimes affumes. Be¬
lon calls it the colffch, imagining that it was fo named
by the Engli/h, from its producing the Ichthyocolla ;
but Gefner gives the true etymology. Thefe fifh are
T[)e common on moil of our rocky and deep coafts, but
Coal-fifh. particularly thofe of the north of Great Britain. They
fwarm about the Orkneys, where the fry are the great
fupport of the poor. The young begin to appear on
the Yorkfhire coaft the beginning of July in vaft fhoals,
and are at that time about an inch and an half long.
. In Auguft they are from three to five inches in length,
and are taken in great numbers with the angling rod:
they are then efteemed a very delicate fifh; but grow
fo coarfe when they are a year old, that few people will
eat them. Fifh of that age are from eight to fifteen
inches long, and begin to have a little blacknefs near
the gills and on the back, and the blacknefs increafes
as they grow older,
The fry is known by different names in different
places : theyare calledat Scarborough parrs, and when
a year old, billets. About nine or ten years ago fuch
a glut of parrs vifited that part, that for feveral weeks
it was impoflible to dip a pail into the fea without
taking fome.
Though this fifh is fo little efteemed when frelh,
yet it is faked and dried for fale. It is of a more
elegant form than the cod-fifh : they generally grow
to the length of two feet and an half, and weigh a-
bout 28 or 30 pounds at mod. The head is fmall ;
the under-jaw a little longer than the upper : the tail
is broad and forked. They vary in colour : fome
have their back, nofe, dorfal fins, and tail, of a deep
black: the gill-covers, filver and black; the ventral
and anal fins, white ; the belly of the fame colour.
Others are duflcy, others brown; but, in all, the lateral
line is ftraight and white, and the lower part of the
ventral and anal fins white.
6. The Pollachius, or pollack, is common on many
of our rocky coafts: during fummer they are feen in
great fheals frolicking on the furface of the water, and
flinging themfelves into a thoufand forms. They are Gadus.
at that time fo wanton as to bite at any thing that   
appears on the top of the waves, and are often taken
with a goofe-feather fixed to the hook. They are T,*10!,.
very ftrong, being obferved to keep their ftation at 0 acK* \
the feet of the rocks in the moft turbulent and rapid
fea. They are a good eating fifh. They do not grow
to a very large fize ; at leaft the biggeft feldom exceed
fix or feven pounds: but fome have been taken in the
fea near Scarborough, which they frequent during
winter, that weighed near 28 pounds. They are there
called leets.. |
The under jaw is longer than the upper; the head
and body rifes pretty high, as far as the firft dorfal
fin. The fide line is incurvated, rifing towards the
middle of the back, then finking and running ftraight
to the tail; it is broad, and of a brown colour. The
colour of the back is dufky, fometimes inclining to |
green: the fides beneath the lateral line marked with
lines of yellow ; the belly white.
7. The merlangus, or whiting. Thefe fifh appear The j
in vaft fhoals in our leas in the fpring, keeping at the Whiting. ‘
diftance of about half a mile to that of three from the
fhore. They are caught in vaft numbers by the line, and
afford excellent diverfion. They are the moft.delicate,
as well as the moft wholefome, of any of the genus : but
they do not grow to a large fize, the biggeft not ex¬
ceeding 20 inches; and even that is very uncommon, the
ufual length being 10 or 12 ; tho’it is faid, that whi- ;
tings, from four to eight pounds in weight, have been
taken in the deep water at the edge of the Dogger-
Bank.—It is a fifh of an elegant make : the upper jaw
is the longeft ; the eyes large, the nofe {harp; the teeth
of the upper jaw long, and appear above the lower
when clofed. The colour of the head and back is a
pale brown; the lateral line white, and crooked; the
belly and fides filvery, the laft ftreaked lengthwife
with yellow.
8. The merlucius, or hake, is found in vaft abun¬
dance on many of our coafts, and of thofe of Ireland. The Hake. ;
There was formerly a vaft ftationary fifl cry of hake on
the Nymph Bank off the coaft of Waterford, immenfe
quantities appearing there twice a-year ; the firft fhoal
coming in June, during the mackrel-feafon; the other
in September, at the beginning of the herring-feafon,
probably in purfuit of thofe fifh: it was no unufual
thing for fix men with hooks and lines to take a thou¬
fand hake in one night, befides a confiderable quantity
of other fifh. Thefe were faked and fent to Spain,
particularly to Bilboa. We are at this time uninform¬
ed of the ftateof thisfifhery ; but find that Mr Smith,
who wrote the hiftory of the county of Waterford,
complains even in his time (1746) of its decline. Ma¬
ny of the gregarious fifh are fubjedt to change their fi-
tuations, and defert their haunts for numbers of years,
and then return again. Mr Smith inftances thelofsof
the haddock on the Waterford fliores, where they ufed
to fwarm ; and we can bring the capricioufnefs of the
herrings, which fo frequently quit their ftations, as an¬
other example.--Sometimes the irregular migration of
fifh is owing to their being followed and haraffed by an
unufual number of fifh of prey, fuch as the ftiark-kind j
fometimes to deficiency of the fmallerfifh, which ferved
them as food ; and laftly, in many places to the cuftom
of trawling, which not only demolifhes a quantity of
their
GAD [ 3063 ] G A F
Gadus. their fpawn, which is depofited in the fand, but alfo
' " deftroys or drives into deeper waters numberlefs worms
and infe&s, the repaft of many fifh.—The hake is in
England efteemed a very coarfe fifh, and is feldom ad¬
mitted to table either frefh or failed. When cured, it is
known by the name of Poor John. Thefe fifh are from
a foot and an half to near twice that length : they are
of a fiender make, of a pale afh-colour on their backs,
and of a dirty white on their bellies.
10. The violva, or ling, takes its Englifh name from
its length, being corrupted from the word long. It a-
, bounds about the Scilly Ifles, on the coafts of Scarbo-
1 c inS- rough, and thofe of Scotland and Ireland, and forms a
confiderable article of commerce. This branch of trade
was confiderable fo long ago as the reign of Edward III.
an a6t for regulating the price of lob, ling, and cod,
being made in his 31ft year.
In the Yorkfhire feas they are in perfection from the
beginning of February to the beginning of May, and
fome till the end of that month. In June they fpawn,
depofiting their eggs in the foft ouzy ground of the
mouth of the Tees: at that time the males feparate from
the females, and refort to fome rocky ground near
Flamborough-head, where the fifhermen take great
numbers without ever finding any of the female or roed
filh among them.
While a ling is in feafon its liver is very white, and
abounds with a fine-flavoured oil;, but as foon as the
filh goes out of feafon, the liver becomes red as that of
a bullock, and affords no oil. The fame happens to
the cod and other filh in a certain degree, but not fo
remarkably as in the ling. When the filh is in per¬
fection, a very large quantity of oil may be melted out
of the liver by a flow fire ; but if a violent fudden heat
be ufed for that purpofe, they yield very little. The
oil, which nature hoards up in the cellular membranes
of the frfhes, returns into their blood, and fupports
them in the engendering feafon, when they purfue the
bufinefs of generation with fo much eagernefs as to ne-
gleft their food.
Vaft quantities of ling are failed for exportation, as
well as for_ home-confumption. When it is cut or
fplit for curing, it muff meafure 26 inches or upwards
from the flioulder to the tail: if lefs than that, it is not
reckoned a fizeable filh, and confeqnently not entitled
to the bounty on exportation ; fuch are called drizzles,
and are in feafon all fummer.
The ufual fize of a ling is from three to four feet;
but they have been heard of feven feet long. The bo¬
dy is very flender ; the head flat; the upper jaw the
longeft; the teeth in that jaw fmall and very nume¬
rous ; in the lower, few, flender, and (harp: on the
chin is a fmall beard. They vary in colour, fome be¬
ing of an olive hue on the fides and back, others cine¬
reous; the belly white. The ventral fins white: the
dorfal and anal edged with white. The tail marked
near the end with a tranfverfe black bar, and tipt with
white.
11. The lota, or burbot, is found in the Trent; but
The fu greater plenty in the river Witham, and in the great
urbot. ea^ pen jn LJncolnflure, It is a very delicate fifh for
the table, though of a difgufting appearance when a-
live. It is very voracious, and preys on the fry and
leffer fifh. It does not often take a bait, but is gene¬
rally caught in weels. It abounds in the lake of Ge¬
neva, where it is called Iota; and it is alfo met with Gadus
in the Lago Magiore, and Lugano. The larged ta- r.aff3nj
ken in our waters weigh between two and three pounds, ^
but abroad they are fometimes found of double that
weight. Their body has fome refemblance to that of
an eel, only fhorter and thicker;' and its motions alfo
refemble thofe of that fifh : they are befides very
fmooth, flippery, and flimy. The head is very ugly,
being flat, and fhaped like that of a toad : the teeth
are very fmall, but numerous. On the end of the nofe
are two fmall beards ; on the chin another. The co¬
lour varies : fome are dufky, others are of a dirty
green, fpotted with black, and oftentimes with yellow;
and the belly in fome is white; but the real colours
are frequently concealed by the flime.
12. The wujlela, or five-bearded cod, very much
refembles the former.
The beards on the upper jaw are four, viz. two at
the very end of the nofes and two a little above them :
on the end of the lower jaw is a Angle one. The fifh
are of a deep olive brown, their belly whitifh. They
grow to the fame fize as the former.—The Cornifh
fifhermen are faid to whiffle, „ and make ufe of the
words W, tod, vean, when they are defirous of taking
this fifh, as if by that they facilitated thecapture. In
the fame manner the Sicilian fifhermen repeat their
maffu di pajanu, &c. when they are in purfuit of the
fword-fifh.
13. The torsk, or, as it is called in the Shetlands, The Tufk,
tujk and brifmak, is a northern fifh; and as yet undif-
covered lower than about the Orkneys, and even there
it is rather fcarce. In the feas about Shetland, it
fwarms, and forms (barrelled or dried) a confiderable
article of commerce. The length is about 20 inches,
the greateft depth four and a half. The head is fmall;
the upper jaw a little longer than the lower ; both
jaws furnifhed with multitudes of fmall teeth : on the
chin is a fmall fingle beard: from the head to the dor¬
fal fin is a deep furrow. The colour of the head is dufky :
the back and fides yellow ; belly white ; edges of the
dorfal, anal, and caudal fins, white;, the other parts-
dufky ; the pe&oral-fins brown.
GAFF, a fort of boom or pole, frequently ufed in
fmall fhips, to extend the upper edge of the mizen;
and always employed for the fame purpofe on thofe fails
whofe foremoft edges are joined to the matt by hoops'
or lacings, and which are ufually extended by a boom
below. Such are the main-fails of all (loops, brigs,,
and fchooners.
GAFFAREL (James), a French divine, and very
learned writer, born about x601. He acquired great
(kill in the oriental and feveral other languages; and
was particularly verfant in the cabbaliftic and occult
. fciences, which he learnedly exppfed and refuted. Car¬
dinal Richlieu made choice of him for hfs library-keep¬
er, and fent him into Italy to colleft the heft manu-
fcripts and books. He publifhed a book, intitled Cu-
riofitez Innouies, i. e. Unheard-of Curiofities. It is-
faid the cardinal defigned to employ him in his grand
projeft for the re-union of religions. He died in i68 r,.
aged 80. He had been labouring for many years,, and
had almoft finifhed, a hiftory of the fubterranean world;,
containing an accout of the caves, grottoes, vaults, ca¬
tacombs, and mines, he had met with in 30 years tra¬
vel*..
GAt-
GAG [ 3164 ] GAG
GAGATES, or Jet. See Jet.
GAGE, in our ancient cuftoms, iignifies a pledge,
or pawn, given by way of fecurity. The yvord ia only
properly ufed in fpeaking of moveables; for immove¬
ables, hypotheca is ufed.
If the gage perifh, the perfon who received it is not
to anfwer for it, but only for extreme negligence. &c.
Gage, is alfo ufed for a challenge, to combat: See
Cartel. In which fenfe, it was a pledge, which the
accufer or challenger call on the ground, and the other
took up as accepting the challenge: it was ufually a
glove, gauntlet, chaperoon, or the like. See Com¬
bat, and Duel.
Gage is only now retained as a fuhftantive. As a
verb, the G is changed into W, and of gage is formed
wage; as, to wage law ; to wage deliverance, q. d. to
give fecurity a thing fhail be delivered. See Wage.
If a perfon who has diftrained be fued for not ha¬
ving delivered what he had taken by diftrefs, he (hould
wage, or gage, or gager, deliverance; that is, put in
furety that he will deliver them.
ATor/t-GAGEj-is that which is left in the hands of the
proprietor, fo that he reaps the fruits thereof.
In oppofition to vif-gagc, where the fruits or reve¬
nues are reaped by the creditor, and reckoned on the
foot of the debt, which diminifhes in proportion there¬
to. The fecond acquits or difcharges itfelf; the firft
does not.
Gage, in the fea-language. When one (hip is to
windward of another, fhe is faid to have the weather-
gage of her. They likewife call the number of feet that
a veffcl links in the water, the fhip’s gage : this they
find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and
putting it down befide the rudder till the nail catch
hold under it; then as many feet as the pike is under
water, is the drip’s gage.
Gage, among letter-founders, a piece of box, or
other hard wood, varioufly notched ; the ufe of which
is to adjufl: the dimenfious, dopes, &c. of the different
forts of letters. See Foundery.
Sliding-GhGt, a tool ufed by mathematical inftru-
ment-makers, for meafuring aud fetting off didances.
■Stw-Gage, an inftrument invented by Dr Hales
and Dr Defaguliers, for finding the depth of the fea ;
the defcription whereof is this. AB (Plate CXV.
fig. 1. n° 1.) is the gage-bottle, in which is cemented
the gage-tube Ff\n the brafs cap at G. The upper
end of tube F is hermetically fealed, and the open
lower end /"is immerfed in mercury, marked C, on
which fwims a fmall thicknefs or furface of treacle.
On the top of the bottle is fcrewed a tube of brafs
HG, pierced with feveral holes to admit the water
into the bottle AB. The body K is a weight hang-
ing by its drank L, in a focket N, with a notch on
one fide at m, in which is fixed the catch / of the
fpring S, and, paffing through the hole L, in the drank
of the weight K, prevents its falling out when once
hung on. On the top, in the upper part of the brafs
tube at H, is fixed a large empty ball, or full-blown
bladder, I, which mull not be fo large, but that the
weight K may be able to fiuk the whole under water.
The indrument, thus condrufted, is ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner. The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep water, and finks to the bot¬
tom : the focket N is fomewhat longer than the drank
L 5 and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage will continue to defcend, till the'
lower part of the focket ftrikes againft the weight:
this gives liberty to the catch to fly out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K: when this is done, the ball
or bladder I, inftantly buoys up the gage to the top
of the water. While the gage is under water, the wa¬
ter having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its prefiure force it up into the tube
Ff, and the height to which it has been forced by the
greatefl prelfure, viz. that at the bottom, will be drewn
by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves behind
it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle. This flrews
into what fpace the whole air in the tube Yf is com-
preffed ; and confequently the height or depth of the
water which by its weight produced that compreflion,
which is the thing required.
If the gage-tube F/'be of glafs, a fcale might be
drawn on it with the point of a diamond, diewing, by
infpe&ion, what height the water (lands above the bot¬
tom. But the length of 10 inches is not fufficient for
fathoming depths at fea, dnce that, when all the air in
fuch a length of tube is compreffed into half an inch, the
depth of water is no more than 634 feet, which is not
half a quarter of a mile.
If, to remedy this, we make ufe of a tube 59 inches
long, which for ftrength may be a mufiiet-barrel,' and
fuppofe the air comprefled into an hundredth part of
half an inch ; then by faying, as 1 : 99 : : 400 : 39600
inches, or 3300 feet; even this is but little r ore 'ban
half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is real nr.V to
fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome propor a to
the mountainous parts of the land, fome of which are
more than three miles above the earth’s furface the st -
fore, to explore fuch great depths, the dodlor contri¬
ved a new form for his fea-gage, or rather for the gage-
tube in it, as follows. BCDF [ibid. n° 2.) is a hollow
metalline globe communicating on the top with a long
tube AB, whofe capacity is a ninth part of that globe.
On the lower part at D, it has alfo a diort tube DE,
to (land iu the mercury and treacle. The air contain¬
ed in the compound gage-tube is comprefled by the wa¬
ter as before ; but the degree of compreflion, or height
to which the treacle has been forced, cannot there be
feen through the tube ; therefore, to anfwer that end,
a flender rod of metal or wood, with a knob on the top
of the tube AB, will receive the mark of the treacle,
and fhew it when taken out.
If the tube AB be 50 inches long, and of fuch a
bore that every inch in length fhould be a cubic inch
of air, and the contents of the globe and tube toge¬
ther 500 cubic inches; then, when the air is com¬
prefled within an hundredth part of the whole, it is
evident the treacle will not approach nearer than 5
inches of the top of the tube, which will agree to the
depth of 3300 feet of water as above. Twice this
depth will comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly,
viz. 2J- inches, which correfpond to 6600, which is a
mile and a quarter. Again, half that fpace, or ij.
inch, will (hew double the former depth, viz. 13200
feet, or 2\ miles ; which is probably very nearly the
greateft depth of the fea.
Wind-Gage, an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the wind upon any given furface. It was invented
by Dr Lind, who gives the following defcription of
it
Gage.
Gsge.
PI. CXLI
fi*. x.
GAG
of it, Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXV.
This inftrumtnt confifts of two glafs tubes AB,
[ 3165 ] GAG
fame bore, the height of the column fuftained will be
equal to double the column o^ water in either leg, or
‘•CD, of five or fix inches in length. Their bores, which the fum of what is wanting in both legs. But if the
are fo much the better for being equal, are about four legs are of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give
tenths of an inch in diameter. They are conneded the true height of the column of water which the wind
together like a fiphon by a fmall bent glafs-tube aby fuftained. But the true height may be obtained by
the bore of which is about one tenth of an inch in the following formulae.
diameter. On the upper end of the leg AB there is
a tube of latten brafs, which is kneed, or bent per-
pendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open to-
Suppofe that after a gale of wind which had blown
the water from A to B (fig. 3.) forcing it at the fame
time through the other tube out at E, the furface of
wards F. On the other leg CD, is a cover with a the water mould be found (landing at fome level D G,
round hole G in the upper part of it, two tenths of an and it were required to know what was the height of
inch in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube the column E-For AB, which the wind fullaiued.
are connedted together by a flip of brafs edt which In order to obtain this, it is only necefiary to find the
not only gives ftrength to the whole inftrument, but height of the columns D B or GF, which are con-
alfo ferves to hold the fcale HI. The kneed tube and ftantly equal to one another; for either of thefe added
cover, are fixed on with hard cement or fealing wax. to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the
To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs <r, with true height of the column of water which the wind
a round hole in it to receive the ftetl fpindle KL; and fuftained.
at f there is juft fuch another piece of brafs foldered to 1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be
the brafs-hoop which furrounds both legs of the refpe&ively reprefented by cd; and let a—AD, at
inftrument. There is a fmall Ihoulder on the fpindlc EG, and x~D B, orGF: Then it is evident that
atyj upon which the inftrument refts, and a fmall nut the column D B, is to the column EG, as c1* to
at /, to prevent it from being blown off the fpindle by dxa. But thefe columns are equal. Therefore
the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily turned round ,, j r ,1 . _dz(i.
upon the fpindle by the wind, fo as always to prefent the a' 311 con etluen )»* p—
mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The end of the 2. But if at any ;Bftant of time whilft the wind was
fpindle has a ferew on it; by which it may be ferewed blowing, it was obferved, that, when the water flood
into the top of a poft or a (land made on purpofe. at £, the top of the tube out of which it is forced,
It has alfo a hole at L, to admit a fmall lever for it was deprtfled in the other to fome given level BE,
ferewing it into wood with more readinefs and facility. the altitude at which it would have flood in each had
A thin plate of brafs k is foldered to the kneed tube, ^ immediately fubfided, may be found in the follow*
about half an inch above the round hole G, fo as to Jng manner.—Let i=AB or EF. Then it is evident
prevent rain from falling into it. There is likewife a tiiat the column DB, is equal to the difference of cc-
a crooked tube A B (fig. 2.) to be put occafionally ]utnn3 EF, GF. But the difference of thefe columns
upon the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to pre- . jif,
vent rain from being blown into the mouth of the is d1b~- dtx‘, and confequently ^
■wind-gage when it is left out all night, or expofed in
the time of rain.
The force or momentum of the wind may be afeer-
tained by the afiidance of this inftrument, by filling
For the cafes when the wind blows in at the narrow
leg of the inftrument: Let AB-EF=i, EG, or
AD—rt, GF=DB=x, and the diameters E H, G A,
refpeftively —d, c, as before. Then it is evident,
AD, is to the column GF as to
the tubes half full of water, and pulhing the fcale a Pe ,lve ^ ’
little up or down, till the o of the fcale, when the V?31 co'l™n , , L f
inftrument is held up perpendicularly, be on a line d x' But thefe columns are equal; therefore ;
with the furface of the water in both legs of the wind- and confequently It is alfo evident, that the
gage. The inftrument being thus adjufted, hold it . „ _ . , ,
up perpendicularly, and, turning the mouth of the cAol"m" ^ to*he ^‘^rence of the columns
kneed tube towards the wind, obferve how much the A B, D B ; but the d.fference of thefe columns ,s as
water is depreffed by it in the one leg, and raifed in
the other. [ he fum of the two is the height of a
column of water, which the wind is capable of fuf-
taining at that time ; and every body that is oppofed
be*
Therefore dzx=bct—c1x. Whence we get
The ufe of the fmall tube of communication ab
to that wind will be preffed upon by a force equal to (fig. 1.), is to check the undulation of the water, fo
the weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal that the height of it may be read off from the fcale
to the altitude of the column of water fuftained by the with cafe and certainty. But it is particularly defigned
wind in the wind-gage. Hence the force of the wind to prevent the water from being thrown up to a much
upon any body where the furface oppofed to it is greater or lefs altitude, than the true height of the co¬
known, may be eafily found ; and a ready comparifon lumn which the wind is able at that time to fuftain,
may be made betwixt the ftrength of one gale of wind from its receiving a fudden impulfe whilft it is vibra-
and that of another. ting either in its afeent or defeent.- As in fome cafes
The force of the wind may be likewife meafured the water in this inftrument might be liable to freeze,
with this inftrument, by filling it until the water runs and thus break the tubes, Dr Lind recommends a fa-
out at the hole G For if we then hold it up to turated folution of fea-falt to be ufed inflead of it,
the wind as before, a quantity of water will be blown which does not freeze til!" Fahrenheit’s thermometer
out: and if both legs of the inftrument are of the falls to o.
Von. V.
GAI-
CAL i <166 1 GAL
Gaieta GAIETA, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong town
jl . of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra
a aua' di Lavoror with a fort, citadel, harbour, and bifhop’s
fee. It was taken by the Auftrians in 1707, and by
the Spaniards in 1734. It is feated at the foot of a
mountain near the fea, in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat.
41. 30.
GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnlhire in
England, feated on the river Trent near the fea. It
is a large well built town, with a pretty good trade,
and has the title of an earldom. W. Long. o. 40.
N. Lat. 53. 26.
GALACTITES, in the hiftory of foffils, a fub-
ftance much refembling the morochthus or French
chalk, in many refpe&s; but different from it in co¬
lour. The ancients found it in the Nile, and in fome
rivers in Greece, and ufed it in medicine as an aftrin-
gent, and for defluxions and ulcers of the eyes. At
prefent it is common in Germany, Italy, and fome
parts of France, and is wholly overlooked, being e-
fteemed a worfe kind of morochthus. See Moroch¬
thus.
GALANGALS, in the materia medica. See
K^mpferia.
GALANTHUS, the Snow-drop ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs
of plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the nivalis ;
which is a bulbous-rooted flowery perennial, rifing but
a few inches in height, and adorned at top with fmall
tripetalous flowers of a white colour. There are three
varieties, viz. the common Angle flowered fnow-drop,
the femi-double fnow-drop, and the double fnow-drop.
They are beautiful little plants; and are much valued
en account of their early appearance, often adorning
the gardens in January or February, when fcarce any
other flower is to be feen. They frequently burft
forth when the ground is covered with fnow, and con¬
tinue very often till the beginning of March, making
a very ornamental appearance, efpecially when dif-
pofed in clufters towards the fronts of the borders, &c.
The Angle kind comes flrft into bloom, then the femi-
double, and after that the double. They will fucceed
any where, and multiply exceedingly by off-fets from
the roots.
GALATA, a great fuburb belonging to Conftan-
tinople, oppoflte to the feraglio, on the other fide of
the harbour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians,
Franks, Chriftians, and Jews inhabit, and are allowed
the exercife of their refpeftive worlhips.
GALATEA, in fabulous hiftory, a nymph and
marine deity, the daughter of Nereus and Doris. She
was beloved by Polyphemus, whom fhe defpifed for
the (hepherd Acis ; at which that Cyclops was fo en¬
raged, that he crufhed Acis to pieces with a rock.
See Acis.
GALATIA, the ancient name of a province of
AAa Minor, now called Amajia. It was bounded on the
eaft by Cappadocia, on the weft by Bithynia, on the
fouth by Pamphylia, and on the north by the Euxine
Sea. It was reduced under the fubje&ion of the Ro¬
mans in the time of Auguftus, and is now in the hands
of the Turks. Here St. Paul founded a church, to
which he dire&ed that epiftle which is ftill known by
the name of the EpiJUc to the Galatians^ and was
written to reclaim them from the obfervation of Jewifh Galaxy,
ordinances, into which they had been feduced by fome Galbammu
falfe teachers.
GALAXY, in aftronomy, that long, white, lumi¬
nous track, which feems to encompafs the heavens like
a fwath, fcarf, or girdle: and which is eafily perceiv¬
able in a clear nighty efpecially when the moon does
not appear. The Greeks call it r«x«?icfr. Galaxy, of
r«xa, Milk ; on account of its colour
and appearance: the Latins, for the fame reafons,
call it via laftea ; and we, the milky iuay. It pafles
between Sagittary and Gemini, and divides the fphere
into two parts; it is unequally broad ; and in fome
parts is Angle, in others double.
The ancient poets, and even philofophers, fpeak of
the Galaxy, as the road, or way, by which the heroes
went to heaven.
Ariftotle makes it a kind of meteor, formed of a
crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain
large ftars difpofed in the region of the heavens an-
fwering hereto.
Others, flnding that the Galaxy was feen all over
the globe, that it always correfponded to the fame
Axed ftars, and that it tranfcended the height of the
higheft planets, fet afldeAriftotle’s opinion, and placed
the Galaxy in the Armament, or region of the Axed
ftars, and concluded it to be nothing but an aflemblage
of an inflnite number of minute ftars.
Since the invention of the telefcope, this opinion has
been abundantly conArmed. By dire&ing a good te¬
lefcope to any part of the milky way ; where, before,
we only faw a confufed whitenefs, we now defcry an
innumerable multitude of little ftars, fo remote,
that a naked eye confounds them. See Astro¬
nomy, n° 28.
GALBANUM, in pharmacy, a gum iffuing from
the ftem of an umbelliferous plant growing in Perfta
and many parts of Africa.
It is fometimes met with in the (hops, in loofe gra¬
nules, called drops or tears ; and fometimes in large
maffes, formed of a number of thefe blended together;
but in thefe mafles fome accidental foulnefs is often
mixed with the gum. The Angle drops ufually ap¬
proach to a roundilh, oblong, pear-like form. Gal-
banum is foft like wax, and, when fre(h drawn, white ;
but it afterwards becomes yellowifh or reddifh: it is
of a ftrong fmell, of an acrid and bitterifli tafte ; it is
inflammable in the manner of a refln, and foluble in
water like a gum.
In medical virtue, and fenflble qualities, it refembks
the gum ammoniacum; but is lefs efficacious than it in
afthmas, though more efficacious in hyfteric diforders.
When afla fetida is too ftrong, galbanum may be tried
and, if it difagrees, give ammoniacura.
A mixture of fpirit of wine two parts, with one part
water, diflblves all but the impurities, which are com¬
monly in confiderable quantities.
Great part of the virtue of galbanum confifts in its
eflential oil, and is carried up in diftillation either
with water or with fpirit, whence great care is required
in purifying it. For making of plafters, and fuch like
inferior purpofes, the belt method is to expofe it in
winter to a (harp froft, and whilft it is brittle to powder
it; thus the impurities may in fome meafure be fepa-
rated
G A L t 3
Ga]c. rated in the fearce: for internal ufes, it is beft ma-
    naged by including it in a bladder, and keeping it in
hot water, until it is foft enough to be {trained by
preffure through an hempen cloth.
Befides the effential oil yielded by diftillation with
water, an empyreumatic oil is obtained by diftilling in
a retort without mixture. This empyreumatic oil is
of a fine blue colour, but changes in the air to a
purple.
GALE, in the fea language, a term of various im¬
port. When the wind blows not fo hard but that a (hip
may carry her top-fails a-trip, (that isv, hoifted up to
to the higheft) then they fay it is a loom-gale. When
it blows very ftrong, they fay it is a (tiff, ftrong, or
frefti gale. When two fhips are near one another at
fea, and there being but little wind blowing, one of
them finds more of it than the other, they fay that the
one (hip gales away from the other.
Gale (Dr John), an eminent and learned minifter
among the Baptifts, was born at London in 1680. He
ftudied at Leyden, where he dittinguifhed himfelf very
early, and afterwards at Amfterdam, under Dr Lim-
borch. He was chofen minilterof the Baptift congre¬
gation atBarbican; where his preaching, being chiefly
praftical, was greatly reforted to by people of all per-
fuafions. Four volumes of his fermons were publifhed
after his death, which happened in 1721. His Re-
fiefiions on Dr Wall's Hiflory of Infant baptifm, is the
beft defence of the Baptifts ever publiftied, and the
reading of that performance induced the learned Mr
William Whifton and Dr Fofter to become Baptifts.
Gale (Theophilus), an eminent nonconformift mi-
nifter, born in J 628. He was invited to Winchefter
in 1657 ; and continued a ftated preacher there, until
the re-eftablilhment of the church by Charles II. when
he rather chofe to fuffer the penalties of the aft of
conformity, than fubmit to it contrary to his con-
fcience. He was afterwards engaged by Philip lord
Wharton as tutor tohisfons, whom he attended to an
academy at Caen in Normandy; and when this duty
was fulfilled, he became paftor over a congregation of
private conventiclers in Holborn. He died in 1678 ;
and is principally known by an elaborate work, en¬
titled, the Court of the Gentiles, calculated to (hew,
that the Pagan philofophers derived their moft fublime
fentiments from the Scriptures.
Gale (Dr Thomas), a learned divine, born at
Scruton in Yorkfhire, in the year 1636, was educated
at Cambridge, and at length became profeflbr of the
Greek language in that univerfity. He was after¬
wards chofen head mailer of St Paul’s fchool, London;
and was employed by the city in writing thofe elegant
infcriptions on the monument erefted in memory of
the conflagration in 1666. In 1676 he was collated
to a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul’s ; and was
likewife elefted a fellow of the Royal Society, to
which he prefented a Roman urn with its afties. About
the year 1697, he gave to the new library of Trinity
college, in Cambridge, a great number of Arabic ma-
nuferipts; and in 1697, was admitted dean of York.
He died in that city, in 1702; and was interred in the
cathedral, where a monument, with a Latin infcription,
was erefted to his memory. He was a learned divine,
a great hiftorian, one of the beft Greek fcholars of his
age, and maintained a correfpondence with the moft
167 ] GAL
learned men abroad as well as at home. He puHilhed, GaleatTe,
1. HiforLe Poetka; Antiqui Scriptores, oftavo. 2. Opuf- G3leri'
cula Mythologica, Ethica, Phyfica, in Greek and
Latin, oftavo. 3. Herodoti Htfioria, folio. 4. Hifo-
rica Anglican# Scriptores quinque, in folio. Hijlori#
Britannic#, Saxonic#, Anglo-Danic#, Scriptores quin-
decirn, in folio. 6. Rhetores Selefti, &c.
GALEASSE, a large low built vefiel, ufing both
fails and oars, and the biggeft of all the veffels that
make ufe of the latter. It may carry twenty guns,
and has a ftern capable of lodging a great number of.
marines. It has three mails, which are never to bV
lowered or taken down. It has alfo thirty-two benches
of rowers; and to each bench fix or feven flaves, who
fit under cover. This veflel is at prefent ufed only by
the Venetians.
GALEN (Claudius), in Latin, Galenus, prince
of the Greek phyficians, after Hippocrates, was born at,
Pergamus in the Lefler Afia, about the year 131. His
father was poflefled of a confiderable fortune; was well-
verfed in polite literature, philofophy, aftronomy, and
geometry ; and was alfo well {killed in architefture.
He himfelf inftrufted his fon in the firft rudiments of
learning, and afterwards procured him the greateft
mafters of the age in philofophy and eloquence. Galen
having finilhed his ftudies under their care, chofe phyfic
for his profeffion, and chiefly ftudied the works of
Hippocrates. Having at length exhaufted all the
fources of literature that were to be found at home,
he refolved to travel, in order to converfe with the moft
able phyficians in all parts, intending at the fame time
to take every opportunity of infpefting on the fpot
the plants and drugs of the countries through which
he pafied. With this view he went to Alexandria,
and ftaid fome years in that metropolis of Egypt:
from thence he travelled through Cilicia; pafled through
Paleftine ; vifited the ifles of Crete and Cyprus ; and
made two voyages to Lemnos, in order to examine the
Lemnian earth, which was then efteemedan admirable
medicine. With the fame view he went into the Lower
Tyria, in order to obtain a thorough infight into the
nature of the opobalfamum, or balm of Gilead; and
having completed his defign, returned home by the way
of Alexandria.
Galen had been four years at Pergamus, where his
praftice was attended with extraordinary applaufe,
when fome feditious commotions induced him to go to
Rome, where he refolved.to fettle: but the proofs he
gave of his fuperior {kill, added to the refpeft {hewn
him by feveral perfons of very high rank, created him
fo many enemies among his brethren of the faculty,
that he was obliged to quit the city, after having
refided there four or five years. But he had not long
returned to Pergamus, when he was recalled by the
emperors Aurelius and Verus. After their death, he
retired to his native country; where he died, about the
year 200. He wrote in Greek ; and is faid to have,
compofed two hundred volumes, which were unhappily
burnt in the temple of Peace. The beft editions of
thofe that remain, are, that printed at Bafil, in 1538,
in five volumes, and that of Venice, in 1625, in feven
volumes. Galen was of a weak and delicate conftitu-
tion, as he himfelf afferts: but he neverthelefs, by his
temperance and {kill in phyfic, arrived to a great age;
for it was his maxim, always to rife from table with
18 F 2 fome
GAL [ 3168 ] GAL
Galenic fome degree of appetite. He is juftly confidered as
H the greateft phyfician of antiquity, next to Hippo-
Ga 1 e0, crates; and he performed fuch furprifing cures, that he
was accufed of magic.
GALENIC, or Galenical, in pharmacy; a man¬
ner of treating difeafes, founded on the principles of
Galen.
The diftinftion of galenical and chemical, was oc-
•cafioned by a divifion of the pradtitioners of medicine
into two fedfs, which happened on the introdudtion of
chemiftry into medicine. Then the chemifts, arrogating
to themfelves every kind of merit and ability, ftirred
tip an oppofition to their preteniions, founded on the
invariable adherence of the other party to the ancient
pradfice. And though this divifion into the two fedts
»f galenifts and chemifts has long ceafed, yet the dif-
tindtion of medicines, which refulted from it, is (till
letained.
Galenical medicines are thofe which are formed by
the eafier preparations of herbs, roots, <bc. by infufion,
decodtion, &c. and by combining and multiplying in¬
gredients; while thofe of chemiftry draw their more
intimate and remote virtues by means of fire and ela¬
borate preparations, as calcination, digeftion, fermen¬
tation, &c.
GALLON. See Gallion.
GALICIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north and weft by the ocean, on the fouth by Portugal,
and on the eaft byAfturias and the kingdom of Leon.
The air is temperate along the coaft; but, in other
places, it is cold and moift. It is but thin of people,
and the produce is wine, flax, and citrons; here alfo
are good paftures, copper, and lead; the forefts yield
wood for building of ftiips. St. Jago di Compoftella
is the capital town.
GALILEE, once a province of Judea, now
of Turky in Alia, was bounded by mount Lebanon
on the north, by the river Jordan and the fea of
Galilee on the eaft, by the Chifon on the fouth, and
by the Mediterranean on the weft. It was the fcene
of many of our Saviour’s miracles; but the bounds of
the country are not now well known, nor yet the places
where many of the towns ftood.
GALILEANS, a fed of the Jews. Their foun¬
der was one Judas, a native of Galilee, from which
place they derived their name. Their chief, efteem-
ing it an indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to
ftrangers, railed up his countrymen againft the edid
of the emperor Auguftus, which had ordered a taxa¬
tion or enrolment of all the fubjeds of the Roman em¬
pire.
They pretended that God alone fhould be owned as
Mafter and Lord, and in other refpeds were of the
opinion of the Pharifees ; but, as they judged it unlaw¬
ful to pray for infidel princes, they feparated therafelves
from the reft of the Jews, and performed their facrifi-
ces apart.
GALILEO (Galilei), the famous mathematician
and aftronomer, was the fon of a Florentine nobleman,
and born in the year 1564. He had from his infancy
a ftrong inclination to philofophy and the mathema¬
tics ; and made prodigious progrefs in tlicfe fciences.
In 1592, he was chofen profeflbr of mathematics at
Padua ; and during his abode there he indented, it is
laid, the telefcope; or, according to others, impro¬
ved that inftrument, fo as to make it fit for aftrono- GaHfca.
mical obfervations: (See Astronomy, p. 749, col. 1.)
In 1611, Cofmo II. grand duke of Tufcany fent for
him to Pifa, where he made him profefibr of mathe¬
matics, with a handfome falary ; and foon after invi¬
ting him to Florence, gave him the office and title
of principal philofopher and mathematician to his high-
nefs.
He had been but a few years at Florence, before he
was convinced by fad experience, that Ariftotle’s doc¬
trine, however ill-grounded, was held too facred to be
called in queftion. Having obferved fome folar fpots
in 1612, he printed that difcovery the following year
at Rome; in which, and in fome other pieces, he ven¬
tured to affert the truth of the Copernican fyftem, and
brought feveral new arguments to confirm it. Forthefe
he was cited before the inquifition ; and, after fome
months imprifonment, was releafed upon a fimple pro-
mife, that he would renounce his heretical opinions,
and not defend them by word or writing. But having
afterwards, in 1632, publilhed at Florence his “Dia¬
logues of the two greateft fyftems of the world, the
Ptolemaic and Copernican,” he was again cited be¬
fore the inquifition, and committed to the prifon of
that ecclefiaftical court at Rome. In June 32ft N. S.
that year, the congregation convened; and in his pre¬
fence pronounced fentence againft him and his books,
obliging him to abjure his errors in the moft folemn
manner; committed him to the prifon of their office du¬
ring pleafure; and enjoined him, as a faving penance, for
three years to come and repeat once a-week the feven
penitential pfalms: referving to themfelves, however,
the power of moderating, changing, or taking away
altogether or in part, the abovementioned puniftiment
and penance. On this fentence, he was detained a pri-
foner till 1634; an(^ h's “ Dialogues of the fyftem of
the world” were burnt at Rome.
He lived ten years after this, feven of which were
employed in making ftill further difcoveries with his te¬
lefcope. But by the continual application to that in¬
ftrument, added to the damage he received in his fight
from the nodlurnal air, his eyes grew gradually wea¬
ker, till he became totally blind in 1639. He bore
this calamity with patience and refignation, worthy of
a great philofopher. The lofs neither broke his fpirit,
nor hindered the courfe of his ftudies. He fupplied
the defe£ by conftant meditation ; whereby he pre¬
pared a large quantity of materials, and began to dic¬
tate his own conceptions ; when, by a diftemper of three
months continuance, wafting away by degrees, he ex¬
pired at Arcetti near Florence, in January 1642, N. S»
in the 78 th year of his age.
Among various ufeful inventions of which Galileo
was the author, is that of the fimple pendulum, which
he had made ufe of in his aftronomical experiments.
He had thoughts of applying it toclocks; but did not
execute it: the glory of that invention was referved
for Vicenzio his fon, who made the experiment at Ve¬
nice in 1649; ar)d M. Huygen’s afterwards carried
this invention to perfection.—He wrote a great num¬
ber of treatifes, feveral of which were publiffied in a
collection by Signor Mendeffi, under the title of L'o~
pera di Galileo Galilei I^ynceo. Some of thefe, with
others of his pieces, were tranflated into Englifh and
piibliftied by Thomas Salifbury, Efq; in his mathema-
ti-
GAL [ 5169 ] GAL
Gill. tical colleAions, See. in two volumes folio. A volume
  alfo of his letters to feveral learned men, and folutions
of feveral problems, were printed at Bologna in quarto.
Befides thefe, he wrote many others, which were un¬
fortunately loft through his wife’s devotion ; who, fo-
licited by her confeffbr, gave him leave to perufe her
hufband’s manuferipts, of which he tore and took a-
way as many as he faid were not fit to be publilhed.
GALL, in the animal ceconomy. See Bile.
A great number of experiments have been made upon
the gall of different animals, but few conclufions can be
drawn from them with any certainty. Dr Percival, how¬
ever, hath fhewn, that putrid bile may be perfectly cor¬
rected and fweetened by an admixture of the vegetable
acids, vinegar and juice of lemons. Thefe, he ob-
ferves, have this effedt much more completely than the
mineral ones: and hence, he thinks, arifes the great ufe-
fulnefs of the vegetable acids in autumnal difeafes;
which are always attended with a putrefeent difpofition
of the bile, owing to the heat of the preceding fum-
mer. On this occafion he takes notice of a common
miftake among phyficians, who frequently preferibe
elixir of vitriol in thofe difeafes, where vinegar or le¬
mon juice would be much more effectual.
From this effeCt of acids on the gall, he alfo thinks,
we may fee why the immoderate ufe of acids is fo per¬
nicious to digeftion. It isneceffary to health that the
gall fliould be in fome degree acrid and alkalefcent:
but as acids have the property of rendering it perfectly
mild and fweet, they muft be pnoportionably pernici¬
ous to the due concoCtion and affimilation of the food;
which without an acrid bile cannot be accomplilhed.
Hence the body is deprived of its proper nourifhment
and fupport, the blood becomes vapid and watery,
and a fatal cachexy unavoidably enfues. This hath
been the cafe with many unfortunate perfons, wFio, in
order to reduce their exceffive corpulency, have ittclul-
ged themfelves in the too free ufe of vinegar. From the
mild ftate of the gall in young children. Dr Percival
alfo thinks it is, that they are fo much troubled with
acidities.
Qali-Bladder. See Anatomy, n° 358.
Gall, in natural hiftory, denotes any protuberance
or tumour produced by the punCture of infeCts on plants
and trees of different kinds.
Thefe galls are of various forms and fives, and no
lefs different with regard to their internal ftruCture.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmal! cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilft others are foft and fpongy ; the firft being
termed gall-nuts, and the latter bsrry-galh or apple-
galls.
The general hiftory of the gall is this. An infeft of
the fly kind is initruCted by nature to take care for the
fjfety of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody
fubftance, where they will be defended from all inju¬
ries : ihe for this purpofe wounds tire leaves or tender
branches of a tree ; and the lacerated vcffels,. difehar-
ging their contents, foon form tumours about the holes
thus made. The external coat of this excrefcence is
dried by the air; and grows into a figure which bears
fome refemblance to the bow of an arch, or the round-
Befs of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutri¬
ment, growth, and vegetation,, as the other parts of
the tree, by flow degrees, and is what we call the gali- Gall,
nut. The worm that is hatched under this fpacions Galland
Vault, finds in the fobftance of the ball, which is as yet
very tender, a fubfiftencefoitable to its nature ; gnaws
and digefts it till the time comes for its transformation
to a nymph, and from that Hate of exiltence changes
into a fly. After this, the infedt, perceiving itfelf du¬
ly provided with all things requifite, difengages itfelf
foon from its confinement, and takes its flight into the
open air. The cafe, however, is not fimilar with re-
fpeft to the gall-nut that grows in autumn. The
cold weather frequently comes on before the worm is
transformed into a fly, or before the fly can pierce
through its inclofure. The nut falls with the leaves:
and although you may imagine that the fly which lies
within is loft, yet in reality it is not fo ; on the con¬
trary, its being covered up fo clofe, is the means of its
prefervation. Thus it fpends the winter in a warm
houfe, where every crack and cranny of the nut is well
flopped up ; and lies buried as it were under a heap of
leaves, which preferves it from the injuries of the wea¬
ther. This apartment, however, though fo commo¬
dious a retreat in the winter, is a perfedl prifon in the
fpring. The fly, roufed out of its lethargy by the firft
heats, breaks its way through, and ranges where it
pleafes. A very fmall aperture is fofficient, fince at
this time the fly is but a diminutive creature. Befides,
the ringlets whereof its body is compofed, dilate and
become pliant in thepaffage.
Oak-galls put, in a very fmall quantity, into a fo-
lution of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one,
give it a purple or violet colour : which, as it grows
wronger, becomes black ; and on this property depends
the art of making our writing-ink, as alfo the arts of
dying and dreffing leather, and other manufadlures-
See Ink.
Galls are very ftrong aftrrngents, and give out their
aftringent virtue very readily both to water and fpirit.
From two ounces of galls, 14 drachms of aftringent
extradf were obtained by water, and between iz and
13 with fpirit. In medicine they are rarely ufed.
Gall (St), a confiderabk town in Swifferland, and
in the Upper Thurgow, with a rich and celebrated ab¬
bey, wbofe abbot is a pritice eff the empire. This place
has for fome time been a republic, in alliance with the
Cantons. It is not very large ; but is well built, neat,
populous. It contains about to,000 inhabitants, who
are chiefly employed in the linen manufadlure f and
make annually, it is faid, 40,000 pieces of linen, of 20a
ells each ; which renders it one of the ricbeft towns in
Swiflerland. The inhabitants are Proteftants* for
which reafort there are often great cpmefts between
them and the abbey, about religious affairs. It i*
feated in a narrow barren valley* between two moun¬
tains, and upon two fmall ftreams. E. Long. 29. 5..
N. Lar. 47. 38.
GALLAND (Athony), a learned' antiquarian,
membferof the Academy of Infcriptions, and jjrofeffor of
Arabic in the Royal College of Paris, was born of
poor parents at Rollo, a village in Picardy. Having
ftudied at the Sorbonne and other univerfities, he tra¬
velled into the eaft ; where he acquired great (kill in the
Arabic tongue, and in the manners of the Mahome ¬
tans. Pie wrote feveral works; the principal of
which are, 1. An account of the death of Sultan Of-
naam.
GAL [ 31
Gallant man, and tfie coronation of the fultah Muftapha. 2. A
lj colleftion of maxims, drawn from the works of the O-
_ a ey'. rientals. 3. A treatife on the origin of coffee. 4. The
Arabian nights entertainments, &c.
GALLANT,, or Galant, a French term adopted
into our language, and fignifying polite, civil, and well-
bred, with a difpofition to pleafe, particularly the la¬
dies. It alfo fignifies brave or courageous.
GALLERY, in archite&ure, a covered, place in a
houfe, much longer than broad, and ufually in the
wings of a building; its ufe being chiefly to walk in.
, GALLERIES, in gardening, are certain orna¬
ments made with trees of different kinds ; which are
very common in all the French gardens, but are feldom
introduced into the Britifh ones, efpecially fince the
tafte for clipped trees has been exploded. For thofe,
however, who may dill choofe to have them, Mr Miller
gives the following directions.
In order to make a gallery in a garden with porti¬
coes and arches, a line muff firft be drawn of the length
you defign the gallery to be ; which being done, it is
to be planted with hornbeam, as the foundation of the
gallery. The management of galleries is not difficult.
They require only to be digged round about; and
fheared a little when there is occation. The chief cu-
riofity required is in the ordering the forepart of the
gallery, and,in forming the arches. Each pillar of the
porticoes or arches ought to be four feet diftant from
another, and the gallery 12 feet high and tofeet wide,
that there may be room for two or three perfons to
walkabreaft. When the hornbeams are grown to the
height of three feet, the diffance of the pillars well re¬
gulated, and the ground-work of the gallery finiffied,
the next thing to be done is to form the frontifpiece ; to
perform which, you muff flop the hornbeam between
two pillars for that purpofe, which forms the arch. As
it grows, you mutt with your fheers cut off thofe
boughs which outfhoot the others. In time they will
grow ftrong, and may be kept in form by the (beers.
Portico-galleries may be covered with lime-trees.
Gallery, in fortification, a covered Walk a-crofs
the ditch of a town, made of ftrong beams, covered
over with planks, and loaded with earth: fome-
times it is covered with raw hides, to defend it from the
artificial fires of the befieged.
Gallery of a Mine, is a narrow paffage or branch
of a mine carried on under ground to a work defigned
to be blown up. See Mine.
Gallery, in a (hip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the ftern of a (hip
without board; into which there is a paffage out of the
admiral’s or captain’s cabbin, and is for the ornament
of the (hip.
GALLEY, a kind of low flat-built veffel, furnilhed
with one deck, and navigated with fails and oars, par¬
ticularly in the Mediterranean. By the Greek authors
under the eaftern empire, this kind of veffel was called
yu\a.ix and yx\iia\ and by the Latin authors of the fame
time, £<?/(?«; whence, according to fome, the modern
denomination. Some fay it was called galea, on ac¬
count of a calk or helmet which it carried on its prow,
as Ovid attefts, de Trijlib. The French call it galere;
by reafon, they fay, that the top of the mafts is ufually
cut in the form of a hat, which the Italians call galero.
Others derive both galea, and galere, from a fi(h by
70 ] GAL
the Greeks called yuMane, or and by us the Galley, i
fword-fjh, which this veffel refembles. Laftly, others Ga*h- [
derive the galley, galea, galere, galeajfe, &c. from
the Syriac and Chaldee gaul, and gallin, a man ex-
pofed on the water in a veffel of wood.
The largeft fort of thefe veffels is employed only
by the Venetians. They are commonly 162 feet
long above, and 133 feet by the keel ; 32 feet
wide, with 23 feet length of ftern-poft. They arc -
furniffied with three mafts, and 32 banks of oars ;
every bank containing two oars, and every oar being
managed by fix or feven (laves, who are ufually chained
thereto. In the fore part they have three little bat¬
teries of cannon, of which the lowed is of two 36
pounders, the fecond of two 24 pounders, and the up-
permoft of two 2 pounders: three 18 pounders are alfo
planted on each quarter. The complement of men for
one of thefe galleys is 1000 or 1200. They are
efteemed extremely convenient for bombarding or mak¬
ing a defeent upon an enemy’s coaft, as drawing but
little water; and having by their oars frequently the
advantage of a (hip of war, in light winds or calms,
by cannonading the latter near the furface of the water;
by fcouring her whole length with their (hot, and at
the fame time keeping on her quarter or bow, fo as to
be out of the direction of her cannon.
The galleys next in fize to thefe, which are alfo
called half-galleys, are from 120 to 130 feet long, 18
feet broad, and 9 or ho feet deep. They have two
mafts, which may be (truck at pleafure; and are fur-
nifhed with two large lateen fails, and five pieces of
cannon. They have commonly 25 banks of oars, as
deferibed above. A fize (till lefs than thefe are called
quarter-galleys, carrying from 12 to 16 banks of oars.
There are very few galleys now befides thefe in the
Mediterranean, which are found by experience to be of
little utility except in fine weather; a circumftance
which renders their fervice extremely precarious. They
generally keep clofe under the (hore, but fometimes
venture out to fea to perform a fummer cruife.
GALLEY-#/orw7, in zoology, an infedl known by mod
writers under the name ol lulus. It is a land-infe£,
with a long body, compofed of a great number of rings,
and furniffied with many feet. It is found very fre¬
quently in gardens ; and, when touched, has the power
4of rolling itfelf up into a ball. This animal is very
common among us, and is by fome referred to the fco-
lopendras, but improperly: for though they agree in
the great number of legs, ours is a harmlefs animal;
whereas the fcolopendrae are mifchie vous creat ures, armed
with dangerous forceps. It is fuppofed by Lifter, that
this fort of animal, common with us, would on diftil-
lation yield the fame fort of animal-acid that is pro¬
cured from the ant. The reafon of the conjecture is,
that the ant and this creature agree in emitting a (harp
and pungent fmell on being bruifed ; but thefe are not
eafily procured in fufficient plenty to make the experi¬
ment, as they E(re not gregarious like the ants.
GALLI, in antiquity, the priefts of the goddefs
Cybele. They were eunuchs; and took their name from
Gallus, a river in Phrygia.
When a youth was to be initiated into this order,
the cuftom was to throw off his cloaths, to run crying
aloud into the midft of the troop, and then drawing a
fword to caftrate himfelf: after this, he ran about the
ftreetf,
GAL [ 3171 ] GAL
Galilean ftreets, carrying in his hands the marks of his mutila-
ti. tion; which he was to throw into a houfe, and in that
. G3lliot- houfe to put on a woman’s drefs.
GALLICAN, any thing belonging to France :
thus the term Gallican church denotes the church of
France, or the aflembly of the clergy of that king¬
dom.
GALLICISM, a mode of fpeech peculiar to the
French language, and contrary to the rules of gram¬
mar in other languages.
GALLI1NLE, in ornithology, an order of birds. See
Zoology.
GALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the
birds of the order of the gallinae.
GALLING, or Excoriation, in medicine. See
Excoriation.
Galling of aHorfe's iaci ; a diforder occafioned
by heat, and the chafing or pinching of the faddle.
In order to prevent it, fome take a hind’s fkin well
garnilhed with hair, and fit it neatly under the pannel
of the faddle, fo that the hairy fide may be next the
horfe.
When a horfe’s back is galled upon a journey, take
out a little of the Huffing of the pannel over the fwell-
ing, and few a piece of foft white leather on the infide
of the pannel: anoint the part with fait butter, and
every evening wipe it clean, rubbing it till it grow
foft, anointing it again with butter, or, for want of
that, with greafe: waffi the fweiling, or hurt, every
evening with cold water and foap; and ftrew it with
fait, which ffiould be left on till the horfe be faddled
in the morning.
GALLION, or Galleon, in naval affairs, a fort
of {hips employed in the commerce of the Welt Indies.
The Spaniards fend annually two fleets ; the one for
Mexico, which they call the flota ; and the other for
Peru, which they call the gallions See Flota.
By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been
eftabliffied, that there ffiould be twelve men of war,
and five tenders, annually Jilted out for the armada or
galleons; eight fhips of fix hundred tons burden each,
and three tenders, one of an hundred tons, for the
ifland Margarita, and two of eighty each, to follow
the armada ; for the New Spain fleet, two {hips of fix
hundred tons each, and two tenders of eighty each ;
and for the Honduras fleet, two {hips of five hundred
tons each : and, in cafe no fleet happened to fail any
year, three gallions and a tender ffiould be fent to New
Spain for the plate.
They are appointed to fail from Cadiz in January,
that they may arrive at Porto-Bello about the middle
of April; where, the fair being over, they may take
aboard the plate, and be at Havannah with it about
the middle of June; where they are joined by the
flota, that they may return to Spain with the greater
fafety.
GALLIOT, afmall galley defigned only for chace,
carrying but one maft and two pattereroes ; it can
both fail and row, and has 16 or 20 oars. All the
feamen on board are foldiers, and each has a mulket by
him on quitting his oar.
GALLIPOLI, a fea-port town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra-di-Otrante, with
a biffiop’s fee, a fort, and a harbour. It is feated on
a rock, furrounded by the fea, and which is joined to
the firm land by a bridge. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. Gallipoli
40. 20. |j
Gallipoli, a fea-port town of Turky in Europe, Gal!on-
in the province of Romania, feated at the mouth of
the fea of Marmora, with a good harbour, and a bi-
ffiop’s fee. It contains about 10,000 Turks, 3'500
Greeks, befides a great number of Jews. The bazar,
or bezeftein, the place where merchandizes are fold,
is a handfome Aru&ure, with domes covered with lead.
It is an open place, and has no other defence than a
paltry fquare caftle. The houfes of the Greeks and
Jews have doors not above three feet and a half high,
to prevent the Turks riding into their houfes. E.
Long. 26. 59. N. Lat. 40. 30.
GALLIUM, lady’s bed-straw; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There are a great many fpecies, of which the
moft remarkable is the verum, or yellow lady’s bed-
ftraw. It grows commonly in dry ground, and on
road-fides. The flowers will coagulate boiling milk ;
and the beft Chefliire cheefe is faid to be prepared
with them. The French preferibe them in hyfteric
and epileptic cafes. Boiled in alum-water, they tinge
wool yellow. The roots dye a red not inferior to
madder ; for which purpofe they are ufed in the ifland
of Jura.—In the Edinburgh medical commentaries we
have accounts of fome violent fcorbutic complaints
being cured by the juice of this plant.—Sheep and
goats eat the plant; horfes and fwine refufe it; cows
are not fond of it.
GALLO, an ifland of the South Sea, near the
fea-coaft of Peru, in South America, which was the
firft place poffeffed by the Spaniards when they at¬
tempted the conqueft of Peru ; it is alfo the place
where the bucaneers ufed to come for wood and wa¬
ter, and to refit their veffels, when they were in thefe
parts. W. Long. 50. o. N. Lat. 2. 30.
GALLOIS (John), born at Paris in 1632, was
an univerfal fcholar; but chiefly noted for having been,
in conjunftion with M. de Sallo who formed the plan-,
the firlt publiflier of the Journal des Sgavans. The
firft journal was publiftied January 5th 1665 ; but thefe
gentlemen criticifed new works fo rigoronfly, that the
whole tribe of authors united and cried it down. De
Sallo declined entirely after the publication of the
third number : but Gallois ventured to fend out a
fourth, on January 4th 1666; though not without a
moft humble advertifement at the beginning, wherein
it was declared^ that the author “ would not prefume
to criticife, but Amply give an account of the books.”
This, with the proteftion of Mr Colbert, who was
greatly taken with the work, gradually reconciled the
public to it: and thus began literary journals, which
have been continued from that time to this, under va¬
rious titles, and by various writers. Gallois conti¬
nued his journal to the year 1674, when more impor¬
tant occupations obliged him to turn it over to other
hands. M. Colbert had taken him into the houfe to
teach him Latin ; and when he loft his patron in 1683,
he was firft made librarian to the king, and then
Greek profeffor in the royal college, He died in
1707.
GALLON, a meafure of capacity both for dry and
liquid things, containing four quarts. But thefe quarts,
and confequently the gallon itfelf, are different, ac¬
cording
GAM
[ 3*72 1
GAM
Galloway cording to the quality of the thing meafured : For in- wasfent to the Indies by king Emanuel: he returned
i! n .1 ^11 _  • -  i_*_ ‘ i  i .•    i j   ^
ftance, the wine-gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and in 1502, and failed thither again with 13 vefltU richly
holds eight pounds averdupois of pure water; the beer laden. He was made viceroy of the Indies by king
and ale gallon contains 281 foil'd inches, and holds ten John III.; and died at Cochin, on the 24th of IXeem-
pounds three ounces and a quarter averdupois of wa- her 1525. Don Stephen and Don Chriftopher de Ga-
ter; and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 272-^ cubic ma, his fons, were aifo viceroys of the Indies, andee-
inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces of pure lebrated in hiftory.
water. GAMBIA, a large river of Negroeland in Africa,
GALLOWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives generally fuppofed to be a branch of the Niger. StC
the title of earl to a branch of the noble family of Nile, Niger, and Senegal.
Stuart. It is divided into two diftrifls; the weftern, GAMBOGE, is a concreted vegetable juice, the
called Upper Galloway, being the fame with Wig- produce of two trees, both called by the Indians ca-
tonlhire ; and the eaftern, or flewartry of Kirkud- racapulli, and is partly of a gummy and partly of a
bright, called Lower Galloway. See Kircudbright refitious nature. It is brought to us either-in form of
and Wigtonshire. orbicular maffes, or of cylindrical rolls of various fizesj
GALWAY, or Galloway, a county of Ireland, and is of a denfe, compad, and firm texture, and of
which is 82 miles in length, and 42 in breadth, bound- a beautiful yellow. It is chiefly brought to us from
ed by the counties of Clare, Tipperary, King’s Coun- Cambaja, in the Eaft Indies, called alfo Cambodja^nA
ty, Rofcotnmon, and the fea. The river Shannon Cambogia ; and from thence it has obtained its names of
wafhes the frontiers of the eaft and fouth-eaft, and cambadium, cambogium, andgawbegium.
forms a lake feveral miles in length. There is another As a pigment, it makes a beautiful yellow, which
great lake, called Corbis, or Carib, which is near 20 is much ufed by the painters. Dr Lewis fays, that
miles long, and five broad. The county contains it makes a beautiful and durable citron-yellow ftain
15,420 boufes, 136 parifhes, 17 baronies, and 13 bo- upon marble, whether rubbed in fubllance on the hot
roughs ; and fends eight members to parliament. The ftone, or applied, as dragon’s-blood fometimes is, in
capital town is of the fame name. form of a fpirituous tindlure. When it is applied on
Galway, a town of Ireland, in the county of the cold marble, the ftone is afterwaids to be heated, to
fame name, and province of Connaught, of which it is make the colour penetrate.
the capital. It is furrounded with ftrong walls, has Gamboge is commonly called a but improper-
large rtraight ftreets, and the houfes are generally well ly. It appears to be wholly refinous or fulphureous;
built with ftone. It has a good trade into foreign fince fpirit of wine diflblves it almoit entirely, and wa-
parts, on account of its harbour, which is defended by ter, though it feparates its parts and keeps them fuf-
a fort. It is feated on the bay of Galway on the we- pended, yet does not difTo’ve them at all, nor is by
Hern ocean, 30 miles weft of Athlone, and 100 weft any means a folvent for it. It is alfo very inflammable,
of Dublin. W. Long. 9. jo. N. Lat. 53. 12. and melts with a very gentle heat. If mixed with an
GALLOWS, an inftrument of punilhment, where- equal quantity of fait of tartar, it readily diflblves in
on perfons convidfed capitally of felony, &c. are exe¬
cuted by hanging.
Among our anceftors it was called furca, “ fork
Oambis.
Gamejflr
common water by a few hours digeftion. This foiu-
tion, if kept over the fire, foon becomes a fort of fmootb
glue or jelly. This is fometimes done with a view to
a name by which it is ftill denominated abroad, parti- correft the deleterious qualities of gamboge taken in-
cularly in France and Italy. In this latter country, wardly, in which cafe it occafions violent vomitings
the reafon of the name ftill fubfifts ; the gallows be- and purgings. But the moft effedlual method of cor¬
ing a real fork drove into the ground, acrofs the legs reding this and other refinous purgatives, is by tritu-
whereof is laid a beam, to which the rope is tied. See rating them well with three or four times their weight
Furca. of white fugar, by which means they are rendered fo-
GALLUS (Cornelius), an ancient Roman poet, luble in water, and incapable of adhering to the villous
born at Forum Julium, now called Frejus, in France, coats of the inteftines.
He was a particular favourite with Auguftus Casfar, GAME, in general, fignifies any diverfion, or fport,
who made him governor of Egypt: but his mal- that :s performed with regularity, and reftrained to cer-
adminiftration there occafioned his banifhment, and tain rules. See Gaming.
the lofs of his eftate ; for grief of which he put an Games are ufually diltinguilhed into thofe of exer-
end to his own life. He wrote four books of love- eife and addrefs, and thofe of hazard. To the firft be-
elcgies; and Virgil has complimented him in many long chefs, tennis, billiards, &c. and to the latter
places* thofe performed with cards or dice, as back-gammon,
Gallus, or Coch in ornithology. See Phasianus. ombre, picquet, whift, &c. See Back-Gtfwwow, &c.
GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhi-
eompofitor empties the lines out of his compofing- bited on folemri occafions. Such, among the Greeks,
flick, and in which he tics up the page when it is were the Olympic, Pythian, Ifthmian, Nemean, &c.
completed. games; and, among the Romans, the Apollinarian,
The gaily is formed of an oblong fquare board, with Circenfian, Capitoline, &c. games. See Olympic,
a ledge on three Tides, and a groove to admit a falfe Pythian, &c.
bottom called agally-Jlicc. Game, in law, fignifies birds, or prey, taken or kill-
GAMA (Vafco de), a Portuguefe admiral, cele- ed by fowling or hunting,
brated far his dtlcovery of the Eaft Indies by the Cape The property of fuch animals fera nature as are
of Good Hope, was born at Syncs j and, in 1497, known under the denomination of with the right
of
Game.
Blackjf.
Comment.
GAM [31
of purfuing, taking, and deftroying them, is vefted
in the king alone, and from him derived to fuch of his
fubje&s as have received the grants of a chace, a park,
or a free warren.
By the law of nature, indeed, every man, from the
prince to the peafant, has an equal right of purfuing,
and taking to his own ufe, all fuch creatures as are
fene natura, and therefore the property of nobody,
but liable to be feifed by the firft occupant. But it
follows from the very end and conftitution of fociety,
that this natural right, as well as many others belong¬
ing to man as an individual, may be retrained by po-
fitive laws enabled for reafons of date, or for the fup-
pofed benefit of the community. This reftriilion may
be either with refpeft to the place in which this right
may, or may not, be exercifed; with refpeft to the
animals that are the fubje&s of this right ; or with re-
fpeft to the perfons allowed or forbidden to exercife it.
And, in confequence of this authority, we find that the
municipal laws of many nations have exerted fuch
power of reftraint; have in general forbidden the en¬
tering on another man’s grounds, for any caufe, with¬
out the owner’s leave ; have extended their protection
to fuch particular animals as are ufually the objefts of
purfuit ; and have invefted the prerogative of hunting
and taking fuch animals, in the fovereign of the date
only, and fuch as he Ihall authorize. Many rea¬
fons have concurred for making thefe conditutions:
as, 1. For the encouragement of agriculture and im¬
provement of lands, by giving every man an exclu-
five dominion over his own foil. 2. For the preferva-
tion of the feveral fpecies of thefe animals, which
would foon be extirpated by a general liberty. 3. For
prevention of idlenefs and difiipation in hulbandmen,
artificers, and others of lower rank ; which would be
the unavoidable confequence of univerfal licence. 4. For
prevention of popular infurredtions and refidance to
the government, by difarming the bulk of the people :
which lad is a reafon oftener meant than avowed, by
the .makers of fored or game laws. Nor, certainly, in
thefe prohibitions is there any natural injudice, as fome
have weakly enough fuppofed : fince, as Puffendorf
oblerves, the law does not hereby take from any man
his prefent property, or what was already his own ; but
barely abridges him of one means of acquiring a future
property, that of occupancy ; which indeed the law
of nature would allow him, but of which the laws of
fociety have in mod indances very judly and reafonably
deprived him.
Yet, however defenfible thefe provifions in general
may be, on the footing of reafon, or judice, or civil po¬
licy, we mud, notwithdanding, acknowledge, that, in
their prefent lhape, they owe their immediate original
to davery. It is not till after the irruption of the nor¬
thern nations into the Roman empire, that we read of
any other prohibitions, than that natural one of not
fporting on any private grounds without the owner’s
leave.
With regard to the rife and original of our prefent
civil prohibitions, it will be found, that all fored and
game laws were introduced into Europe at the fame
time, and by the fame policy, as gave birth to the
feodal fydem ; when thofe fwarms of barbarians iffued
from their northern hive, and laid the foundation of
mod of the prefent kingdom* of Europe, on the ruins
Vol. V.
73 1 GAM
of the wedern empire. For when a conquering gene¬
ral came to fettle the ceconomy of a ranquifhed coun¬
try, and to part it out among his foldiers or feudatories,
who were to render him military fervice for fuch dona¬
tions ; it behoved him, in order to fecure his new ac-
quifitions, to keep the rujlici or natives of the coun¬
try, and all who were not his military tenants, in as
low a condition as poflible, and efpecially to prohibit
them the ufe of arms. Nothing could do this more
effedually than a prohibition of hunting and fporting:
and therefore it was the policy of the conqueror to re-
ferve this right to himfelf, and fuch on whom he fliould
bedow it ; which were only his capital feudatories, or
greater barons. And, accordingly, we find, in the
feudal conditutions, one and the fame law prohibiting
the rujlici in general from carrying arms, and alfo
profcribing the ufe of nets, fnares, or other engines
for dedroying the game. This exclufive privilege well
fuited the martial genius of the conquering troops,
who delighted in a fport which in its purfuit and
daughter bore fome refemblance to war. Vita omnis
(fays Caefar, fpeakingof the ancient Germans) in ve-
nationibus atque in Jludiis rei militaris cotijijlit. And
Tacitus in like manner obferves, that quoties bella non
inuent, multum vonatibus, plus per otium tranfigunt.
And indeed, like fome of their modern fuccefibrs, they
had no other amufement to entertain their vacant
hours ; they defpifing all arts as effeminate, and ha¬
ving no other learning, than was couched in fuch rude
ditties as were fung at the folemn caroufals which fuc-
ceeded thefe ancient huntings. And it is remarkable,
that, in thofe nations where the feodal policy remains
the mod uncorrupted, the fored or game laws continue
in their highed rigour. In France, all game is pro¬
perly the king’s ; and in fome parts of Germany it is
death for a peafant to be found hunting in the woods
of the nobility.
With us in Britain, alfo, hunting has ever been e-
deemed a mod princely diverfion and exercife. The
whole ifland was replenilhed with all forts of game in
the times of the Britons; who lived in a wild and pa-
doral manner, without inclofing or improving their
grounds ; and derived much of their fubfidence from
the chafe, which they all enjoyed in common. But,
when hufbandry took place under the Saxon govern¬
ment, and lands began to be cultivated, improved, and
enclofed, the beads naturally fled into the woody and
defart tra&s ; which were called the forejls, and, ha¬
ving never been difpofed of in the fird didribution of
lands, were therefore held to belong to the crown.
Thefe were filled with great plenty of game, which
our royal fportfmen referved for their own diverfion,
on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture for fuch as interfered
with their fovereign. But every freeholder had the full
liberty of fporting upon his own territories, provided
he abdained from the king’s foreds.
However, upon the Norman conqued, a new doc¬
trine took place ; and the right of purfuing and ta¬
king all beads of chafe or venary, and fuch other ani¬
mals as were accounted^jwwe, was then held to belong
to the king, or to fuch only as were authorifed under
him. And this, as well upon the principles of the
feodal law, that the king is the ultimate proprietor of
all the lands in the kingdom, they being all held of
him as the chief lord, or lord paramount of the fee ;
18 G and
Game.
GAM [ 5174 ] GAM
Game, and that therefore he has the right of the unkerfal foil,
" ~ to enter thereon, and to chafe and take fuch creatures
at his pleafnre : as alfo upon another maxim of the
common law, that, thefe animals are bona vacantia, and,
having no other owner, belong to the king by his
prerogative. As therefore the former reafon was
held to veil in the king a right to purfue and take
them any where j the latter was fuppofed to give the
king, and fuch as he fhould authorize, a file and exclu-
five right.
This right, thus newly verted in the crown, was ex¬
erted with the utmort rigour, at and after the time of
the Norman eftablifhment; not only in the ancient fo-
refts, but in the new ones which the conqueror made,
by laying together vaft tra&s of country, depopulated
for that purpofe, and referved folely for the king’s roy¬
al diverfion ; in which were exercifed the moft horrid
tyrannies and oppreffions, under colour of foreft-law,
for the fake of preferving the hearts of chafe ; to kill
any of which, within the limits of the forett, was as pe¬
nal as the death of a man. And, in purtuance of the
fame principle, king John laid a total interdict upon
the 'winged as well as the fourfooted creation: capturam
* M. Paris, avium per totain Angliam interdixit *. The cruel
3°3’ and infupportable hardlhips, which thefe foreft-laws
created to the fubjeft, occafioned our anceftors to be
as zealous for their reformation, as for the relaxation of
the feodal rigours and the other exactions introduced
by the Norman family ; and accordingly we find the
immunities of carta die fiorefia as warmly contended for,
and extorted from the king with as much difficulty, as
thofe of fnagtla carta itfelf. By this charter, confirm-
15lien.III. e(l ;n parliament -}*, many foretts were difafforefted, or
ftripped of their opprefEve privileges, and regulations
were made in the regimen of fuch as remained ; par¬
ticularly killing the king’s deer was made no longer a
capital offence, but only puniftied by a fine, iroprifon-
metit, or abjuration of the realm. And by a variety of
fubfequent ftatutes, together with the long aquiefcence
of the crown without exerting the foreft-laws, this pre¬
rogative is now become no longer a grievance to the
fubjedt.
But, as the king referved to himfelf the forejh for
his own exclufive diverfion, fo he granted out from
time to time other trafts of lands to his fubjefts under
the namesof chafes or parks; or gave them licence to
make fuch in their own grounds ; which indeed are
fmaller forefts in the hands of a fubjedt, but not go¬
verned by the foreft-laws ; and by the common law no
perfon is at liberty to take or kill any hearts of chafe,
but fuch as hath an ancient chafe or park ; unlefs they
be alfo hearts of pvey.
As to all inferior fpecies ofgame, called beafis and
fowls of warren; the liberty of taking or killing them
is another franchife or royalty, derived likewife from
the crown, and ^called free-warren ; a word which
fignifies prefervation or cuftody : as the exelufive liber¬
ty of taking and killing fifh in a public ftream or river
is called a free fifhery; of which, however, no new
franchife can at prefentbe granted, by the exprefspro-
vifion of magna carta, c. 16. The principal inten¬
tion of granting a man thefe franchifes or liberties was
in order to protedt the game, by giving him a foie and
exclufive power of killing it himfelf, provided he pre¬
vented other perfons. And no man, but he who has
a chafe or free warren, by grant from the crown, or _
prefcription, which fuppofee one, can juftify hunting or
fporting upon another man’s foil ; nor indeed, in tho¬
rough ftri&nefs of common law, either hunting or
fporting at all.
However novel this dodiritie may feem, it is a regu¬
lar confequence from what has been before delivered ;
that the foie right of taking and deftroying game be¬
longs exclufively to the king. This appears, as well
from the hiltoricai dedudtion here made, as becaufe he
may grant to his fnbjedls an excltifive right of taking
them ; which he could not do, unlefs fuch a right was
firft inherent in himfelf. And hence it will follow,
that no perfon whatever, but he who has fuch deriva¬
tive right from the crown, is by common law entitled
to take or kill any hearts of chafe, or other game what-
foever. It is true, that, fry the acquiefcence of the
crown, the frequent grants of free-warren in ancient
times, and the introdudtion of new penalties of late by
certain ftatutes for preferving the game, this exclufive
prerogative of the king is little known or conlidered f
every man, that is exempted from thefe modern penal¬
ties, looking upon himfelf as at liberty to do what he
pleafes with the game : whereas the contrary is ftridfly
true, that no man, however well qualified he may vul¬
garly fre efteemed, has a right to encroach on the roy¬
al prerogative by the killing of game, unlefs he can
fhevv a particular grant of free-warren or a prefcrfp-
tion, which prefumes a grant ; or feme authority under
an adl of parliament. As for the latter, there are
but two inftances wherein an exprefs permiffion to kill
game was ever given by llatute; the one by 1 Jac. I.
c. 27., altered by 7 Jac. I. c. 11. and virtually repeal¬
ed fry Z2 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. which gave authori¬
ty, fo long as they remained in force, to the owners
of free-warren, to lords of manors, and to all freehold¬
ers having 40/. per annum in lands of inheritance, or
80/. for life or lives, or 400/. perfonal ertate, (and
their fervants), to take partridges and pheafants upon
their own, or their mafterrs, free-warren, inheritance,
or freehold r the other by 5 Ann. c. 14. which em¬
powers lords and ladies of manors to appoint game-
keepers, to kill game for the ufe of fuch lord or
lady ; which with fome alteration ftill fubfiftsj and
plainly fuppofes fuch power not to have been in them
before. The truth of the matter is, that thefe game-
laws do indeed qualify nobody, except in the inftance
of a gamekeeper, to kill game : but only to fave the
trouble and formal procefs of an adlion by the perfon
injured, who perhaps too might remit the offence,
thefe ftatutes inflift additional penalties, to be recover¬
ed either in a regular or fummary way, by any of the
king’s fubje&s, from certain perfons of inferior rank,
who may be found offending in this particular. But
it does not follow that perfons, eXcufed from thefb ad¬
ditional penalties, are therefore authorifedlo kill game-
The circumftance of having tool, per annum, and the
reft, are not properly qualifications, but exemptions.
And thefe perfons, fo exempted from the penalties of
the game-ftatutes, are not only liable to actions of tref-
pafs by the owners of the land ; but alfo,' if they kill
game within the limits of any royal franchife, they are
liable to the aflions of fuch who may have the right of
chafe or free-warren therein.
Upon the Whole,, it appears, that the king, by his.
pre-
GAM [31
Game prerogative, and fuch perfons as have, under his au-
It. thority, the royal franchise of chace, park, or Free^
am‘ warren *, are the only perfons who may acquire any
• See thefe ProPerty> however fugitive and tranfitory, in thefe a-
articles. tiimals fer<c nature, while living; which is faid to be
veiled in them propter privilegium. And it mull alfo
be obferved, that fuch perfons as may thus lawfully
hunt, filh, or fowl, ratione privilegei, have only a qua¬
lified property in thefe animals: it not being abfolute
or permanent, but lading only fo long as the creatures
remain within the limits of fuch refpedlive franchife or
liberty, and ceafing the inftant they voluntarily pafs
out of it. It is held indeed, that if a man darts any
game within his own grounds, and follows it into ano¬
ther’s, and kills it there, the property remains in him-
fcif. And this is grounded on reafon and natural ju-
ftice : for the property confilts in the pofftfiion ; which
offeffion commences by the finding it in his own li-
erty, and is continued by the immediate purfuit. And
fo, if a liranger darts game in one man’s chafe orfree-
warren, and hunts it into another liberty, the proper¬
ty continues in the owner of the chafe orwarren ; this
property arifing from privilege, and not being changed
by the aft of a mere dranger. Or if a man darts
game on another’s private grounds, and kills it there,
the property belongs to him in whofe ground it was
killed, becaufe it was alfo darted there.; this property
arifing ratiene foli. Whereas if, after being darted
there, it is killed in the grounds of a third perfon, the
property belongs not to the owner of the fird ground,
becaufe the property is local; nor yet to the owner of
the fecoird, becaufe it was not darted in his foil; but it
veds in the perfon who darted and killed it,tho' guilty
of a trefpafs againd both the owners. See the article
G^wc-Laws.
Game-CV^, a fighting cock, or one kept for fport;
a barbarous praftice, which is a difgrace to any civili¬
zed nation. See Cock.-Fighting.
GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial fead,
or rather facrifice, held in the ancient Greek families
on the day before a marriage; thus called, from a cu-
flom they had of fliaving themfelves on this occafion,
and prefenting their hair to forae deity to whom they
had particular obligations.
GAMELION, in the ancient chronology, was the
eighth month of the Athenian year, containing 29
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It was thus called, as be¬
ing, in the opinion of the Athenians, the mod proper
feafon of the year for marriage.
GAMING, the art of playing or praftifing any
game, particularly thofej of hazard ; as cards, dice,
tables, &c.
Gaming has at all times been looked upon as a
thing of pernicious confequencc to the commonwealth;
and is therefore feverely prohibited by law. It is con-
fidered as a praftice generally intended to fupply, or
retrieve, the expences occafioned by luxury : it be¬
ing a kind.of tacit confedion, that the company enga¬
ged therein do, in general, exceed the bounds of their
refpeftive fortunes ; and therefore they cad. lots to de¬
termine upon whom the ruin ihall at prefent fall, that
the red may be faved a little longer. But, taken in
any light, it is an offence of the mod alarming nature;
tending, by neceffary confequence, to promote public
75 ] G A M
idlenefs, theft, and debauchery, among thofe of a Gaming,
lower clafs; and, among perfons of a fuperior rank, it
hath frequently been attended with the fudden ruin and
defolation of ancient and opulent families, an abandon¬
ed proditution of every principle of honour and virtue,
and too often hath ended in felf-murder. To redrain
this pernicious vice among the inferior fort of people,
the datute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9. was made ; which
prohibits, to all but gentlemen, the games of tennis, ta¬
bles, cards, dice, bowls, and other unlawful diverfions
there fpecified, unlefs in the time of Chridmas, under
pecuniary pains and impiifonment. And the famelaw,
and alfo the datute 30 Geo. II. e. 24. inflift pecuni¬
ary penalties, as well upon the mailer of any public
houfe wherein fervants are permitted to game, as upon
the fervants themfelves who are found to be gaming
there. But this is not the principal ground of modern
complaint : it is the gaming in high life, that demands
the attention of the magidrate ; a paflion to which
every valuable confideration is made a facri'ftee, ami
which we feem to have inherited from ourenceftors the
ancient Germans ; whom Tacitus deferibes to have
been bewitched with the fpirit of play to a mod-ex-or-
bitant degree. “ They addift themfelves, (fayslie,)
“ to dice (which is wonderful) when fober, and as a
ferious employment ; with fuch a mad defire of win¬
ning or lofing, that, when dript of every thing elfe,
they will dake at lad their liberty, and their very
felves. The Idfer goes into a voluntary fkvery ; and,
though younger and dronger than bis antagonid, dif¬
fers himfelf to be bound and fold. And this perfe-
verance in fo bad a caufe they call the point of ho¬
nour : ea e/l in re prava pervicacia, ipfi fidem vocewl?*
One would almod-be tempted to think Tacitus was de-
feribing a modem Englifinman. When men are thus
intoxicated with fo frantic a fpirit, laws ‘will be of
little avail: becaufe thefame falfe fenfe of honour, that
prompts a man to facrifice himfelf, will-deter him from
appealing to the magidrate. Yet it is .proper that law’s
diould be, and be known publicly, that-gentlemen may
confider what penalties they wilfully incur, and what
a confidence they repofe in (harpers; who, if fuccefs-
ful in play, are certain to be paid with honour, or, if
unfuccefsful, have it in their power to be dill greater
gainers by informing. For, fry dat. i6 0ar. II. c. 7.
if any perfon by playing or betting (hall lofe more than
too /.at one time, he (hall not be compellable to pay the
fame ; and the winner (hall forfeit treble the value, one
moiety to the king, the other to the informer. The
datute 9 Ann. c. 14. enafts, that all bonds and other
fecurities, given for money won at play, or money
lent at the time to play withal, (hall be utterly void :
that all mortgages and incumbrances of lands, made
npo-n the fame confideration, (hail be and enure to the
heir of the mortgager : that, if any perfon at one
time lofes 101. at play, he may fue the winner, and re¬
cover it back by aftion of debt at law ; and, in cafe the
lofer does not, any other perfon may fue the winner for
treble-the fum fo lod ; and the plaintiff in either cafe
may examine the defendant himfelf upon oath: and
that in any of thefe fuits no privilege of parliament
(hall be allowed. The datute farther enafts, that if
any perfon cheats at play, and at one time wins more
than 10 1. or any valuable thing, he may be indifted
thereupon, and (hall forfeit five times the value, (hall
18 G 2 be
GAM [ 31
Gaming, be deemed infamous, and fuffer fuch corporal punifli-
 ment as in cafe of wilful perjury. By feveral ilatutes
of the reign of king George II. all private lotteries by
tickets, cards, or dice, (and particularly the games
of faro, ballet, ace of hearts, hazard, palfage, roily
polly, and all other games with dice, except back¬
gammon) are prohibited under a penalty of 200 1. for
him that (hall eredl fuch lotteries, and 501. a-timefor
the players. Public lotteries, unlefs by authority of
parliament, and all manner of ingenious devices, under
the denomination of fales or otherwife, which in the
end are equivalent to lotteries, were before prohibited
by a great variety of ftatutes under heavy pecuniary
penalties. But particular defcriptions will ever be lame
and deficient, unlefs all games of mere chance are at
once prohibited ; the invention of (harpers being fwift-
er than the punilhment of the law, which only hunts
them from one device to another. The flat. 13 Geo. II.
t. 19. to prevent the multiplicity of horfe-races, ano¬
ther fund of gaming, direfts, that no plates or matches
under 501. value (hall be run, upon penalty of 2001.
to be paid by the owner of each horfe running, and
tool, by fuch as advertife the plate. By ilatute
18 Geo. II. c. 34. the ftatute 9 Ann. is farther en¬
forced, and fome deficiencies fupplied : the forfeitures
of that aft may now be recovered in a court of equity;
and, moreover, if any man be convifted, upon informa¬
tion or indiftment, of winning or lofing at any fitting
to 1. or 201. within 24 hours, he (hall forfeit five times
the fum. Thus careful has the legiflature been to
prevent this deftruftive vice : which may Ihew that our
laws againft gaming are not fo deficient, as ourfelves
and our magiftrates in putting thofe laws in execution.
Chance, or Hazard, in Gam 1 n g. Hazard, or chance,
is a matter of mathematical confideration, becaufe it
admits of more and lefs. Gametters either fet out up¬
on an equality of chance, or are fuppofed to do fo.
This equality may be altered in the courfeof the game,
by the greater good-fortune or addrefs of one of the
gamefters, whereby he comes to have a better chance,
fo that his lhare in the (lakes is proportionably better
than at firft. This more and lefs runs thro’ all the ra¬
tios between equality and infinite difference, or from
an infinitely little difference till it come to an infinite
great one, whereby the game is determined. The
whole game, therefore, with regard to the ifiue of it,
is a chance of the proportion the two (hares bear to
each other.
The probability of an event is greater or lefs, ac¬
cording to the number of chances by which it may hap¬
pen, compared with the number of all the chances by
which it may either happen or fail.
M. de Moivre, in a treatife de Menfura Sortis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of which may be underftood
by what follows.
Suppofe p the number of cafes in which an event
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
which is to each other as ^ to 5’.
If two gamefters, A and B, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafes p happen, A (hall win ; but if q hap¬
pen, B (hall win, and the (lake be a; the chance of
A will be and that of B confequently, if
2+/> />+2
76 ] GAM
they fell the expeftancies, they (hould have that for Gamiltg*
them refpeftively.
If A and B play with a fingle die, on this condition, that,
if A throw two or more aces at eight throws, he (hall win ;
otherwife B (hall win; What is the ratio of their chances ?
Since there is but one cafe wherein an ace may turn up, and
five wherein it may not, let a—\, and £=5. And, again,
fincethere are eight throws ofthedie, let »=8; and, you
will have a+b)n bn—nabn — 1, to bn-\~nabn 1 : that
is, the chance of A will be to that of B, as 663991
to 10156525, or nearl7 35 2 to 3‘
A and B are engaged at fingle quoits; and, after
playing fome time, A wants 4 of being up, arid B 6;
but B is fo much the better gamefter, that his chance
againft A upon a fingle throw would be as 3 to 2; What
is the ratio of their chances? Since A wants 4, and
B 6, the game will be ended at nine throws; there¬
fore, raife a+b to the ninth power, and it will be
<?®-4-9 ij8i-}“36 anbb-\-H>^ a^b^-\-\2() a*b^-^i 26 a*b*,
to 84 a5£s+36 aab1 +b9 : call a 3, and b 2, and
you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz.
1759077 to 194048. _ . '
A and B play at fingle quoits, and A is the bed
gamefter, fo that he can give B 2 in 3 : What is the
ratio of their chances at a fingle throw? Suppofe the
chances as z to 1, and raife z+i to its cube, which
will be z3+32*+3c-l-t. Now fince A could give B
2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three throws
running ; and, confequently, the chances in this cafe
will be as z3 to 3zI+3z+i. Hence z3=$zz+^z-\ri ;
or 2z3=z3+3zi—32+1. And, therefore, z*/2—
z+i; and, confequently, z— 'i 2 1 The chances,
V
therefore, are s 2—i’ and 1, refpeftively.
V
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in
the firft of which I have 3 to 2 the bed of the lay,
and in the fecond 7 to 4; What is the probability I
win both wagers ?
1. The probability of winning the firft is -f, that
is the number of chances I have to win, divided by
the number of all the chances: the probability of win¬
ning the fecond is : therefore, multiplying thefe
two fraftions together, the produft will be f-f, which
is the probability of winning both wagers. Now,
this fraftion being fubtrafted from 1, the remainder is-
■|-f, which is the probability Ido not win both wagers:
therefore the odds againft me are 34 to 21.
2. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ning the firft, and lofing the fecond, I argue thus: the
probability of winning the firft is the probability of
lofing the fecond is : therefore multiplying \ by
the produft f|- will be the probability of my winning
the firft, and lofing the fecond; which being fubtraft¬
ed from 1, there will remain ^-f, which is the proba¬
bility I do not win the firft, and at the fame time lofe
the fecond.
3. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofing the firft,
I fay thus : The probability of winning the fecond is
tt ; the probability of lofing the firft is $ : therefore,
multiplying thefe two fraftions together, the produft:
fr 18 the probability I win the fecond, and alfo lofe
the firft.
4. If
GAM [31
Gaming. 4. If I would know what the probability is of
 Joling both wagers, I fay, the probability of lofmg
the firft is f, a\id the probability of lofing the fe-
cond t4 : therefore the probability of lofing them
both is Ty‘, which, being fubtrafled from 1, there
remains -£t: therefore, the odds of lofing both wagers
. is 47 to 8.
This way of reafoning is applicable to the happen¬
ing or failing of any events that may fall under con-
fideration. Thus if I would know what the probability
is of mifling an ace four times together with a die, this
I confider as the failing of four different events. Now
the probability of miffing the firft is the fecond is
alfo the third and the fourth f; therefore the
probability of miffing it four times together is
X|-=xt7t » which being fubtra&ed from 1, there will
remain f°r the probability of throwing it once or
oftener in four times : therefore the odds of throwing
an ace in four times, is 671 to 625.
But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three
times, the probability of miffing it three times would
be XX-o-X^tt! i which being fubtrafted from 1, there
will remain ^ for the probability of throwing it once
or oftener in three times: therefore the odds againft
throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, fup-
pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more: fince the probability of
throwing it the firft time is and of miffing it the o-
ther three times, is|-X4-X|-, it follows, that the proba¬
bility of throwing it the firft time, and miffing it the
other three fucceffive times, is 5 ^ut
becaufe it is poffible to hit it every throw as well as the
firft, it follows, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and miffing it the other three, is
= 729^; w^'c^ being fubtra&ed from 1, there
will remain -ri-§-£ for the probability of throwing it
once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worlt of the lay, or 5 to
8 very near.
Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them has
twice as many chances to come up as the other; what
is the probability, that the event, which has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the cafe of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once? Since the
number of chances is as 2 to 1, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is-^, but the pro¬
bability of its happening twice before it is but fXj- or
£: therefore it is 5 to 4 feven does not come up twice
before four once.
But, if it were demanded, what muft be the pro¬
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events,
to make that which has the moft chances come up
twice, before the other comes up once? The anfwer
is, 12 to 5 very nearly: whence it follows, that the
probability of throwing the firft before the fecond is
-J4, and the probability of throwing it twice is ^ jX
tt» or t44 » therefore the probability of not doing
it is therefore the odds againft it areas 145 to
144, which comes very near an equality.
Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour; What is the probability, that, taking one card
77 ] GAM
at a venture out of each heap, I ftiall take out the two
aces ?
The probability of taking the ace out of the firft
heap is Xy, the probability of taking the ace out of the
fecond heap is -r-f; therefore the probability of taking
out both aces is -j-jXx-y—tI-q-i which being fubtradted
from 1, there will remain X£J-: therefore the odds
againft me are 168 to 1.
In cafes where the events depend on one another,
the manner of arguing is fomewhat altered. Thus,
fuppofe that out of one fingle heap of thirteen cards
of one colour I ihould undertake to take out firft the
ace; and, fecondly, the two: though the probability
of taking out the ace be T-f, and the probability of
taking out the two be likewife x^-: yet, the ace being
fuppofed as taken out already, there will remain only
twelve cards in the heap, which will make the proba¬
bility of taking out the two to be x4 ; therefore the
probability of taking out the ace, and then the two,
will be TyXxx.
In this laft queftion the two events have a dependence
on each other, which confifts in this, that one of the
events being fuppofed as having happened, the proba¬
bility of the other’s happening is thereby altered. But
the cafe is not fo in the two heaps of cards.
If the events in queftion be « in number, and be
fuch as have the fame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raifetf+£ to the pow¬
er ». And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queftion
happen, A ftiall win, and B lofe, the probability of
A’s winning wall be ^ ; and that of B’s
a+b\‘l
__b”_
winning will be ; for when a-\-b is aflually
raifed to the power », the only term in which a does
not occur is the laft bn : therefore all the terms but
the laft are favourable to A.
Thus if »=3, raifing a-\-b to the cube <73-f 3a*H-
3a5l-4-£3, all the terms but P will be favourable to
A; and therefore the probability of A’s winning will
be-f!±^±3^1 - ^ 3-*3 •
in),
r ; and the proba-
bility of B’s winning will be^J—•
a-fbl3
play on condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A fhall win ; but in cafe
one only happen, or none, Bffiall win ; the probabi¬
lity of A’s winning will be   } for
the only two terms in which aa does not occur, are
the two laft, viz. naba—' and ba.
GAMMONING, among feamen, denotes feveral
turns of rope taken round the bowfprit, and reeved
through holes in knees of the head, for the greater
fecurity of the bowfprit.
GAMMUT, in mufic, a fcale whereon we learn
to found the mufical notes, ut, re, mi,fa,fol, la, in
their feveral orders and difpofitions. See Music.
GANDER, in ornithology, the male of the goofe- ^
kind ; one of which, it is faid, will ferve five geefe*.
GANG-
But if A and B
Gaming
II
Gander.
See Anan
GAO [ 3178 ] GAR
Gang GANG-WAY, is the feveral pafiages or ways from
|| one part of the (hip to the other; and vvhatfoevcr is
G'ao1, laid in any of thofepalfages, is faid to lie in the gang¬
way-
GANGANELLI. See Clement XIV.
GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India.
It has its fource in themountains which border on Little
Thibet, in 96 degrees of longitude, and 35. 45. of
latitude. It crofies feveral kingdoms, running from
north to fouth ; and falls into the bay of Bengal, by
feveral mouths. The waters are lowed in April and
May, and higheft before the end of September. It
overflows yearly like the Nile ; and renders the king¬
dom of Bengal as fruitful as that of the Delta in E-
S,'pt. The people in thefe parts hold the water of
is river in high veneration ; and it is vifited annually
by a prodigious number of pilgrims from all parts of
India. The Englifh have feveral fettlements on this
river, which will be taken notice of in their proper
places. The greateft happinefs that many of the In¬
dians wifh for, is to die in this river.
GANGLION, in anatomy, denotes a knot fre¬
quently found in the courfe of the nerves, and which
is not morbid; for wherever any nerve fends out a
branch, or receives one from another, or where two
nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or
plexus, as may be feen at the beginning of all the
nerves of the medulla fpinalis, and in many other
places of the body.
Ganglion, in furgery, a hard tubercle, generally
moveable, in the external or internal part of the car¬
pus, upon the tendons or ligaments in that part; ufu-
ally without any pain to the patient.
GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree
of inflammation, wherein tire parts affefted begin to
corrupt, and put on a flute of putrefa&ion. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine, and Surgery.
GANNET, or Soland Goafe, in ornithology. See
Pelicanus.
GANTLET, or Gauntlet, a large kind of glove
made of iron, and the fingers covered with final! plates.
It was formerly worn by the cavaliers, when armed at
all points.
GANYMEDE, in the ancient mythology, fon of
a king of Troy, was the moft beautiful boy in the
world. Jupiter was charmed with him, and made
him his cup-bearer in the room of Hebe. Some fay
that he caufed him to be carried away by an eagle,
and others affirm he was himfelf the raviflier under the
form of that bird. He deified this youth ; and, to
comfort his father, made a prefent to him of fome of
thofe very fwift horfes that the gods rbde upon.
GAOL (Gaola, Fr. Geole, i. e. Caveola, “ a cage
for birds”), is ufed metaphorically for a prifon. It is
a ft rang place or houfe for keeping of debtors, &c.
and wherein a man is reftrained of his liberty to an-
fwer an offence done againft the laws : and every coun¬
ty hath two gaols, one for debtors, which may be any
houfe where the rtieriff pleafes ; the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county
gaol.
If a gaol be Gut of repair, or infufficient, &c. ju-
ftices of peace, in their quarter feffions, may contradl
with workmen for the rebuilding or repairing it; and
by their warrant order the funa agreed on for that
purpofe, to be levied on the feveral hundreds, and Gaol
other divifions in the county by a juft rate, 11 & 12 li
Will. III. c. 19. See Prison. Garam01
Gko\<-Delivery. The adminiftration of juftice be¬
ing originally in the crown, in former times our kings
in perfon rode through the realm once in feven years,
to judge of and determine crimes and offences; after¬
wards jujiices in eyre were appointed ; and fince, ju-
Jlices of ajfife and gcwl-delivery, &c. A commiffion of
gaol-delivery, is a patent in ^nature of a letter from
the kingto certain perfons, appointingthemhis juftices,
or two or three of them, and authorifing them to de¬
liver \\\^gaoU at fuch a place, of the prifoners in it:
forWhich purpofe it commands them to meet at fuch
a place, at the time they themfelves (hall appoint; and
informs them, that, for the fame purpofe, the king
hath commanded his fheriff of the fame county to bring
all the prifoners of the goal, and their attachments,
before them at the day appointed.
The juftices of gaol-delivery are empowered by the
common law to proceed upon indi&ments of felony,
trefpafs, &c. and to order to execution or reprieve:
they may likewife difeharge fuch prifoners, as on their
trials are acquitted, and thofe againft whom, on pro¬
clamation being made, no evidence h^$* appeared :
they have authority to try offenders for treafon, and
tq puniffi many pairticular offences, byftatute 2 Hawk.
24. 2 Hale's hijl- Placit. Cor. 35.
GAOLER, the keeper of a gaol orprifbn. She¬
riffs are to make fuch gaolers for whom they will be
anfwerable : but if there be any default in the gaoler,,
an a&km lies againft him for an efcape, &c. yet the
fheriff is moft ufually charged ; 2 Inft. 592. Where a
gaoler kills a prifoner by hard ufage, it is felony ; 3
/«/?. ya. No fee fhall be taken by gaolers, but what
is allowed by law, and fettled by the judges, who may
determine petitions againft their extortions, &c. 2 Geo.
II. c. 22.
GAONS, a certain order of Jewifh Joflors, who
appeared in the Eaft, after the clofing of the tahnud.
The word Gaons fignifies Excellent, Sublime; as in the
divinity-fchools we formerly had Irrefragable, Sublime,
Refolute, Angelic, and Subtile doftors. The Gaons
fucceeded the Sebursans, or Opiners, about the be¬
ginning of the fixth century. Chanan Meifchtia was
the head, and firft of the excellents. He reftored the
academy of Pandebita, which had been (hut up for 30
years.
GAR-fish, Horn-A/2>, or Sea-needle. See Esox.
GARAMOND (Claude), a very ingenious letter-
founder, was born at Paris ; where he began, in the
year 1510, to found his printing types free from all
the remains of the Gotliic, or(asit is generally called)
the black letter., and brought them to fuch perfection,
that he had the glory of furpaffing all who went before
him, and of being fcarcely ever excelled by his fuc-
ceffors in that ufeful art. His types were prodigioufly
multiplied; both by the great number of matrices he
ftruck, and tire types formed in refemblance of his
in all parts of Europe. Thus in Italy, Germany,
England, and Holland, the bookfellers, by way of
recommending their books, diitinguiihed the type by
hi* name; and in particular the fmall Roman was,
by way of excellence, known among the printers of
there nations by the name of Garanutid's fruall Roman.
ry
Garden.
GAR [3,
Garafle By the fpecial command of king Francis I. he founded
II three fizes of Greek types for the ufe of Robert Ste-
ar eri' phens, who with them printed all his beautiful editions
of the New Teftament, and other Greek authors.
He died at Paris, in 1561
GARASSE (Francis), a remarkable jefuitical wri¬
ter, the fir ft author of that irreconcilable enmity that
ftill fubfifts between the Jefuits and Janfenifts in the
church of Rome, was born at Angoulefme in 1585 ;
and entered the Jefuits college in 1600. As he had
a quick imagination, a ftrong voice, and a peculiar
trim to wit, he became a popular preacher in the chief
cities of France ; but not content with this honour,
he diftinguifhed himfelf ftill more by his writings,
which were bold, licentious, and produced much con-
troverfy. The moft confiderable in its confequences,
was intitled La fomtne thealogique des veritez capitals
de la religion Chretisnne; which was firft attacked by
the abbot of St Cyran, who, obferving in it a prodi¬
gious number of falfifications of the Scriptures and of
the fathers, befide many heretical and impious opi¬
nions, conceived the honour of the church required
him to undertake a refutation. Accordingly he pub-
Irlhed a full anfwer to it; while Garaffe’s book was alfo
under examination of the doctors of the Sorbonne,
by whom it was afterwards condemned. Garaffe re¬
plied to St Cyran ; but the two parties of Jefuits and
Janfenifts, of whom thefe were refpe&ively the cham¬
pions, grew to an implacable animofity again ft each
other, that is not even now likely to fubfide. The
Jefuits were farced to remove their brother to a diftance
from Paris ; where, probably weary of his ina&ive ob-
feurity, when the plague raged at Poidtiers in 1631,
he begged leave of his fuperior to attend the fick, in
which charitable office he caught the diforder, and
died.
GARBE, in heraldry, aiheafof any kind of grain,
borne in feveral coats of arms, and faid to reprefent
fummer, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.
GARBLE, a word ufed to fignify the adfion of
feparating the drofs and. duft from fpice, drugs, &c.
Garbling is the cleanfiog and purifying the good from
the bad; and may come from the Italian garbo, i. e.
finery or neatnefs r and hence, probably, we fay, when
we fee a man in a neat habit, that he is in handfome
garb.
GARCILASSO (de la Vega), a celebrated Spa-
ni(h poet, born of a noble family at Toledo, in 1500.
He was educated near the emperor Charles V. who
had a particular regard for him, and whom he at¬
tended in all his military expeditions; acquiring as
much renown by his courage as by his poetry. In
Provence he commanded a battalion ; and was killed
in the 36th.year of his age, by a ftone thrown at his
head by a country-mar! from a turret. He had ftrong
natural talents for poetry ; and not only extended the
bounds, but introduced new beauties, into that of the
Spanilh language.—We muft not confound this poet
with another perfon of the fame name, a native of
Cufco, who wrote in Spanilh, a Hiftory of Florida,
and of Peru and the Incas.
GARDANT, or Guardant, in heraldry, de¬
notes any bealt full-faced, and looking right forward.
GARDEN, a plot of ground, cultivated, and pro¬
perly ornamented with a variety of plants, flowers.
79 ] GAR
fruits, &c. See Gardening.
Gardens are ufually diftinguifhed into flower-gar- v
den, fruit-garden, and kitchen-garden : the firft of
which, being defigned for pleafure and ornament, is
to be placed in the moft confpicuous part, that is,
next to the back-front of the houfe ; and the two lat¬
ter, being defigned for ufe, fboald be placed lefs in
fight. But though the fruit and kitchen-gardens are
here mentioned as two diftinct gardens, yet they are
now ufually in one ; and that with good reafon, fince
they both require a good foil and expofure, and equally
require to be placed out of the view of the houfe. See
Kitchen- Garden.
In the choice of a place proper for a garden, the
moft efiential points to be confidered are the fituation,
the foil, the expofure, water, and profpeft.
1 ft, As to the fitnation, it ought to be fuch a one
as is wholefome. and in a place neither too high nor
too low; for if a garden be too high, it will be ex--
pofed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to trees ;
and if it be too low, the dampnefs, the vermin, and
the venomous creatures that breed in ponds and mar-
fhy places, add much to their infalubrity. The moft
happy fituation is on the fide of a hill, efpecially if
the flope be eafy, and in a manner imperceptible ; if
a good deal of level ground be near the houfe; and if
it abounds with fprings of water : for, being fheltered
from the fury of the winds, and the violent heat of the
fun, a temperate air will be there enjoyed; and the
water that defeends from the top of the hill, either from
fprings or rain, will not only fupply fountains, canals,
and cafcades for ornament, but, when it has perform¬
ed its office, will water the adjacent valleys, and, if
it be not fuffered to ftagnate, will render them fertile
and wholefome. Indeed, if the declivity of the hill
be too fteep, and the water be too abundant, a garden
on the fide of it may frequently fuffer, by having trees
torn up by torrents and floods ; and by the tumbling
down of the earth above, the walls may be demoliffi-
ed, and the walks fpoiled. It cannot, however, be
denied, that the fituation on a plain or flat has feveral
advantages which the higher fituation has not: for
floods and rain commit no damage ; there is a conti¬
nued profpeft of champaigns, interfered by rivers,
ponds, and brooks, meadows, and hills covered with,
woods or buildings; befides, the level furface is lefs
tirefome to walk on, and lefs chargeable than that on
the fide of an hill, liuce terrace-walks and fteps are not
there necefiary : but the greateft difadvantage of flat
gardens, is the want of thofe extenfive profpers which,
rifing grounds afford.
adly, A good earth or foil is next to beconfidered
for it is fcarce poffible to make a fine garden in a bad
foil. There are indeed ways to meliorate ground, but
they are very expenfive; and fometimes, when the ex¬
pence has been beftowed of laying good earth three
feet deep over the whole furface, a whole garden has
been ruined, when the roots of the trees have come
to reach the natural bottom. Tojudge of the quality
of the foil, obferve whether there be any heath, thif-
tles, or fuch-like weeds growing fpontaneoufly in it
for they are certain figns that the ground is poor. Or
if there be large trees growing thereabouts, obferve,
whether they grow crooked, ill-fhaped, and grubby,
and whether they are. of a faded green, and full of
uaofrj.
GAR [31
Garden, mofs, or Infefted with vermin ; if this be the cafe, the
' place is to be rejefted : but, on the contrary, if it be
covered with good grafs fit for pafture, you may then
be encouraged to try the depth of the foil. To know
this, dig holes in feveral places, fix feet wide, and four
deep ; and if you find three feet of good earth, it will
do very well; but lefs than two will not be fufficient.
The quality of good ground is, neither to be ftony, nor
too hard to work ; neither too dry, too moift, nor too
fandy and light ; nor too ftrong and clayey, which is
the worft of all for gardens.
jdly. The next requifite is water; the want of which
is one of the greateft: inconveniencies that can attend
a garden, and will bring a certain mortality upon
whatever is planted in it, efpecially in the greater
droughts that often happen in a hot and dry fituation
in fummer; befides its ufefulnefs in fine gardens for
making fountains, canals, cafcades, See. which are the
greatell ornaments of a garden.
4thly, The laft thing to be confidered, is the pro-
fpedt of a fine country ; and though this is not fo ab-
folutely neceffary as water, yet it is one of the mod
agreeable beauties of a fine garden: befides, if a garden
be planted in a low place that has no kind of profpeft,
it will not only be difagreeable, but unwholefome.
In the laying out and planting of gardens the beau¬
ties of nature fhould always be (ludied ; for the nearer
a garden approaches to nature, the longer it will pleafe.
The area of a handfome garden, may take up thirty
or forty acres, but not more ; and the following rules
fhould be obferved in the difpofition of it. There
ought always to be a defeent of at lead three deps
from the houfe to the garden ; this will render the
houfe more dry and wholefome, and the profpedt on
entering the garden more extenfive. The fird thing
that ought to prefent itfelf to view, fhould be an open
lawn of grafs, which ought to be confiderably broader
than the front of the building ; and if the depth be
one half more than the width, it will have a better
effeft: if on the fides of the lawn there are trees
planted irregularly, by way of open groves, the re¬
gularity of the lawn will be broken, and the whole
rendered more like nature. For the convenience of
walking in damp weather, this lawn fhould be fur-
rounded with a gravel walk, on the outfide of which
fhould be borders three or four feet wide, for flowers:
and from the back of thefe the profpeft will be agree¬
ably terminated by a dope of ever-green fhrubs; which,
however, fhould never be fuffered to exclude agreeable
profpefts, or the view of handfome buildings. Thefe
walks may lead through the different plantations,
gently winding about in an eafy natural manner; which
GAR
80 ]
will be more agreeable than either thofe long flraight *
walks, too frequently feen in gardens, or thofe fer-
pentine windings, that are twifted about into fo many
fhort turns, as to render it difficult to walk in them :
and as no garden can be pleafing where there is a want
of fhade and fhelter, thefe walks fhould lead as foon
as poffible into plantations, where perfons may walk
in private, and be fheltered from the wind. Where
the borders of the gardens are fenced with walls or
pales, they fhould be concealed with plantations of
flowering fhrubs, intermxed with laurels and other
ever-greens; which will have a good effeft, and at the
fame time conceal the fences, which are difagreeable
when left naked and expofed to the fight. Groves
are the moft agreeable parts of a garden, fo that there
cannot be too many of them ; only that they muff not
be too near the houfe, nor be fuffered to block up
agreeable profpe&s. To accompany parterres, groves
opened in compartments, quincunxes, and arbour-
work with fountains, &c. are very agreeable. Some
groves of ever-greens fhould be planted in proper
places, and fome fquares of trees of this kind may alfo
be planted among the other wood.
Narrow rivulets, if they have a conftant flream,
and are judicioufly led about a garden, have a better
effeA than many of the large ftagnating ponds or ca¬
nals, fo frequently made in large gardens. When
wilderneffes are intended, they fhould not be cut into
ftars and other ridiculous figures, nor formed into
mazes or labyrinths, which in a great defign appear
trifling. Buildings, ftatues, and vafes, appear very
beautiful; but they fhould never be placed too near
each other : magnificent fountains are alfo very orna¬
mental ; but they ought never to be introduced, ex¬
cept there be water to keep them conftantly running.
The fame may alfo be obferved of cafcades and other
falls of water.
In fhort, the feveral parts of a garden fhould be di-
verfified; but in places where the eye takes in the
whole at once, the two fides fhonld be always the
fame. In the bufinefs of defigns, the aim fhould be
always at what is natural, great, and noble. The ge¬
neral difpofition of a garden, and of its parts, ought
to be accommodated to the different fituations of the
ground, to humour its inequalities, to proportion the
number and forts of trees and fhrubs to each part, and
to fhut out from the view of the garden no objefts
that may become ornamental. And before a garden
is planned out, it ought ever to be confidered, what
it will be when the trees have had 20 years growth.—
But for a more extended view of this fubjedt, fee the
next article.
A R D E N I N G;
nPHE art of cultivating or planning gardens.—Gar-
dening, in the perfedtion to which it has been
lately brought in Britain, is entitled to a place of con-
fiderable rank among the liberal arts. It is as fuperior
to landfkip-painting, as a reality to a reprefentation :
it is an exertion of fancy; a fubjedtfor tafle; and being
rejeafed now from the reftraints of regularity, and en¬
larged beyond the purpofes of domeftic convenience,
the mod beautiful, the mod fimple, the moft noble
feenes of nature, are all within its province. For it is
no longer confined to the fpots from which it takes its Subjefts
name ; but regulates alfo the difpofition and embellifh- and mate
ments of a park, a farm, or a riding: and the bufinefs rials of gar*
of a gardener is to feledi and apply whatever is great, dening.
elegant, or charadteriftic, in any of them ; to difeover
and to fhew all the advantages of the place upon which
he is employed; to fupply its defe&s, to corredl its
faults, and to improve its beauties. For all thefe o-
perations,
Parti. GARDENING. 3181
Scftion I. perations, the objeds of nature are ftill his only ma- which he is to produce ; and into thofe properties in Seftion I.
Ground. tcria]s> His firft inquiry, therefore, mufl; be into the the objefls of nature, which fhculd determine him (:rounP-
means by which thofe effedts are attained in nature, in the choice and arrangement of ihem.
Part I. Of the CONSTITUENT PARTS of the SCENES of NATURE.
NATURE, always Ample, employs but four ma¬
terials in the compofition of her fcenes ; ground,
•wood, •water, and rocks. The cultivation of nature
has introduced a fifth fpecies, the buildings requifite
for the accommodation of men. Each of thefe again
admits of varieties in figure, dimenfions, colour, and
fituation. Every landfkip is compofed of thefe parts
only ; every beauty in a landtkip depends on the ap¬
plication of their feveral varieties.
Sect. I. Of Ground.
The (hape of ground muil be either a convex, a con¬
cave, or a plane; in terms lefs technical called zfwell,
z. hollow, zn&z level. By combinations of thefe are
formed all the irregularities of which ground is ca¬
pable; and the beauty of it depends on the degrees
and the proportions in which they are blended.
a Both the convex and the concave are forms in them-
Of * leve1, fdves of more variety, and may therefore be admitted
to a greater extent than a plane. But levels are not
totally inadmiffible. The preference unjuftly (hewn
to them in the old gardens, where they prevailed al-
raoft in exclufion of every other form, has raifed a pre¬
judice againft them. It is' frequently reckoned an
excellence in a piece of made ground, that every the
leaft part of it is uneven ; but then it wants one of
the three great varieties of ground, which may fome-
times be intermixed with the other two. A gentle
concave declivity falls and fpreads eaiily on a flat;
the channels between feveral fwells degenerate into
mere gutters, if fome breadth be not given to the
bottoms by flattening them ; and in many other in-
ftances, fmall portions of an inclined or horizontal
plane may be introduced into an irregular compofition.
Care only mud be taken to keep them down as fub-
ordinate parts, and not to fuffer them to become
principal.
There are, however, occafions on which a plane
may be principal: a hanging level often produces ef-
fe£is not otherwife attainable. A large dead flat, in¬
deed, raifes no other idea than of fafety : the eye finds
no amufement, no repofe on fuch a level: it is fa¬
tigued, unlefs timely relieved by an adequate termi¬
nation; and the ftrength of that termination will com-
penfate for its diftance. A very wide plain, at the
foot of a mountain, is lefs tedious than one of much
lefs compafs furrounded only by hillocks. A flat
therefore of confiderable extent may be hazarded in a
garden, provided the boundaries alfo be confiderable
in proportion ; and if, in addition to their importance,
they become ftill more interefting by their beauty,
then the facility and diftinftnefs with which they are
feen over a flat make the whole an agreeable compo¬
fition. The greatnefs and the beauty of the boun¬
dary are not, however, alone fufficient; the form of
it is of ft ill more confequence. A continued range of
the nobleft wood, or the fineft hill, would not cure
the infipidityofaflat: a lefs important, a lefs plea fin g
Vol. Y.
boundary, would be more effe&ual, if it traced a more
varied outline ; if it advanced fometimes boldly for¬
ward, fometimes retired into deep recefies ; broke all
the fides into parts, and marked even the plain itfelf
with irregularity.
At Moor Park, on the back-front of the houfe, is 3 .
a lawn of about thirty acres, abfolutely flat; w*th (^ea<jra‘^''a"
falls below it on one hand, and heights above it on Moor Park
the other. The rifing ground is divided into three (the feat of
great parts, each fo diftinft and fo different, as to ,Slr Tam-,
nave the effedl of feveral hills. That ntareft to the
houfe ftielves gently under an open grove of noble manfworth
trees which hang on the declivity, and advance be- inHertford-
yond it on the plain. The next is a large hill preffingfl'h* )
forward, and covered with wood from the top' to the
bottom. The third is a bold fteep, with a thicket
falling down the fteepeft part, which makes it appear
ftill more precipitate : but the reft of the Hope is bare;
only the brow is crowned with wood, and towards
the bottom is a little groupe of trees. Thefe heights,
thus finely charafterifed in themfelves, are further di-
ftinguilhed by their appendages. The fmall, compaA
groupe near the foot, but (till on the defcent, of the
farther hill, is contrafted by a large ftraggling clump,
fome way out upon the lawn, before the middle emi¬
nence. Between this and the firft hill, under two or
three trees which crofs the opening, is feen to great
advantage a winding glade, which rifes beyond them,
and marks the reparation. This deep recefs, the dif¬
ferent diftances to which the hills advance, the con¬
trail in their forms, and their accompaniments, call
the plain on this fide into a moft beautiful figure. The
other fide and the end were originally the flat edge of
a defcent; a harfli, offenfive termination : but it is now
broken by feveral hillocks, not diminutive in fize, and
confiderable by the fine clumps which diftinguilh them.
They recede one beyond another, and the outline
waves agreeably amongft them. They do more than
conceal the lharpnefs of the edge ; they convert a de¬
formity into a beauty, and greatly contribute to the
embellilhment of this moft lovely fcene: a fcene, how¬
ever, in which the flat is principal; and yet a more
varied, a more beautiful landlkip, can hardly be de-
fired in a garden.
A plain is not, however, in itfelf interefting ; and 4
the leaft deviation from the uniformity of its furface ofc°nvex
changes its nature : as long as the flat remains, it de- fl[aCpe"C*fC
pends on the obje&s around for all its variety, and all ground,
its beauty. But convex and concave forms are gene¬
rally pleafing, and the number of degrees and com¬
binations into which they may be call is infinite: thofe
forms only in each which are perfe&ly regular mull
be avoided. A femicircle can never be tolerable : fmall
portions of large circles blended together, or lines
gently curved which are not parts of any circle, a
hollow finking but little below a level, a fwell very-
much flattened at the top, are commonly the molt
agreeable figures.
18 H la
132 GARDENING. Parti,
Seftisn I. In ground which lies beautifully, the concave will
Ground, generally prevail ; within the fame compafs it (hews
more furface than a fwell. All the (ides of the latter are
* not vifible at the fame time, except in a few particu*
lar fituations : but it is only in a few particular fitua-
tions, that any part of a hollow is concealed ; earth
feems to have been accumulated to raile the one, and
taken away to fink the other. The concave, there¬
fore, appears the lighter, and for the moft part it is
the more elegant (hape : even the (lopes of a fwell can
hardly be brought down, unlefs broken now and then
into hollows, to take off from the heavinefs of the
the mafs. There are, however, fituations where the
convex form (hould be preferred : a hollow juft below
the brow of a hill reduces it to a narrow ridge, which
has a poor meagre appearance 5 and an abrupt fall
will never feem to join with a concave form immedi¬
ately above it : a (harp edge divides them ; and to
connect them, that edge muft be rounded, or at lead
flattened ; which is, in fadl, to interpofe a convex or
a level.
S In made ground, the connexion is, perhaps, the
‘he principal confideration. A fwell which wants it is but
tween "the6 a heap, a hollow but a hole, and both appear arti-
parts in ficial: the one feems placed upon a furface to which
ground. it does not belong ; the other, dug into it. On the
reat fcale of nature, indeed, either may be fo confi-
erable in itfelf, as to make its relation to any other
almoft a matter of indifference : but, on the fmaller
fcale of a garden, if the parts are disjointed, the ef-
fe& of the whole is loft; and the union of all is not
more than fufficient to preferve an idea of greatnefs
and importance, to fpots which muft be varied, and
cannot be fpacidus. Little inequalities are befides in
nature ufually well blended together: all lines of re¬
paration have, in a courfe of time, been filled up ;
and therefore, when in made ground they are left
open, that ground appears artificial.
Even where artifice is avowed, a breach in the con-
neftion offends the eye. The ufe of a foffe is merely
to provide a fence, without obftrufting the view. To
blend the garden with the country is no part of the
idea: the cattle, the obje&s, the culture, without
the funk fence, are difeordant to all within, and keep
up the divifion. A foffe may open the moft polilhed
lawn to a corn-field, a road, or a common, though
they mark the very point of feparation. It may be
made on purpofe to (hew objects which cannot, or
ought not to be in the garden ; as a church, ora mill,
a neighbouring gentleman’s-feat, a town, or a village;
and yet no confcioufnefs of the exiftence can reconcile
us to the fight of this divifion. The moft obvious dif-
guife is to keep the hither above the further bank all
the way ; fo that the latter may not be feen at a compe¬
tent diftance. But this alone is not always fufficient: for
a divifion appears, ifan uniformly continued line, however
faint, bedifcernible; that line,therefore,muftbebroken.
Low but extended hillocks may fometimes interrupt it;
or the (hape on one fide may be continued, acrofs the
funk fence, on the other; as when the ground finks
in the field, by beginning the declivity in the garden.
Trees too without, conne&ed with thofe within, and
feeming part of a clump or a grove there, will fre¬
quently obliterate every trace of an interruption. By
fuch, or other means, the line may be, and (hould be,
hid or difguifed; not for the purpofe of deception, Seftion I.. i;,
(when all is done, we are feldom deceived), but to Grou n p- ;
preferve the continued furface entire.
If, where no union Is intended, a line of feparation is i
difagreeable, it muft be difgufting when.it breaks the
connexion between the feveral parts of the fame piece
of ground. .That connexion depends on thejunfliem
of each part to thofe alout it, and on the relation of every
part to the whole. To complete the former, fuch (hapes
(hould be contiguous as moft readily unite; and the
aftual divifion between them (hould be anxioufly con¬
cealed. If a fwell defeends upon a level; if a hollow
finks from it, the level is an abrupt termination, and a
little rim marks it diftin&ly. To cover that rim, a
(hort fweep at the foot of the fwell, a fmall rotundity
at the entrance of the hollow, muft be interpofed. In
every inftance, when ground changes its direiftion,
there is a point where the change is effefted, and that
point (hould never appear; fome other (hapes, uniting
eafily with both extremes, muft be thrown in to con¬
ceal it. But there muft be no uniformity even in thefc
connexions : if the fame fweep be carried all round
the bottom of a fwell, the fame rotundity all round the
top of a hollow, though the jun&ion be perfeft, yet
the art by which it is made is apparent, and art muft
never appear. The manner of concealing the fepara¬
tion (hould itfelf be difguifed : and different degrees
of cavity and rotundity ; different (hapes and dimen-
fions to the little parts thus diftinguiffed by degrees;
and thofe parts breaking, in one place more in ano¬
ther lefs, into the principal forms which are to be u-
nited; produce that variety with which all nature a-
bounds, and without which ground cannot be natural.
The relation of all the parts to the whole, when ^
clearly marked, facilitates their junXion with each o- of therela-
ther: for the common bond of union is then perceived, tion of the J
before there has been time to examine the fubordinate Parts t<J the i
connexions; and if thefe (hould be deficient in fome w^°^e*
niceties, the defeX is loft in the general impreffion.
But any part which is at variance with the reft, is not
barely a blemifh in itfelf: it fpreads diforder as far as
its influence extends ; and the confufion is in propor¬
tion as the other parts are more or lefs adapted to
point out any particular direction, or to mark any pe¬
culiar char after in the ground.
If, in ground all defeendin^ one way, a piece is twift-
ed another, the general fall isobftruXed by it; but if
all the parts incline in the fame direXion, it is hardly
credible how fmall a declivity will feem to be confide-
rable. An appearance even of fteepnefs may be given
to a very gentle defeent, by raifing hillocks upon it,
which (hall lean to the point, whither all the reft are
tending: for the eye meafures from the top of the
higheft, to the bottom of the loweft ground ; and.
when the relation of the parts is well preferved, fuch aa
effeX from one is transfufed over the whole.
But they (hould not, therefore, all lie exaXly in the
fame direXion : fome may feem to point to it direXly,
others to incline very much, others but little, fome
partially, fome entirely. If the direXion be ftrongly
marked on a few principal parts, great liberties may
be taken with the others, provided none of them are.
turned the contrary way. The general idea muft,
however, be preferved, clear even of a doubt. A hil¬
lock which only intercepts the fight, if it does not con¬
tribute
Part I. CARD
l. tribute to the principal effeft, is at the beft an unneT
Onoukp. cej}ary excrefcence 5 and even an interruption in thege-
“nM " rieral tendency, thos it hide nothing, is a bletnifti, On
a defcent, anjr hollow, any fall, which has not an
outlet to lower ground, is a hole; the eye fkips over
it, inltead of being continued along it; it is a gap in
the compofition.
There may indeed be occafions, when we fhould ra¬
ther wifii to check, than to promote, the general ten¬
dency. Ground may proceed too haftily towards its
point ; and we have equal power to retard, or*to ac¬
celerate, the fall. We can flacken the precipitancy of
a fteep, by breaking it into parts, fome of which lhall
incline lefs, than the whole before inclined, to the prin¬
cipal direftion 5 and by turning them quite away, we
may even change the courfe of the .defcent. Thefe pow¬
ers are of ufe in the larger fcenes, where the feveral
great parts often lie in feveral dire&ions ; and if they
are thereby too ftrongly contratted, or led towards
points too widely afunder, every art (hould be exerted
to bring them nearer together, to affimilate, and to
conned! them. As fcenes increale in extent, they be¬
come more impatient of controul: they are not only
lefs manageable, but ought to belefs reltrained ; they
require more variety and contrail:. But ftill the fame
principles are applicable to the leaft, and to the great-
eft, tho’ not with equal feverity: -neither ought to be
rent to pieces | and tho’ a fmall neglect, which Would
diftraft the one, may not difttlrb the other, yet a total
difregard of all the principles of union is alike pro¬
ductive of confufion in both.
1 The Jlyk alfo of every part, muft be accommodated
rafterof character of the whole. For every piece of
ground. ground is diftinguhhed by certain properties : it is ei¬
ther tame or bold, gentle or rude, continued or bro¬
ken 5 and if any variety, inconfiftent with thofe pro¬
perties, be obtruded, it has no other effeft than to
weaken one idea without raifing another. The infipi-
dity of a flat is not taken away by a few fcattered hil¬
locks { a continliation of uneven ground can alone give
the idea of inequality. A large, deep, abrupt break,
among eafy fwells and falls, feems at the heft but a
piece left unfinilhed, and which ought to have been
foftened; it is not more natural, becaufe it is more
rude ; nature forms both the one and the other, but
feldom mixes them together. On the other hand, a
fmall fine polilhed form, in the midft of rough, mi-
fhapen ground, though more elegant than all about it,
is generally no better than a patch, itfelf difgraced,
and disfiguring the feene. A thoufand inftances might
be adduced to ihew, that the prevailing idea ought
to pervade every part, fo far at leaft indifpenfably as
to exclude whatever diftradts it, and as much further
as pofljble to accommodate the character of the ground
to that of the feene it belongs to.
On the fame principle, the proportion of the parts
may often be adjufted. For though their fize muft be
very much governed by the extent of the place, and a
feature which would fill up a fmall fpot may be loft
in a large one 5 though there are forms of a particu¬
lar call, which appear to advantage only within cer¬
tain dimenfions, and ought not therefore to be applied
where they have not room enough, or where they muft
occupy more fpacc than becomes them ; yet, indepen¬
dent of tbefe confiderations, a character of greatnefs
ENIN G. 3,83
belongs to fome fcenes, which is not meafured by their Seftion 1.
extent, but raifed by other properties, fometimes only Ground
by the proportional largenefs of their parts. On the
contrary, where elegance charafterifes the fpot, the
parts fhould not only be fmall, but diverfified befides
with fubordinate inequalities, and little delicate touches
every where fcattered about them. Striking effefts,
forcible impreffions, whatever feems to require effort,
difturb the enjoyment of a feene intended to amufe
and to pleafe.
In other inftances, fimilar confiderations will deter¬
mine rather the number than the proportion of the
parts. A place may be diltinguifhea by its fimplicity,
which many divifions would deftroy; another fpot,
without any pretenfions to elegance, may be remark¬
able for an appearance of richnefs : a multiplicity of
objedts wall give that appearance, and a number of
parts in the grouqd will contribute to the profufion.
A feene of gaiety is improved by the fame means; the
objefts and the parts may differ in ftyle, but they muft;
be numerous in both. Samenefs is dull : the pureft
fimplicity can at the moft render a place compofed of
large parts placid ; the fublimeft ideas only make it
ftriking : it is always grave; to enliven it, numbers
are wanting.
Bur ground is feldom beautiful or natural without 9
variety, or even without contrail; and the precautions Of variety*
Which have been given, extend no farther than to pre¬
vent variety from degenerating into inconfiftency, and
contraft into contradiction. Within the extremes, na¬
ture fupplies an inexhauftibie fund ; and variety thus
limited, fo far from deftroying, improves the general
effedt: Each diftinguifhed part makes a feparate im-
prefiion ; and all bearing the fame ftamp, all concur¬
ring to the fame end, every one is an additional fup-
port to the prevailing idea: that is multiplied, it is
extended, it appears in different fhapes, it is fhewn in
feveral lights, and the variety illuftrates the relation.
But variety wants not this recommendation ; it is
always defirable where it can be properly introduced ;
and an accurate obferver will fee in every form feveral
circumftances by which it is diftinguiihed from every
other. If the feene be mild and quiet, he will place
together thofe which do not differ widely; and he will
gradually depart from the fimilitude. In ruder fcenes,
the fucceffion will be lefs regular, and the tranfitions
more fudden. The character of the place muft deter¬
mine the degree of difference between forms which are
contiguous. Befides diftinCtions in the fhapes of
ground, differences in their Jituations and their dimen-
ftons are fources of variety. The pofition will alter the
effeCt, though the figure be the fame ; and for parti¬
cular effeCts, a change only in the diftance may be ftri¬
king. If that be confiderable, a fucceflion of fimilar
fhapes fometimes occafions a fine perfpeCtive; but the
diminution will be lefs marked, that is, the effeCt will
be lefs fenfible, if the forms are not nearly alike : we
take more notice of one difference, when there is no
other. Sometimes a very difagreeable effeCt, produ¬
ced by too clofe a refemblance of fhapes, may be re¬
medied only by an alteration in the fize. If a fteep de-
feends in a fucceffion of abrupt falls,-nearly equal, they
have the appearance of fteps, and are neither pleafing
nor wild; but if they are made to differ in height and
length, the objection is removed: and at all times a
l8 H 2 difference
3184 GARDE
I. difference in the dimenfions will be found to have a
t-rnoynp. greater efft.£t than in fpeculation we fhould be in¬
clined toafcribe to it, and will often difguife a fimila-
rity of figure.
9 It alfo contributes, perhaps more than'any other
Of the lines cjrcllmftance, to the perfe&ion of thofe lines, which
thefeveral the eye traces along the parts of a piece of ground,
in when it glances over feveral together. No variety of
ground. form compenfates for the want of it. An undulating
line compofedof parts all elegant in themfelves, all ju-
dicioufly contrafted, and happily united, but equal one
to another, is far from the line of beauty. A long
ftraight line has no variety at all; and a little deviation
into a curve, if there be flill a continued uniformity, is
but a trifling amendment. Though ground all falling
the fame requires everj attention to its general tenden¬
cy, yet the eye muft not dart down the whole length
immediately in one direftion, but fhould be infenfibly
eonduAed towards the principal point with fame cir¬
cuity and delay. The channels between hillocks ought
never to run in ftraight, nor even regularly curved
lines; but winding gently among them, and conftant-
ly varying in form and in dimenfions, fhould gradually
find their way. The beauty of a large hill, efpecially
when feen from below, is frequently impaired by the
even continuation of its brow. An attempt to break
it by little knoles is feldom fuccefsfui; they feem fepa-
rate independent hillocks artificially put on. The in¬
tended effedd may indeed be produced by a large knole
defcending in fome places lower than in others, and
rooted at feveral points into the hill. The fame end
may be attained by carrying fome channel or hollow on
the fide upwards, till it cut the continued line; or by
bringing the brow forward in one place, and throwing
it back in another; or by forming a fecondary ridge a
little way down the fide, and cafling the ground above
it into a different though not oppofite diredtion to the
general defcent. Any of thefe expedients will at lead
draw the attention off from the defedt. But if the
break were to divide the line into equal parts, another
uniformity would be added, without removing the for¬
mer : for regularity always fuggefts a fufpicion of ar¬
tifice ; and artifice detedled, no longer deceives. Our
imaginations would induftrioufly join the broken parts,
and the idea of the continued line would be reftored.
jo Whatever break be chofen, the pofition of it muft
Ofcontraft. be oblique to the line which is to be broken. Aredt-
angular divifion produces famenefs ; there is no
traft between the forms it divides: but if it be oblique,
while it diminifhes the part on one fide, it enlarges
that on the other. Parallel lines are liable to the fame
objedlion as thofe at right angles: though each by it-
felf be the perfedl line of beauty; yet if they corre-
fpond, they form a fhape between them, whofe fides
want contraft. On the fame principle, forms will
fometimes be introduced, lefs for their intrinfic than
their occafional merit in contrafting Wappily with thofe
about them: each fets off the other; and together
they are a more agreeable compofition than if they
had been more beautiful, but at the fame time more
fimilar.
One reafon why tame fcenes are feldom interefting,
is, that though they often admit of many varieties,
they allow of few, and thofe only faint, contrafts. We
may be pkafed by the number of the former, but we
N I N G. Parti.
can be ftruck only by the force of the latter. Thefe SeOion I. ,
ought to abound in the larger and bolder fcenes of a Ground.m
garden, efpecially in fuch as are formed by an affem-
blage of many diftindf and coniiderable parts thrown
together: as when feveral rifing grounds appear one
beyond another ; a fine fwell feen above a flaming
fweep which runs before it, has a beautiful effedt,
which a nearer refemblance would dettroy: and (ex¬
cept in particular inftances) a clofe fimilarity between
lines which either crofs, or face, or rife behind one
another, makes a poor, uniform, difagreeable compo¬
fition.
The application of any of the foregoing obferva* 11
tions to the (fill greater fcenes of nature, would carry
us at prefent too far; nor could it well be made, be- fC(£ts, !
fore the other conftituent parts of thofe fcenes, wood,
water, rocks, and buildings, have been taken intocon-
fideration. The rules which have been given,are chiefly
applicable to groundwhichmaybe managed bya fpade;
and even there they are only general, not univerfal: few
of them are without exception; very few, which, on
particular occafions, may not be difpenfed with. Many
of the above remarks are, however, fo far of ufe in
fcenes thefartheft from our reach, as they may afiift
in diredling our choice of thofe parts which are in our
power to (hew, or to conceal, though not to alter..
But in converting them to this purpofe, a caution,
which has more than once been alluded to, muft al¬
ways be had in remembrance ; never to fuffer general
confiderations to interfere with extra')?dinary great
effefts, which rife fuperior to all regulations, and per¬
haps owe part of their force to their deviation from
them. Singularity caufes at leaft furprife, and furpri e
is allied to aftonifhment. Thefe effedls are not, how¬
ever, attached merely to objedfs of enormous fize t
they frequently are produced by a greatnefs of ftyle
and chara&er, within fuch an extent as ordinary labour
may modify, and the compafs of a garden include.
The caution therefore may not be ufelefs within thefe
narrow bounds: but nature proceeds ftill further, be¬
yond the utmoft verge to which art can follow; and,
in fcenes licentioufly wild, not content with contraft,
forces even contradi&ions to unite. The grotefque
difcordant ftiapes which are often there confufedly
jumbled together, might fufficiently juftify the remark..
But the caprice does not ftop here: to mix with fuch
fhapes a form perfedlly regular, is ftill more extrava¬
gant ; and yet the effedt is fometimes fo wonderful,
that we cannot wifh the extravagance corrcdted. It is
not unufual to fee a conical hill ftanding out from a
long, irregular, mountainous ridge, and greatly im¬
proving the view: but at Ham fuch a hill is thrown, n ,•
into the midft of the rudeft fcene, and almoft fills up 0f a hill °at ",
an abyfs, funk among huge, bare, mifhapen hills. Ham, near j
whofe unwieldy parts, and uncouth forms, cut by the Afbbourne j
tapering lines of the cone, appear more favage frot11 1
the oppolition 1 and the effedt would evidently be
ftronger, were the figure more complete; for it docs
not rife quite to a paint, and the want of perfect, re¬
gularity feems a blemifli. Whether fuch a mixture of
contrarieties would for a length of time be engaging,
can be known only to thofe who are habituated to the
fpot. It certainly at firft fight rivets the attention.
But the conical hill is the moft ftriking objedt. In fuch
a filiation it appears more ftrange, morefantaftic, than
the
Parti. G A R D
|Seftion I. the rude (hapes which are heaped about it: and toge-
Grocnd. ti,er t^ey fuit the charadler of the place, where nature
feems to have delighted to bring diftance* together ;
where two rivers, which are ingulphed many miles
afunder, iflue from their fubterraneous paffages, the
one often muddy when the other is clear, within a few
paces of each other: but they appear only to lofe
themfelves again ; for they immediately unite their
Itreams, juft in time to fall together into another cur¬
rent, which alfo runs through the garden. Such whim-
fical wonders, however, lofe their effect, when repre-
fented in a pidture, or mimicked in ground artificially
laid. They there want that vaftnefs which conftitutes
their force ; that reality which afcertains the caprice.
As accidents they may furprife; but they are not ob-
je&s of choice.
I *3 To determine the choice to its proper obje&s is the
r woo,i(S)n°the purpofe of the foregoing obfervations. Some of the
| form 0f principles upon which they are founded will be appli-
i ground. cable alfo, and perhaps without further explanation,
to the other conftituent parts of the fcenes of nature:
they will there be often more obvious than in ground.
But this is not a place for the comparifon; the fubjeft
now is ground only. It is not, however, foreign to
that fubjed to obferve, that the effeds which have
been recommended, may fometimes be produced by
wood alone, without any alteration in the ground it-
felf: a tedious continued line may by fuch means be
broken. It is ufual for this purpofe to place feveral
little clumps along a brow; but if they are fmall and
numerous, the artifice is weak and apparent: an equal
number of trees colleded into one or two large malfes,
and dividing the line into very unequal parts, is lefs
fufpicious, and obliterates the idea of famenefs with
more certainty. Where feveral fimilar lines are feen
together, if one be planted, and the other bare, they
become contrafts to each other. A hollow in certain
fituations, has been mentioned as a difagreeable inter¬
ruption in a continued furface : but, filled with wood,
the heads of the trees fupply the vacancy; the irregu¬
larity is preferved; even the inequalities of the depth
are in fome meafure {hewn; and a continuation of fur-
face is provided. Rifing ground may, on the other
hand, be in appearance raifedftill higher, by covering
it with wood, of humble growth towards the bottom,
and gradually taller as it afcends. An additional mark
of the inclination of falling ground may alfo be ob¬
tained, by placing.a few trees in the fame direction,
which will ftrongly point out the way ; whereas plan¬
tations athwart a defcent, bolder up the ground, and
check the fall: but obliquely crofting it, they will of¬
ten divert the general tendency; the ground will in
fome meafure affume their direction, and they will make
a variety, not a contradidlion. Hedges, or continued
plantations, carried over uneven ground, render the ir¬
regularity more confpicuous, and frequently mark little
inequalities, which would otherwife efcape obfervation:
or if a line of trees run clofe upon the edge of an abrupt
fall, they give it depth and importance. By fuch
means a view may be improved; by fimilar means, in
more confined fpots, very material purpofes may be
anfwered.
Sect. II. Of Wood.
I+ In the above inftanccs the ground is the principalcon-
€htracterii- fideration: but previous to any inquiry into the greater
E N I N G. 3185
effedls of wood, when it is itfelf an objtft, an exami- Seftion II.
nation of the charafieri/Uc differences of trees and fhrubs WooD*
is neceflary. We do not mean botanical diftindtions: t;c
we mean apparent, not eflential -varieties ; and thefe ces in trees
muft be obvious and confiderable, to merit regard in and fhrubs.
the difpofition of the objedfs they diftinguifh.
Trees and fhrubs are of different Jhapes, greens, and
growths.
The varieties in their fhapes may be reduced to the
following heads.
Some thick with branches and foliage have almoft
an appearance of folidity ; as the beech and the elm,
the lilac and fyringa. Others thin of boughs and of
leaves feena light and airy ; as the afh and the arbele,
the common arbor vitae and the tamarifk.
There is a mean betwixt the' two extremes, very di-
ftinguifhable from both ; as in the bladder-nut, and
the aflien-leaved maple.
They may again be divided into thofe whofe branches
begin from the ground, and thofe which Jhoot up in a
Jlem before their branches begin. Trees which have
fome, not much clear ftem, as feveral of the firs, be¬
long to the former clafs; but a very fhort ftem will
rank a flirub, fuch as the althasa, in the latter.
Of thofe whofe branches begin from the ground,
fome rife in a conical figure, as the larch, the cedar of
Lebanon, and the holly; fome fiwell out in the middle
of their growth, and diminijh at both ends, as the Wey¬
mouth pine, the mountain afh, and the lilac: and
fome are irregular and bitfijy from the top to the bot¬
tom, as the evergreen oak, the Virginian cedar, and
Guelder rofe.
There is a great difference, between one whofe
bafe is very large, and another whofe bafe is very fmall,
in proportion to its height: the cedar of Lebanon*
and the cyprefs, are inftances of this difference; yet
in both the branches begin from the ground.
The heads of thofe which fhoot up into a ftem be¬
fore their branches begin, fometimes arefiender cones,
as of many firs: fometimes are broad cones, as of the
horfe-chefmrt; fometimes they are round, as of the
flone-pine, and moft forts of fruit-trees; and fome¬
times irregular, as of the elm- Of this laft kind
there are many confiderable varieties.
The branches of fome grow horizontally, as of the
oak. In others, they tend upwards, as in the almond,
and in feveral forts of broom and of willows. In
others they fall, as in the lime, and the acacia: and
in fome of thefe laft they incline obliquely, as in many
of the firs; in fome they hang dire Cl ly down, as in the
weeping willow,
Thefe are the moft obvious great diftin&ions in the
fhapes of trees and fhrubs. The differences between
fhades of green cannot be fo confiderable; but thefe
alfo will be found well deferring of attention.
Some are of a dark green, as the horfe-chefnut
and the yew ; fome of a light green, as the lime and
the laurel; fome of a green tinged with brown, as the
Virginian cedar; fome of a green tinged with white,
as the arbele and the fage tree; and fome of a green
tinged with yellow, as the afhen-leaved maple and the
Chinefe arbor vitre. The variegated plants alfo are
generally entitled to be claffed with the white, or the
yellow, by the ftrong tin&ure of the one or the other
of thofc colours oa their leaves.
Other
3*86
S eft ion II.
Wood.
Variety ari
fing from
thofe differ
cnees.
Other confiderat’ons concerning colours will foon
be fuggefted : the prefent inquiry is only into great
fixed diftimStions. Thofe in the (hapes and the greens
of trees and fhrubs have beenmentioned : there are o-
thers, as great and as important, in their growths ; but
they are too obvious to deferve mentioning. Every
gradation, from the moil humble to the mod lofty,
has, in certain fituations, particular effe&s: it is un<-
neceflary to divide them into ftages.
One principal ufe in fettling thefe charafteriftic di-
’ ftin&ions, is to point out the fibres whence varieties
. may at all times be readily drawn, and the caufes by
which fometimes inconfiltencies may be accounted for.
Trees which differ but in one of thefe circumftances,
whether of Ihape, of green, or of growth, though
they agree in every other, are fufficiently diftinguilhed
for the purpofe of variety : if they differ in two or
three, they become contrails ; if in all, they are op-
pofites, and feldom groupe well together. But there
are intermediate degrees, by which the moft diftant
may be reconciled: the upright branches of the al¬
mond mix very ill with the falling boughs of the weep¬
ing willow ; but an interval filled with other trees, in
figure between the two extremes, renders them at leaft
not unfightly in the fame plantation. Thofe, on the
contrary, which are of one chai after, and are diftin-
guilhed only as the charafteriftic mark is Itrongly or
faintly impreffed upon them, as a young beech and a
birch, an acacia and a larch, all pendant, though in
different degrees, form a beautiful mafs, in which uni¬
ty is preferved without famenefs ; and Hill finer groupes
may often be produced by greater deviations from uni¬
formity into contrail.
Occafions to (hew the effefts of particular Ihapes in
pertain fituations will hereafter fo frequently occur,
that a further illuftration of them now would be need-
lefs. But there are befides, fometimes in trees, and
commonly in Ihrubs, Hill more minute varieties,—in the
turn of the branches, in the form and the fize of the fo¬
liage, which generally catch, and often deferve atten¬
tion. Even the texture of the leaves frequently occa¬
fions many different appearances: fome have a Iliff-
nefs, fome an agility, by which they are more or lefs
proper for feveral purpofes on many there is a glofs,
very ufeful at times to enlivefi,at other times too glitter¬
ing for the hue of the plantation. But all thefe in¬
ferior varieties are below our notice in the confidera-
tion of great effefts: they are of confequence only
where the plantation is near to the fight j where it
Ikirts a home-feene, or borders the fide of a walk : and
in a Ihrubbery, which in its nature is little both in
ftyle and in extent, they Ihould be anxioufly fought
for. The nobleft wood is not indeed disfigured by
them ; and when a wood, having ferved as a great ob-
jeft to one fpot, becomes in another the edge of a
walk, little circumllances, varying with ceafelefs
change along the outline, will then be attended to s
but where-ever thefe minute varieties are fitting, the
groffeft tafte will feel the propriety, and the molt cur-
fory obfervation will fugged the didinftions: a detail
of all would be endlefs ; nor can they be reduced into
claffes. To range the Ihrubs and fmall trees fo that
jthey may mutually fet off the beauties, and conceal
the blemilhes, of each other; to aim at no effefts which
depend on a nicety for their fuccefs, and which the foil,
GARDENING, Part!.!
the expofure, or the feafop of the day, way deftroy} 8eftion n,
to attend more to the groupea than to the individuals j WqopT'1
groupes i
and to confider the whole as a plantation, not as a col-
leftion of plants ; are the bell general rules which can
be given concerning them.
The different tints of greens may feem at firft
fight to be rather minute varieties than charafteriftic
diftinftions : but upon experience it will be found, Greens,
that from fmall beginnings they lead to material confe- °
quences ; that they are more important on the broad
expanfe, than along the narrow outline of a wood}
and that by their union, or their contrail, they pro¬
duce effefts not to be difregarded in feenes of extent
and of grandeur.
A hanging wood in autumn is enriched with colours,
whofe beauty cheers the approaches of the inclement
feafon they forebode: but when the trees firft droop,
while the verdure as yet only begins to fade, they are
no more than ftronger tints of thofe colours with
which the greens in their vigour are fhaded ; and which
now are fucceeded by a paler white, a brighter yel¬
low, or a darker brown. The effefts are not diffe¬
rent } they are only more faintly impreffed at one time
than another; but when they are ftrongeft, they are
moft obfervable. The fall of the leaf, therefore, is the
time to learn the fpecies,Mhe order, and the propor¬
tion of tints, which blended will form beautiful maffes;
and, on the other hand, to diftinguilh thofe which are
incompatible near together.
The peculiar beauty of the tints of red cannot then
efcape obfervation, and the want of them throughout
the fummer-roonths mull be regretted : but that want,
though it cannot perfeftly, may partially be fupplied }
for plants have a permanent and an accidental colour.
The permanent is always fome (hade of green; but
any other may be the accidental colour; and there is
none which fo many circumllances concur to produce
as a red. It is affumed in fucceflion by the bud, the
bloffom, the berry, the bark, and the leaf. Sometimes
it profufely overfpreads, at other times it dimly tin¬
ges the plant; and a reddijh green is generally the hue
of thofe plants, on which it lafts long, or frequently
returns.
Admitting this, at lead for many months in the year,
among the charafteriftic diftinftions, a large piece of
red green, with a narrow edging of dark green along
the further fide of it, and beyond that a piece of light
green larger than the firft, will be found to compoft a
beautiful mafs. Another, not lefs beautiful, is a yel¬
low green neareft to the eye, beyond that a light
green, then a brown green, and laftly a dark green.
The dark green mull be the larged, the light green
the next in extent, and the yellow green the lead of
all.
From tbefe combinations, the agreements between
particular tints may be known. A light green may
be next either to a yellow or a brown green,
and a brown to a dark green, all in confiderable
quantities; and a little rim of dark green may bor¬
der on a red or « light green. Further obferva-
tions will Ihew, that the yellow and the white greens
conned eafily; but that a large quantity of the
light, the yellow, or the white greens, doe* not mi*
well with a large ouantity alfo of the dark green j"
and that to form a pleafing mat's, either the dark green
muft
Part I.
GARDENING,
Sefi’on I?, mud be reduced to a mere edging, or a brown or an
Wood, intermediate green muft be interpofed : that the red,
' the brown, and the intermediate greens, agree among
tbemfelves : and that any of them may be joined to
any other tint; but that the red green will bear a lar¬
ger quantity of the light than of the dark green near
it, nor does it feem fo proper a mixture with the white
green as with the reft.
In maffing thefe tints, an attention muft be con-
ftantly kept up to theiryorw/, that they do not lie in
large ftripes one beyond another ; but that either they
be quite intermingled, or, which is generally more
plesfing, that confiderable pieces of different tints,
each a beautiful figure, be, in different proportions,
placed near together. Exaftnefs in the (hapes muft
not be attempted, for it cannot be preferved ; but if
the great outlines be well drawn, little variations, af¬
terwards occafioned by the growth of the plants, will
not fpoil them.
>7 A small thicket is generally moft agreeable, when
in frcrn ^ 18 one ^ne ma^s weM‘mixed greens : that mafs
the difpofi- g>vcs to the whole a which can by no other
tion of the means be fo perfedly expreffed. When more than
greens. one is neceffary for the extent of the plantation, ftill
if they are too much contrafted, if the gradations from
cne to another are eafy, the unity is not broken by
the variety.
While the union of tints is produftive of pleafing
effedts, ftrong effefts may, on the other hand, be fome-
times produced by their difagreements. Oppofites,
fuch, for inftance, as the dark and light greens, in
large quantities clofe together, break to pieces the fur-
face upon which they meet; and an outline which can¬
not be fufficiently varied in form, may be in appear¬
ance, by the management of its (hades : every oppo-
fition of tints is a break in a continued line : the depth
of receffes may be deepened by darkening the greens
as they retire ; a tree which ftands out from a planta¬
tion may be feparated by its tint as much as by its
pofition; the appearance of folidity or airinefs in
plants depends not folely on the thicknefs or thinnefs,
but partly on the colour of the leaves ; clumps at a
diftance, may be rendered more or lefs diftindt by their
greens; and the fine effedl of a dark green tree, or
roupe of trees, with nothing behind it but the fplen-
or of a morning or the glow of an evening iky, can¬
not be unknown to any who was ever delighted with
a pidlure of Claude, or with the more beautiful origi¬
nals in nature.
Another effedl attainable by the aid of the different
tints, is founded on the firft principles of perfpeftive.
Objedts grow faint as they retire from the eye ; a de¬
tached clump, or a fingle tree, of the lighter greens,
will, therefore, feem farther off than one equidiftant
of a darker hue ; and a regular gradation from one
tint to another will alter the apparent length of a con-
tinuedjplantation, according as the dark or lightgreens
begin the gradation. In a ftraight line this is obvious ;
in a broken one, the fallacy in the appearance is fel-
dom detedted, only becaufe the real extent is general¬
ly unknown ; but experiments will fupport the prin¬
ciple, if they are made on plantations not very fmall,
nor too clofe to the eye : the feveral parts may then
be fhortened or lengthened, and the variety of the
outline be improved by a judicious arrangement of
greens.
Other effedts arifing from mixtures of greens will Setfion II.
occafionally prefent themfelves in the difpofition of a ^ nup-
wood, which is the next confideration. Wood, as a ]S
general term, comprehends all trees and Ihrubs in what- of the feve-
ever difpofition ; but it is fpecifically applied in a more ra! fpecies
limited fenfe, and in that fenfe we fhall now ufe it. of wood.
Every plantation muft be either a wood, a grove, a
clump, or a fingle tree.
A wood is compofed both of trees and underwood,
covering a confiderable fpace. A grove confifts of
trees without underwood. A clump differs from either
only in extent: it may be either clofe or open : when
clofe, it is fometimes called a thicket; when open, a
groups of trees ; but both are equally clumps, what¬
ever may be the fhape or fituation.
One of the nobleft objedts in nature is the furface 0f ^ ^
of a large thick wood, commanded from an eminence, or face 0fa
feen from below, hanging on the fide of a hill. The wood dif¬
latter is generally the more interefting objedl. Its a- tinguilhed
fpiring fituation gives it an air of greatnefs ; its ter- ^sts 2r€at*
mination is commonly the horizon : and, indeed, if
it is deprived of that fplendid boundary, if the brow
appears above it, (unlefsfome very peculiar effedt cha-
radterifes that brow), it lofes much of its magnificence :
it is inferior to a wood which covers a lefs hill from
the top to the bottom ; for a whole fpace filled is feldom
little : but a wood commanded from an eminence is
generally no more than a part of the fcene below ; and
its boundary is often inadequate to its greatnefs. To
continue it, therefore, till it winds out of fight, or
lofes ilfelf in the horizon, is generally defirable : but
then the varieties of its furface grow confufed as it re¬
tires ; while thofe of a hanging wood are all diftindt;
the furtheft parts are held up to the eye ; and none
are at a diftance, though the whole be extenfive.
The varieties of a furface are effential to the beau¬
ty of it: a continued fmooth fhaven level of foliage
is neither agreeable nor natural; the different growths
of trees commonly break it in reality, and their fha-
dows ftill more in appearance. Thefe fhades are fo
many tints, which, undulating about the furface, are
its greateft embellifhment; and fuch tints may be pro¬
duced with more effedt, and more certainty, by a ju¬
dicious mixture of greens; at the fame time an addi¬
tional variety may be introduced, by grouping and
contrafting trees very different in (hape from each o-
ther: and whether variety in the greens or in the
forms be the defign, the execution is often eafy, and
feldom to a certain degree impoffible. In railing a
young wood, it may be perfedt. In old woods, there
are many fpots which may be either thinned or thick¬
ened : and there the charadteriftic diftindlions fltould
determine what to plant, or which to leave ; at the leaft
will often point out thofe which, as blemilhes, ought
to be taken away ; and the removal of two or three
trees will fometimes accomplifti the defign. The num¬
ber of beautiful forms, and agreeable mafles, which
may decorate the furface, is fo great, that where the
place will not admit of one, another is always ready;
and as no delicacy of finifhing is required, no minute
exadnefs is worth regarding, great effedts will not be
difconcerted by fmall obftrudions and little difap-
pointments..
The contrafts, however, of maffes and of groupes
muft not be too ftrong, where greatnefs is the charac¬
ter
3*88
Seftion II. ter of the wood ; for unity is eflential to greatnefs :
^yooP' and if direft oppofites be placed clofe together, the
wood is no longer one objeft ; it is only a confued col-
Jedtion of feveial feparate plantations. But if the pro-
grefs be gradual from the one to the other, fhapes and
tints widely different may affemble on the fame fur-
face ; and each fhould occupy a confiderable fpace : a
Angle tree, or a fmall duller of trees, in the midft of
an extenfive wood, is in fize but a fpeck, and in co¬
lour but a fpot; the groupes and the maffes mull be
large to produce any fenfible variety.
Yet Angle trees in the midft of a wood, though fel-
dom of ufe to diverfify a furface, often deferve parti¬
cular regard as individuals, and are important to the
greatnefs of the whole. The fuperftcies of a fhrubby
thicket, how extenfive foever, does not convey the
fame ideas of magniAcence, as that of a hanging
wood : and yet, at Arft Aght, the difference is not al¬
ways very difcernible. It often requires time to coi¬
led the feveral circumftances in the latter, which fug-
geft the elevation to which that broad expanfe of fo¬
liage is raifed, the vaftnefs of the trunks which fup-
port it fo high, the extent of the branches which
fpread it fo far. When thefe circumftances, all of
grandeur, crowd together upon the mind, they digni¬
fy the fpace ; which, without them, might, indifferent¬
ly, be the fuperficies of a thicket or the furface of a
wood: but a few large trees, not eminent above all a-
bout them, but diftinguifhed by fome flight fepara-
tion, and obvious at a glance, immediately refolve the
doubt. They are noble obje&s in themfelves ; be¬
come the Atuation ; and ferve as a meafure to the reft.
On the fame principle, trees which are thin of boughs
and of leaves, thofe whofe branches tend upwards,
or whofe heads rife in flender cones, have an appear¬
ance more of airinefs than of importance; and are
blemifhes in a wood, where greatnefs is the prevailing
idea. Thofe, on the contrary, whofe branches hang
diredly down, have a breadth of head, which fuits
with fnch a fttuation, though their own peculiar beau¬
ty be loft in it.
Thefe decorations are natural graces, which never
derogate from greatnefs; and a number of (hades play¬
ing on the furface, over a variety of thofe beautiful
forms into which it maybe call, enliven that famenefs,
which, while it prevails, reduces the merit of one of
the nobleft obje&s in nature to that of mere fpace. To
All that fpace with objedls of beauty, to delight the
eye after it has been ftruck, to Ax the attention where
it has been caught, and to prolong aftonifhment into
admiration, are purpofes not unworthy of the greateft
deAgns; and, in the execution, produftive of embellifh-
ments, which in ftyle are not unequal to fcenes of rich-
nefs and magniAcence.
--> When, in a romantic Atuation, very broken ground
Of the fur- ;s overfpread with wood, it may be proper, on the fur-
rnandcVnd ^ace l*ie w00^» t0 mar^ t^e inequalities of the
of*"thin ground. Rudetiefs, not greatnefs, is the prevailing
wood. idea; and a choice diredly the reverfe of that which
is produftive of unity, will produce it. Strong con-
trafts, even oppoAtions, may be eligible; the aim is
rather to disjoint than to connedl: a deep hollow may
Ank into dark greens; an abrupt bank may be (hewn
by a riAng ftage of afpiring trees, a (harp ridge by a
Barrow line of conical fliapes; flrs are of great ufc
Part I.
upon fuch occaflons ; their tint, their form, their fin* Seflion II*
gnlarity, recommend them. Woqp. .
A hanging ’ivood of thin foref-tress, and feen frorii
below, is feldom pleafing : thofe few trees, are by the
perfpe&ive brought nearer together; it lofes the beauty
of a thin wood, and is defective as a thick one : the
moft obvious improvement, therefore, is to thicken it.
But, when feen from an eminence, a thin wood is often
a lively and elegant circumftance in a view; it is full
of obje&s; and every feparate tree (hews its beauty.
To increafe that vivacity, which is the peculiar excel¬
lence of a thin wood, the trees fhould be charaderifti-
cally diftinguifhed both in their tints and their fhapes ;
and fuch as for their airinefs have been profcribed in a
thick wood, are frequently the moft eligible here.
Differences alfo in their growths are a further fource
of variety; each fhould be confidered as a diftindl ob-
je£t, unlefs where a fmall number are grouped toge¬
ther; and then all that compofe the little clufter muft
agree: but the groupes themfelves, for the fame reafon
as the feparate trees, fhould be -ftrongly contrafted;
the continued underwood is their only conneftion, and
that is not affedled by their variety.
Though the furface of a wood, when commanded, j,
deferves all thefe attentions, yet the outline more fre- Of the outfi
quently calls for our regard: it is alfo more in our line of a 1
power; it may fometimes be great, and may always woo^• j
be beautiful. The Arft requifite is irregularity. That
a mixture of trees and underwood fhould form a long
ftraight line, can never be natural; and a fucceffion of
eafy fweeps and gentle rounds, each a portion of a |
greater or lefs circle, compoAng all together a line
literally ferpentine, is, if poflible, worfe. It is but
a number of regularities put together in a diforderly
manner, and equally diftant from the beautiful both
of art and of nature. The true beauty of an outline
confifts more in breaks than in fweeps; rather in angles
than in rounds ; in variety, not in fucceflion.
The outline of a wood is a continued line, and fmall
variations do not fave it from the infipidity of fame¬
nefs : one deep recefs, one bold prominence, has more f
effedt than twenty little irregularities That one di¬
vides the line into parts, but no breach is thereby made
in its unity ; a continuation of wood always remains;
the form of it only is altered, and the extent is in-
creafed. The eye, which hurries to the extremity of
whatever is uniform, delights to trace a varied line
through all its intricacies, to paufe from ftage to ftage,
and to lengthen the progrefs. The parts muft; not,
however, on that account be multiplied till they are
too minute to be interefting, and fo numerous as to
create confufion. A few large parts fhould be ftrongly
diftinguifhed in their forms, their direftions, and their
Atuations; each of thefe may afterwards be decorated
with fubordinate varieties; and the mere growth of
the plants will occafton fome irregularity; on many
occaAons, more will not be required.
Every variety in the outline of a wood muft be a
prominence, or a recefs. Breadth in either is not fo
important as length to the one, and depth to the other.
If the former ends in an angle, the latter diminifhes to
a point; they have more force than a (hallow dent, or
a dwarf excrefcence, how wide foever. They are
greater deviations from the continued line which they
are intended to break; and their effeift is to enlarge
the
GARDENING.
Part I,
Scftion U.
Wood.
GARDENING.
3lS9
the wood ItfeH’, which feetns to ttretch from the moft
advanced point, back beyond the moft diftant to which
it retire?. The extent of a large wood on a fiat, not
commanded, can by no circumftance be fo manifeftly
ftiewn, as by a deep recefs ; efpecialiy if that recefs
wind fo as to conceal the extremity, and leave the ima¬
gination to purfue it. On the other hand, the poverty
of a {hallow wood might fometimes be relieved by here
and there a prominence, or clumps, which by their ap¬
parent junftioo ftrould feem to be prominences from it.
A deeper wood with a continued outline, except when
Commanded, would not appear fo confiderable.
An inlet into a wood feems to have been cut, if the
oppofite points of the entrance tally; and that (how of
art depreciates its merit; but a difference- only in the
fttuation of thofe points, by bringing one more forward
than the other, prevents the appearance, though their
forms be fimilar. Other points, which diftinguifii the
great parts, ftiould in general be ftrongly marked: a
fhort turn has more fpirit in it than a tedious circuity ;
end a line broken by angles has a precifion and firm-
nefs, which in an undulated line are wanting: the
angles {houid indeed commonly be a little foftened;
the rotundity of the plant which forms them is fome¬
times fufficient for the purpofe ; but if they are mel¬
lowed down too much, they lofe all meaning. Three
or four large parts thus boldly diftinguiflied, will break
a very long outline; more may be, and often ought to
be, thrown in, but feldom are neceffary: and when
two woods are oppofed on the fides of a narrow glade,
neither has fo much occafion for variety in itfelf as if
it were Angle j if they are very different from each
other, the contraft fupplies the deficiency to each, and
the interval between them is full of variety. The form
of that interval is indeed of as much confequence as
their own: though the outlines of both the woods be
feparately beautiful, yet if together they do not caft
the open fpace into an agreeable figure, the whole
ffcene is not plcafing j and a figure is never agreeable,
when the fides too clofely correfpond; whether they
are exaftly the fame, or exactly the reverfe of each
other, they equally appear artificial.
Every variety of outline hitherto mentioned, may
be traced by the underwood alone; but frequently the
fame effects may be produced with more eafe, and
with much more beauty, by a few trees {landing out
from the thicket, and belonging, or feeming to belong,
to the wood, fo as to make a part of its figure. Even
where they are not wanted for that purpofe, detached
trees ate fuch agreeable objefts, fo diftinSt, fo light,
when compared to the covert about them, that {kitt¬
ing along it in fame parts, and breaking it in others,
they give an unaffe&ed grace, which can no otherwife
be given to the outline. They have a ftill further
effeft, when they ftrctch acrofs the whole breadth of
an inlet, or before part of a recefs into the wood;
they are themfelye* (hewn to advantage by the fpace
behind them, and that fpace, feen between their ftems,
they in return throw into an agreeable perfpeftive.
An inferior grace of the fame kind may be often in¬
troduced, only by diftinguiihing the boles of fome
trees in the wood itfelf, and keeping down the thicket
beneath them. Where even this cannot be well exe*
cuted, ftiU the outline may be filled with fuch trees
and fiirubs as (well out in the middle of their growth,
Vqu V.
and diminifti at both ends; or witli fuch as rifeJn a S eft ion if.
{lender cone; with thofe whofe branches tend up- WooD-
wards; or whofe bafe is very fmall in proportion to
their height; or which are very thin of boughs and
of leaves. In a confined garden-feene, which wants
room for the effett of detached trees, the outline will
be heavy, if thefe little attentions are difregarded. «
The prevailing charadter of a wood is generally Sllrfacc ai!|!
grandeur : the principal attention therefore which it omline ot *
requires, is to prevent the excefles of that charadter,-srove’
to diverfify the uniformity,of its extent, to lighten the
unwiddinefs of its bulk, a"hd to blend graces with
greatnefs. But the charadter of a grove is beauty.
Fine trees are lovely objedts: a grove is an affemblage
of them ; in which every individual retains much of
its own peculiar elegance, and whatever it lofes
is transferred to the fuperior beauty of the whole. To
a grove, therefore, which admits of endlefs variety in
the difpofition of the trees, differences in their ihapes
and their greens are feldom very important, and fome¬
times they are detrimental. Strong contrafts fcatter
trees which are thinly planted, and which have not
the connection of underwood ; they no longer form
one plantation ; they are a number of fingle trees. A
thick grove is not indeed expofed to this mifehief,
and certain fituations may recommend different ftiapes
and different greens for their effedts upon the furface;
but in the outline they are feldom much regarded.
The eye attradted into the depth of the grove, paffe*
by little circumftances at the entrance ; even varieties
in the form of the line do not always engage the at¬
tention : they are not fo apparent as in a continued
thicket, and are fcarcely feen if they are not confi¬
derable.
But the furface and the outline are not the only cir- The inte»
cumftances to be attended to. Though a grove be r‘or ot ^
beautiful as an objedt, it is befides delightful as a fpot 8rovs*
to walk or to fit in ; and the choice and the difpofition
of the trees for effedts nuithin, are therefore a principal
confideration. Mere irregularity alone will not pleafe:
ftridt order is there more agreeable than abfolute con-
fufion; and fome meaning better than none, A regu¬
lar plantation has a degree of beauty; but it gives no
fatisfadtion; becaufe we know that the fame number of
trees might be more beautifully arranged. A difpofi¬
tion, however, in which the lines only are broken,
without varying the diftances, is lefs natural than any;
for though we cannot find ftraight lines in a foreft, we
are habituated to them in the hedge-rows of fields: but
neither in wild nor in cultivated nature do wc ever fee
trees equi-diftant from each other: that regularity be¬
longs to art alone. The diftances, therefore, {houid be
ftrikingly different: the trees {houid gather into
groupes, or {land in various irregular lines, and de-
feribe feveral figures: the intervals between them {houid
be contrafted both in fiiapeand in dimenfions: a large
fpace {houid in fome places be quite open; in others
the trees Ihould be fo dofe together, as hardly to leave
a pafiage between them ; and in others as far apart as
the connedtion will allow. In the forms and the va- 24
rictiesof thefe groupes, thefe lines, and thefe openings,
principally confifts the interior beanty of a grove. at c'ure-
The force of them is moft ftrongly illuftrated at m int, (near
Claremont; where the walk to the cottage, though de- Ether in
ftitute of many natural advantages, and eminent forSurry•)
t8 I none;
3190 CARD
Section U. none; though it commands no profpeft ; though the
Wood. water below it is a trifling pond ; though it has no¬
thing, in (hort, but inequality of ground to recom¬
mend it; is yet the fineft part of the garden : for a
grove is there planted in a gently curved direftion, all
along the. fide of a hill, and on the edge of a wood,
which rifes above itv Large recefles break it into fe-
veral clumps, which hang down the declivity; fome of
them approaching, but none reaching quite to the bot¬
tom. Thefe recefles are fo deep as to form great open¬
ings in the midft of the grove; they penetrate almoft
to the covert: but the clumps being all equally fuf-
pended from the wood ; and a line of open plantation,
though fometimes narrow, running conftantly along the
top; a continuation of grove is preferved, and the con¬
nexion between the parts is never broken. Even a
groupe, which near one of the extremities ftands out
quite detached, is ftill in ftyle fo fimilar to the reft, as
»iot to lofe all relation. Each of thefe clumps is .com-
pofed of feveral others ftill more intimately united :
each is full of groupes, fometimes of no more than two
trees, fometimes of four or five, and now and then in
larger clufters: an irregular waving line, ifluing from
fome little crowd, lofes itfelf in the next; or a few fcat-
tered trees drop in a more diftant fucceflion from the
one to the other. The intervals, winding here like a
gktde, and widening there into broader openings, dif¬
fer in extent, in figure, and direXion ; but all the
groupes, the lines, and the intervals, are colleXed to¬
gether into large general clumps, each of which is at
the fame time both compaX and free, identical and va¬
rious. The whole is a place wherein to tarry with fe-
aS cure delight, or faunter with perpetual amufement.
Fih'VC \l r^e Srove at Lflier-place was planted by the fame
(contiguous mafterly hand; but the necefiity of accommodating the
to.eiare- young plantation to fome large trees which grew there
mont.; before, baa confined its variety. The groupes are few
and fmall; there was not room for larger or for more:
there were no opportunities to form continued narrow
glades between oppofite lines ; the vacant fpaces are
therefore chiefly irregular openings fpreading every
way, and great differences of dittance between the trees
are the principal variety ; but the grove winds along
the bank of a large river, on the fide and at the foot
ef a very hidden afeent, the upper part of which is co¬
vered with wood. In one place, it preffes clofe to the
covert; retires from it in another; and ftretches in a
third acrofs a bold recefs, which runs up high into the
thicket. The trees fometimes overfpread the flat be¬
low ; fometimes leave an open fpace to the river; at
other times crown the-brow of a large knole, climb up
a fteep, or hang on a gentle declivity. Thefe varieties
i-n the fituation more than compenfate for the want of
variety in the difpofition of the trees; and the many
happy circumftances which concur
 In Ether’s peaceful grove.
Where Kent and nature vie for Pelham’s love,
render this little fpot more agreeable than any at Gare-
mont. But though it was right to preferve the trees
already Handing, and not to facrifice great prefent
beauties to ftill greater in futurity; yet this attention
has been a reftraint; and the grove at Garemont, con-
fidered merely as a plantation, is in delicacy of tafte,
and fertility of invention, fuperior to that at Eflier.
Both were early effays in.the modern art of garden-
E N I N G. Parti.
ing: and, perhaps from an eagernefs to (hew the ef* Sc&ion I!it
feX, the trees in both were placed too near together : Woop.||]
though they are ftill far fhort of their growth, they
are run up into poles, and the groves are already paft
their prime; but the temptation to plant for fuch a
purpofe no longer exifts, now that experience has ju-
ttified the experiment. If, however, we ftill have not
patience to wait, it is pofifble to fecure both a prefent
and a future effeX, by fixing firft on a difpofition which
will be beautiful when the trees are large, and then in¬
termingling another which is agreeable while they are
fmall. Thefe occafional trees are hereafter to be ta¬
ken away; and muft be removed in time, before they
become prejudicial to the others.
The confequence of variety in the difpofition, is va¬
riety in the light and fliade of the grove; which may
be improved by the choice of the trees. Some are im~
impenetrable to the fierceft fun-beam; others let in
here and there a ray between the large maffes of their
foliage; and others, thin both of boughs and of leaves,
only chequer the ground. Every degree of light and
fliade, from a glare to obfeurity, may be managed,
partly by the number, and partly by the texture, of the
trees. Differences only in the manner of their growths
have alfo correfponding effeXs: there is a clofenefs
under thofe whofe branches defeend low, and fpread
wide; a fpace and liberty where the arch above is high ;
and frequent tranfuions from the one to the' other are
very pleafing. Thefe ftill are not all the varieties of
which the interior of a grove is capable: trees indeed,
whofe branches nearly reach the ground, being each a
fort of thicket, are inconfiftent with an open planta¬
tion : but though fome of the charaXeriftic diftinXions
are thereby excluded, other varieties more minute fuc-
ceed in their place; for the freedom of paffage through¬
out brings every tree in its turn near to the eye, and
fubjeXs even differences in foliage to obfervation.
Thefe, flight as they may feem, are agreeable when
they occur : it is true, they are not regretted when
wanting; but a defeX of ornament is not neceffarily a
blemiftr. 1(J |
It has been already obferved, that clumps differ only Of the I
in extent from woods, if they are clofeor from groves, f ’rn'ls !
if they are open r they are fmali'woods, and fmall groves, clumPs* -|
governed by the fame principles as the larger, after al¬
lowances made for their dimenfions. But befides the
properties they may have in common with woods or
with groves, they have others peculiar to themfelves,
which require examination.
They are either independent or relative: when inde¬
pendent, their beauty, as fingte objeXs, is folely to be
attended to ; when relative, the beauty of the indivi¬
duals muff be facrificed to the effeX of the whole, which . 1
is the greater confideration.
The leaft clump that can be, is of two trees; and
the beft effeX they can have is, that their heads united
fhould appear one large tree: two therefore of different
fpecies, or feven or eight of fueh fliapes as do not eafily
join, can hardly be a beautiful groupe, efpecially if it
have a tendency to a circular form. Such clumps of
firs, though very common, are feldom pleafing; they
do not compofe one mafs, but are only a confufed num¬
ber of pinnacles. The confufion is however avoided, by
placing them in fuccefixon, not in clufters; and a clump
of fuch. trees is therefore more.agreeable when it is ex-
teadedi
Parti. CARD
ge£Hon II. tended rather in length than in breadth.
WooD- Three trees together muft form either a right line,
or a triangle: to difguife the regularity, the diftances
fhould be very different. Diftin&ions in their (hapes
contribute alfo to the fame end} and a variety in their
growths ftill more. When a ftraight line confifts of
two trees nearly fimilar, and of a third much lower than
they are, the even direction in which they Hand is hard¬
ly difcernible.
If humbler growths at the extremity can difcompofe
the ftri&cft regularity, the ufe of them is thereby re¬
commended upon other occafions. It is indeed the va¬
riety peculiarly proper for clumps: every apparent ar-
tidce affe&i'ng the objects of nature, difgufts; and
clumps are fuch diftinguilhed objects, fo liable to the
fufpicion of having been left or placed on purpofe to
be fo diftingudhed, that, to divert the attention from
thefe fymptoms of art, irregularity in the compofition
is more important to them than to a wood or to a grove :
being alfo lefs extenfive, they do not admit fo much
variety of outline: but variety of growths is mod ob-
fervable in a fmall compafs; and the feveral gradations
may often be caff into beautiful figures.
■ The extent and the outline of a wood or a grove en¬
gage the attention more than the extremities; but in
clumps the laft are of the mod confequence : they de¬
termine the form of the whole; and both of them are
generally in fight: great care fliould therefore be ta¬
ken to make them agreeable and different. The eafe
with which they may be compared, forbids all fimila-
rity between them : for every appearance of equality
fuggefts an idea of art; and therefore a clump as broad
as it is long, feems lefs the work of nature than one
which ftretches into length.
Another peculiarity of clumps, is the facility with
which they admit a mixture of trees and of Ihrubs, of
wood and of grove; in (hort, of every fpecies of plan¬
tation. None are more beautiful than thofe which are
fo compofed. Such compofitions are, however, more
proper in compaft than in draggling clumps: they are
molt agreeable when they form one mafs: if the tran-
fitions from very lofty to very humble growths, from
thicket to open plantations, be frequent and fudden,
th£ diforder is mure foiled to rude than to elegant
aT fcen.es.
tffes and fi- The occafions on which independent clumps may be
tuations of applied, are many. They are often defirable as beau-
*,e?,epcn ttf'd objedts in themfelves; they are fometimes necef-
elumps fary t0 break an extent of lawn, or a continued line,
whether of ground or of plantation ; but on all occa¬
fions a jealoufy of art cpnftantly attends them, which
irregularity in their figure will not always alone re¬
move. Though elevations Ihew them to advantage,
yet a hillock evidently thrown up on purpofe to be
crowned with a clump, is artificial to a degree of dif-
gudi fome of the trees fhould therefore be planted on
the fides, to take off that appearance. The fame ex¬
pedient may be applied to clumps placed on the brow
of a hill, to interrupt its famenefs: they-will have lefs
oftentation of defign, if they are in part carried down
either declivity. The objetfion already made to plant¬
ing many along foch a brow, is on the fame principle:
a lingle clump is lefs fofpedted of art; if it be an open
one, there can be no finer fituation for it, than juft at
the point of an abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a
E N I N G. 3191
lake or a river. It is in either a beautiful termination, Seclion II.
diftindt by its pofition, and enlivened by an expanfe of W°op-
Iky or of water about and beyond it. Such advan¬
tages may balance little defedts in its form: but they
are loft if other clumps are planted near it; art then
intrudes, and the whole is difpleafing. 28
Bur though a multiplicity of clumps, when each *s
an independent objedt, feldom feems natural; yet a arciat;0n to
number of them may, without any appearance of art, ca;h other,
be admitted into the fame fcene, if they bear a rela¬
tion to each other: if by their foccellion they diverfify
a continued outline of wood, if between them they
form beautiful glades, if all together they caft an ex-
tenfive lawn into an agreeable ftiape, the effeft prevents
any fcrutiny into the means of producing it. But when
the reliance on that effedt is fo great, every other con-
fideration muft give way to the beauty of the whole.
The figure of the glade, of the lawn, or of the wood,
are principally to be attended to: the fineft clumps, if
they do not fall eafily into the great lines, are blemifti-
es; their connedions, their contrafts, are more import¬
ant than their forms.
A line of clumps, if the intervals be clofed by other*
beyond them, has the appearance of a wood, or of a
grove; and in one refpedt the femblance has an advan¬
tage over the reality. In different points of view, the
relations between the clumps are changed, and a va¬
riety of forms is produced, which no continued wood
or grove, however broken, can furnifh. Thefe forms
cannot all be equally agreeable; and too anxious a fo-
licitude to make them every where pleafing, may, per¬
haps, prevent their being ever beautiful. The effedk
muft often be left to chance; but it ftiould be ftudioufly
confolted from a few principal points of view; and it
is eafy to make any recefs, any prominence, any figure
in the outline, by clumps thus advancing before, or re¬
tiring behind one another.
But amidft all the advantages attendant on this fpe¬
cies of plantation, it is often exceptionable when com¬
manded from a neighbouring eminence: clumps below
the eye lofe fome of their principal beauties, and a
number of them betray the art of which they are al¬
ways liable to be fofpeded ; they compofe no forface
of wood, and all effeds arifing from the relations be¬
tween them are entirely loft. A profped fpotted with
many clumps can hardly be great: unlefs they are fo
diftind as to be objeds, or fo diftant as to unite into
one mafs, they are feldom an improvement of a view.
The proper fituations for fingle trees are frequently Of fingle
the fame as for clumps: the: choice will often be deter- trees,
mined, folely by the confideration of proportion be¬
tween the objed, and the fpot it is intended to occupy-;
and if the defired effed can be attained by a fingle tree,
the fimplicity of the means recommends it. Sometimes
it will be preferred merely for variety ; and may be
ufed co mark one point in a fcene in which two or three
points are alreadydiftinguifhed by clumps. It may oc-
cafioually be applied to moft of the purpofes for which
dumps are ufed; may be an independent objed ; may
interrupt a continued line, or decorate an extent of
fpace. There is but one effed refolting from clumps
which may not to a certain degree be produced by
fingle trees: a number of them will never unite into
one large mafs; but more diftant relations may be ob-
fomd between them. Scattered about ,a lawn, they
18 I 2 may
3192
GARDE
Sc<aion III. may cad it into an agreeable fliape; and to produce
Watkr. t]iat Hiape, each mud be placed with an attention to
, — re^ . may ftan(l in particular directions, and
collectively form agreeable figures; or between fe-
veral draggling trees little glades may open, full of
variety and beauty. The lines they trace are fainter
than thofe which larger plantations defcri.be; but then
their forms are their own: they are therefore abfolutely
free from all appearance of art; any difpolition of them,
if it be but irregular, is fure to be natural.
The fituations of fingle trees is the fird confidera-
and differences in the dillances between them
their greated variety. In (hape, they admit of no
choice but that which their fpecies affords: greatnefs
often, beauty often, fometimes mere folidity, and now
and then peculiarity alone, recommends them. Their
fituations will alfo frequently determine the fpecies. If
they are placed before a continued line of wood only to
break it, they fhould commonly be iimilar to the trees
in that wood; they will elfe.lofe their.connexion, and
not affeft the outline which they are intended to vary:
but if they are dtfigned to be independent objefls,
they are as fuch more difcernible when didinguifhed,
both in their diapes and their greens, from any planta¬
tions about them. After all, the choice, efpecially in
large feenes, is much confined to the trees on the fpot.
Young clumps from the fird have fome, and foon pro¬
duce a confiderable effedl: but a young fingle tree for
many years has none at all: and it is often more judi¬
cious to preferve one already growing, though not ex-
a&ly fuch as might be widied, either in itfelf, or in its
fituation, than to plant in its dead another, which may
be a finer objeft, and better placed, in a dillant futu¬
rity.
3Q Sect. III. Of Water.
Effects and jN COnfidering the fubjefts of gardening, ground
water * ° an<^ wo°^ prefent themfelves: water is the next;
which, though not abfolutely neceffary to a beautiful
compofition, yet occurs fo often, and is fo capital a
feature, that it is always regretted-when wanting; and
no large place can be fuppofed, a little fpot can hardly
be imagined, in which it may not be agreeable. It ac¬
commodates itfelf to every fituation ; is the mod inte-
reding objeft in a landfcape, and the happied circum-
ftance in a retired recefs ; captivates the eye at a di¬
dance, invites approach, and is delightful when near :
it refrefhes an open expofure; it animates a diade ;
cheers the drearinefs of a wade, and enriches the mod
crowded view. In form, in dyle, and in extent, it may
be made equal to the greated compofitions, or adap¬
ted to the lead: it may fpread in a calm expanfe to
foothe the tranquillity of a peaceful feene; or, hurrying
along a devious courfe, add fplendor to a gay, and ex¬
travagance to a romantic, fituation. So various are
the chara&ers which water can affume, that there is
fcarcely an idea in which it may not concur, or an im-
preflion which it cannot enforce. A deep dagnated
pool, dank and dark with diades which it dimly refle&s,
befits the feat of melancholy ; even a river, if it be funk
between two aifmal banks, and dull both in motion and
colour, is like a hollow eye, which deadens the coun¬
tenance; and over a fluggard, filent.dream, creeping
heavily along all together, a gloom hangs, which no art
can diffipate, nor even the funlhine difperfe. A gently
N I N G. Part I.
murmuring rill, clear and (hallow, juft gurgi*ng> juft Se£tion
dimpling, impofes filence, fuits with folitude, and Water.| j
leads to meditation : a brilker current, which wan¬
tons in little eddies over a bright fandy bottom, or
babbles among pebbles, fpreads cheerfulnefs all a-
round : a greater rapidity, and more agitation, to a
certaiu degree are animating ; but in excefs, inftead of
wakening, they alarm the fenfes : the roar and the
rage of a torrent, its force, its violence, its impetuq-
fity, tend to infpire terror; that terror which, whe¬
ther, as caufe or effeft, is fo nearly allied to fublimity.
Abdrafted, however, from all thefe ideas, from
every fenfation, either of depreffion, compofure, or
exertion ; and confidering water merely as an object;
no other is fo apt foon to catch, and long to fix, the at-
tion. But it may want beauties of which we know it
is capable, or the marks may be confufed by which
we didinguifli its fpecies; and thefe defe&s difpleafe:
to avoid them, the properties of each fpecies mud be
determined.
All water is either running, or Jlagnated: when dag¬
nated, it forms a lake or a pool, which differ pnly in
extent; and a pool and a pond are the fame. Running
waters are either a rivulet, a river, or a rill; and
thefe differ only in breadth: a rivulet and a brook are
fynonymous terms ; a Jlream and a current are gene¬
ral names for all.
In a garden, the water is generally-imitative. That
which in the open country wouldibe caUed a great
pond, there affumes the name, and Ihould be lhapedas
if it had the extent, of a lake ; for it is large in pro¬
portion to the other parts of the place. Though fome¬
times a real river paffes thro* a garden, yet dill but a
fmall portion of it is feen ; and more frequently the
femblance only of fuch a portion is fubdituted indead
of the reality. In either cafe, the imitation is lod,if the
chara&eriftic didinftions between a lake and a river be
not fcrupuloudy preferved. ^
The chara&eridic property of running water is/>n?-DifferencM’*!
grefs i of dagnated, is circuity: the one dretches into between a '
length, the other fpreads over fpace. But it is necef-lake an<i a
fary that the whole circumference of a lake be feen, r‘ver*
or that no bounds be fet to the profpeft of a river:
cm the contrary, the latter is never more beautiful thaft
when it is lod in a wood, or retires behind a hill from
the view : the former never appears.fo great as when its
termination is concealed ; the Jhape, not the clofe, de¬
notes the chara&er: if the oppofite diores are both
concave, they feem intended to furround, and to meet;
if they are nearly parallel, they (hew no tendency to
come together, but fugged the idea of continuation.
To make both the banks of a river in concave forms
is to fin againd this fird principle ; and yet the fault is
often committed, in order to increafe the expanfe. But
when the bold fweep of a river is thus converted into
an infignificant poo), more is lod to the imagination
in length, than is gained to the view in breadth; and,
paradoxical as the affertion may feem, it is certainly
true, that the water would appear more important
were it narrower. When one bank, therefore, re¬
tires, the other, if it does not advance, fhould, at the
lead, continue its former direftion ; or if that (hould
be convex, it may be draitened; but both mud not
together depart from the appearance of progrefs.
Particular occafions may, however, judifyafeem-
ing
Part I.
Ssaion in. ing deviation from the rule. To make room for an
.Water, ifland, it may be proper to widen the river every way :
for there the water is, in fa<3, intended to Airfound,
and to meet; while the currents on each fide preferve
the principal charafter. The fame liberty may alfo be
allowed on the influx of a.collateral ftream; and the
acceffion w'jll account for both the breadth and for the
fliape; but the licence mull here be-ufed with modera¬
tion, left the wide place become principal, and divide
the river into two ftreams, the one falling into a pool,
and the other ifluing from it. Both the. lides of a
lake may at all times retire ; but on fuch an acceffion,
the increafe Ihould be chiefly on the (hore oppofite. to:
the collateral ftrearii, that it may appear to be a real
enlargement of the lake, and not merely the mouth of
a river.
A collateral ftream ffiould, in general, keep, or
feem to keep, for fome way, to nearly the fame
breadth: if it diminilhea very faft, it muft foot) come
to an end, and has more the appearance of a creek
than df a ftream. Whether it be the one or the other,
may be matter of indifference when it fall? into a lake ;
but a creek is feJdomagreeable in a river; it diverts the
current, its waters feem ftagnated, it weakens the idea
of progrefs.
All receffes in which the current is loft, are ble-
milhes in a river. A bay is as exceptionable as a creek.
Whatever be the form, if it be a receptacle, not apaf-
fage, it is a fymptom that the water rather fpreads than
proceeds, and hurts the charaAer of the. river. But a
head-land, which only turns or contra&s the ftream,
though it make a fort of bay, is not liable to the fame
objection. Such a bay has a vent; fuch an obftruc-
tion only ftrengthens the current; they do not fuggcft
the moft dittant idea of ftagnation. It is almoftneed-
kfs to add, that in a lake, juft t heir ever fe of a river,
creeks, bays, feceffea of every kind, are always in cha-
rafter, fometimes neceftary,. and generally beautiful:
the obje&ions to them in the one, are recommenda-
31 tions of them to the other.
Of a lake. Besides the circumftances which have been men¬
tioned, and .in which a river and a lake effentially dif¬
fer ; befides thofe in which they agree, and which are
too obvious to require illuftration ; there are fome pe¬
culiar to each charafter, and which, though common
in the one, can hardly occur in the other ; at lead, not
fo often, nor to that degree, as to become fubje&s of
comparifon.
Space is effential to a lake; it may fpread to any
extent; and the mind, always pleafed to expand itfelf
on great ideas, delights even in its vaftnefs. A lake
cannot be too large as a fubjeft of defcnption or of
contemplation : but the eye receives little fatisfsttion
when it bas not a form on which to reft : the ocean
itfelf hardly atones by all its grandeur for its infinity ;
and a profpeA of it is, therefore, always moft agree¬
able, when in fome part, at no great diftance, a reach
of (hore, a promontory, or an ifland, reduces the im-
menfity into fliape.- If the moft extenfive view which
can be the objeft of vifion, muft be reftrained in order
to be pleafing ; if the nobleft ideas which the creation
can fuggeft, muft be checked in their career, before
they can be reconciled to the principles of beauty ; an
offence againft thofe principles, a tranfgreffion of that
reftraint, will not eafily be forgiven on a £ubje£t kfs
GARDENING.
than infinite : a lake whofe bounds-are ont of fight, is !
circumfcribed in reality, not in appearance ; at the
fame time that it disappoints the eye; it coniines the
imagination 5 it is but a wafte of waters, neither bite*.
r-efting nor agreeable.
A diftant flatcoaft, dimly and doubtfully feen, does-
not obviate the objection ; but it may be the means of
removing it; for elevation and diftindlnefs give an ap¬
pearance of proximity, and contraft the fpace they li¬
mit. This is the conllant effecl of a high fliore : a low
one, covered with wood, is in reality raifed ; and mark¬
ed, by buildings, becomes more confpicuous; it ac¬
quires an artificial elevation and diftindlnefs.
Thefe obfervations, though immediately relative to
very large bodies of water, are ftill applicable to imi¬
tative lakes in parks and gardens. The principles up¬
on which they are founded are equally true in both ;
and though an artificial lake cannot befuppofed, which
{hall be abfolutely, yet comparatively it may be extra¬
vagant. It may lie fbn out .of proportion to its appen¬
dages, as to feem a wafte of water; for all fize is in
fome refpedts relative1: ,if this exceeds its due dimen-
fions, and if a flatnefs iof ffiore beyond it adds ftill to
the drearinefs of the fcene, wood to raife the banks,
and objedts to diftinguiffi them, will, from the fame
caufe, produce the fame effedfs as on a larger fcale. If
the length of a piece of water be too great for its
breadth, fo.as to deftroy ail idea of circuity, the extre¬
mities {hould be confidered as too far off, and made
important, to give them proximity ; while at the feme
time the breadth may be favoured, by keeping down
the banks on the fides. On the fame principle, if the
lake be too fmall, a low ftiore will, in appearance, in¬
creafe the extent.
But it is not neceffary that the whole fcene be
bounded : if form be impreffed on a confiderable part,
the eye can, without difguft, permit a large reach to
ftretch beyond its ken ; it can even be pleafed to ob-
ferve a tremulous motion in the horizon, which {hews
that the water has not there yet attained its termina¬
tion. Still fliort of this, the extent may be kept in
uncertainty ; a hill or a wood may conceal one of the
extremities, and the country beyond it, in fuch a man¬
ner .as to leave room for the fuppofed continuation of
fo large a body, of water. Opportunities to ehoOfe
this fliape are frequent, and it is the moft perfedl of
any: the fcene is clofed, but the extent of the lake
is undermined ; a complete form is exhibited to the
eye, while a boundlefs range is left open to the ima¬
gination.
• But mere form will only give content, not delight:
that depends upon the outline, which is capable of ex*
quifite beauty; and the bays, and the creeks, and the
promontories, which are ordinary parts of that outline^
together with the accidents of ijlands, of inlets and of
outlets to rivers, are in their Ihapes and their combina¬
tions an inexhauftible fund of variety.
A ftraight line of confiderable length may find a
place in that variety ; and it is fometimes of lingular
ufe to prevent the femblance of a river in a channel
formed between iflands and the fhore. But no figure
perfeftly regular ought ever to be admitted ; it always,
feems artificial, unlefs its fize abfolutely forbid the fup-
pofition. A femi'circular bay, though the fliape be
beautiful, is not natural j and any rectilinear figure is
abfo-
3193
3e£Hoi) III.
Water.
5194
Settion XII.
Water.
t^ourfe of
river.
GARDENING.
Part I, 4
abfolutely ugly : but If one line be curved, another
may fometimes be almoft ftraght: the contrail is a-
greeable ; and to multiply the occafions of (hewing
contrails, may often be a reafon for giving feveral di-
re&ions to a creek, and more than two iides to a pro‘
rtiontory.
Bays, creeks, and pronfiontories, though extremely
beautiful, ihould not, however, be very numerous : for
a (hore broken into little points and hollows has no cer¬
tainty of outline t it is only ragged, not diverfified j
and the diftindtnefs and fimplicity of the great parts,are
hurt by the multiplicity of fubdivifions. But iilands,
though the channels between them be narrpw, do not
fo often derogate from-greatnefs: they intimate a
fpace beyond them whofe boundaries do not appear;
and remove to a diilance the fhore which is feen in per-
fpe&ive between them. Such partial interruptions of
the fight fuggeil ideas of extent to the imagination.
The inlets and the outlets of rivers have fimilar ef¬
fects i fancy purfues the courfe of the ftream far be¬
yond the view $ no limits are fixed to its excurfions.
The greateft compofition therefore of water is that
which is in part a lake, and in part a river ; which
has all the expanfe of the one) and all the continuation
of the other, each being ftrongly charafterifed to the
very point of their junflion. If that junction break in¬
to a fide of the lake, the dire&ion of the: river fhould
be oblique to the line it cuts 5 reftangular bifeftions
are in this, as in all other inftances, formal: but when
the conflux is at an angle, fo that the bank of the'ri-
ver coincides with one ihore of the lake, they fhould
both continue for fome way in the fame diredtion; a de¬
viation from that line immediately at the outlet de¬
taches the lake from the river.
a Though the windings of a river are proverbially
defcriptive of its courfe ; yet without being perpetu¬
ally wreathed, it may be natural. Nor is the character
exprefled only by the turnings. On the contrary, if
they are too frequent and fudden, the current is re¬
duced into a number of feparate pools, and the idea
of progrefs is obfcured by the difficulty of tracing it.
Length is the flrongeft fymptom of continuation :
long reaches are-, therefore, charadleriftic of a river;
and they conduce much to its beauty: each is a con-
fiderable piece of water ; and variety of beautiful
forms may be given to their outlines; but a flraight
one can very feldom be admitted : it has the appear¬
ance of a cut canal, unlefs great breadth, a bridge
acrofs it, and ftrong contrafls between the objedls on
the banks, difguife the formality. A very fmall cur¬
vature obliterates every idea of art and flagnation ;
and a greater is often mifchievous: for an excefs of de¬
viation from a ftraight towards a circular line, ffiortens
the view, weakens the idea of continuation, and tho’
not chargeable with iliffnefs, yet approaches to regu¬
larity ; whereas the line of beauty keeps at a dirtance
from every figure which a rule can determine or a
compafs defcribe.
A confiderable degree of ronndnefs is, however,
often becoming, where the flream changes its direc¬
tion : and if the turn be effedled by a (harp point of
•land on one fide, there is the more occafion for circui¬
ty on the other. The river fhould alfo be widened
tinder that other bank : for it is the nature of water
!thirs driven out of its courfe, to daffi and encroach up¬
on the oppofite fhore. Where this clrcumftance has Setfion lit
been attended to, the bend appears natural; and the
view ending in fpace, gives fcope to the imagination.
The turn, therefore, ought generally to be larger than
a right angle: if it be lefs, it c' ^ ’
t clofes immediately, and
checks the idea of progrefs. 33 |'
To further that idea is one ufe of bridges. Though Of bridge**;-
they crofsj they do'not clofe the view: the water is
feen to run through them, and is fuppofed to Continue
far beyond them : fuch a communication between the
oppofite banks implies the want of any other, and gives
both length and depth to the flream. The form of a
lake, on the contrary, intimates, that all the feveral
ffiores are, by making a certain circuit, acceffible.
Bridges, therefore, are inconfiflent with the nature of
a lake, but charafieriftic of a river: they are on that
account ufed to difguife a termination : but the decep¬
tion has been fo often pradlifed, that it no longer
deceives; and a bolder aim at the fame efftdl will now
be more fucCefsful. If the end can be turned juft out
of fight, a bridge at fome diftance raifes a belief,
while the Water beyond it removes every doubt, of the
continuation of the river : the fuppofition immediate¬
ly occurs, tfiat if a difguife had been intended, the
bridge would have been placed further back ; and the
difregard thus ffiewn to one deception, gains credit
for the other.
To givet to bridges their full effeA, the connexion
between them and the river muft be attended to : from
the want of it, the fingle wooden arch, now much in
fafhion, Teems to us generally tnifplaced. Elevated,
without occafion, fo much above, it is totally detached
from, the river : it is- often feen flraddling' in the air,
without a glimpfe of the water to account for it: and
the oftentation of ifas an ornamentaLobjedl, diverts
all that train of ideas which its nfe as a communica¬
tion might fugged. The mftfiefs of Walton bridge
cannot without affeftation be mimicked in a garden,
where the magnificent idea of including the Thames
under one arch is wanting, and where the ftrudlure
itfelf reduced to a narrow fcale retains no preten-
fions to greatnefs. Unlefs. the fituation make fuch. a
height neceflary, or the point of view be greatly
abdve it, or wood or rifing ground inftead of fky
behind it, fill up the vacancy of the arch, it feems an
effort without a caufe, forced and prepofterous.
The vulgar foot-bridge, of planks only, guarded
on one hand by a common rail, and fupported by a
few ordinary piles, is often more proper. It is perfect
as a communication, becaufe it pretends to nothing
further: it is the utmoft fimplietty of cultivated na¬
ture: and if the banks from which it ftarts be of a
moderate heigluh, its elevation preferves it from mean-
nefs. No other fpecies fo effeilually chara&erifes a
river : it feems too plain for an ornament, too obfeure
for a difguife: it muft be for ufe ; it Can be a paflage
only-: it is therefore fpoiied, if adorned; it is disfi*
gured, if only painted of any other than a dufky co¬
lour.
But being thus incapable of all decoration and im¬
portance, it is often too humble for a great, and too
fimple for an elegant, feene. A ftone bridge is general¬
ly more fuitable to either: but in this alfo, an extra¬
ordinary elevation is feldom becoming, unlefs the gran¬
deur compenfate for the diflance at which it leaves the
wate*
i
Part
Seflion II
Water
I.
I-water below1. A gentle rife, and eafy fweep, more
■ clofely preferve the relation : a certain degree of union
fhonld alfo be formed between the banks and the
bridge; that it may feem to rife out of the banks,
not barely to be impofed upon them. ' It ought not
, generally to fwell much above their level; the parapet
wall fhould be brought down near to the ground, or
end againft fome fwell; and the fize and the, unifor¬
mity of the abutments Ihould be broken by hillocks
or thickets about them : every expedient fhould be
ufed to mark the connection of the building both
with the ground from which it ftarts, and the water
which it croffes.
In wild and romantic fcenes may be introduced a
ruined Hone-bridge, of which fome arches* may be {till
Handing, and the iofs of thofe which are fallen may be
fupplied by a few planks, with a rail, thrown over the
vacancy. It is a piCturefque objeCl; it fuits the fitua-
tion ; and the antiquity of the paffage,-the care taken
to keep it Hill open though the original building is
decayed, the apparent necefiity which thence refults
for a communication, give it an impofing air of re¬
ality.
In every fcene of magnificence, in fome where ele¬
gance chiefly prevails, a bridge with a colonnade, or
other ornamental flrudlure upon it, is charaCteriitical-
ly proper, and it has a peculiarity which recortimends
it to many fituations. The colonnade is alone a perfeft
independent objeft, which may belong to feveral fpe-
cies of buildings : it may, therefore, ernbellifh a fcene
where no water is vifible: but the light mufl not be
letdown below the balufirade. If the arches appear,
this is like other bridges (hown by themfelves : they
may now and then be of. ufe to mark a continuation
of water, which would otherwife be doubtful; but in
general they only remind us of what is wanting to
the view.
In fome fituations, two or three bridges maybe ad¬
mitted into one fcene; a collateral ftream always, the
turnings of the fame Hream often, afford opportuni¬
ties to place them in feveral dire&ions; and a greater
diffindlion between -objefts is feldom required, than
that between two bridges, in conflrudlion exactly a-
like, one of which prefents the paffage over it, and
the other that under it, to the eye. Such a variety
of beautiful forms h^ve befides been invented for them,
that, in fimilar pofiti<!>ns, they may be objedls in very
different ffyles : and collateral circumflances occafion
Hill further diflin&ions. A bridge, which, by means
of a bend in the river, is backed with wood or riling
grounds, has, in the effeft, little fimilarity to one
through which nothing can be feen but the water and
the Iky : and if the accident which diltinguifhes, im¬
mediately groupes with the bridge ; if, for inflance,
a tree, or a little clufler of trees, Hand fo that the
Hems appear beneath, the heads above the arches; the
whole is but one pidlurefque objeft, which retains no
more than a diflant refemblance to abridge quitefim-
ple and unaccompanied. AmidH all this variety, two
or three may eafdy be chofen, which, in the fame
landfcape, fo far from affirnilating, will diverfify the
parts ; and, if properly difpofed, neither in a confu-
fed crowd nor in a formal fucsefiion, will not encum¬
ber the view.
A river requires-a number of accompaniments. The
GARDENING.
changes in its courfe furnifh a variety of fituations;
while the fertility, convenience, and amenity, which
attend it, account for all appearances of inhabitants
and improvement. Profufion of ornament on a fidli-
tious river, is a jufl.imitation of cultivated nature. E-
very fpecies of building, every Hile of plantation, may
abound on the banks; and whatever be their charac¬
ters, their proximity to the water is commonly the
happieH circumHance in their fituation. A luflre is
from thence diffufed on all around ; each derives an
importance from its relation to this capital feature :
thofe which are near enough to be refle&ed, immedi¬
ately belong to it ; thofe at a greater ditlance Hill
fhare in the animation of the fcene ; and objtdls total-
3*95
Settion III.
Water.
Accompa¬
niments on
the banks.
ly detached from each other, being all attraded to¬
wards the fame intereHing connexion, are united into
one compofition.
In the front of Blenheim was a deep broad valley,
which abruptly feparated the caHle from the lawn and
the plantations before it; even a direft approach could
not be made, without building a monHrous bridge o-
ver the vaH hollow: but this forced communication
was only a fubjed of raillery ; and the fcene continu¬
ed broken into two parts, abfolutely diHind from each
other. This valley has been lately flooded : it is not
filled; the bottom only is covered with water: the
fides are Hill very high ; but they are no longer the
Heeps of a chafm, they are the bold fliores of a noble
river. The fame bridge is Handing without altera¬
tion : but no extravagance remains ; the water gives
it propriety. Above it the river firfl appears, wind¬
ing from behind a fmall thick wood-, in the valley ^
and foon taking a determined courfe, it is then broad
enough to admit an ifland filled with the finefi trees:
others, correfponding to them in growth and difpofi-
tion, Hand in groupes on the banks, intermixed with
younger plantations. Immediately below the bridge,
the river fpreads into a large expanfe : the fides are
open lawn. On that furtheil from the houfe formerly
flood the palace of Htinry the Second, celebrated in
many an ancient ditty by the name of Fair Rofamond’s
Bower. A little clear fpring, which rifes there, is
by the country people Hill called Fair Rofamond’s
Well. The fpot is now marked by a fingle willow..
Near it, is a fine collateral Hream, of a beautiful form,
retaining its breadth as far as it is feen, and retiring
at lafl behind a hill from the view. The main river,
having received this accefiion, makes a gentle bend ;
then continues for a confiderable length in one wide
diredt reach ; and, juH as it difappears, throws itfelf
down a high cafcade, which is the prefent termination^
On one of the banks of this reach is the garden : the
fleeps are there diverfified with thickets and with
glades; but the covert prevails, and the top is crown¬
ed with lofty trees. On the other fide is a noble
hanging wood in the park: it was depreciated when it
funk into a hollow, and was poorly lofl in the bot¬
tom ; but it is now a rich appendage to the river, fal¬
ling down an eafy flope quite to the water’s edge,
where, without overfhadowing, it is refledted on the
furface. Another face of the feme wood borders the
collateral flream, with an outline more indented and
various; while a very large irregular clump adorns the
oppofite declivity. This clump is at a confiderable
diltance from the principal riverbut the ftream- lb
be-
Defcriptioit
of the wa¬
ter at Blen¬
heim.
,5ig6
Section III.
Water.
Of a river
Sowing
through a
wood.
GA RDENING.
belongs to, brings it down to conneft with the reft ;
and the other objefts, which were before difperfed,
are now, by the intereft of each in a relation which
is common to all, colle&ed into one illuftrious feene.
The caftle is itfelf a prodigious pile of building ;
which, with all the faults in its archite&ure, will ne¬
ver feem lefs than a truly princely habitation ; and the
confined fpot where it was placed, on the edge of an
abyfs, is converted into a proud fituation, command¬
ing a beautiful profpeft of water, and open to an ex-
tenfive lawn, adequate to the manfion, and an ent-
blem of its domain. In the midft of this lawn Hands
a column, a ftately trophy, recording the exploits of
the Duke of Marlborough, and the gratitude of Bri¬
tain. Between this pillar and the caftle is the bridge,
which now, applied to a fubjeft worthy of it, is efta-
blifhed in all the importance due to its greatnefs. The
middle arch is wider than the Rialto, but not too wide
for the occafion ; and yet this is the narroweft part of
the river: but the length of the reaches is every where
proportioned to their breadth : each of them is alone
a noble piece of water : and the laft, the fineft of all,
lofes itfelf gradually in a wood, which, on that fide,
is alfo the boundary of the lawn, and rifes into the
horizon. All is great in the front of Blenheim : but
in that vaft fpace no void appears ; fo important are
the parts, fo magnificent the obje&s. The plain is
extenfive, the valley is broad, the wood is deep. Tho*
the intervals between the buildings are large, they art?*
tilled with the grandeur which buildings of fuqh di-
menfions and fo much pomp diffufe all around them ;
and the river, in its long varied courfe, approaching to
every objeft, and touching upon every part, fpreads
its influence over the whole. Notwithftanding their
diftances from each other, they all feem to be aflem-
bled about the water, which is every where a fine ex-
panfe, whofe extremities are undetermined. In fize,
in form, and in ftyle, it is equal to the majefty of the
feene ; and is defigned in the fpirit, is executed with
the liberality, of the original donation, when this refi-
dence of a mighty monarch was beftowed by a great
people, as a munificent reward on the hero who had
deferred beft of his country.
In the compofition of this feene, the river, both as
a part itfelf, and as uniting the other parts, has a
principal lhare. But water is not loft, though it be
in fo confined or fo concealed a fpot as to enter into
no view ; it may render that fpot delightful. It is
capable of the moft exquifite beauty in its form; and
though not in fpace, may yet in difpofition have pre-
tenfions to greatnefs : for it may be divided into fe-
veral branches, which will form a clufter of iflands all
connefted together, make the whole place irriguous,
and, in the (lead of extent, fupply a quantity of water.
Such a feejueftrated feene ufuaily owes its retirement
to the trees and the thickets with which it abounds;
but in the difpofition of them, one diftinftion fhould
be conttantly attended to. A river flowing through a
wood which overfpreads one continued furface of
ground, and a river between two woods, are in very
different circumftances. In the latter cafe, the woods
are feparate; they may be contrafted in their forms
and their chara&ers, and the outline of each ftiould be
forcibly marked. In the former, no outline ought to
be difcernible ; for the river pafies between trees, not
1
I
Part II
betweeen boundaries; and though, "in the progrefs of Sefticn l
its courfe, the ftyle of the plantations may be often Wate1^ '
changed, yet on the oppofite banks a fimilarity ftiould If"
conftantly prevail, that the identity of the wood may
never be doubtful.
A river between two woods may enter into a view;
and then it muft be governed by the principles which
regulate the condudt and the accompaniments of a ri¬
ver in an open expofure. But, when it runs through a
wood, it is never to be feen in profpedt: the place is
naturally full of obftrudtions ; and a continued open¬
ing, large enough to receive a long reach, would feetn
an artificial cut. The river muft therefore neceflarily
wind more than in crofting a lawn, where the paffage
is entirely free : but its influence will never extend fo
far on the fides; the buildings muft be near the banks;
and, if numerous, will feem crowded, being all in one
track, and in fituations nearly alike. The feene, how¬
ever, does not want variety: on the contrary, none is
capable of more. The objects are not indeed fo differ¬
ent from each other as in an open view; but they are
very different, and in much greater abundance : for
this is the interior of a wood, where every tree is an
objeft, every combination of trees a variety, and no
large intervals are reqmfite to diftinguifh the feveral
difpofitions ; the grove, the thicket, or the groupes,
may prevail, and their forms and their relations may
be conftantly changed, without reftraint of fancy, or
limitation of number.
Water is fo univerfally and fo defervedly admired
in a profpeft, that the moft obvious thought in the
management of it, is to lay it as open as poftible, and
purpofely to conceal it would generally feem a fevers
felf-denial: yet fo many beauties may attend its paf.
fage through a wood, that larger portions of it might
be allowed to fuch retired feenes, than are commonly
fpared from the view, and the different parts in dif-
ferent ftyles would be fine contrails to each other. If the DefcripiU
water at Wotton were all expofed, a walk of near two ofthe
I
from the want of thofe changes of the feene, which feat’0f Mfllvi
now fupply through the whole extent a fucceflion of Grenville]
perpetual variety. That extent is fo large as to admit
of a divifion into four principal parts, all of them great
in ftyle and in dimenfions, and differing from each hamlh'iu.
other both in charadler and fituation. The two firft
are the leaft. The one is a reach of a river, about the
third of a mile in length, and of a competent breadth,
flowing through a lovely mead, open in fome places
to views of beautiful hills in the country, and adorned
in others with clumps of trees, fo large, that their
branches ftretch quite acrofs, and form a high arch
over the water. The next feems to have been once a
formal bafin, encompaffed with plantations, and the
appendages on either fide ftill retain fome traces of
regularity ; but the Ihape of the water is free from
them : the fize is about 14 acres; and out of it iffue
two broad collateral ftreams, winding towards a large
river, which they are feen to approach, and fuppoled
to join. A real jundlion is however impoflible, from
the difference of the levels; but the terminations are
fo artfully concealed, that the deception is never fuf
pedled, and when known is not eafily explained. The
river is the third great divifion of the water; a lake
into which it falls, is the fourth. Tbefe two do ac¬
tually
Parti, CARD
Sktion ill.tually join: but their charafters are dire&iy oppo-
Water. plte. fcene3 they belong to are totally diffindt;
and the tranfition from the one to the other is very
gradual: for an ifland near the conflux, dividing the
breadth, and concealing the end of the lake, mode¬
rates for fome way the fpace ; and permitting it to ex¬
pand but by degrees, raifes an idea of greatnefs, from
uncertainty accompanied with increafe. The reality
does not difappoint the expe&ation; and the ifland,
which is the point of view, is itfelf equal to the feene:
it is large, and high above the lake; the ground is ir¬
regularly broken; thickets hang on the fides ; and to¬
wards the top is placed an Tonic portico, which com-
ifeands a noble extent of water, not lefs than a mile
' in circumference, bounded on one fide with wood, and
open on the other to two Hoping lawns, the leaft of
an hundred acres, diverfified with clumps, and bor¬
dered by plantations. Yet this lake, when full in view,
and with all the importance which fpace, form, and
fituation can give, is not more interefting than the
fequeftered river, which has been mentioned as the
third great divifion of the water. It is juft within the
verge of a wood, three quarters of a mile long, every
•where broad, and its courfe is fuch as to admit ef in¬
finite variety without any confufion. The banks are
cleared of underwood; but a few thickets ftill remain,
and on one fide an impenetrable covert foon begins :
the interval is a beautiful grove of oaks, fcattereddver
a green fward of extraordinary verdure. Between thefe
trees and thefe thickets the river feerhs to glide gently
along, conftantly winding, without one (hort turn,
or one extended reach, in the whole length of the way.
This even temper in the ftream fuits the feenes through
Which it pafles; they are in general of a very fober
caft; not melancholy, but grave; never expofed to a
glare; never darkened with gloom ; nor, by ftrong
eontrafts of light and fhade, exhibiting the excefs of
cither. Undifturbed by an extent of profpefts Without,
or a multiplicity of obje&s within, they retain at all
times a mildnefs of character; which is ftill more for¬
cibly felt when the ihadows groW faint as they lengthen,
when a little ruftling of birds in the fpray, the leap¬
ing of the fifli, and the fragrancy of the woodbine,
denote the approach of evening ; while the fetting fun
Ihoots its laft gleams on a Tufcan portico, which is
clofe to the great bafin, but which from a feat near
this river is feen at a diftarice, through all the obfeu-
rity of the wood glowing on the banks, and reflefted
on the furface of the water. In another ftill more
diftinguifhed fpot is built an elegant bridge, with a
colonnade upon it, which not only adorns the place
where it ftands, but is alfo a pi&urefque objedl to an
o&agon building near the lake, where it is ftiewn in
a fingular fituation, Over-arched, encompaffed, and
backed with wood, without any appearance of the
water beneath. This building in return is alfo an
objeft from the bridge; and a Chinefe room, in a
little ifland juft by, is another : neither of them are
confiderable, and the others which are vifible are at a
diftance, but more or greater adventitious ornaments are
not required in a fpot fo rich as this in beauties pecu¬
liar to its charafter. A profufion of water pours in
from all fides round upon the view; the opening of the
lake appears; a glimpfe is caught of the large bafin ;
one of the collateral ftreams is full in fight, and the
Vol. V.
E N I N G. 3197
bridge itfelf is in the midfl of the fineft part of the Seftion nr.
river: all feem to communicate the one with the other. Water-
Though thickets often intercept, and groupes perplex,
the view, yet they never break the connettion between
the feveral pieces of water: each may ftill be traced
along large branches, or little catches; which in fome
places are over-lhadowed and dim; in others gliften
through a glade, or glimmer between the boles of
trees in a diftant perfpe&ive; and in one, where they
are quite loft to the view, fome arches of a ftone-
bridge, but partially feen among the wood, preferve
their connexion. However interrupted, however va¬
ried, they ftill appear to be parts of one whole, which
has all the intricacy of number, and the greatnefs of
unity ; the variety of a ftream, and the quantity of a
lake ; the folemnity of a wood, and the animation of
water. 37
If a large river may fometimes, a fmaller current Ofariltand
undoubtedly may often, be conduced through a wood: a nvu*et*
it feldofn adorns, it frequently disfigures a profpeft,
where its courfe is marked, not by any appearance of
water, but by a confufed line of clotted grafs, which
difagrees with the general verdure. A rivulet may,
indeed, have confideration enough for a home feene,
though it be open; but a rill is always moft agreeable
when moft retired from public view. Its chara&eriftie
excellencies are vivacity and variety, which require at¬
tention, leifure, and filence, that the eye may pore
upon the little beauties, and the ear liften to the low
murmurs of the ftream without interruption. To fuch
indulgence a confined fpot only is favourable • a clofe
copfe is, therefore, often more acceptable than a high
wood, and a fequeftered valley at all times preferable
to any open expofure: a Angle rill at a very little di¬
ftance is a mere water-courfe; it lofes all its charms;
it has no importance in itfelf, and bears no propor¬
tion to the feene. A number of little ftreams have,
indeed, an effeft in any fituation, but not as’objedts ;
they are interefting only on account of the chara&er
they exprefs, the irriguous appearance which they
give to the whole.
The full tide of a large river has more force than
aftivity, and feems too unwieldy to allow of very
quick tranfitions. But in a rill, the agility of its mo¬
tion accounts for every caprice : frequent windings
difguife its infignificance: fhort turnings /hew its vi¬
vacity : fudden changes in the breadth are a fpecies of
its variety : and however fantaftically the channel may
be wreathed, contradted, and widened, it ftill appears
to be natural. We find an amufement in tracing the
little ftream through all the intricacies of its courfe,
and in feeing it force a paflage through a narrow
ftreight, expatiate on every opportunity, ftruggle with
obftrudtions, and puzzle out its way. A rivulet,
which is the mean betwixt a river and a rill, partakes
of the charadf er of both : it is not licenfed to the ex¬
travagance of the one, nor under the fame reftraints
as the other: it may have more frequent bends than
the river ; longer reaches than a rill: the breadth of
a ftream determines whether the principal beauty re-
fults from extent or from variety.
The murmurs of a rill are amongft the moft plea-
fing circumftances which attend it. If the bed of the
ftream be rough, mere declivity will occafion a con*
ftant ripling noife: when the current drops down a
18 K de-
3 x 98 GARDE
s. ctioii Tlf. defccntj though but of a few inches, or forcibly
'.Vater. bubbles up from a little hollow, it has a deep gurgling
~~ tone, not uniformly continued, but inceflantly re¬
peated, and therefore more engaging than any. The
flatted of all, is that found rather of the fplafhing
than the fall of water, which an even gentle flope, or
a tame obftrudf ion, will produce : this is lefs pleafing
than the others ; but none fiiould be entirely excluded:
all in their turns are agreeable ; and the choice of
them is much in our power: by obferving their caufes,
we may often find the means to drengthen, to weaken,
or to change them ; and the addition or removal of a
fingle done, or a few pebbles, will fometimes be fuf-
38 ficient for the purpofe.
©fcalcades. A rill cannot pretend to any found beyond that of
a little water-fall : the roar of a cafcade belongs only
to larger dreams ; but it may be produced by a ri¬
vulet to a confiderable degree, and attempts to do
more have generallybeen unfuccefsful. Avain ambition
to imitate nature in her great extravagancies betrays
the weaknefs of art. Though a noble river, throwing
itfelf headlong down a precipice, be an objeft truly
magnificent, it mud however be confefied, that in
a fingle fheet of water there is a formality, which its
vadnefs alone can cure; but the heighth, not the
breadth, is the wonder: when it falls no more than a
few feet, the regularity prevails ; and its extent only
ferves to expofe the vanity of affe&ing the dyle of a
cataraA in an artificial cafcade. It is lefs exceptionable
if divided into feveral parts: for then each feparate
part may be wide enough for its depth ; and in the
whole, variety, not greatnefs, will be the predominant
charadler. But a drudlure of rough, large, detached
ftones, cannot eafily be contrived of drength fufficient
to fupport a great weight of water: it is fometimes
from neceflity almod fmooth and uniform ; and then
it Jofes much of its effedt: feveral little falls in fuc-
cefiion are preferable to one great cafcade which in
figure or in motion approaches to regularity.
When greatnefs is thus reduced to number, and
length becomes of more importance than breadth, a ri¬
vulet vies with a river; and it more frequently runs in
a continued declivity, which is very favourable to fuch
a fucceflion of falls. Half the expence and labour
which are fometimes bedowed on a river, to give it, at
the bed, a forced precipitancy, in one fpot only,
would animate a rivulet through the whole of its
eourfe : and, after all, the mod intereding circum-
dance in falling waters is their animation. A great caf¬
cade fills us with furprife : but all furprife mud ceafe ;
and the motion, the agitation, the rage, the froth,
and the variety of the water, are finally the objedls
which engage the attention : for thefe a rivulet is fuffi¬
cient ; and they may there be produced without that
appearance of effort which raifes a fufpicion of art.
To obviate fuch a fufpicion, it may be lometimes
expedient to begin the defcent out of fight; for the
beginning is the difficulty : if that be concealed, the
fubfequent falls feem but a confequence of the agitation
which charafterifes the water at its fird appearance ;
and the imagination is, at the fame time, let loofe to
give ideal extent to the cafcades. When a dream iffues
from a wood, foch management will have a great ef-
fedl: the bends of its courfe in an open expofure may
afford frequent opportunities for it; and fometimes a
N I N G. Parti.
low broad bridge may furnifh the occafion : a little Seftion IV.
fall hid under the arch will create a diforder ; in con- Ro<: K5, Jp
fequence of which, a greater cafcade below will ap¬
pear very natural.
Sect. IV. Of Rocks. 39
Rills, rivulets, and cafcades, abound among rocks:, c6mpan;fc
they are natural to the fcene ; and fuch fcenes com- ments of 1 l
monly require every accompaniment which can be pro- rocks. ^ |
cured for them. Mere rocks, unlefs they are peculiarly
adapted to certain impreffions, may furprife, but can
hardly pleafe : they are too far removed from common
life, too barren, and unhofpitable ; rather defolate than
folitary, and more horrid than, terrible. So audere a
charadee cannot be long engaging, if its rigour be 1
not foftened by circumdances which may belong ei¬
ther to thefe or to more cultivated fpots: and when the
drearinefs is extreme, little dreams and water-falls are
of themfelves infufficient for the purpofe ; an intermix¬
ture of vegetation is alfo neceffary, and on fome occa-
fions even marks of inhabitants are proper. DefcHption
Middleton-dale is a cleft between rocks, afcending 0f Middle-
gradually from a romantic village, till it emerges, at a- ton-dale,
bout two miles didance, on the vad moor-lands of the (nearChatf-
Peake. It is a difmal entrance to a defart : the hills a- .1
bove it are bare; the rocks are of a grey colour ; their
furfaces are rugged, and their lhapes favage; fre¬
quently terminating in craggy points, fometimes re-
fembling vad unwieldy bulwarks, or rifing in heavy
buttreffes one above another ; and here and there a
miffiappen mafs bulging out hangs lowering over its
bafe. No traces of men are to be feen, except in a
road which has no effedt on fuch a fcene of defolation,.
and in the lime-kilns condantly fmpking on the fide j
but the labourers who occafionally attend them live at
a didance ; there is not a hovel in the dale ; and fome
fcanty withering bufhes are all its vegetation : for the
foil between the rocks produces as little as they do ; it
is disfigured with all the tinges of brown and red, which
denote barrennefs ; in fome places it has.crumbled a-
way, and drata of loofe dark dones only appear; and
in others, long lines of drofs and rubbiffi dioveled out
of mines, have fallen down the deeps. In. thefe mines,
the veins of lead on one fide'of the dale, are obferved
always to have correfponding veins, in exaftly the
fame dire&ion, on the other : and the rocks, though
differing widely in different places, yet always conti¬
nue in one dyle for fome way together, and feem to
have a relation to each other. Both thefe appearances
make it probable, that Middleton-dale is a chafin rent
in the mountain by fome coavplfipn of nature, beyond
the memory of man, or perhaps before the ifland was
peopled : the fcene, though it does not prove the faft,
yetjudifies the fuppofition ; and it gives credit to the
tales of the country people, who, to aggravate its hor¬
rors, always point to a precipice, down which they
fay that a poor girl of the village threw herfelf head¬
long, in defpair, at the neglect of the man whom (he
loved j and (hew a cavern, where a flceleton was once
difcovered, but of what wretch is unknown, his bones
were the only memorial left of him. All the drearinefs
however of the place, which accords fo well with fuck
traditions, abates upon the junction of another valley,
the fides of which are dill of rock, but mixed and
crowned with fine wood ; and Middleton-dale becomes.
more
Parti. CARD
Scftion IV. more mild by {haring in its beauties: near this junc-
ERoeics. tjon a c]ear ftream iffues from under the hill, and runs
down the dale, receiving as it proceeds many rills and
fprings, all as tranfparent as itfelf. The principal rivu¬
let is full of little water-falls: they are fometimes con¬
tinued in fucceffion along a reach of confiderable
length, which is whitened with froth all the way; at
other times the brook wreathes in frequent windings,
and drops down a ftep at every turn ; or dopes between
tufts of grafs, in a bride, though not a precipitant de¬
scent ; when it is moll quiet, a thoufand dimples (till
mark its vivacity ; it is every where' a&ive, fometimes
rapid, feldom fdent, but never furious- or noify : the
firit impreffions which it makes are of fprightlinefs and
gaiety, very different from thofe which belong to the
fcene all around ; but by dwelling upon both, they
are brought nearer together; and a melancholy thought
occurs, that fuch a ftream fhould be loft in watering a
wafte; the wildernefs appears more forlorn which fo
much vivacity cannot enliven ; as the idea of defolation
is heightened by reftefting that the
Flower is born to blulh unfeen,
And wafte its fweetnefs on the defart air ;
and that
The nightingale attunes her notes,
Where none are left to hear.
If fuch a fcene occurs within the precin&s of a park
or a garden, no expence diould be fpared to meliorate
the foil, wherever any foil can be found. Without
fome vegetation among the rocks, they are only an ob-
jedf of curiofity, or a fubjedf of wonder: but verdure
alone will giv.e fome relief to the drearinefs of the
fcene ; and dirubs or bodies, without trees, are a fuf-
ficiency of wood: the thickets may alfo be extended
by the creeping plants, fuch as pyracantha, vines, and
ivy, to wind up the fides, or clufter on the tops of the
rocks. And to this vegetation may be added fome
fymptoms of inhabitants, but they muft be flight and
few: the ufe of them is only to cheer, not todeftroy,
the folitude of the place ; and fuch therefore fliould be
chofen as are fometimes found in fituations retired from
public refort; a cottage may be lonely, but it muft
not here feem ruinous and negledted; it fliould be tight
and warm, with every mark of comfort about it, to
which its pofition in fome ftieltered recefs may greatly
contribute. A cavity aifo in the rocks, rendered eafy
of uccefs, improved to a degree of convenience, and
maintained in a certain ftate of prefervation, will fug-
geft fimilar ideas of proteftion from the bittereft incle¬
mencies of the fley, and even of occafional refreflimertt
andrepofe. But we may venture ftill further : a mill is
of neceffity often built at fome diftance from the town
which it fupplies; and here it would at the fame time
apply the water to a ufe, and increafe its agitation.
The dale may befides be made the haunt of thofe ani¬
mals, fuch as goats, which are fometimes wild, and
fometimes domeftic; and which accidentally appear¬
ing, will divert the mind from the fenfations, natural
to the fcene; but not agreeable if continued long with¬
out interruption. Thefe* and fuch other expedients
will approximate the fevereft retreat to the habita-,
tions of men, and convert the appearance of a perpe'-
tual banifhment into that of a temporary retirement
from fociety.
But too ftrong a force on the nature of the place al-
E N I N G. 3199
ways fails. A winding-path, which appears to be worn, Se<ftion IV
not cut, has more effeft than a high road, all artificial Roc Kt-
and level, which is too weak to overbear, and yet con-
tradifts, the general idea. The obje&s therefore to be
introduced muft be thofe which hold a mean between
folitude and population ; and the inclination of that
choice towards either extreme, {hould be direfted by
the degree of wildnefs which prevails : for tho? that
runs fometimes to an excefs which requires correction,
at other times it wants encouragement, and at all times
it ought to be preferved : it is the predominant charac¬
ter of rocks, which mixes with every other, and to which
all the appendages muft be accommodated ; and they
may be applied fo as greatly to increafe it : a licenti¬
ous irregularity of wood and of ground, and a fantaftic
condutft of the ft reams, neither of which would be to¬
lerated in the midft of cultivation, become and improve
■romantic fpots } even buildings, partly by their ftyle,
but ftill more by their pofition, in ftrange, difficult, or
dangerous fituations, diftinguifli and aggravate the na¬
tive extravagancies of the fcene.
In the choice and the application of thefe accompa¬
niments, confifts all our power over rocks ; they are
themfelves too vaft and too ftubborn to fubmit to our
coutroul ; but by the addition or removal of appenda¬
ges, which we can command, parts may be (hewn or
concealed, and the charadters with their impreflion*
may be weakened or enforced : to adapt the accompa¬
niments accordingly, is the utmoft ambition of art
when rocks are the fubjedt.
Their moft diftinguifhed charadlers are, dignity, ter¬
ror, and fancy: the expreffions of all are conftantly
wild : and fometimes a rocky fcene is only wild, with¬
out pretenfions to any particular charadfer. 41
That which infpires ideas of greatnefs, as diftin-rocks.
guifhed from thofe of terror, has lefc wildnefs in it than
any. There is a compofure in dignity, which is difcon-
certed by quick tranfitions and the flutter of variety.
Afucceflion, therefore, of nearly the fame forms, a re¬
petition of them one above the other, do not derogate
from an effedt, which depends more on the extent
than the changes of the fcene : the dimenfions which
are neceffary to produce that effedt, contradf the room
for variety ; the parts muft be large: if the rocks are
only high, they are but ftupendous, not majeftic;
breadth fs equally effential to their greatnefs; and e-
very (lender, every grotefque (hape, is excluded.
Art may interpofe to (hew thefe large parts to the
eye, and magnify them to the imagination, by taking
away thickets which ftretch quite acrofs the rocks, fo
as to difgnife their dimenfions; or by filling with
wood the fmall intervals between them, and thus, by
concealing the want, preferving the appearance of
continuation.
When rocks retire from the eye down a gradual de¬
clivity, we can, by raifing the upper ground, deepen
the fall, lengthen the perfpedlive, and give both
height and extent to thofe at a diftance: this effedt
may be ftill increafed by covering that upper ground
with a thicket, which (hall ceafe, or be lowered, as it
defcends.
A thicket, on other occafions, makes the rocks
which rife out of it feem larger than they are. If they
(land upon a bank overfpread with (hrubs, their begin-
ing is at the lead uncertain ; and the prefumption is,
18 K 2 that
3200
GARDENING.
Part I. iV.
Seaion IV. that they flart from the bottom.
RorK,i- Another ufe of this brufhy underwood is to conceal
the fragments and rubbifh which have fallen from the
fides and the brow, and which are often unfightjy.
Rocks are feldom remarkable for the ejegan.ce of their
forms ; they are too vaft, and too rude, to pretend to
delicacy: but their fliapes are often agreeable ; and
we can affe& thofe (hapes to a certain degree, at
lead we can cover many blemifhes in them, by con-
dudting the growth of Ihrubby and creeping plants a-
bout them.
For all thefe purpofes mere underwood fuffices: but
for greater efteSs larger trees are requifite: they are
worthy of the feene; and not only improvements, but
accdfions to its grandeur : we are ufed to rank them
among the nobleft objefts of nature; and when we fee
that they cannot afpire to the midway of the heights
around them, the rocks are raifed by the comparifon,
A Angle tree is, therefore, often preferable to a clump:
the fize, though really lefs, is more remarkable: and
clumps are befides generally exceptionable in a very
wild fpot, from the fufpicion of art which attends them;
but a wood is free from that fufpicion, and its own
eharafter of greatnefs recommends it to every feene of
magnificence.
On the fame principle, all the confideration which
can be, fliould be given to the dreams. No number of
Kttle rills are equal to one broad river; and in the prin¬
cipal current, fome varieties may be facrificed tp im¬
portance : but a degree of drength diould always be
preferred: the water, though it needs not be furious,
fhould not be dull; for dignity, when mod ferene, is
not languid; and fpace will hardly atone for want of
animation.
The chara&er, however, of greatnefs, when diveded
of terror, is placid. It does not, therefore, exclude
marks of inhabitants, though it never requires them to
tame its wildnefs: and without inviting, it occafionally
admits an intermixture of vegetation. It even allows
of buildings intended only to decorate the feene: but
they mud be adequate to it, both in fize and in cha-
ra<3er. And if cultivation is introduced, that too diould
be conformable to the red : not a fingle narrow patch
cribbed out of the wade; but the confines of a coun¬
try (helving into the vale, and fuggeding the idea of
extent: nothing trivial ought to find admittance. But,
On the other hand, the charafter is not violated by a
mixture of agreeablenefs with its grandeur; and far
lefs is extravagance required to fupport it: drange
fliapes in extraordinary pofitions, enormous weights
unaccountably fudained, trees rooted in the fides, and
torrents raging at the foot of the rocks, are, at the bed,
needlefs exceffes. There is a temperance in dignity,
which is rather hurt by a wanton violence on the com¬
mon orderof nature. Great objefts alone, great in their
dimenfions and in their dyle, are amply fufficient to fa-
tisfy and to fill the mind: when thefe fail, then, and
then only, we are apt to have recourfe to wonder, in
order to excite admiration.
Defcription Many of the circumdances which have been men-
of Matlock tioned concur at Matlock Bath, which is fituated in a
Hath, (in vale near three miles long, (hut up at one end by a ri-
S' moor, and at the other end by vad cliffs of rock:
‘re’' the entrance into it is hewn through one of them, and
magnificence. One fide of the valley is a very high Setfion IV.
range pf hill, rough with bufiies, and great blocks or RocKS-.
ledges of done. The other fide is walked by the Der-
Wenf,and confids chiefly of rocks; which, however, are
pften interrupted by deep declivities of green fward,
large thickets, and gentle defeents of fine fields from the
adjacent country. The rocks fometimes form the brow,
fometimes they fix the foot, and fometimes they break
the fides, of the hill. At the high Tor they are J23
yards above the water: in other places they are no
more than an abrupt bank of a few feet to the.riyer:
for the mod part they are nearly perpendicular, falling
in feveral dages, or in one vad precipice, from the top
to the bottom. But though fimilar in (hape, they are
widely different in their conftru&ion: in one place they
are irregularly jointed, in anotherimore uniformly rib¬
bed, in a third they form a continued furface from the
fummit to the bafe, and frequently they are compofed
of enormous maffes of done heaped upon each other.
From fome fuch feene probably was conceived the wild
imagination in ancient mythology pf the giants piling
Pelion upon Offa: in this,all is vad; height, breadth,
folidity, boldnefs of idea, and unity of dyle, combine
to form a charafter of greatnefs, confident through¬
out, not uniform, unmixed with any littlenefs, unallay¬
ed with any extravagance. ' The colour of the rocks is
almod white; and their fplendour is enhanced in m^ny
places by ivy and fingle yew-trees appearing amongll
them : the intervals between them are generally filled
with a brufhy underwood, which diverfifies and embel-
lifhes the feene very beautifully, but for want of large
treee adds nothing to its grandeur ; there are few of
any note through out the vale: the bed are in a fmall
wood near the bath; but they are not adequate to the
objedts around them, to the deeps of the hill, the lofti-
nefs of the rocks, and the charadter of the Derwent.
That charadler is, indeed, rather too drong for the
place : in fize, and in the dire&ion of its cdurfe, the
river is exadlly fuch as might be wiflied; but it is a
torrent, in which force and fury prevail: the cafcades
in it are innumerable; before the water is recovered
from one fall, it is hurried down another; and its agi¬
tation being thus increafed by repeated (hocks, it
puffies on with redlefs violence to the next, where it
dalhes againd fragments of rocks, or foams among
heaps of (tones which the dream has driven together.
The colour all along is of a reddifli brown ; even the
foam is tinged with a du(ky hue: and where there are
no cafcades, dill the declivity of the bed preferves the
rapidity, and a quantity of little breakers continue the
turbulence of the current. Many of thefe circumdances
are certainly great: but a more temperate river, roll-
. ing its full tide along with drength and adlivity, with¬
out rage; falling down one noble cafcade, indead of
many; and if animated fometimes by refidance, yet
not condantly draggling with obdrudlions; would have
been more confident with the fedate deady dignity of
thefe noble piles of rock, whofe brightnefs, together
with the verdure of a vigorous and luxuriant, though
humble vegetation, and fom« appearances of culture,
give to the whole an air of cheerful ferenity, which is
didurbed by the impetuofity of the Derwent. 43
This river would be better fuited to a feene charac- Of rock*
terifed by that terror, which the combination of great-
rtpfe MTit-Vi ^ .-I fr-tji-nn . .4 T~ _ „ T   _ *  1- *C<1 DV tCT*
viiv. kwciAi, auu temtu uy uiau terror, wnicn me comDination or great-
is indeed a noble rude portal to a,feene, of romantic, nefs with force infpires* and which is animating and[^by te>
Part I.
geAinn IV interefting, from thf exertion and anxiety attending it.
&0CKS- The terrors of a feene in nature are Jike thofeof a dra¬
matic reprefen tat ion : they give an alarm; but the fen-
fations are agreeable, fo long as they are kept to fucb
as are allied only to terror, unmixed with any that are
horrible and difgulling. Art may therefore be ufed to
heighten them, to difplay the obje&s which are dittin-
guifhed by greatnefs, to improve the circumtlances
which denote force, to mark thofe which intimate dan¬
ger, and to blend with all here and there a call of
melancholy.
Greatnefs is as effential to the chara&er of terror as
to that of dignity: vaft efforts in little objefts are but
ridiculous; nor can force befupppfed upon trifles inca¬
pable of refiflance. On the other hand, it mu ft be al¬
lowed, that exertion and violence fupply fome want of
fpace. A rock wonderfully fupported, or threatening
to fall, acquires a greatnefs from its fituation, which
it has not in dimenflons; fo circumflanced, the fize ap¬
pears to be monftrous: a torrent has a confeqpence
which a placid river of equal breadth cannot pretend
to : and a tree, which would be inconfiderable in the
natural foil, becomes important when it burfts forth
from a rock.
Such circumflances fhould be always induflrioufly
fought for ; it may be worth while to cut down feve-
ral trees, in order to exhibit one apparently rooted in
the flone. By the removal perhaps of only a little
brufh-wood, the alarming difpofition of a rock, ftrange-
ly undermined, rivetted, or fufpended, may be fhewn;
and if there be any foil above its brow, fome trees
planted there, and impending over it, will make the
obje& ftill more extraordinary. As to the ftreams,
great alterations may generally be made in them: and
therefore it is of ufe to afeertain the fpecies proper to
each feene, becaufe it is in our power to enlarge or
contraA their dimenfions ; to accelerate or retard their
rapidity; to form, increafe, or take away obflxu&ions;
and always to improve, often to change, their chara&ers.
Inhabitants furnifh frequent opportunities to
ftrengthen the appearances of force, by giving intima¬
tions of danger. A houfe placed at the edge of a pre¬
pice, any building on the pinnacle of a crag, makes
that fituation feem formidable, which might otherwife
have been unnoticed: a fteep, in itfelf not very re¬
markable, becomes alarming, when a path is carried
aflant up the fide: a rail on the brow of a perpendicu¬
lar fall, fliews that the height is frequented and dange¬
rous : and a common foot-bridge thrown over a cleft
between rocks has a ftill ftronger effeft. In all thefe
inftances, the imagination immediately tranfports the
fpeiftator to the fpot, and fuggefts the idea of looking
down fuch a depth: in the laft, that depth is a ehafm,
and the fituation is dire&ly over it.
In other inftances, exertion and danger feem to at¬
tend the occupations of the inhabitants:
    Half way down
Hangs one that gathers famphire; dreadful trade!
is a circumftance chofen by the great mafterof nature,
to aggravate the terrors of the feene he deferibes.
Mines are frequent in rocky places: and they are full
*f ideas fuited to fuch occafions. To thefe may fome-
times be added the operations of engines: for machi¬
nery, efpecially when its powers are ftupendous or its
effects formidable, is an effort of art which piay be ac-
GARDENING.
5201
coinmodated to the extravagancies of nature. Section IV.
A feene at the New Weir on the Wye, which in it- Rocks.
felf is truly great and awful, fo far from being difturb- 44
ed, becomes more interelling and important, by the Hefcription
bufinefs to which it is deftined. It is a chafm between
two high ranges of hill, which rifealmoft perpendicu- caued gy.
larly from the water; the rocks on the Tides are moftly mond’s
heavy maffes, and their colour is generally brown: but Ga,e. be-
here and there a pale craggy fliape ftarts up to a vaft
height above the reft, unconne£ted, broken, and bare: mouth,
large trees frequently force out their way amongft
them: and many of them ftand far back in the covert,
where their natural dulky hue is deepened by the ftia-
dow which overhangs them. The river too, as it re¬
tires, lofes itfelf in woods, which clofe immediately a-
bove, then rife thick and high, and darken the water.
In the midft of all this gloom is an iron forge, cover¬
ed with a black cloud of fmoke, and furrounded with
half-burned ore, with coal, and with cinders: the fuel
for it is brought down a path, worn into fteps narrow
and fteep, and winding among precipices: and near it
is an open fpace of barren moor, about which are Mat¬
tered the huts of the workmen. It ftands clofe to the
cafcade of the Weir; where the agitation of the cur¬
rent is increafed by large fragments of rocks, which
have been fwept down by floods from the banks, or
Ihivered by tempefts from the brow: and the fullen
found, at ftated intervals, from the ftrpkes of the great
hammers in the forge, deadens the roar of the water¬
fall. Juft below it, while ^he rapidity of the ftreain
ftill continues, a ferry is carried acrofs it: and lower
down the filhermen ufe little round boats, called
the remains, perhaps, of the ancient Britifli navigation,
which the leaft motion will overfet, and the flighteft
touch may deftroy. All the employments of the peo¬
ple feem to require either exertion or caution: and the
ideas of force or of danger’which attend them, give to the
feene an animation unknown in a folitary, though per¬
fectly compatible with the wildeft romantic fituations.
But marks of inhabitants mnft not be carried to the
length of cultivation, which is too mild for the rug-
gednefs of the place, and has befides an air of cheer-
fulnefs inconfiftent with the character of terror: a little
inclination towards melancholy is generally acceptable,
at leaft to the exclufion of all gaiety; and beyond that
point, fo far as to throw juft a tinge of gloom upon
the feene. For this purpofe, the objeCts whofe colour
is obfeure fhould be preferred ; and thofe which are
too bright may be thrown into ftiadow 1 the wood may
be thickened, and the dark greens abound in it: if it is
neceffarily thin, yews and (habby firs fliould be fcat-
tered about it: and fometimes to fliew a withering or
a dead tree, it may for a fpace be cleared entirely a-
way. All fuch circumftances are acquifitions, if they
can be had without detriment to the principal charac¬
ter : for it muft ever be remembered, that where ter¬
ror prevails, melancholy is but a fecondary confidera-
tIon* . . . Of rock'
The different fpecies of rocks often meet in the character!-
fame place, and compofe a noble feene, which is not Rd by
diftinguiftted by any particular charafter: it is only fancy,
when one eminently prevails, that it defervfcs fuch a
preference as to exclude every other. Sometimes a
fpot, remarkable for nothing but its wildnefs, is highly
romantic; and when this wildnefs riles to fancy, when
the
3202
Section IV.
Rocks.
4«
Defcription
of Dove-
dale, (near
Afh bourne
in Derby-
ftire.)
GARDENING. Parti
the moft fingular, the mod oppofite forms and combi- they are continually eroding, advancing, and retiring: Seflion Jlo
nations are thrown together, then a mixture alfo of fe- the breadth of the valley is never the fame 40 yards to- BuiLIm!
' ' - jj- . -  1 r  i.:_u gether: at the narrow pafs which has been mentioned,
the rocks almoft meet at the top, and the fky is feen as $f
through a chink between them : juft by this gloomy |j
abyfs, is a wider opening, more light, more verdure, iP
more cheerfulnefs, than any where elfe in the dale. I!
Nor are the forms and the fituations of the rocks their
veral chara&ers adds to the number of inftances which
there concur to difplay the inexhauftible variety of na¬
ture.
So much variety, fo much fancy, are feldom found
within the fame extent as in Dovedale. It is about two
miles in length, a deep, narrow, hollow valley: both
the fides are of rock ; and the Dove in its paftage be- only variety : many of them are perforated by largi
tween them is perpetually changing its courfe, its mo- natural cavities, fome of which open to the Iky, fome
tion, and appearance. It is never lefs than ten, nor terminate in dark recefles, and through fome are to
fo much as twenty yards wide, and generally about be feen feveral more uncouth arches, and rude pillars,
four feet deep ; but tranfparent to the bottom, except all'detached, and retiring beyond each other, with the
when it is covered with a foam of the pureft white,' light fhining in between them, till a rock far behind
under water-falls which are perfectly lucid. Theft them clofes the perfpedive: the noife of the cafcades
are very numerous, but very different. In fome places in the river echoes amongft them; the water may often
they ftretch ftraight acrofs, or aflant the ftream : in be heard at the fame time gurgling near, and roaring
ethers, they are only partial; and the water either at a diftance ; but no other founds difturb the filence of
dafhes againft the (tones, and leaps over them, or, the fpot: the only'trace of men is a blind path, but
pouring along a fteep, rebounds upon thofe below; lightly and but feldoth trodden, by thofe whom curio-
fometimes it rufhes through the feveral openings be- fity leads to fee the wonders they have been told of
tween them; fometimes it drops gently down ; and at Dovedale. It feetris, indeed, a fitter haunt for more'
other times it is driven back by the obltruftion, and ideal beings: the whole has the air of enchantment,
turns into an eddy. In one particular fpot, the val- The perpetual fhifting of the feenes; the quick tranfi--
ley almoft clofing, leaves hardly a paflage for the ri- tions, the total changes; then the forms all around,
ver, which pent up, and ftruggling for a vent, rages grotefque as chance can caft, wild as nature can pro-
and roars and foams, till it has extricated itfelf from duce, and various as imagination can invent; the force
the confinement. In other parts, the ftream, though which feems to have been exerted to place fome of the
never languid, is often gentle ; flows round a little rocks where they are: now fixed immoveable, the ma-
•defart ifland, glides between bits of bulrufhes, dif- gic by which others appear ftill to be fufpended; the
perfes Itfdf among tufts of grafs or of mofs, bubbles dark caverns, the illuminated recefies, the fleeting ,
about a water-dock, or plays with the flender threads fhadows, and the gleams of light glancing on the
of aquatic plants which float upon the furface. The fides, or trembling on the ftream ; and the lonelinefs
rocks all along the dale vary as often in their ftrufture, and the ftillnefs of the place, all crowding together
as the ftream in its motion. In one place, an extended on the mind, almoft realize the ideas which naturalljr
furface gradually diminifhes from a broad bafe almoft to prefent themfelves in this region of romance and of
an edge ; in another, a heavy top hanging forwards, fancy.
overfhadows all beneath: fometimes many different The-folitude of fuch a feene is agreeable, on ac-
fhapes are confufedly tumbled together; and fome- count of the endlefs entertainment which its variety
times they are broken into (lender (harp pinnacles, affords, and in the contemplation of w'hich both the eye
which rife upright, often two or three together, and and the mind are delighted to indulge: marks of inha-
often in more numerous cinders. On this fide of the bitants and cultivation yould difturb that folitude ; and
dale, they are unniverfally bare ; on,the other, they are ornamental buildings are too artificial in a place foab-
iniermixed with wood; and the vaft height of both the folutely free from reftraint. The only accompaniments
fides, with the narrownefs of the interval between proper for it are wood and water; and by thefe fome-
them, produces a further variety: for whenever the times improvements may be made. When two rocks
fun ftiines from behind the one, the form of it is di- fimilar in fhape and pofition are near together, by
ftin&ly and completely caft upon the other; the rug- fkirting one of them with wood, while the other is
ged furface on which it falls diverfifies the tints ; and left bare, a material diftin&ion is eftablifhed between
a ftrong refk&ed light often glares on the edge of the them : if the ftreams be throughout of one chara&er,
deeped fhadow. The rocks never continue long in it is in our power, and fhould be our aim, to intro-
the fame figure or fituation, and are very much fepa- duce another. Variety is the peculiar property of the
rated from each other: fometimes they form the fides fpot, and every acceffion to it is a valuable acquifition.
of the valley, in precipices, in fteeps, or in ftages ; On the fame principle, endeavours fhould be ufed, not
fometimes they feem to rife in the bottom, and lean only to multiply, but to aggravate differences, and to
back againft the hill; and fometimes they ftand out increafe diftinftions into contrafts: but the fubjeft
quite detached, heaving up in cumbrous piles, or ftart- will impofe a caution againft attempting too much,
ing into conical fhapes, like vaft fpars, an too-feet Art muft almoft defp'air of improving a feene, where
high; fome are firm and folid throughout, fome are nature feems to have exerted her invention,
cracked, and fome, fplit and undermined, are wonder¬
fully upheld by fragments apparently unequal to the S E G T. V. Of Buildings.
weight they fuftain. One is placed before, one over
another, and one fills, at fome diftance behind, an inter- Buildings are the very reverfe of rocks. They Of the ufe$ i
val between two. The changes in their difpofition are are abfolutely in our power, both the fpecies and the build-
infinite; every flop produces fome new combination; fituation ; and hence arifes the excefs in which they lnSs*
often
[| Parti.
ij'Seflioii V. often abound. The defife of doing fomething, is
Build-, ftronger than the fear of doing .too much : thefe may
. 1NGS~ always be procured by.expence, and bought by thofe
who know not how to choofe ; who. coniider profu-
fion as ornament, and confound by number inftead
of diflinguifhing by variety.
Buildings probably were firft introduced into gar¬
dens merely for convenience, to afford refuge from
a fudden fhower, and fhelter againfi: the wind ; or, at
the moft, to be feats for a party ; or for retirement.
They have fince been converted into objedts, and now
the original ufe is too often forgotten in the greater
purpofes to which they are applied: they are confi-
dered as objedts only ; the infide is totally negledted,
and a pompous edifice frequently wants a room bare¬
ly comfortable- Sometimes the pride of making a
lavifh difplay to a vifitor, without any regard to the
owner’s enjoyments, and fometimes too fcrupulous an
attention to the ftyle of the ftrudture, occafions a po¬
verty and dulnefs within, which deprives the buildings
of part of their utility. But in a garden they ought
to be confidered both as beautiful objedfs, .and as a-
greeable retreats: if a charadfer becomes them, it is
that of the fcene they belong to; not that of their
primitive application. A Grecian temple or Gothic
church, may adorn fpots where it would be affedta-
tion to preferve that folemnity within, which is pro¬
per for places of devotion: they are not to be exadt
models, fubjedts only of curiofity or Andy ; they are
alfp feats: and fuch feats will be little frequented by
the proprietor ; his mind muft generally be indifpofed
to fo much fimplicity, and fo much gloom, in the
midfl: of gaiety, richnefs, and variety.
But though the interior of buildings Ihould not be
difregarded, it is by their exterior that they become
ci/V#/-; and fometimes by the one, fometirnes by the
other, and fometimes by both, they are entitled to be
t: confidered as charatterj.
Of thofe As objedts, they are defigned either to dijlinguifh,
intended for or to break, or to adorn, the fcenes to which they are
•bieas- applied.
The differences between onewood, onelawn, one piece
of water, and another, are not always very apparent ;
the feveral parts of a garden would, therefore, often
feem fimilar, if they were not diftinguilhed by build¬
ings: but thefe are fo obfervable, fo obvious at a
glance, fo eafily retained in the memory, they mark
the fpots where they are placed with fo much flrength,
they attradl the relation of all around with fo much
power, that parts thus diftinguilhed can never be con-
j . founded together. Yet it by no means follows, that
therefore every fcene muft have its edifice : the want
of one is fometimes a variety ; and other circumftances
are often fufficieotly charadteriftic: it is only when
thefe too nearly agree, that we muft have recourfe to
buildings for differences : we can introduce, exhibit,
or contrail them as we pleafe : the moft linking ob-
jedl is thereby made a mark of diftindlion ; and the
force of this firft impreffion prevents our obferving the
points of refemblance.
The uniformity of a view may be broken by fimi¬
lar means, and on the fame principle : • when a wide
heath, a dreary moor, or a continued plain, is in pro-
fpedl, objedls which catch the eye fupply the want of
variety : none are fo effedlual for this purpofe as build-
32°3
ings. Plantations or water can have no very fen- Seftion V.
fible effedt, unlefs they are large or numerous, and Build-
almoft change the charadler of the fcene: but a fmall 1—
Angle building diverts the attention at once from the
famenefs of the extent; which it breaks, but does not
divide ; and diverfifies, without altering, its nature.
The defign, however, miift not be apparent. The me¬
rit of a cottage applied to this purpofe, confifts in its
being free from the fufpicion ; and a few frees near it
will both enlarge the objedl, and account for its pofi-
t.ion. Ruins are a hackneyed device immediately de-
tedted, unlefs their ftyle be lingular, or their dimen-
fions extraordinary. The femblance of an ancient
Britilh monument might be adapted to the fame end,
with little trouble, and great fuccefs. The materials
might be brick, or even timber plaftertd over, if
Hone could not eafily be procured : whatever they
were, the fallacy would not be difcernible ; it is an
objedl to be feen at a diftance, rude, and large, and
in charadler agreeable to a wild open view. But no
building ought to be introduced, which may. not in
reality belong to fuch a fituation : no Grecian tem¬
ples, no Turkifh mofques, no Egyptian obelilks or py¬
ramids ; none imported from fqreign countries, and
unufual here. The apparent artifice would deftroy an
effedl ; which is fo nice as to be weakened, if objedls
proper to produce it are difplayed with too much o-
llentation ; if they feem to be contrivances, not acci¬
dents ; and the advantage of their jjofition appear to
be more laboured than natural.
But in a garden, where 'objedls are intended only
to adorn, every fpecies of architedhure may be admit¬
ted, from the Grecian down to the Chinefe; and the
choice is fo free, that the mifchief moft to be appre¬
hended, is an abufe of this latitude in the multiplici¬
ty of buildings. Few fcenes caiv bear more than two
or three : in fome, a Angle one has a greater effedl than
any number: and a carelefs glimpfe, here and there,
of fuch as belong immediately to different parts, fre¬
quently enliven the landflcip with more fpirit than thofe
which are induftrioufly fhewn. If the effedl of a par¬
tial fight, or a diftant view, were more attended to,
many fcenes might be filled, without being crowded;
a greater number of buildings would be tolerated,
when they feemed to be cafual, not forced; and the
animation, and the richnefs of the objedls, might be
had without pretence or difplay.
Too fond an oftentation of buildings, even of thofe
which are principal, is a common error ; and when all
is done, they are not always (hewn to the greateft ad¬
vantage. Though their fymmetry and their beauties
ought in general to be diftindlly and fully feen, yet an
oblique is fometimes better than a diredl view : and
they are often lefs agreeable objedls when entire, than
when a part is covered, or their extent is interrupted;
when they are hofomed in wood, as well as backed
by it; or appear between the ftems of trees which
rife before or above them: thus thrown into perfpec-
tive, thus grouped and accompanied, they may be as
important as if they were quite expofed, and are fre¬
quently more pidlurefque and beautiful.
But a ftill greater advantage arifes from this ma^
nagement, in connedling them with the fcene : they
are confiderable, and different from all around them ;
inclined therefore to feparate from the reft ; and yet
they
GARDENIN G.
^2c>4 GARDE
Scaion V. they are fometimes ftill more detached by the pains
Build- taken to exhibit them : that very importance which is
IKGS‘ the caufe of the dittin&ion, ought to be a reafon for
guarding againft the independence to which it is natu¬
rally prone, and by which an objeft, which ought to
be a part of the whole, is reduced to a mere indivi¬
dual. An elevated is generally a noble fituation.
When it is a point or a pinnacle, the ftrufture may be a
continuation of the afcent; and on many occafions, fome
parts of the building may defcend lower than others,
and multiply the appearances of connexion : but an
edifice in the midft of an extended ridge, commonly
feems naked alone, and impofed upon the brow, not
joined to it. If wood, to accompany it, will not
grow there, it had better be brought a little way down
the declivity ; and then all behind, above, and about
it, are fo many points of contaft, by which it is in¬
corporated into the landlkip.
Accompaniments are important to a building ; but
they lofe much of their effeft, when they do not ap¬
pear to be cafual. A little mount juft large enoujgh
for it: a fmall piece of water below, of no other ufe
than to refled it; and a plantation clofe behind, evi¬
dently placed there only to give it relief; are as arti¬
ficial as the ftru&ure itfelf, and alienate it from the
fcene of nature into which it is introduced, and to
which it ought to be reconciled. Thefe appendages
therefore ftiould be fo difpofed, and fo conneded with
the adjacent parts, as to anfvver other purpofes, tho*
applicable to this ; that they may be bonds of union,
not marks of difference ; and that the fituation may
appear to have been chofen, at the moft, not made, for
the building.
In the choice of a fituation, that which fhews the
building beft ought generally to be preferred: emi¬
nence, relief, and every other advantage which can
be, ought to be given to an objed of fo much confidera-
tion : they are for the moft part defirable ; fometimes
neceffary; and exceptionable only when, inftead of ri¬
ling out of the fcene, they are forced into it, and a
contrivance to procure them at any rate is avowed
without any difguife. There are, however, occafions,
in which the moft tempting advantages of fituatiort
muft be waved ; the general compofition may forbid a
building in one fpot, or require it in another; at o-
thertimes, the intereft of the particular groupe it be¬
longs to, may exad a facrifice of the opportunities to
exhibit its beauties and importance ; and at all times,
the pretenfions of every individual objed muft give
„„ way to the greater effed of the whole.
The fame ftrudure which adorns as an objed, may
alfo be expreffive as a charader. Where the former is
not wanted, the latter may be defirable : or it may be
weak for one purpofe, and ftrong for the other; it
may be grave, or gay ; magnificent, or Ample ; and,
according to its ftyle, may or may not be agreeable to
the place it is applied to. But mere confiftency is not
all the merit which buildings can claim: their charac¬
ters are fometimes ftrong enough to determine, improve,
pxcorreSi, that of the fcene; and they are fo confpicu-
ous, and fo diftinguiflied, that whatever force they
have is immediately and fenfibly felt. They are fit
therefore to make a firft impreffion; and when a fcene
is but faintly charaderifed, they give at once a caft
which fpreads over the whole, and which the weaker
Of thofe
expreflive
of charac-
N I N O. Parti
parts concur to fupport, though perhaps they were Seftiomo
not able to produce it. Builmi :
Nor do they flop at fixing an uncertainty, or re-
moving a doubt; they raife and enforce a charader ij
already marked: a temple adds dignity to the nobleft,
a cottage fimplicity to the moft rural, feenes ; the
lightnefs of a fpire, the airinefs of an open rotunda, i
the fplendor of a continued colonnade, are lefs orna¬
mental than exprefiive; others improve cheerfulnefs <
into gaiety, gloom into folemnity, and richnefs into |
profufion : a retired fpot, which might have been paffed
unobferved, is noticed for its tranquillity, as foon as it
is appropriated by fome ftrudure to retreat ; and
the moft unfrequented place feems lefs folitary than j
one which appears to have been the haunt of a Angle
individual, or even of a fequeftered family, and is j:
marked by a lonely dwelling, or the remains of a de-
ferted habitation.
The means are the fame, the application of them only j
is different, when buildings are ufed to corred the cha- J
rader of the fcene ; to enliven its dulnefs, mitigate its |
gloom, orto checkits extravagance; and, on a variety of
occafions, to foften, to aggravate, or to counterad, par¬
ticular circumftances attending it. But care muft be ta- |
ken that they do not contradid too ftrongly the prevail- '
ing idea : they may leffen the drearinefs of a yvaffe, but I
they cannot give it amenity; they may abate horrors, j
but they will never convert them into graces ; they may*
make a tame fcene agreeable, and even interefting, not |
romantic; or turn folemnity into cheerfulnefs, but not
into gaiety. In thefe, and in many other inftances, •
they corred the charader, by giving it an inclination ;
towards a better, which is not very different; but
they can hardly alter it entirely: when they are to¬
tally inconfiftent With it, they are at the beft nu¬
gatory.
The great effeds which have been aferibed to build¬
ings, do not depend upon thofe trivial ornaments and
appendages, which are often too much relied on; fuch j
as the furniture of a hermitage, painted glafs in a
Gothic church, and fculpture about a Grecian tem¬
ple ; grotefque or bacchanalian figures to denote j
gaiety, and death’s-heads to fignify melancholy.
Such devices are only deferiptive, not expreffive, of
charader ; and muft not be fubftituted in the ftead of
thofe fuperior properties, the want of which they ac¬
knowledge, but do not fupply. They befides often
require time to trace their meaning, and to fee theiV |
application ; but the peculiar excellence of buildings
is, that their effeds are inftantaneous, and therefore |
the impreffions they make are forcible. In order to
to produce fuch effeds, the general ftyle of the ftruc-
ture, and its pofition, are the principal confiderations:
either of them will fometimes be ftrongly charaderi-
ftic alone ; united, their powers are very great; and
both are fo important, that if they do not concur, at
leaft they muft not Contradid one another. The co¬
lour alfo of the buildings is feldom a matter of indif¬
ference : that exceffive brightnefs which is tod indif-
criminately ufed to.render them confpicuo'us, is apt ta |
difturb the harmony of the whole, fometimes makes
them too glaring as objeds, and is often inconfiftent
with their charaders. When thefe effential points j
are fecured, fubordinate circumftances may be made i
to agree with them; and though minute, they may
not |!
Part I.
Setfion V. not be Improper, if they are not affefted ; they fre-
Build- quently mark a correfpondence between the outfide
SNG5' and the infide of a building : in the latter they are
not inconfiderable; they may there be obferved at
leifure, and there they explain in detail the charac¬
ter which is more generally expreffed in the air of the
whole.
S cies and ^'0 enumerate feveral buildings which may be
{j,uationsof ufed for conyenience, or di£lin6h'on, as ornaments, or
llniildiiigs. as charafters, would lead us far from our fubjetl into
a treatife of architedlure : for every branch of archi-
te&ure furnifhes, on different occafions, obje&s proper
for a garden ; and different fpecies may meet in the
fame compofition: no analogy exifts between the age
and the country whence they are borrowed, and the
fpot they are applied to, except in fome particular in-
ftances; but, in general, they are naturalized to a
place of the moft improved cultivated nature by their
effe&s : beauty is their ufe ; and they are confident
with each other, if all are conformable to the dyle of
the fcene, proportioned to its extent, and agreeable to
its character. On the other hand, varieties more than
fufficient for any particular fpot, enough for a very
extenfive view, may be found in every fpecies ; to each
alfo belong a number of charafters; the Grecian ar-
Chitedture can lay afide its dignity in a rudic building?
and the caprice of the Gothic is fometimes not incom¬
patible with greatnefs: our choice therefore may be
confined to the variations of one fpecies, or range
through the contrads of many, as circumftances, tade,
or other confiderations, fhall determine.
The choice of fituations is alfo very free. Circum¬
ftances which are requifite to particular ftrudlures,
may often be combined happily with others, and enter
into a variety of compofitions: even where they are
appropriated, they may dijl be applied in fevcral de¬
grees, and the fame edifice may thereby be accommo¬
dated to very different fcenes. Some buildings which
have a juft expreffion when accompanied with proper
appendages, have none without them; they may
therefore be charadters in one place, and only objedts
in another. On all thefe occafions, the application is
allowable, if it can be made without inconfiftency: a
hermitage mud not be clofe to a road; but whether
it be expofed to view on the fide of a mountain, or
concealed in the depth of a wood, is almoft a matter
of indifference ; that it is at a didance from public
refort, is fufficient. A caftle mud not be funk in a
bottom ; but that it fhoiild ftand on the utmoft pin¬
nacle of a hill, is not neceffary : on a lower knole,
and backed by the rife, it may appear to greater ad¬
vantage as an objedt, and be much more important to
the general compofition. A tower,
“ Bofom’d high in tufted trees,”
has been feledted by one of our greated poets as a An¬
gular beauty; and the judnefs of his choice has been
, fo generally acknowledged, that the defcription is be¬
come almod proverbial: and yet a tower does not feetn
defigned to be furrounded by a wood ; but the ap¬
pearance may be accounted for: it does fometimes
occur; and we are eafily fatisfied of the propriety,
when the effedt is fo pleafing. Many buildings, which
from their fplendor bed become an open expofure,
will yet be fometimes not ill bellowed on a more fe-
Vol. V.
GARDENING. 3205
quedered fpot, either to charadlerife or adorn it; and St-aion V.
others, for which a folitary would in general be pre- Build-
ferred to an eminent fituation, may occafionally be 1N G5 ~
objedls in very confpicuous poiitions. A Grecian
temple, from its peculiar grace and dignity, deferves
every didindtion ; it may, however, in the depth of a
wood, be fo circumdanced, that the want of thofe ad¬
vantages to which it feems entitled, will not be re¬
gretted. A happier fituation cannot be devifed, than
that of the temple of Pan at the fouth lodge on En¬
field chace. It is of the ufual oblong form, encom-
paffed by a colonnade ; in dimenfions, and in dyle, it is
equal to a mod extenfive landfkip: and yet by the an¬
tique and rudic air of its Doric columns without bafes;
by the chadity of its little ornaments, a crook, a pipe,
and a ferip, and thofe only over the doors; and by
the fimplicity of the whole both within and without;
it is adapted with fo much propriety to the thickets
which conceal it from the view, that no one can vvifh
it to be brought forward, who is fenfible to the charms
of the Arcadian fcene which this building alone has
created. On the other hand, a very fpacious field, or
fheep-walk, will not be difgraced by a cottage, a Dutch
barn, or a hay-dack ; nor will they, though fmail and
familiar, appear to be inconfiderable or infignificant
objects. Numberlefs other indances might be ad¬
duced to prove the impoflibility of redraining parti¬
cular buildings to particular fituations, upon aity- ge-
neral principles : the variety in their forms is hardly
greater than in their application. SI
To this great variety mod be added the many changes Of ruins,
which may be made by the means of ruins. They are
a clafs by themfelves, beautiful as objects, exprefiive as
characters, and peculiarly calculated to conned with
appendages into elegant groupes. They may be accom¬
modated with eafe to irregularity of ground, and their
diforder is improved by it. They may be intimately
blended with trees and thickets ; and the interruption
is an advantage: for imperfe&ion and obfeurity are
their properties ; and to carry the imagination to
fomething greater than is feen, is their effed. They
may for any of thefe purpofes be feparated into de¬
tached pieces ; contiguity is not neceffary, nor even
the appearance of it, if the relation be preferved ; but
draggling ruins have a bad eifed, when the feveral
parts are equally confiderable. There ftiould be one
large mafs to raife an idea of greatnefs, to attrad the
others about it, and to be a common centre of union
to all: the fmaller pieces then mark the original di¬
menfions of one extenfive ftrudure ; and no longer
appear to be the remains of feveral little build¬
ings-
All remains excite an inquiry into the former date
of the edifice, and fix the mind in a contemplation of
the ufe it was applied to ; befides the charaders ex-
prefied by their dyle and pofition, they fugged ideas
which would not arife from the buildings if entire.
The purpofes of many have ceafed : an abbey, or a
caftle, if complete, can now be no more than a dwell¬
ing ; the memory of the times, and of the manners
to which they are adapted, is preferved only in hifto-
ry, and in' ruins ; and certain fenfations of regret, of
veneration, or compaflion, attend the recolledion.
Nor are thefe confined to the remains of buildings
which are now in difufe : thofe of an old manfion raife
18 L refledion*
'izoG
Defcription
of Tintern
abbey, [t>e-
tween
Chepftowe
and Mon¬
mouth.]
GARDE
reflexions on the domedic comforts once enjoyed, and
the ancient hofpitality which reigned there. What-
~ ever building we fee in decay, we naturally contrail
its prefent to its former date, and delight to ruminate
on the comparifon. It is true that fuch effeXs pro¬
perly belong to real ruins; they are however pro¬
duced in a certain degree by thofe which are fiXi-
tious: the imprelfions are not fo ftrorig, but they are
exaXly fimilar ; andthe reprefentation, though it does
not prefent faXs to the memory, yet fuggefts fubjeXs
to the imagination. But, in order to affeX the fancy,
the fuppofed original defign Ihould be clear, the ufe
obvious, and the form eafy to be traced: no frag¬
ments Ihould be hazarded without a precife meaning,
and an evident connexion ; none fliould be perplexed
in their conilruXion, or uncertain as to their applica¬
tion. ConjeXures about the form, raife doubts about
the exiftence of the ancient ftruXure: the mind mult
not be allowed to hefitate; it mull be hurried away
from examining into the reality, by the exaXnefs and
the force of the refemblance.
In the ruins of Tintern abbey, the original conftruc-
tion of the church is perfeXly marked ; and it is prin¬
cipally from this circumftance that they are celebrated
as a fubjeX of curiofity and contemplation. The walls
are almoft entire ; the roof only is fallen in, but molt
of the columns which divided the ayles are ftill Hand¬
ing : of thofe which have dropped down, the bafes
remain, every one exaXly in its place; and in the
middle of the nave four lofty arches, which once flip-
ported the fteeple, rife high in the air above all the
reft, each reduced now to a narrow rim of ftone, but
completely preferving its form. The fhapes even of
the windows are little altered: but fome of them are
quite obfcured, others partially fhaded, by tufts of
ivy ; and thofe which are moft clear, are edged with
its flender tendrils, and lighter foliage, wreathing
about the fides and the divifions: it winds round the
pillars; it clings to the walls ; and in one of the ayles
elufters at the top in bunches, fo thick and fo large, as to
darken the fpace below. The other ayles, and the great
nave, are expofed to the fky : the floor is entirely over-
fpread with turf; and to keep it clear from weeds and
bulhes, is now its higheft prefervation. Monkifh
tomb-ftones, and the monuments of benefaXors long
fince forgotten, appear above the green fward; the
N I N G. Part II.
bafes of the pillars which have fallen, rife out of it; Seft'on I.
and maimed effigies, and fculpture worn with age and Art.
weather, Gothic capitals, carved cornices, and various
fragments, are fcattered about, or lie in heaps piled
up together. Other (battered pieces, though dif-
jointed and mouldering, ftill occupy their original
places ; and a ftair-cafe much impaired, which led to
a tower now no more, is fufpended at a great height,
uncovered and inacceffible. Nothing is perfeX; but
memorials of every part ftill fubfitt ; all certain, but
all in decay; and fuggefting, at once, every idea
which can occur in a feat of devotion, folitude, and
defolation. Upon fuch models, fiXitious ruins Ihould
be formed ; and if any parts are entirely loft, they
(hould be fuch as the imagination can eafily fupply
from thofe which are ftill remaining. DiftinX traces
of the building which is fuppofed to have exifted, are
lefs liable to the fufpicion of artifice, than an unmean¬
ing heap of confufion. Precifion is always fatisfac-
tory, but in the reality it is only agreeable; in the
copy, it is efiential to the imitation.
A material circumftance to the truth of the imita¬
tion, is, that the ruin appear to be very old. The
idea is befides interefting in itfelf: a monument of
antiquity is never feen with indifference ; and a fem-
blance of age may be given to the reprefentation, by
the hue of the materials, the growth of ivy and other
plants, and cracks and fragments feemingly occa-
fioned rather by decay than by deftruXion. An appen¬
dage evidently more modern than the principal Itruc-
ture will fometimes corroborate the effeX : the (hed of
a cottager amidft the remains of a temple, is a con¬
trail both to the former and to the prefent date of the
building ; and a tree flourifhing among ruins, (hews
the length of time they have lain negleXed. No cir¬
cumftance fo forcibly marks the defolation of a fpot
once inhabited, as the prevalence of nature ever it;
“ Camp<H ubi Troja fully’
is a fentence which conveys a ftronger idea of a city
totally overthrown, than a defcription of its remains ;
but in a reprefentation to the eye, fome remains mud
appear ; and then the perverfion of them to an ordi¬
nary ufe, or an intermixture of a vigorous vegetation*
intimates a fettled defpair of their reftoration.
Part II. Of those PROPERTIES i
SHOULD DETERMINE THE CHOICE
GARDENiNG.
Sect. I. Of Art.
THE feveral conftituent parts of the fcenes of
nature having now’ been confidered, the next in¬
quiry is into the particular principles and circum-
ftances which may affeX them when they are applied
to the fubjeXs of gardening.
It has always been fuppofed, that art muft then
interfere: but art was carried to excefs, when from
acceffory it became principal, and the fubjeX upon
which it was employed was brought under regula¬
tions lefs applicable to that than to any other; when
ground, wood, and water, were reduced to mathema-
n THE OBJECTS OF NATURE which
and ARRANGEMEN E of them in
tical figures, and fimilarity and order were preferred to
freedom and variety. Thefe mifchiefs, however, were
oecafioned, not by the ufe, but the perverfion of art
it excluded, inftead of improving upon nature, and
thereby deftroyed the very end it was called in to pro¬
mote.
So ffrange an abufe probably arofe from an idea £4
of fome necefiary correfpondence between the man-°f the ap-. |i
fion, and the fcene it immediately commanded: the |
forms, therefore, of both were determined by the fame houfe.^
rules; and terraces, canals, and avenues, were but fo
many variations of the plan of the building. The re¬
gularity thus eftablilhed fpread afterwards to more
diftan&
Part IT. GARDE
Seftion I. diftant quarters : there, indeed, the abfurdity was ac-
AR'^• knowledged as foon as a more natural difpofition ap¬
peared ; but a prejudice in favour of art, as it is called,
jujl about the houfe, (lill remains. If, by the term, re¬
gularity is intended, the principle is equally applicable
to the vicinity of any other building ; and every tem¬
ple in the garden ought to have its concomitant formal
flopes and plantations : or the conformity may be re¬
verted, and we may as reafonably contend, that the
building ought to be irregular, in order to be confi-
ftent with the fcene it belongs to. The truth is, that
both propcfitions are erroneous: architedture requires
fymmetry ; the objedts of nature freedom; and the
properties of the one cannot with jufticebe transferred
to the other. But if, by the term, no more is meant
than merely dejigrt, the difpute is at an end : choice,
arrangement, compofition, improvement, and preferva-
tion, are fo many fymptoms of art, which may occa-
fionally appear in feveral parts of a garden, but ought
to be difplayed without referve near the houfe : no¬
thing there Ihould feem negledted ; it is a fcene of the
mod cultivated nature ; it ought to be enriched, it
it ought to be adorned ; and defign may be avowed in
the plan, and expence in the execution.
Even regularity is not excluded: fo capital a ftruc-
ture may extend its influence beyond its walls: but
this power fhould be exercifed only over its imme¬
diate appendages. The platform upon which the houfe
ftands, is generally continued to a certain breadth on
every fide ; and, whether it be pavement or gravel, may
undoubtedly coincide with the fhape of the building.
The road which leads up to the door may go off from
it in an equal angle, fo that the two fides fhall exaftly
correfpond : and certain ornaments, though detached,
are yet rather within the province of archice&ure than
of gardening. Works of fculpture are not, like build¬
ings, objedts familiar in feenes of cultivated nature ;
but vafes, ftatutes, and termini, are ufual appendages
to a confiderable edifice : as fuch, they may attend the
manfion, and trefpafs a little upon the garden, pro¬
vided they are not carried fo far into it as to lofe
their connexion with the ftrudture. The platform
and the road are alfo appurtenances to the houfe; all
thefe may therefore be adapted to its form, and the
environs will thereby acquire a degree of regularity:
but to give it to the objedts of nature, only on account
of their proximity to others which are calculated to re¬
ceive it, is, at the beft, a refinement.
Of the ap- Upon the fame principles regularity has been re-
-proach. quired in the approach ; and an additional reafon' has
been affigned for it, that the idea of a feat is thereby
extended to a diftance. But that may be done by other
means than by an avenue. A private road is eafily
known. If carried through grounds, or a park, it is
.commonly very apparent: even in a lane, here and
there a bench, a painted gate, a fmall plantation, or
any other little ornament, will fufficiently denote it:
if the entrance only be marked, fimple prefervation will
retain the impreffion along the whole progrefs. Or the
road may wind through feveral feenes dillinguifhed by
objedts, or by an extraordinary degree of cultivation ;
and then the length of the way, and the variety of
improvements through which it is condudted, may
extend the appearance of domain, and the idea of a
feat, beyond the reach of any diredt avenue.
N I N G. 3207
An avenue being confined to one termination, and •Setfion t.
excluding every view on the fides, has a tedious fame- A’lT‘
nefs throughout: to be great, it mufl: be dull; and the
objedt to which it is appropriated, is after all feldom
fhewn to advantage. Buildings, in general, do not
appear fo large, and are not fo beautiful, when looked
at in front, as when they are feen from an angular 11a-
tion, which commands two fides at once, and throws
them both into perfpedlive. But a winding lateral ap¬
proach is free from thefe objedtions ; it may befides be
brought up to the houfe without difturbing any of the
views from it : but an avenue cuts the feenery diredtly
in two, and reduces all the profpedl to a narrow vi¬
lla. A mere line of perfpedlive, be the extent what
it may, will fcldom compenfate for the lofs of that
fpace which it divides, and of the parts which it con-
ceals. _ <
The approach to Caverfham, though a mile in Defcription
length, and not once in fight of the houfe till clofe of the ap-
upon it, yet can never be millaken for any other way
than it is ; a paffage only through a park is not intro- j-J'Aeat of
duced with fo much diftindlion, fo precifely marked, i,0rd Cado-
or kept in fuch prefervation. On each fide of the en- Ran, near
trance is an elegant lodge : the interval between them Reading]
is a light open pallifade, croffing the whole breadth of
a lovely valley : the road is conbudled along the bot¬
tom, continually winding in natural eafy fweeps, and
prefenting at every bend fome new fcene to the view:
at laft it gently Hants up the fide of a little rife to the
manfion, where the eminence, which feemed inconfi-
derable, is found to dae a very elevated fituation, to
which the approach, without once quitting the valley,
had been infenfibly afeending all the way. In its pro¬
grefs, it never breaks the feetres through which it paf-
fes : the plantations and the glades are continued with¬
out interruption, quite acrofs the valley : the oppofite
fides have a relation to each other, not anfwering,
not contrafted, but conne&ed: nor does the difpofi¬
tion ever feem to have been made with any attention
to the road ; but the feenes Hill belong purely to the
park ; each of them is preferved entire, and avails it-
felf of all the fpace which the fituation will allow. At
the entrance the fiopes are very gentle, w ith a few large
hawthorns, beeches, and oaks, fcattered ,over them :
thefe are thickened by the pecfpedHve as the valley
winds; and juft at the bend, a large clump hangs on
a bold afeent, from whence different groupes, grow-
ing gradually lefs and lefs till they end in fingle trees,
ftretch quite away to a fine grove which crowns the
oppofite brow'. The road paffes between the groupes,
under a light and lofty arch of afh ; and then opens
upon a glade, broken on the left only by a fingle tree,
and on the right by feveral beeches Handing fo clofe
together as to be but one in appearance. This glade is
bounded by a beautiful grove, which in one part fpreads
a perfect gloom, but in others divides into different
clutters, which leave openings for the gleams of light
to pour in between them. It extends to the edge, and
borders for fome way the fide of a collateral dale,
which retires flowly from the view ; and in which the
falls of the ground are more tame, the bottom more
flattened, than in the principal valley ; the banks of this
alfo, near the junction, are more gentle than before:
but on the oppofite fide, the fteeps and the clumps ftill
continue; and amongft them is a fine knole, from
18 L 2 which
3208
Sedt on I.
Art.
Of regula¬
rity in the
feveral
parts of a
garden.
GARDENING.
Part II.
winch defcend two or three groupesof large trees, fea¬
thering down to the bottom, and by the pendency of
their branches favouring the declivity. To thefe fuc-
ceeds an open fpace, diveriitied only by a few fcattered
trees ; and in the midftof it, fome magnificent beeches
crowding together, overfhadovv the road, which is car¬
ried through a narrow darkfome paffage between
them: foon after it rifes under a thick wood in the
garden up to the houfe, where it fuddenly burfts out
upon a rich and extenfive profpeft, with the town and
the churches of Reading in full fight, and the hills of
Windfor-foreft in the horizon. Such a view at the end
of along avenue, would have been, at the beft, but a
compenfation for the tedioufnefs of the way; but here
the approach is as delightful as the termina,tion. Yet
even in this, a fimilarity of ftyle may be faid to pre¬
vail. But it has every variety of open plantations; and
thefe are not confufedly thrown together, but formed
into feveral fcenes, all of them particularly marked :
one is chara&erifed by a grove, the next by clumps,
and others by little groupes or fingle trees : the plan¬
tations fometimes cover only the brow, and retire along
the top from the view; fometimes they feem to be fuf-
pended on the edge or the fides of the defcents ; in
one place they leave the bottom clear, in another they
■overfpread the whole valley: the intervals are often
little lefs than lawns; at other times they are no more
than narrow glades between the groves, or only fmall
openings in the midft of a [plantation. The ground,
without being broken into diminutive parts, is cafi; in¬
to an infinite number of elegant fhapes, in every gra¬
dation from the moft gentle flope, to a very precipitate
fall: the trees alfo are of feveral kinds, and their fha-
dows of various tints ; thofe of the horfe-chefnuts are
dark; the beeches fpread a broader but lefs gloomy
obfcurity; and they are often fo vaft, they fwell out
in a fuccefiion of fuch enormous maffes, that, though
contiguous, a deep {hade links in between them, and
diftinguifhes each immenfe individual: fuch intervals
are in fome places filled up with other fpecies; the
maples are of fo extraordinary a fize, that they do not
appear inconfiderable, when clofe to the foreft-trees ;
large hawthorns, fome oaks, and in one part many,
perhaps too many limes, the remains of former ave¬
nues, are intermixed ; and amongft all thefe often rife
the tallefl afh, whofe lighter foliage only chequers the
turf beneath, while their peculiar hue diverfifies the
greens of the groupes they belong to.
If regularity is not entitled to a preference in the
environs or approach to a houfe, it will be difficult to
fupport its pretenfions to a place in any more dijlant
parts of a park or a garden. Formal Hopes of ground
are ugly : right or circular lines bounding water, do
not indeed change the nature of the element; it ftill
retains fome of its agreeable properties ; but the fliape
given to it is difgufting. Regularity in plantations is
lefs offenfive ; we are habituated, as has been already
obferved, to ftraight lines of trees, in cultivated na¬
ture ; a double row, meeting at the top, and forming
a complete arched vifta, has a peculiar effedt; -other
regular figures have a degree of beauty : and to alter
or to difgufle fuch a difpofition, without deftroying a
number of fine trees, which cannot well be fpared,
may fometimes be difficult; but it hardly ever ought
to be chofen iathe arrangemeru of a. young plantation.
Regularity was, however, once thought eflential to Sedtion It.
every garden, and every approach ; and it yet remains 1,1 c TU* J
in many. It is ftill a charadler, denoting the neigh-
bourhoodof a gentleman’s habitation ; and an avenue,   Z.
as an objedt in a view, gives to a houfe, otherwife in¬
confiderable, the air of a manfion. Buildings which
anfwer one another at the entrance of an approach, or
on the fides of an opening, have a finailar effedl; they
diftinguiffi at once the precindts of a feat from the reft
of the country. Some pieces of fculpture alfo, fuch as
vafes and termini, may perhaps now and then be ufed,
to extend the appearance of a garden beyond its li¬
mits, and to raife the mead in which they are placed
above the ordinary improvements of cultivated nature.
At other times they may be applied as ornaments to
the moftpolifhed lawns ; the traditional ideas we have
conceived of Arcadian fcenes, correfpond with fuch
decorations : and fometimes a folitary urn,’infcribed
to the memory of a perfon now no more, but who once
frequented the {hades where it (lands, is an objedl e-
qually elegant and interefting. The occalions, how¬
ever, on which we may, with any propriety, trefpafs
beyond the bounds of cultivated nature, are very rare ;
the force of the charadler can alone excufe the artifice
avowed in expreffing it.
Sect. II. Of PiEhirefque Beauty. sS
But regularity can never attain to a great (hare of
beauty, and to none of the fpecies called pitturefquc; a fefis from
denomination in general expreffive of excellence, but the fame
which, by being too indifcriminately applied, may be objeftsin a
fometimes produ&ive of errors. That a fubjedt is re- f««eand *•
commended at leaft to our notice, and probably to our 1,1 Uie’
favour, if it has been diftinguifhed by the pencil of an
eminent painter, is indifputable: we are delighted to
fee thofe objedts in the reality, which we are ufed to
admire in the reprefentation ; and we improve upon
their intrinfic merit, by recolledting their effedts in the
pidlure. The greateft beauties of nature will often
fugged the remembrance; for it is the bufinefs of a
landikip painter to feledl them : and his choice is ab»
folutely unreftrained ; he is at liberty to exclude all
objedls which may hurt the compofition ; he has the
power of combining thofe which he admits in the mod
agreeable manner; he can even determine the feafon
of the year, and the hour of the day, to (hew his
landfkip in whatever light he prefers. The works
therefore of a great mailer, are fine exhibitions of na¬
ture, and an excellent fchool wherein to form a tafte
for beauty : but ftill their authority is not abfolute ;
they mull be ufed only as ftudies, not as models ; for
a pidlure and a fcene in nature, though they agree in
many, yet differ in fome particulars, which muft always
be taken into confideration, before we can decide up¬
on the circumftances which may be. transferred from
the one to other.
In their dimenfions the diftindlion is obvious; the
fame objedls on different fcales have very different ef¬
fedts; thofe which feem monftrous on the one, may
appear diminutive on the other; and a form, which b
elegant in a fmall objedl, may be too delicate for a
large one. Befides, in a canvas of a few feet, there is
not room for every fpecies of variety which in nature is
pleafing. Though the charadteriftic diftindlion of
trees may be marked, their more minute differences,
whisk
. Part II. CARD
i Seftion II. which however enrich plantations, cannot be exprefled:
Pictu- and a multiplity of enclofures, catches of water, cot-
j KEAu’Ty taSes» cattle» and a thoufand other circumttances,
1.-—— which enliven a prpfpedt, are, when reduced into a
narrow compafs, no better than a heap of confufion.
Yet, on the other hand, the principal objefts muft of¬
ten be more diverfified in a picture than in a fcene : a
building which occupies a confiderable portion of the
former, will appear fmall in the latter when compared
to the fpace all around it; and the number of parts
which may be neceffary to break its famenefs in one,
will aggravate its infignificance in the other. A tree
which prefents one rich mafs of foliage, has fometimes
a fine effeft in nature ; but Mien painted, is often a
heavy lump, which can be lightened only by fepara-
ting the boughs, and fhewing the ramifications be¬
tween them. In feveral other inftances the obje& is
frequently affe&ed by the proportion it bears to the
a&ual, not the ideal, circumjacent extentv
Painting, with all its powers, is ftill more unequal
to fome fubjefts, and can give only a faint, if any, re-
prefentation of them: but a gardener is hot therefore to
rejeft them : he is not debarred from a view down the
fides of a hill, or a profpeft where the horizon is lower
than the ftation, becaufe he never faw them in a pic¬
ture. Even when painting exa&ly imitates the ap¬
pearances of nature, it is often weak in conveying the
ideas which they excite, and on which much of their
effe& fometimes depends. This however is not always
a difadvantage ; the appearance may be more pleafing
than the idea which accompanies it, and the omiffion
of the one may be an improvement of the other. Many
beautiful tints denote difagreeable circumftances : the
hue of a barren heath is often finely diverfified ; a piece
. of bare ground is fometimes overfpread with a number
of delicate fhades ; and yet we prefer a more uniform
verdure to all their variety. In a picture, the feveral
tints which occur in nature may be blended, and re*
tain only their beauty, without fuggefting the po¬
verty of the foil which occafions them : but in the rea*-
Kty, the caufe ismore”powerful than the effedt : we are
lefs pleafed with the fight, than we are hurt hy the re¬
flexion ; and a^moft agreeable mixture of colours may
prefent no other idea than of drearinefs and flerility.
On the other hand, utility will fometimes fupply the
want of beauty in the reality, but not in a piXure. In
the former, we are never totally inattentive to it ; we
are familiarifed*to the marks of it; and we allow a de¬
gree of merit to an objeX which has no other recom¬
mendation. A regular building is generally more a-
greeable in a fcene than in a piXure, and an adjacent
platform, if evidently convenient, is tolerable in the orte}
it is always a right line too much in the other. Utility
is at the leaft an excufe, when it is real; but it is an
idea never included in the reprefentation.
Many more inflances might be alleged to- prove,
that the fubjeXs for a painter and a gardener are not
always the fame. Some which are agreeable in the
reality, lofe their effeX in the imitation ; and others,
at the beft, have lefs merit in a fcene than in a piXure.
The term pifturefque is therefore applicable only to
fuch objeXs in nature, as, after allowing for the dif¬
ferences between the arts of painting and of garden¬
ing, are fit to be formed into groupes, or to enter into
a compofiliou where the feveral parts have a relation
E N I N G. 3209
to each other, and in oppofition to thofe which' may Sfdt-on m,
be fpread abroad in detail, and have no merit but as Ghakac-
individuals. - TER~ .
Sect. III. Cf Char after. J9
Character, is very reconci! cable with beauty; and, of e.inljie‘
even when independent of it, has attraXed fo much re- "harafters
gard, as to occafion feveral frivolous attempts to pro¬
duce it: ftatues, infcriptions, and even paintings, hi-
ftory and mythology, and a variety of devices, have
been introduced for this purpofe. The heathen deities
and heroes have therefore had their feveral places af-
figned to them in the woods and the lawns of a gar¬
den : natural cafcades have been disfigured with river-
gods; and columns ereXed only to receive quotations:
the compartiments of a fummer-houfe have been filled
with piXures of gambols and revels, as fignificant of
gaiety: the cyprefs, becaufe it was once ufed in fune¬
rals, has been thought peculiarly adapted to melan¬
choly : and the decorations, the furniture, and the en¬
virons of a building, -have been crowded with puerilities
under pretence of propriety. All thefe devices are ra¬
ther emblematical than expreffive: they may be inge¬
nious contrivances, and recall abfent ideas to the recol-
leXion ; but they make no immediate impreflion : for
for they muffc be examined, compared, perhaps ex¬
plained, before the whole defign of them is well under-
Itood: and though an allufion to a favourite or well-
known fubjeX of hiftory, of poetry, or of tradition,
may now and then animate or dignify a fcene; yet as
the fubjeX does not naturally belong to a garden, the
allufxon fhould not be principal: it fhould feem to have
been fuggefted by the fcene; a tranfitory image, which
irrefillibly occurred; not fought for, not laboured; and
have the force of a metaphor,- free from the detail of
an allegory. Co
Another fpecies of charaXer arifes from direX /wi- Ofimiutive
tation; when a fcene or an objeX, which has been ce- chatafters*
lebrated in defcription, or is familiar in idea, is repre-
fented in a garden. Artificial ruins, lakes, and rivers,
fall -under this denomination. The air of a feat extend¬
ed to a diftance, and fcenes calculated,to raife ideas of
Arqadian elegance or of rural fimpifcity, with many
more which have been occafionally mentioned or will
obviou fly occur, maybe ranked in this clafs. They are
all reprefentations. But the materials, the dimenfions,
and other circumftances, being the fame in the copy
and the original, their effeXs are fimilar in both: and
if not equally ftrcng the defeX is not in the refem-
blance; but the confcioufnefs of an imitation checks
that train of thought which the appearance naturally
fuggefts. Yet an over-anxious folicitude to difguife the
fallacy is often the means of expofing it : too many
points of likenefs fometimes hurt the deception ; they
feem ftudied and forced; and the affeXation of refem-
blance deflroys the fuppofition of a reality: A hermi¬
tage is the habitation of a reclufe; it ftvould be diftin-
guifned by its folitude, and its fimplicity: but if it is
filled with crucifixes, hour-glafles, beads, and every
other trinket which can be thought of, the attention is
diverted from enjoying the retreat to examining the
particulars : all the collateral circumftances which a-
gree with a charaXer, feldom meet in one fubjeX'; and
when they are induftrioufly brought together, though,
sash be ofituralj the coileXioe is artificial.
321°
Seftion IIL
GARDENING.
Part II,
i
The peculiar advantages which gardening has over or if the monument revive the memory of former S-fticm l|
other imitative arts, will not, however, fupport attempts times, we do not ftop at the fimple fad which it re- 5'£ N’R A;
to introduce, they rather forbid the introdudion of cords, but recollect many more coseval circumftances, 5UB]EL W
charafters, to which the fpace is not adequate. A plain which we fee, not perhaps as they were, but as they
fimple field, unadorned but with the common rural are come down to us, venerable with age, aud magni-
appendages, is an agreeable opening: but if it is ex- lied by fame. Even, without the afiittance of build-
tremely fmall, neither a hay-ftack, nor a cottage, nor ings, or other adventitious circumftances, nature alone
a ftile, nor a path, nor much lefs all of them together, furnilhes materials for fcenes which may be adapted
will give it an air of reality. A harbour or an artifi- to almoft every kind of exprefiion : their operation is
cial lake is but a conceit : it raifes no idea of refuge general, and their confequences infinite : the mind is
or fecurity ; for the lake does not fuggeft an idea of elevated, depreffed, or compofed, as gaiety, gloom,
danger: it is detached from the large body of water; or tranquillity, prevail in the fcene ; and we foon lofe
and yet it is in itfelf but a poor inconfiderable bafin, fight of the means by which the chara£ter is formed :
vainly affefting to mimick the majefty of the fea. When we forget the particular obje&s it prefents ; and giving
imitative chara&ers in gardening are egregioufly de- way to their effedls, without recurring to the caufe, we
festive in any material circumftance, the truth of the follow the track they have begun, to any extent which
others expofes and aggravates the failure. the difpolition they accord with will allow. It fuffices
But the art of gardening afpires to more than imi- that the fcenes of nature have a power to affeft our
tation : it can create original chzrz&exs, and give ex- imagination and our fenfibility : for fuch is the confti-
preffions to the feveral fcenes fuperior to any they can tution of the human mind, that if once it is agitated,
receive from allufions. Certain properties, and cer- the emotion often fpreads far beyond the occafion ;
tain difpofitions, of the obje&s of nature, are adapt- when the paffions are roufed, their courfe is unreftrain-
ed to excite particular ideas and fcnfations: many of ed ; when the fancy is on the wing, its flight is un-
them have been occafionally mentioned; and all are bounded; and, quitting the inanimate objects which
very well known. They require no difcernment, exa- firft gave them their fpring, we may be led by thought
mination, or difcuffion; but are obvious at a glance, above thought, widely differing in degree, but ftill
and inftantaneoufly diftinguifhed by our feelings. Beau- correfponding in charadter, till we rife from familiar
ty alone is not fo engaging as this fpecies of charac- fubjedis up to the fublimeft conceptions, and are rapt
ter: the impreffions it makes are more tranfient and in the contemplation of whatever is great or beauti-
lefs interefting ; for it aims only at delighting the eye, ful, which we fee in nature, feel in man, or attribute
but the other affedls our fenfibility. An affemblage to divinity. v
of the moft elegant forms in the happieft fituations is nr , ^
to a degree indifcriminate, if they have not been fe- oECT. IV. Of the General SubjeEl. ^
ledled and arranged with a deiign to produce certain The fcenes of nature are alfo affedted by the gene- DifFerencMn
expreffions; an air of magnificence, or of fimplicity, ral fubjedl to which they^re applied, whether that be between a|f i
of cheerfulnefs, tranquillity, or feme other general z. farm, z garden, a park, or a riding. Thefe may
charadter, ought to pervade the whole; and objedts all indeed be parts of one place ; they may border on'^’3 fitT;
pleafing in themfelves, if they contradidl that charac- each other; they may, to a degree, be intermixed : ding,
ter, fhould therefore be excluded : thofe which are but each is ftill a charadler of fuch force, that, which-
only indifferent, muft fometimes make room for fuch ever prevails, the propriety of all other charadiers,
as are more fignificant; many will often be introduced and of every fpecies of beauty, muft be tried by their
for no other merit than their expreflion ; and fome, conformity to this. And circumftances neceffary to one,
which are in general rather difagreeable, may occa- may be inconliftencies in the reft: elegance is the pe-
fionally be recommended by it. Barrennefs itfelf may culiar excellence of a garden, greatnefs of a park,
be an acceptable circumftance in a fpot dedicated to fimplicity 0$ a farm, zaApleafantnefs of a riding. Thefe
folitude and melancholy. diftinguifhing properties will alone exclude from the
The power of fuch charadiers is not confined to the one, many objedls which are very acceptable in the
ideas which the objedls immediately fuggeft ; for thefe others ; but thefe are not the only properties in which
are connedled with others, which infenfibly lead to they effentially differ.
fubjedls, far diftant, perhaps, from the original A garden is intended to walk or to fit in, which are
thought, and related to it only by a fimilitude in the circumftances not confidered in a riding ; a park com-
fenfationa they excite. In a profpedl, enriched and prehends all the ufes of the other two ; and thefe ufes
enlivened with inhabitants and cultivation, the atten- determine the/ro/wY/'wW ex/e/tf of each. A large gar-
tion is caught at firft by the circumftances which are den would be but a fmall park ; and the circumference
gayeft in their feafon, the bloom of an orchard, the of a confiderable park but a fhort riding. A farm is
feftivity of a hay-field, and the carols of harveft-home : in fome meafure denominated from its fize : if it greatr
but the cheerfulnefs which thefe infufe into the mind, ly exceed the dimenfions of a garden, fo that its
expands afterwards to other objeils than thofe immedi- bounds are beyond the reach of a walk, it becomes
ately prefented to the eye ; and we arc thereby difpo- a riding. A farm and a garden hence appear to be
fed to receive, and delighted to purfue, a variety of calculated for indolent, a riding for adlive amufements,
pleafing ideas, and every benevolent feeling. At the and a park for both : feats, therefore, and buildings
fight of a ruin, refledlions on the change, the decay, for refrdhment or indulgence, (hould be frequent in a
and the defolation before us, naturally occur; and garden or a farm ; (hould fometimes occur in a park ;
they introduce a long fucceflion -of others, all tin£lu- but are unneceffary in a riding,
red with that melancholy which thefe have infpired; Within the narrow compafs of a garden, there is
Part II. G A R D I
(Seftion IV. not room for diftant effefts. On the other hand, it al-
Gen’ral |ows 0f objeifts which are ftriking only in a Jingle point
Subje c -i v'teqx). for we may. [j0p there to contemplate them :
and an obfcure catch, or a partial glimpfe of others,
are alfo acceptable circumllances, in the leifure of a
feat, or even in the courfe of a loitering walk. But
thefe are loll in a riding, where the pltafantnefs of the
road, not of the fpot, is the principal confideration ;
and its greateft improvement is a diftant objefl:, which
may be feen from feveral points, or along a confider-
able part of the way. Minute beauties in general may
abound in a garden ; they may be frequent in a farm;
in both we have opportunities to obferve and to exa¬
mine them : in a park, they are below our notice ; in
a riding, they efcape it.
Profpeils are agreeable to either of the four general
fubjedts, but not equally neceflary to all. In a garden,
or in a farm, fcenes within themfelves are often fatif-
fa&ory ; and, in their retired fpots, an opening would
be improper. A park is defective, if confined to its
inclofure : a perpetual fucceffion of home-fcenes,
through fo large an extent, wants variety ; and fine
profpedts are circumftances of greatnefs : but they are.
not required in every part. The place itfelf fupplies
many noble views ; and thefe are not much improved
by a diftant rim, or a little peep of the country, which
is inadequate to the reft of the compofition. A riding
has feldom much beauty of it own ; it depends on ob¬
jects without for its pleafantnefs: if it only leads now
and then to a ftriking point, and is dull all the reft of
the way, it will not be much frequented ; but very mo¬
derate views are fufficient to render its progrefs agree¬
able.
By concealing, therefore, much of the profpedts,
we deftroy the amufement of a riding. The view of
the country Ihould not be hurt by the improvements
of the road. In a garden, on the contrary, continu-
tion of ftiade is very acceptable; and if the views be
fometimes interrupted, they may (till be caught from
many points: we may enjoy them there whenever we
pleale ; and they would pall if conftantly in fight. The
beft fituation for a houfeis not that which has the great-
eft command ; a cheerful look-out from the windows is
all that the proprietor defires. He is more fenfible to
the charms of the greater profpefts, if he fees them
only occafionally, and they do not become infipid by
being familiar: for the fame reafon he does not wifti
for them in every part of his garden ; and temporary
concealments give them frefh fpirit whenever they ap¬
pear. But the views of a riding are not vifited fo of¬
ten, as thereby to lofe any of their effeft. Plantations,
therefore, in a country, (hould be calculated rather for
obje&s to look at, than for ihades to pafs through.
In a park, they may anfwer both purpofes: but in a
garden, they are commonly confidered as places to
walk or to fit in. As fuch, toorthey are moft welcome
in a farm : but ftill the diftin&ion between an impro¬
ved and an ordinary farm being, by no circumftance,
fo fenfibly marked, as by the arrangement of the
trees, they are more important, as objects, there than
in a garden.
Though a farm and a garden agree in many parti¬
culars conne&ed with extent, yet, in Jlyle, they are
the two extremes. Both, indeed, are fubjetts of cul¬
tivation : but cultivation in the one is hujbandry, and
, N I N G. 3211
in the other decoration ; the former is appropriated to SeOion V.
projit, the latter toFields profufely olna-GARDE,^•
mented do not retain the appearance of a farm ; and
an apparent attention to produce, obliterates the idea
of a garden. A park is fometimes not much hurt by
being turned to account. The ufe of a riding' is to
lead from one beauty to another, and be a fcene of
pleafure all the way : made avowedly for that pur-
pofe only, it admits more embelliihment and diftinc-
tion than an ordinary road through a farm. See the
articles Farm, Park, and Riding.
Sect. V. Of a Garden.
The gravel paths have been been mentioned f as con- Of a garden
tributing to the appearance of a garden : they are un- furround-
ufual elfewhere ; they conftantly prefent the idea of a
walk ; and the correfpondence between their fides, the c ° nre‘
exa&nefs of the edges, the nicety of the materials t
and of the prefervation, appropriate them to fpots in >lc e ARK*
the higheft ftate of improvement. Applied to any o-
ther fubjeift than a park, their effeft is the fame. A
field, furrounded by a gravel-walk, is, to a degree, bor¬
dered by a garden; and many ornaments may be in¬
troduced as appendages to the latter, which would
otherwife appear to be inconfiftent with the former.
When thefe accompaniments occupy a confiderable
fpace, and are feparated from the field, the idea of a
garden is complete as far as they extend ; but if the
gravel be omitted, and the walk be only of turf, a
greater breadth to the border, and more richnefs in
the decorations, are neceftary to preferve that idea.
Many gardens are nothing more than fuch a walk
round a field-, that field is often raifed to the charac¬
ter of a lawn : and fometimes the inclofure is, in faft,
a paddock. Whatever it be, the walk is certainly gar¬
den : it is a fpot fet apart, for pleafure ; it admits on
the fides a profufion of ornament; it is fit for the re¬
ception of every elegance, and requires the niceft pre¬
fervation: it is attended alfo with many advantages;
may be made and kept without much expence ; leads
to a variety of points; and avails itfelf, in its progrefs,
of the feveral circumftances which belong to the in¬
clofure it furrounds, whether they be the rural appur¬
tenances of a farm, or thofe more refined which diltin-
guifh a paddock.
But it has at the fame time its inconveniencies and
defedls. Its approach to the feveral points is always cir¬
cuitous, and they are thereby often thrown to a diftance
from the houfe and from each other: there is no ac-
cefs to them acrofs the open expofure: the way mull
conftantly be the fame: the view all along is into one
opening, which muft be peculiarly circumftanced, to
furnifti within itfelf a fufficient variety: and the em-
bellilhments of the walk are feldom important; their
number is limited ; and the little fpace allotted for their
reception admits only of thofe which can be accommo¬
dated to the fcale, and will conform to the character.
This fpecies of garden, therefore, reduces almolt to a
famenefs all the places it is applied to: the fubjeft
fecnls exhaufted: no walk round a field can now be very
different from feveral others already exifting. At the
beft too it is but a walk: the fine fcenery of a garden
is wanting : and that in the field, which is fubftituted
in its ftc-ad, is generally of an inferior chara&er ; and
often defective in conatflion with the fpot which com-
Hiandar
32V2
GAR
E N I N G.
Part
irit
Section V. mands It, by tbe intefvsntlon of the fence, or the vl»
Garden, difference in the prefervation.
“ This obje&ion, however, has more or lefs force ac¬
cording to the character of the inclofure. If that be a
paddock or a lawn, it may exhibit fcenes not unworthy
of the molt elegant garden; which agreeing in ftyle,
will unite in appearance, with the walk. The other
objedtions alfo are ftronger or weaker in proportion to
the fpace allowed for the appendages; and not appli¬
cable at all to a broad circuit of garden, which has
room within itfelf for fcenery, variety, and charadter:
but the common narrow walk, too indifcriminately in
falhion, if continued to a confiderable extent, becomes
very tirefome; and the points it leads to muft be more
than ordinarily delightful, to compenfate for the fa¬
tigue of the way.
This tetHoufnefs may, however, be remedied, with¬
out any extravagant enlargement of the plan, by ta¬
king in, at certain intervals, an additional breadth,
fufficient only for a little fcene to interrupt the unifor¬
mity of the progrefs. The walk is then a communica¬
tion, not between points of view, through all which it
remains unaltered; but between the feveral parts of a
garden, in each of which it is occafionally loft; and,
when refumed, it is at the worft a repetition, not a con¬
tinuation of the fame idea ; the eye and the mind are
not always confined to one tradt; they expatiate at
times, and have been relieved before they return to it.
Another expedient, the very reverfe of this, may now
and then be put in pradlice: it is to contract, inftead
of enlarging, the plan; to carry the walk, in fome part
of its courfe, diredtly into the field, or at the moft to
Tecure it from cattle ; but, to make it quite fimple, o*
mit all its appendages, and drop every idea of a garden.
If neither of thefe, nor any other means, be ufed to
break the length of the way, though the inclofure
fhould furnilh a fuccefiion of fcenes, all beautiful, and
even contrafted to each other, yet the walk will
introduce a fimilarity between them. This fpecies of
garden, therefore, feems proper only for a place of a
very moderate extent; if it be ftretched out to a great
length, and not mixed with other charadfers, its fame-
nefs hurts that variety, which it is its peculiar merit to
difcover.
«4
t)f a garden
■which oc¬
cupies the
whole in¬
clofure.
Ihewn; on many occafions it fhould be induftrioufly Seftion
concealed: that it lead to the capital points is fufficient: GARPE1Si
it can never be requifite along the whole extent of
every fcene: .it may often fkirt a part of them, with*
out appearing ; or juft touch upon them, and with*
draw; but if it cannot be introduced at all without
hurting them, it ought commonly to be omitted.
The fides of a gravel-walk muft correfpond, and its
courfe be in fweeps gently bending all the way. It
preferyes its form, though conducted through woods,
or along glades, of the moft licentious irregularity. But
a grafs walk is under no reftraint; the fides of it may
be perpetually broken, and the dire&ion frequently
changed: fudden turns, however, areharfh; they check
the idea of progrefs ; they are rather difappointments.
than varieties ; and if they are fimilar, they are in the
worft ftyle of affeftation. The line muft be curved, but
it fhould not to be wreathed; if it be truly ferpentine,
it is the moft unnatural of any. It ought conftantly to
proceed ; and wind onlyjuft fo much, that the termi¬
nation of the view may differ at every ftep, and the
end of the walk never appear: the thickets which'con¬
fine it fhould be diverfified with feveral mixtures of
greens; no diftinftions in the forms of the fhrubs or
the trees will be loft, when there are opportunities to
obferVe them fo nearly; and combinations and contrafts
without number may be made, which will be there
truly ornamental. Minute beauties are proper in a
fpot precluded from great effects: and yet fuch a walk,
if it be broad, is by no means infignificant; it may
have an importance which will render it more than a
mere communication.
But the peculiar merit of that fpecies of garden
which occupies the whole inclofure, confifts in the lar¬
ger fcenes: it can make room for them both in breadth
and in length ; and being dedicated entirely to plea*
fure, free from all other confiderations, thofe fcenes
may be in any ftyle which the nature of the place will
allow : a number of them is expe&ed ; all different;
fometimes contrafted ; and each diftinguifhed by its
beauty. If the fpace be divided into little flips, and
made only a colleftion of v/alks, it forfeits all its ad¬
vantages, lofes its chara&er, and can have no other ex¬
cellence than fuch as it may derive from fituation :
whereas, by a more liberal difpofition, it may be made
But the advantages attending it upon fome, and the
ufe of it on fo many, occafions, have raifed a partiality independent of whatever is external; and though pro¬
in its favour; and it is often carried round a place, fpedts are no where more delightful than from a point
ivhfTP th? ni.AnA. ;*,rlnr«r* it . tJi* Infpn'nr nnon. Df v;ew which is alfo a beautiful fpot, yet if in fuch
a garden they fhould be wanting, the elegant, pic-
here the ’whok inclofure is garden ; the interior open¬
ings and communications furnifh there a fufficient
range ; and they do not require that number and va¬
riety of appendages, which muft be introduced to dif-
guife the uniformity of the circuitous walk, but which
often interfere with greater effe&s. It is at the leaft
unneceflary in fuch a garden ; .but plain gravel-walks
to every part are commonly deemed to be indifpen-
fable: they undoubtedly are convenient; but it muft
alfo be acknowledged, that though fometimes they a-
turefque, and various fcenes within itfelf, almoft fupply
the deficiency.
This is the chara&er of the gardens at Stowe : for Defcriptio|i
" " ’ ' " " !-i
there the views in the country are only circumftances of Stowe,
fubordinate to the fcenes ; and the principal advan¬
tage of the fituation is the variety of the ground with¬
in the inclofure. The houfe ftands on the brow of a
gentle afcent; part of the gardens lie on the declivity,
dorn, yet at other times they disfigure, the fcenes thro’ and fpread over the bottom beyond it: this eminence
Jivlnrh thpv are rPKp TvrMrxnVbrx*-    \ l   1 1 i* _ _ r .1
which they are conduced. The proprietor of the place,
who vifits thefe fcenes at different feafons, is moff an¬
xious for their beauty in fine weather; he does not feel
the reftraint to be grievous, if all of them be not at all
times equally acceifible; and a gravel -walkperpetually
before him, efpecially when it is ufelefs, muft be irk-
fome. It ought not, therefore, to be oftentatioufly
is feparated by a broad winding valley from another
which is higher and deeper ; and the defcents of both
are broken by large dips and hollows, (loping down
the fides of the hills. The whole fpace is divided into
a number of fcenes, each diltinguilhed with tafte and
fancy; and the changes are fo frequent, fo fudden,
and complete, the tranfitions fo artfully conducted,
that
Part II. CARD
Seflioii V that the fame ideas are never continued or repeated to
Garpen- fatiety.
Thefe gardens were begun when regularity was in
fafliion ; and the original boundary is dill preferved,
on account of its magnificence : for round the whole
circuit, of between three or four miles, is carried a
very broad gravel walk, planted with rows of trees,
and open either to the park or the country ; a deep-
funk fence attends it all the way, and comprehends a
fpace of near four hundred acres. But in the interior
fcenes of the garden, few traces of regularity appear :
where it yet remains in the plantations, it is generally
difguifed: every fymptom, almoft, of formality is obli¬
terated from the ground ; and an odlagon bafin in the
bottom, is now converted into an irregular piece of wa¬
ter, which receives on one hand two beautiful dreams,
and falls on the other down a cafcade into a lake.
In the front of the houfe is a confiderable lawn,
open to the water: beyond which are two elegant Do¬
ric pavilions, placed in the boundary of the garden,
but not marking it, though they correfpond to each
other; for dill further back, on the brow of fome
rifing grounds without the inclofure, dands a noble
Corinthian arch, by which the principal approach is
conduced, and from which all the gardens are feen,
reclining back againd their hills: they are rich with
plantations; full of objects ; and, lying on both fides
of the houfe almod equally, every part is within a
moderate didance, notwithdanding the extent of the
whole.
On the right of the lawn, but concealed from the
houfe, is a perfeft garden-fcene, called the queen’s
amphitheatre, where art is avowed, though formality
is avoided. The fore ground is fcooped into a gentle
hollow. The plantations on the iides, though but juft
refcued from regularity, yet in ftyle are contrafted to
each other: they are, on one hand, chiefly thickets,
handing out from a wood ; on the other, they are
open groves, through which a glimpfe of the water is
▼ifible. At the end of the hollow, on a little knole,
quite detached from all appendages, is placed an open
Ionic rotunda : beyond it, a large lawn dopes acrofs the
view; a pyramid flands on the brow; the queen’s
pillar, in a recefs on the defcent; and all the three
buildings, being evidently intended for ornament alone,
are peculiarly adapted to a garden-fcene. Yet their
number does not render it gay : the duiky hue of the
pyramid, the retired fituation of the queen’s pillar,
and the folitary appearance of the rotunda, give it an
air of gravity ; it is encompaffed with wood; and all
the external views are excluded ; even the opening into
the lawn is but an opening into an inclofure.
At the king’s pillar, very near to this, is another
lovely fpot; which is fmall, but not confined ; for no
termination appears: the ground one way, the water
another, retire under the trees out of fight, but no¬
where meet with a boundary. The view is firft over
fome very broken ground, thinly and irregularly
planted ; then between two beautiful clumps, which
feather down to the bottom ; and afterwards acrofs a
glade, and through a little grove beyond it, to that
part of the lake, where the thickets, clofe upon the
brink, fpread a tranquillity over the furface, in which
their lhadows are reflefted. Nothing is admitted to
difturb that quiet: no building obtrudes: for obje&s
Voi. V. *
E N I N G. 3213
to fix the eye are needlefs in a fcene, which may be Seftion V.
comprehended at a glance; and none would fuit theGARDEN'
paftoral idea it infpires, of elegance too refined for a
cottage, and of fimplicity too pure for any other
edifice.
The fituation of the rotunda promifes a profpeft
more enlarged ; and in fadf moil of the objedts on this
fide of the garden are there vifible : but they want
both connexion and contrail; each belongs peculiarly
to fome other fpot: they are all blended together in
this, without meaning ; and are rather fhewn on a
map, than formed into a pidlure. The water only is
capital ; a broad expanfe of it is fo near as to be feen
under the little groupes on the bank without interrup¬
tion. Beyond it is a wood, which in one place leaves
the lake, to run up behind a beautiful building, of
three pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic
order : it is called Kent’s Building. And never was a
defign more happily conceived : it feems to be cha-
radleriftically proper for a garden ; it is fo elegant,
fo varied, and fo purely ornamental: it diredlly fronts
the rotunda, and a narrow rim of the country appears
above the trees beyond it. But the effe£l even of this
noble objeA is fainter here than at other points: fits
pofition is not the moft advantageous; and it is but
one among many other buildings, none of which are
principal.
The fcene at the temple of Bacchus is in charadler
diredlly the reverfe of that about the rotunda, though
the fpace and the objects are nearly the fame in both:
but in this, all the parts concur to form one whole.
The ground from every fide fhelves gradually towards
the lake ; the plantations on the further bank open to
fhew Kent’s building, rife from the water’s edge to¬
wards the knole on which it ftands, and clofe again
behind it. That elegant ftruflure, inclined a little from
a front view, becomes more beautiful by being thrown
into perfpedlive ; and though at a greater diitance, is
more important than before, becaufe it is alone in the
view : for the queen’s pillar and the rotunda are re¬
moved far afide ; and every other circumftance refers
to this interefting objedl: the water attracts, the
ground and the plantations diredl, the eye thither ;
and the country does not juft glimmer in the offskip,
but is clofe and eminent above the wood, and con-
nedled by clumps with the garden. The fcene all to¬
gether is a moft animated landlkip : and the fplendor
of the building ; the reflection in the lake ; the tranf-
parency of the water, and the piCturefque beauty of
its form, diverfified by little groupes on the brink,
while on the broadeft expanfe no more trees call their
fhadows than are fufficient to vary the tints of the
furface ; all thefe circumftances, vying in luftre with
each other, and uniting in the point to which every
part of the fcene is related, dift’ufe a peculiar brilliancy
over the whole compofition.
The view from Kent’s building, is very different
from thofe which have been hitherto defcribed. They
are all directed down the declivity of the lawn. This
rifes up the afcent : the eminence being crowned with
lofty wood, becomes thereby more confiderable; and
the hillocks into which the general fall is broken,
doping further out this way than any other, they alfo
acquire an importance which they had not before :
that, particularly, on which the rotunda is placed,
18 M feems
32I4
Seflion V.
Garden.
GARDENING. Part
feems here to be a profound fituation ; and the flruc-
ture appears to be properly adapted to fo open an ex-
pofurc. The temple of Bacchus, on the contrary,
which commands ftich an illuftrious view, is itfelf a
retired objeft, clofe under the covert. The wood rif-
ing on the brow, and defcending down one fide of the
hill, is (hewn to be deep; is high, and feems to be
higher than it is. The lawn too is extenfive ; and part
of the boundary being concealed, it fuggefts the idea
of a ftill greater extent. A fmall portion only of the
lake indeed is vifible ; but it is not here an objedf : it
is a part of the fpot ; and neither termination being
in fight, it has no diminutive appearance: if more
water had been admitted, it might have hurt the cha¬
rade r of the place, which is fober and temperate;
neither folemn nor gay ; great and fimple, but ele¬
gant; above rufticity, yet free from oftentation.
Thefe are the principal fcenes on one fide of the
gardens. On the other, clofe to the lawn before the
houfe, is the winding valley abovementioned: the
lower part of it is affigned to the Elyfian fields. Thefe
are watered by a lovely rivulet; are very lightfome,
and very airy, fo thinly are the trees fcattered about
them ; are open at one end to more water and a lar¬
ger glade ; and the reft of the boundary is frequently
broken to let in obje&s afar off, which appear ftill
more diftant from the manner of (hewing them. The
entrance is under a Doric arch, which coincides with
an opening among the trees, and- forms a kind of
vifta, through which a Pembroke bridge juft below,
and a lodge built like a caftle in the park, are feen in
a beautiful perfpe&ive. That bridge is at one extre¬
mity of the gardens ; the queen’s pillar is at another ;
yet both are vifible from the fame ftation in the Elyfian
fields : and all thefe external objefts are unaffededly
introduced, divefted of their own appurtenances, and
combined with others which belong to the fpot. The
temple of friendftu'p alfo is in fight, juft without the
place: and within it, are the temples of ancient vir¬
tue, and of the Britifli worthies ; the one in an ele¬
vated fituation, the other low down in the valley, and
near to the water: both are decorated with the effi¬
gies of thofe who have been moft diftinguiftied for mi¬
litary, civil, or literary merit; and near to the former
Hands a roftral column, facred to the memory of cap¬
tain Grenville, who fell in an a&ion at fea by pla¬
cing here the meed of valour, and by filling thefe fields
with the reprefentations of thofe who have deferved beft
of mankind, the chara£fer intended to be given to the
fpot is juftly and poetically expreffed ; and the num¬
ber of the images which are prefented or excited, per-
fedlly correfponds with it. Solitude was never rec¬
koned among the charms of Elyfium ; it has been al¬
ways pictured as the manfion of delight and of joy e
and in this imitation, every circumftance accords with
that eftablifhed idea. The vivacity of the ftream which
flows through the vale ; the glimpfes of another ap¬
proaching to join it; the fprightly verdure of the
green fward, and every buft of the Britifh worthies
j-efle&ed in the water; the variety of the trees; the
lightnefs of the greens; their difpofition ; all of them
diftinA objects, and difperfed over gentle inequalities
of the ground ; together with the multiplicity of ob¬
jects both within and without, which embellifii and
euliveu the fcene j give it a gaiety, which the. imagi¬
nation can hardly conceive, or the heart wi(h to be Sea
exceeded. _ _ Gar
Clofe by this fpot, and a perfedt contraft to it, is
the alder grove; a deep recefs, in the midft of a (hade,
which the blaze of noon cannot brighten. The water
feems to be a ftagnated pool, eating into its banks;
and of a peculiar colour, not dirty but clouded, and
dimly reflecting the dun hue of the horfe-chefnuts and
alders which prefs upon the brink : the ftems of the
latter, riling in clufters from .the fame root, bear one
another down, and flant over the water. Mifhapen
elms and ragged firs are frequent in the wood which
eneompafles the hollow ; the trunks of dead trees are
left Handing amongft them ; and the uncouth fumach,
and the yew, with elder, nut, and holly, compofe the
underwood : fome limes and laurels are intermixt; but
they are not many : the wood is in general of the
darkeft greens; and the foliage is thickened with
ivy, which not only twines up the trees, but creeps
alfo over the falls, af the ground t thefe are deep and
abrupt : the gravel-walk is covered with mofs ; and
a grotto at the end, faced with broken flints and
pebbles, preferves, in the fimplicity of its materials,
and the dulkinefs of its colour, all the charadter of its
fituation : two little rotundas near it were better away ;
one building is fufficient for fuch a fcene of folituda
as this, in which more circumftances of gloom concur
than were ever perhaps colledted together.
Immediately above the alder-groye is the principal
eminence in the gardens. It is divided by a great dip
into two pinnacles ; upon one of which is a large Go¬
thic building. The fpace before this ftrudlure is an
extenfive lawn-: the ground on one fide falls imme¬
diately into the dip ; and the trees which border the
lawn, finking with the ground, the houfe rifes above
them, and fills the interval: the vaft pile feems to be
ftill larger than it is ; for it is thrown into perfpedtiver
and between and above the heads of the trees, the
upper ftory, the porticoes, the turrets and balluf-
trades, and all the dated roofs, appear in a noble con-
fufion. On the other fide of the Gothic building, the
ground (lopes down a long-continued declivity into a
bottom, which feems to be perfedlly irriguous. Divers
ftreams wander about it in feveral diredlions : the con¬
flux of that which runs from the Elyfian fields with
another below it, is full in fight; and a plain wooden
bridge thrown over the latter, and evidently defigned:
for a paflage, impofes an air of reality on the river.
Beyond it is one of the Doric porticoes which front
the houfe ; but now it is alone; it (lands on a little
bank above the water, and is feen under fome trees at
a diftance before it: thus grouped, and thus accom¬
panied, it is a happy incident, concurring with many
other circumftances to diftinguifh this.laudfltip by a
chara&er of cheerfulnefs and amenity.
From the Gothic building a broad walk leads tt*
the Grecian valley, which is a fcene of more grandeur
than any in the. gardens. It enters them from the
park, fpreading at firft to a confiderable breadth ;
then winds; grows narrower, but deeper; and lofes-
itfelf at laft in a thicket, behind fome lofty elms, which
interrupt the fight of the termination. Lovely woods
and groves hang all the way on the declivities: and
the open fpace is broken by detached trees ; which*
near the park, are cautioufly and fparingly introduced*.
Part IT. CARD
| Scifuon V. left the breadth fhould be contracted by them ; but as
Ga r ne n- . va]Jey finks, they advance more boldly down the
tides, ftretch acrofs or along the bottom, and clutter
at times into groupes and forms, which multiply the
varieties of the larger plantations. Thofe are fometimes
clofe coverts, and fometimes open groves : the trees
rife in one upon high ftems, and feather down to the
bottom in another; and between them are Ihort open¬
ings into the park or the gardens. In the midft of
the feene, juft at the bend of the valley, and com¬
manding it on both fides, upon a large, eafy, natural
rife, is placed the temple of Concord and Vi&ory : at
one place its majeftic front of fix Ionic columns, fup-
porting a pediment filled with bas relief, and the points
of it crowned with ftatues, faces the view ; at another,
the beautiful colonnade, on the fide, of ten lofty pillars,
retires in perfpeftive. It is feen from every part; and
impreffing its own character of dignity on all around,
it fpreads an awe over the whole : but no gloom, no
melancholy attends it : the fenfations it excites are
rather placid; but full of refped, admiration, and
folemnity: no water appears to enliven, no diftant
profpeCt to enrich, the view; the parts of the feene are
large, the idea of it fublime, and the execution hap¬
py; it is independent of all adventitious circumttances,
and relies on itfelf for its greatnefs.
The feenes which have been deferibed are fuch as
are moft remarkable for beauty or character; but the
gardens contain many more : and even the objeCts in
thefe, by their feveral combinations, produce very dif¬
ferent effeCts, within the diftance fometimes of a few
paces, from the unevennefs of the ground, the variety
of the plantations, and the number of the buildings.
|j The multiplicity of the laft has indeed been often urged
as an objection to Stowe; and certainly, when all are
feen by a ftranger in two or three hours, twenty or
thirty capital ftruCtures, mixed with others of inferior
note, do feem too many. But the growth of the wood
every day weakens the objection, by concealing them
one from the other: each belongs to a diftinCt feene;
and if they are confidered feparately, at different times,
and at leifure, it may be difficult to determine which
to take away. Yet liill it mutt be acknowledged that
their frequency deftroys all ideas of filence and retire¬
ment. Magnificence and fplendor are the charaCterif-
tics of Stowe: it is like one of thofe places celebrated
in antiquity, which were devoted to the purpofes of
religion, and filled with facred groves, hallowed foun¬
tains, and temples dedicated to feveral deities ; the
refort of diftant nations, and the objeCt of veneration
to half the heathen world : this pomp is, at Stowe,
blended with beauty ; and the place is equally diftin-
guifhed by its amenity and its grandeur-
In the midft of fo much embellifhment as may be
introduced into this fpecies of garden, a plain field, or
a Iheep-walk, is fometimes an agreeable relief, and
even wilder feenes may occafionally be admitted. Thefe
indeed are not properly parts of a garden, but they
may be comprehended within the verge of it; and their
proximity to the more ornamented feenes is at leaft a
convenience, that the tranfition from the one to the
©ther may be eafy, and the change always in our op¬
tion. For though a fpdt in the higheft ftate of im¬
provement be a neceffary appendage to a feat; yet, in
a place which is perfect, other characters will not be
E N I N G. 3215
wanting; if they cannot be had on a large fcale, they Section VT.
are acceptable on a fmaller; and fo many circum-Seas°ns-
fiances are common to all, that they may often be in-
termixed; they may always border on each other.
Sect. VI. Of the Seafons.
To every view belongs a light which fhews it to
advantage : every feene and every objeCt is in its
higheft; beauty only at particular hours of the day;
and every place is, by its fituation or its character,
peculiarly agreeable in certain months of the year.
The feafons thus become fubjeCts of confideration in
gardening; and when feveral of thofe circumftances
which dittinguith a fpot more at one time than ano¬
ther happen to concur, it will often be worth the
while to add to their number, and to exclude fuch as
do not agree with them, for no other purpofe than to ^
ftrengthen their effeCt at that particular time. Dif- Occafional
ferent parts may thus be adapted to different feafons, effefts.
and each in its turn will be in perfection. But if the
place will not allow of fuch a fucceffion, ftill occafional
ejfetts may often be fecured and improved, without pre¬
judice to the feene when they are pnft, and without
affeCtation while they continue.
The temple of Concord and Victory at Stowe has
been mentioned as one of the nobleft: objeCts that ever
adorned a garden : but there is a moment when it ap¬
pears in Angular beauty. The fetting fun fhines on
the long colonnade which faces the weft: all the lower
parts of the building are darkened by the neighbour¬
ing wood : the pillars rife at different heights out of
the obfeurity; fome of them are nearly overfpread
with it, fome are chequered with a variety of teints,
and others illuminated almoft down to their bafes.
The light is gently foftened off by the rotundity of
the columns: but it fpreads in broad gleams upon the
wall within them ; and pours full and without inter¬
ruption on all the entablature, diftinCily marking
every dentil. On the ftatues which adorn the feveral
points of the pediment, a deep fhade is contrafted to
fplendor: the rays of the fun linger on the fide of the
temple long after the front is overcaft with the
fober hue of evening ; and they tip the upper branches
of the trees, or glow in the openings between them,
while the fhadows lengthen acrofs the Grecian val-
ley.
Such an occafional effeCI, however tranfient, is fo
exquifitely beautiful, that it would be unpardonable to
negleCt it. Others may be produced at feveral hours
of the day; and the difpofition of the buildings, of
the ground, the water, and the plantations, may often
be accommodated to fu.pport them. There are alfo
occafional effe&s in certain months, or only weeks, of
the year, ariling from fome particular bloom, fome
ocupation then carrying on, or other incident, which
may fo far deferve attention as to recommend a choice,
and arrangement of objefts, which at that time will
improve the compofition, though at another they may
have no extraordinary merit-
Besides thefe tranfitory effe&s* there are others Of diffe-
which may be defined and produced with more exa£t- rrnlLP*jrts
nefs, which are fixed to Hated periods, and have cer- 0 1 e ^
tain properties belonging to them. Some fpecies and
fituations of obje&s are in themfelves adapted to re¬
ceive or to make the .impreffions which characterize
18 M z the
< C\
GARDENING. Part If. .1
. the principal parts of the day: their fplendor, their
ons. fobriety, and other peculiarities, recommend or prohibit
them upon different occalions. The fame confidera-
tions diredt the choice alfo of their appendages 5 and
in confequence of a judicious affemblage and arrange¬
ment of fuch as are proper for the purpofe, the fpirit
of the morning, the excefs of noon, or the temperance
of evening, may be improved or corredfed by the ap¬
plication of the fcene to the feafon.
In n morning, the freihnefs of the air allays the force
of the fun-beams, and their brightnefs is free from
glare: the molt fplendid objedts do not offend the eye,
nor fuggeft the idea of heat in its extreme; but they
correfpond with the glitter of the dew which be-
fpangles all the produce of the earth, and with the
cheerfulnefs diffufed over the whole face of the creation.
A variety of buildings may therefore be introduced to
enliven the view: their colour may be the pureft white,
without danger of excefs, though they face the eaftern
fun; and thofe which are in other afpedts fhould be fo
contrived, that their turrets, their pinnacles, or other
points, may catch glances of the rays, and contribute
to illuminate the fcene. The trees ought in general
to be of the lighteft greens, and fo fituated as not to
darken much of the landlkip by the length of their
fhadows. Vivacity in the ftreams, and tranfparency
in a lake, are more important at this than at any
other hour of the day: and an open expofure is com¬
monly the moft delightful, both for the effedt of
particular obje&s, and the general charadter of the
fcene.
At noon, every expedient fhould be ufed to corredt
the excefs of the feafon. The fhades are fhortened,
they muff therefore be thick; but open plantations
are generally preferable to a clofe covert: they afford
a paffage, or at leaft admittance to the air; which,
tempered by the coolnefs of the place, foft to the
touch, and refrefhing at once to all the fenfes, renders
the fhade a delightful climate, not a mere refuge from
heat. Groves, even at a diftance, fuggeft the ideas
which they realize on the fpot; and, by multiplying
the appearances, improve the fenfations of relief from
the extremity of the weather. Grottos, caves, and cells,
are on the fame account agreeable circumftances in a
fequeftered recefs; and though the chill within be
hardly ever tolerable, the eye catches only an idea of
coolnefs from the fight of them. Other buildings
ought in general to be caft into fhade, that the glare
of the refledfion from them may be obfcured. The
large expanfe of a lake is alfo too dazzling: but a
broad river moving gently, and partially darkened
with fhadow, is very refrefhing; more fo perhaps than
a little rill, for the vivacity of the latter rather dif-
turbs the repofe which generally prevails at mid-day.
Every breeze then is ftill; the reflexion of an afpen-
leaf fcarcely trembles on the water; the animals remit
their fearch of food, and man ceafes from his labour;
the fleam of heat feems to opprefs all the faculties of
the mind, and all the aftive powers of the body; and
any very lively motion difcompofes the languor in
which we then delight to indulge. To hear, there¬
fore, the murmurs of a brook purling underneath a
thicket, or the echo of falling waters through a wood,
is more agreeable than the fight of a current; the idea
conveyed by the found is free from any agitation:
but if no other ftream than a rill can be introduced, Seftion VI. Iv
the refrefliment which attends the appearance of water Season»,|h
mult not be denied to the fcene.
In the evening, all fplendor fades: no buildings
glare ; no water dazzles. The calmnefs of a lake fuits
the quiet of the time: the light hovers there, and
prolongs the duration of day. An open reach of a
river has a fimilar, though a fainter, effe&; and a con¬
tinued ftream all expofed, preferves the laft rays of
the fun along the whole length of its courfe, to beau¬
tify the landfkip : but a brifk current is not fo con¬
fident as a lake with the tranquillity of evening. And
other obje£ts fhould in general conform to the temper
of the time. Buildings of a duflcy hue are moft agree¬
able to it: but a very particular effefk from a fetting
fun will recommend thofe of a brighter colour; and
they may alfo be fometimes ufed, among other means,
to correft the uniformity of twilight. No contraft of
light and fliade can then be produced: but if the
plantations, which by their fituation are the firft to be
obfcured, be of the darkeft greens, if the buildings
which have a weftern afpeft be of a light colour, and
if the management of the lawns and the water be
adapted to the fame purpofe, a diverfity of tints
will be preferved long after the greater effe&s are
faded. ce !
TnEdelights,however,ofthemorningandevenlngare Of thefca-
confinedtoafew months of the year; at other times, two fons tliej
or three hours before, and as much after, noon, are all year* t
that are pleafant; and even then the heat is feldomfo
extreme as to require relief from its excefs. The dif-
tin&ions, therefore, between the three parts of the day
may in general be reckoned among the charafteriftics
of fummer. The occafional effefts which by the poll-
fition of objedts may occur at any hour, are common
to all the feafons of the year: and fuch as arife from
the accidental colours of plants, though they are more
frequent and more beautiful in one feafon than ano¬
ther, yet exift in all; and very agreeable groupes may
be formed by an affemblage of them. A degree of
importance may be given even to the flowers of a bor¬
der, if, inftead of being indiferiminately mixed, they
are arranged according to their heights, their fizes,
and their colours, fo as to difplay their beauties, and
to blend or contraft their varieties to the greateft ad¬
vantage. The bloom of Ihrubs differs from that of
flowers only in the fcale; and the tints occafioned by
the hue of the berry, the foliage, or the bark, are
fometimes little inferior to bloom. By colledfing into
one fpot fuch plants as have at the fame time their ac¬
cidental colours, confiderable effe&s may be produced
from the concurrence of many little caufes.
Thofe which arife from bloom are the moft ftriking,
and the moft certain ; and they abound chiefly in the
fpring. Bloom is a charadteriftic of the feafon ; and a
villa near town, which is defigned principally for that
time of the year, is not adapted to its ufe if this
property be not amply provided for. In fuch a place,
therefore, (hrubberies, with an intermixture of flowers,
are peculiarly proper. In the fummer-months, a bor¬
der between the thicket and the greenfward, breaks
the connexion, and deftroys the greater effedt: it
ought not to be then introduced* except to enliven
fmall fpots, and as the belt fpecies of parterre. But
in the fpring, the thicket is hardly formed: its prin-
i Part IT. GARDENING.
ijeftlon VI. cipal beauty is bloom; and flowers before or among the change.of the leaf precedes the fall; and thence S'
|8easons. the flirubs, are agreeable to the chara&er of the fea- refults a variety of colours, fuperior to any which the s
fon. An orchard, which, at other times, is untight- fpring or the fummer can boaft of. To (hew and to "
ly, is then delightful ; and, if a farm joins to the gar- improve that variety fhould be principally attended to,
den, fhould not be forgotten. But evergreetis appear in a place, fuch as a fporting feat, which is frequent*
in general to great difadvantage. Moft of them have ed only in autumn. It appears to advantage, whene-
a ruffetora dark hue, which fuffers by being conftraft- ver the furface of a wood can be commanded ; and it
ed to the lively verdure of the young fhoots on the may be produced to a confiderable degree, even in a
deciduous trees. That verdure is, however, fo light, ihrubbery, if the plants are fo difpofed as to rife in
and fo univerfal, that effefts, from a mixture of greens, gradation one behind another. By obferving the tints
can feldom be produced; and thofe which depend on which the leaves affume when they change, the choice
a depth of fhade will often be difappointed. But build- may be dire&ed to the improvement of their variety ;
ings, views of water, and whatever tends to animate and by attending to the times when they fall, a fuc-
the feene, accord with the feafon ; which is full of ceffion of thefe tranfitory beauties may be provided,
youth and vigour, frefh and fprightly, brightened by from the carlielt to the lateft in the feafon. Many
the verdure of the herbage and the woods, gay with ihrubs and trees are at this time alfo covered with ber-
bloffoms and flowers, and enlivened by the fongs of ries, which furnifh ftill further varieties of colour;
the birds in all their variety, from the rude joy of the both evergreens and deciduous plants abound with
Iky-lark, to the delicacy of the nightingale. them ; and the verdure of the former is befides a wel-
In funmer, both the buildings and the water are a- come fubftitute to that which is daily fading away,
greeable, not as objects only, but alfo as circumltan- Open buildings, airy groves, views of water, and the
ces of refrefhment : the pleafantnefs, therefore, of the other delights of fummer, now lofe their charms ; and
rooms in the former, of the feats and the walks near more homely circumflances of comfort and convenience
the latter, is to be regarded. The plantations alfo are preferable to all their beauties,
fhould be calculated at lead as much for places of re- A place which is the refidence of a family all the
treat, as for ornaments of the view; and a continua- year is very defective, if fome portion of it be not fet
tion of fhade be preferved, with very few and fhort in- apart for the enjoyment of a fine day, for air, and ex-
terruptions, through all the parts of the garden. Com- ercife, in winter. To fuch a fpot (belter is abfolutely
munications by gravel walks are of lefs confeqiience : effential; and evergreens being the thickeft covert, are
they do not fugged that idea of utility which attends therefore the bed : their verdure alfo is then agreeable
them in winter or autumn; and their colour, which to the eye; and they may be arranged fo as to pro¬
in fpring is a lively contrad to the verdure through duce beautiful mixtures of greens, with more certain-
which it winds, is in the intemperate blaze of a fum- ty than deciduous trees, and with almod equal varie-
mer day glaring and painful. They fhould, there- ty: they may be colle&ed into a wood ; and through
fore, be concealed as much as poffible ; and the other that wood gravel-walks may be led, along openings of
confiderations which belong to the noon-tide hour a confiderable breath, free from large trees which
fhould be particularly attended to, at the fame time would intercept the rays of the fun, and winding in
that the delights of the morning and the evening are fuch a manner as to avoid any draft of wind, from
alfo liberally provided for. But, exclufive of all fuch whatever quarter it may blow. But when a retreat at
incidental circumftances, the feenes of nature in gene- all times is thus fecured, other fpots may be adapted
ral appear at this feafon to the greateft advantage: only to occafional purpofes; and be fheltered towards
though the bloom of the fpring be faded, and the ver- the north or the ealt ou one hand, while they are open
dure of the herbage may be fometimes affe&ed by to the fun on the other. The few hours of cheerful-
drought; yet the richnefs of the produce of the earth, nefs and warmth which its beams afford are fovalu-
and the luxuriance of the foliage in the woods; the fen- able, as to juftify the facrifice even of the principles
fations of refrefhment, added to the beauty of water ; of beauty to the enjoyment of them ; and therefore
the ideas of enjoyment which accompany the fight of no obje&ions of famenefs or formality can prevail a-
every grove, of every building, and every delightful gainft the pleafantnefs of a flraight walk, under a thick
fpot; the chara&ers of rocks, heightened by their hedge or a fouth wall. The eye may, however, be di¬
appendages, and unallayed by any difconfolate reflec- verted from the fkreen, by a border before it, where
tions; the connexion of the ground with the planta- the aconite and the fnowdrop, the crocus and hepati-
tions, the permanency of every teint, and the certain- ca, brought forward by the warmth of the fituation,
ty of every effedl; all concur, in fummer, to raife the will be welcome harbingers of fpring ; and on the op-
feveral compofitions to their higheft date of perfec- polite fide of the walk, little tufts of lauruftines, and
tlon. of variegated evergreens, may be planted. The fpot
But maturity is always immediately fucceeded by de- thus enlivened by a variety of colours, and even a de¬
cay : flowers bloom and fade; fruits ripen and rot; gree of bloom, may be ftill further improved by a
the grafs fprings and withers ; and the foliage of the green-houfe. The entertainment which exotics afford
woods fhoots, thickens, and falls. In the latter peculiarly belongs to this part of the year; and if a-
months of autumn, all nature is on the decline; it is moqgft them be interfperfed fome of our earlieft
a comfortlefs feafon : not a bloflbm is left on the flowers, they will there blow before their time, and an-
fhrubs or the trees ; and the few flowers which ftill ticipate the gaiety of the feafon which is advancing^
remain in the borders, dripping with wet, and ficken- The walk may alfo lead to the ftoves, where the cit¬
ing even as they blow, feem hardly to furvive the leaves mate and the plants are always the fame. And the
of the plant which are fhrivelling beneath them. But kitchen-garden fhould not be far off; for that is never
quite
32lS
Conclufion.
69
Extent and
ftudy of
gardening.
Gardiner
II
Garland,
GARDENING.
!
Part If
quite deftitute of produce, and always an a&ive fcene :
the appearance of bufinefs is alone engaging; and the
occupations there are an earneft of the happier feafons
to which they are preparative. By thefe expedients
even the winter may be rendered cheerful in a place,
where (belter is provided againft all but the bittereft
inclemencies of the iky, and agreeable obje&s and in-
terefting amufements are contrived for every hour of
tolerable weather.
To conclude: Whatever contributes to render the
fcenes of nature delightful, is amongft the fubje&s of
gardening; and animate as well as inanimate objefts,
are circumftances of beauty or chara&er. Several of
thefe have been occafionally mentioned ; others will
readily occur; and nothing is unworthy of the atten¬
tion of a gardener, which can tend to improve his com-
pofitions, whether by immediate effe&s, or by fuggell-
ing a train of pleafing ideas. The whole range of na¬
ture is open to him, from the parterre to the foreft;
and whatever is agreeable to the fenfes or the imagina¬
tion, he may appropriate to the fpot he is to improve:
it is a part of his bufinefs to collcA into one place, the
delights which are generally difperfed thro’ different
fpecies of country.
But in this application, the genius of the place muft
always be particularly confidered: to force it, is hazard¬
ous ; and an attempt to contradict it, is always unfuc-
cefsful. The beauties peculiar to one charafter, can¬
not be transferred to its oppofite : even where the
charadterp are the fame, it is difficult to copy dire&ly
GAR —
GARDINER (Stephen), bifhop of Winchefter,
and lord chancellor of England, born at Bury St Ed¬
munds in Suffolk, natural fon to Richard Woodville,
brother to queen Elizabeth wife to Edward IV. was
learned in the canon and civil laws, and in divinity. He
figned the divorce of Henry VIII. from Katharine of
Spain ; abjured the pope’s fupremacy ; and writ De ve-
ra et falfa obcdientia, in behalf of the king : yet in
Edward's reign he oppofed the reformation, and was
punifhed with imprifonment; but queen Mary coming
to the throne, ffie enlarged him. He drew up the ar¬
ticles of marriage between the queen and Philip of
Spain, which were very advantageous to England. He
was violent againft the reformers; but on his death¬
bed was diffatisfied with his life, and often repeated
thefe words : Erravi cum Petro, fed non flevi cum Pe¬
tra. He died in 1555.
GARGARISM, (from yapkfila, <t to wafh the
mouth a gargle. Its ufe is for wafhing the
mouth and throat with, when inflammations, ulcera¬
tions, &c. are there. A fmall quantity may be ta¬
ken into the mouth, and naoved brifkly about, and then
fpit out; or if the patient cannot do this to any advan¬
tage, the liquor may be injefted by a fyringe. When
fjargles are required, their ufe fhould be more frequent-
y repeated than is done in common practice.
GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers,
feathers, and fometimes precious Hones, worn on the
head, in manner of a crown—The word is formed of
the French guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latin
garlanda, or Italian ghirlanda. Menage traces its ori¬
gin from gyrus, through gyrulus, to gyrulars, gyrlan-
from the one into the other; and by endeavouring to
produce a refemblance of a fcene which is juftly ad¬
mired, the proper advantages of the place are often
neglected for an imitation much inferior the original.
The excellence of the latter probably depends on the
happy application of the circumftances to the fubjedt;
and the fubjedts of both are never exactly alike. The
art of gardening, therefore, is not to be ftudied in thofe
fpots only where it has been exercifed; though they
are in this country very numerous, and very various.
Yet all together they contain but a fmall proportion of
the beauties which nature exhibits : and unlefs the gar¬
dener has ftored his mind with ideas from the infinite
variety of the country at large, he will feel the want
of that number which is neceffary for choice; he will
have none ready to apply to the fubjedf immediately
before him ; and will be reduced to copy an imitation.
But improved places are of Angular ufe to direct the
judgment in the choice, and the combinations, of the
beauties of nature: an extenfive knowledge of them
is to be acquired in the country where they cafually
occur ; difeernment of their excellencies, and a tafte for
the difpofition of them, is to be formed in places where
they have been felefted, and arranged with defign.
For the particular Operations in Gardening, fee
Planting, Pruning, Grafting, Inoculating,
KiTCHEN-Gk?rd?/z, Orchard, Gv.wn-Houfe, Hot-
Houfe, Inarching, Espalier, &c. and the culture [
and management of different plants under their refpec-
tive names. i
GAR
dim, ghirlandum, and at length ghirlanda and guir- G«lan*i
lande; fo that guirlande and garland are defeended in 1
the fixth or feventh degree from gyrus.—Hicks rejedls an'e ry
this derivation, and brings the word from gardel han-
da, which in the northern languages fignify a nofe-
gay artfully 'wrought 'with the hand.
Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits,
and leaves, intermixed ; anciently much ufed at the
gates of temples, where feafts and folemn rejoicings
were held ; or at any other place where marks of pub¬
lic joy or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches,
tournaments, &c.
GARLIC. See Allium.
GARNET, in natural hiftory, a very beautiful gem,
of a red colour, with an admixture of blue.
_ When pure and free from blemiflies, it is little infe¬
rior, in appearance, to the oriental ruby, tho’ only of
a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire and
common cryftal. It is found, of various fizes, from that
of a pin’s head to an inch in diameter.
Among our lapidaries and jewellers, genuine garnets
are known by different names according to their dif¬
ferent degrees of colour, i. The garnet, Amply fo
called, is the fineft and moft valuable kind, being of
a very deep blood-red, with a faint admixture of
blue. 2. The rock-ruby, a name very improperly gi¬
ven to the garnet, when it is of a very ftrong but not
deep red, and has a fairer call of the blue : this is a
very beautiful gem. 3. The forane or ferain garnet;
that of a yet brighter red, approaching to the colour
of native cinnabar, with a faint blue tinge. 4. The
almandine, a garnet only a little paler than that called
GAR
[ 3
Garnet the rock-ruby.
| II , Garnets are very properly diftingui'fhed into the o-
G3rr‘c^' riental and occidental kinds, as being found in Europe
as well as the Eaft Indies. The oriental ones are prin¬
cipally brought from'Calicut, Cananor, and Cambay;
and the European ones are common in Italy, Hungary,
and Bohemia.
Some authors have fuppofed the deeper-coloured
garnet to be the fame with the carbuncle of the an-
/ cients : from which it really differs; fince, on recei¬
ving the fun’s beams, it never gives fo.true a fire-colour
as the carbuncle.
GARNET-C^ar; To give this colour to glafs, the
workmen take equal quantities of cryftal and Rochet-
ta fritt; and to every hundred weight of this mixture
they add a pound of mangahefe, and a pound of pre¬
pared zaffre : thefe are to be powdered feparately,
then mixed and added by degrees to the fritt while in
the furnace : great care is to be taken to mix the man-
ganefe and zaffre very perfectly; and when the mat¬
ter has flood 24 hours in fufion, it may be worked.
To imitate Garnets. The making the counterfeit
garnet in pafte is done as follows.—Take prepared cry¬
ftal two ounces, common red-lead fix ounces, manga-
nefe 16 grains, zaffre three grains; mix all well, put
them into a crucible, cover it with lute, and fet it in
a potter’s kiln for 24 hours. Or take cryftal two oun¬
ces, minium five ounces and a half, manganefe 15
grains, zaffre four grains : mix them well together ; and
let all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter’s kiln
24 hours.
GARONNE, a large river of France, which ta¬
king its rife in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-
wefl by the city of Tholoufe, divides the provinces of
Gl>ienne and Gafcony, and, vifiting the city of Bour-
deaux, falls into the bay of Bafcay,’ about 60 miles
below that city. It lias alfo a communication with
the Mediterranean, by means of the royal canal of
Lewis XIV. The tide flows up this river 20 miles
above Bourdeaux.
GARRICK (David), Efq; the great Rofcius of
this age and country, who for near^o years hath Ihone
the brighteft luminary in thehemifphereofthe ftage, was
born at the Angel Inn at Hereford, in the year 1716.
His father, Captain Peter Garrick, was a French re¬
fugee, and had a troop of horfe which were then quar¬
tered in that city. This rank he maintained in the ar¬
my for feveral years, and had a majority at the time of
his death ; that event, however, prevented him from
ever enjoying it. Mr Garrick received the firft rudi¬
ments of his education at the free-tfchool at Litchfield;
which he afterwards completed at Rochefter, under
the celebrated Mr Colfon, fince mathematical profeffor
at Cambridge. Dr Johnfon and he were fellow-ftu-
dents at the fame fchool; and it is a curious fadt, that
thefe two celebrated geniufes came up to London, with
the intention of pnlhing themfelves into adtive life, in
the fame coach. On the 9th of March 1736, he was
entered at the honourable fociety of Lincoln’s-Inn.
The ftudy of the law, however, he foon quitted;
and followed for fome time the employment of a
wine-merchant : but that too difgufting him, he gave
way at laft to the irrefiftible bias of his mind, and
joined a travelling company of comedians at Ipfwich in
Suffolk, where he went by the name of Lyddel. Ha.-
219] GAR
ving in this poor fchool of Apollo got fome acquain¬
tance with the theatric art, he burfl at once upon the
world, in the year 1740-1, in all the luftre of perfec¬
tion, at the little theatre in Goodman’s Fields, then
under the diredfion of Henry Giffard.
The charadier he firft performed was Richard the
Third ; in which, like the fun burfting from behind a
cloud, he difplayed, in the earlieft dawn, a fomewhat
more than meridian brightnefs. His excellence dazzled
and aftonilhed every one; and the feeing a young man,
in no more than his 24th year, and a novice in reality
to the ftage, reaching at one Angle ftepto that height
of perfedtion which maturity of years and long pradi-
cal experience had not been able to beftow on the then
capital performers of the Englifh ftage, was a phe¬
nomenon that could not but become the objedl of uni-
verfal fpeculation and of as univerfal admiration. The
theatres at the weft end of the town were deferted ;
Goodman’s Fields, from being the rendezvous of citi¬
zens and citizens wives alone, became the refort of all
ranks of men ; and Mr Garrick continued to adt till the
clofe of the feafon.
Having very advantageous terms offered him for the
performing in Dublin during fome part of the fummer
(1741), he went over thither, where he found the
fame juft homage paid to his merit which he had recei¬
ved from his own countrymen. To the fervice of the
latter, however, he efteemed himfelf more immediate¬
ly bound ; and therefore, in the enfurng winter, en¬
gaged himfelf to Mr Fleetwood, then manager of
Drury-Lane : in which theatre he continued till the
year 1745, when he again went over to Ireland, and
continued there the v/hole feafon, joint manager with
Mr Sheridan in the diredtion and profits of the theatre-
royal in Smock-Alley. From thence he returned to
England, and was engaged for the feafon of 1746 with
Mr Rich at Covent-Garden- This was his laft perform¬
ance as an hired adlor : for in the clofe of that feafop,
Mr Fleetwood’s patent for the management of Drury-
Lane being expired, and that gentleman having no in¬
clination further to purfue a defign by which, from
his want of acquaintance with the proper eondudl of it,
or fome other caijfe, he had confiderably impaired his
fortune ; Mr Garrick, in conjun&ion with Mr Lacy,
pin-chafed the property of that theatre, together with
the renovation of the patent ; and in the winter of
1747, opened it with the greateft part of Mr Fleet¬
wood’s company, and with the great additional (Length
of Mr Barry, Mrs Pritchard, and Mrs Cibber, frona
Covent-Garden.
In this Ration Mr Garrick continued till his retire¬
ment in the fpring of 1776 ; and both by his condudt
as a manager, and his unequalled merit as an attor,
from year to year added to the entertainment and con-
fuked the tafte of the public with the greateft afliduity-
They were grateful in their acknowledgments; and by
a well-deferved and warm encouragement, raifed him to
a (late of fame, eafe, and affluence, which he enjoyed
for many years.
Were we to trace Mr Garrick through the feveral
occurrences of his life,—a life fo aftive, fo bufy, and
fo full of occurrences as his, we fltould fwell this account
to many pages. Suffice it to fay, he continued in the
unmolefted enjoyment of his fame and unrivalled ex¬
cellence to the moment of his retirement. His un.veu-
fality
Garrick.
GAR [ 3220 ] GAR
faUty of excellence was never once attacked by compe¬
tition. Tragedy, comedy, and farce, the lover and
the hero, the jealous hufband who fufpects his wife
without caufe, and the thoughtlefs lively rake who
attacks it without defign, were all alike his own. Rage
and ridicule, doubt and defpair, tranfport and tender-
nefs, compafixon and contempt; love, jealoufy, fear,
fury, and fimplicity ; all took in turn poffeffion of his
features, while each of them in turn appeared to be
the foie polfelTor of his heart. In the feveral charac¬
ters of Lear and Hamlet, Richard, Dorilas, Romeo,
and Lufignane; in his Ranger, Bayes, Drugger, Kite-
ly, Brute, and Benedick, you faw the muicular con¬
formations that your ideas attached to them all,. In
fhort, nature, the miftrefs from whom alone this
great performer borrowed all his leffons, being in her-
felf inexhauftible, this her darling fon, marked out
for her trued reprefentative, found an unlimited fcope
for change anddiverfity in his manner of copying from
her various productions. There is one part of theatri¬
cal conduCt which ought u-nqueftionably to be recorded
to Mr Garrick’s honour, fmce the cauCe of virtue and
morality, and the formation of public manners, are
confiderably dependent upon it; and that is, the zeal
with which he aimed to bani/h from the ftage all thofe
plays which carry with them an immoral tendency,
and to prune from thofe which do not abfolutely, on
the whole, promote the interefts of vice, fuch fcenes
of licentioufnefs and Liberty, as a redundancy of wit
and too great livelinefs of imagination have induced
fomeof our comic writers to indulge themfelves in, and
which the fympathetic difpofrtion of our age of gallan¬
try and intrigue has given fanCtionto. The purity of
the Englilh ttage has certainly been much more fully
eftablilhed during the adminidration of this theatrical
minider, than it had ever been during preceding ma¬
nagements. He feems to have carried his moded, mo¬
ral, chade, and pious principles with him into the
very management of the theatre itfelf, and refcued per¬
formers from that obloquy which duck on the profef-
fion. Of thofe who were accounted blackguards, un¬
worthy the affociation of the world, he made gentle¬
men, united them with fociety^ and introduced them
to all the domedic comforts of life. The theatte was
no longer edeemed the receptacle of all vice ; and the
moral, the ferious, the religious part of mankind did
not hefitate to partake of the rational entertainment of
a play, and pafs a cheerful evening undifguded with
the licentioufnefs, and uncorrupted by the immorality,
of the exhibition.
Notwitbdanding the numberlefs and laborious avo¬
cations attendant on his profeffion as an a&pr, and his
ftation as a manager; yet dill his a&ive genius was
perpetually burding forth in various little produ&ions
■in the dramatic and poetical way, whofe merit cannot
but make us regret his want of time for the purfnance
of more extenfive and important works. It is certain,
that his merit as an author is not of the fird magnitude:
but his great knowledge of men and manners, of dage-
eftedl, and his happy turn for lively and driking fa-
tire, made him generally fuccefsful ; and his prologue*
and epilogues in particular, which are almod innume¬
rable, polfefs fuch a degree of happinefs, both in the
conception and execution, as to dand unequalled. His
Ode on the death of Mr Pelham run through four edi¬
tions in lefs than fix weeks. His Ode on Shakefpeare
is a maderly piece of poetry ; and when delivered by
himfelf, was a mod capital exhibition. His altera¬
tions of Shakefpeare and other authors have been at
times fuccefsful, and at times exploded. The cutting
out the grave-diggers fcene from Hamlet will never be
forgot to him by the inhabitants of the gallery at Dru¬
ry. Though necelfary to the chadenefs of the fcene,
they cannot bear to lofe fo much true derling wit and
humour; and it mud be owned, that exuberances of
that kind, though they hurt the uniformity, yet in-
creafe the luxuriance of the tree. Among his altera¬
tions the following are part: Every Man in his Hu¬
mour, altered from Ben Johnfon ; Romeo and Juliet,
Winter’s Tale, Catherine and Petruchio, Cymbeline,
Hamlet, &c. altered and made up from Shakefpeare ;
Gameders, a comedy, from Shirley ; Ifabella, from
Southerne. To thefe we add, as original produ&ions.
The Farmer’s Return, and Linco’s Travels, inter¬
ludes ; Guardian, Lethe, Lying Valet, Mifs in her
Teens, Male Coquet, Irilh Widow, and other come¬
dies in two ads; Enchanter, a mufical entertainment;
LillipUt; the Chrfdmas Tale is afcribed to him, and
many others. A* this time a complete edition of his
works is preparing for the prefs, under the diredion
of his friends, and in which the whole will be ascer¬
tained.
We now bring him to the period of his retirement
in the fpring of 1776 ; when, full of fame, with the ac¬
quirement of a fplendid fortune, and growing into
years, he thought proper to feek the vale of life, to
enjoy that dignified and honourable eafe which was
compatible with his public fituation, and which he
had fo well earned by the adivity and the merits of
his dramatic reign. But very, fhort, indeed, was the
period allotted to him for this precious enjoyment: for
on the 20th day of January 1779, he departed this life;
leaving no one rival in excellence upon earth to compen-
fafe for his lofs, or a hope of our ever meeting with
his like again.
GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces,
difpofed in a fortrefs, to defend it againil the enemy,
or to keep the inhabitants in fubjedion ; or even to be
fubfifted during the winter-feafon : hence,and
•winter-quarters are fometimesufed, indifferently, for the
fame thing; and fometimes they denote different
things. In the latter cafe, a garrifon is a place
wherein forces are maintained to fecure it; and where
they keep regular guard, as a frontier town, a cita¬
del, caflle, tower, &c. The garrifon fhould be always
ftronger than the townfmen.
Du Cange derives the word from the corrupt Latin
garnijio, which the latter writers nfe to fignify all man¬
ner of munition, arms, viduals, &c. neceffary for the
defence of a place, and fuftaining of a fiege.
Winter-quarters fignify a place where a number of
forces are laid up in the winter feafon, without keep¬
ing the regular guard.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the flocking ;
but particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of
knights, hence denominated the
Order of the Garter, a military order of knight¬
hood, the mod noble and ancient of any lay-order in
the world, inftituted by Edward III. This order con-
fifts of 26 kniglus-companions, generally princes and
peers,
GAR [ 32
"Gatter. peers, whereof the king of England is the fovereign or
’ chief. They are a college or corporation, having a
great and little feal.
Their officers are a prelate, chancellor, regifter,
king at arms, and uflier of the black rod. They have
alfo a dean-with 12 canons, and petty canons, vergers,
and 26 penfioners or poor knights. The prelate is the
head. This office is veiled in the biihop of Winche-
fter, and has ever been fo. Next to the prelate is the
chancellor ; which office is veiled in tHe biihop of Sa-
lifbury, who keeps the feals, &c. The next is the re¬
gifter, who by his oath is to enter upon the regiftry,
the fcrutinies, ele&ions, penalties, and other ads of
the order, with all fidelity. The fourth officer is Gar¬
ter and King-at-arms, being two diilind offices united
in one perfon. Garter carries the rod and fceptre at
the feaft of St George, the protedor of this order,
when the fovereign is prefent. He notifies the elec¬
tions of new knights, attends the folemnity of their
inftallations, carries the garter to the foreign prin¬
ces, &c. He is the principal officer within the col¬
lege of arms, and chief of the heralds. See King at
Arms.
All thefe officers, except the prelate, have fees and
penlions. The college of the order is feated in the
caftle of Windfor, with the chapel of St George, and
the charter-houfe, ereded by the founder for that
purpofe. The habit and enfign of the order are, a
garter, mantle, cape, george, and collar. The four
firft were affigned the knights-companions by the
founder; and the george and collar by Henry VIII.
The garter (Plate CXV. fig. 2. N° 1.) challenges
pre-eminence over all the other parts of the drefs, by
reafon that from it the noble order is denominated ;
that it is the firft part of the habit prefented to foreign
princes, and abfent knights, who, and all other
knights-eled, are therewith firft adorned; and it is
of fo great honour and grandeur, that by the bare
inveftiture with this noble enfign, the knights are e-
fteemed companions of the greateft military order in
the world. It is worn on the left leg between the
knee and calf, and is enamelled with this motto,
Honi soit qvi mal y pense ; i. e. Shame to him that
thinks evil hereof: The meaning of which is, that
king Edward having laid claim to the kingdom of
France, retorted lhame and defiance upon him that
fhould dare to think amifs of the juft enterprife he
had undertaken, for recovering his lawful right to that
crown ; and that the bravery of thofe knights whom
he had ele&ed into this order, was fuch as would
enable him to maintain the quarrel againft thofe that
thought ill of it.
The mantle {ibid. N° 2.) is the chief of thefe veft-
ments made ufe of upon all folemn occafions. The
colour of the mantle is by the ftatutes appointed to be
blue. The length of the train of the mantle only di-
ftinguifhes the fovereign from the knights-companions.
To the collar of the mantle is fixed a pair of long
firings, anciently wove with blue filk only, but now
twilled round, and made of Venice gold and filk, of
the colour of the robe, with knobs, or buttons, and
taffels at the end. The left fhoulder of the mantle
has, from the inftitution, been adorned with a large
garter, with the device, Honi soit, &c. Within this
is the crofs of the order, which .was ordained to be
Vot. V. *
!i ] GAR
worn at all times bf king Charles I. At length the Garter,
ftar was introduced, being a fort of crofs irradiated "*~
with beams of filver; {ibid. N° 3. )
The collar {ibid. N° 4.) is appointed to be compo-
fed of pieces of gold in falhion of garters, the ground
enamelled blue, and the motto gold.
The manner of elefting a knight-companion into
this moll noble order, and the ceremonies of invelti-
ture, are as follow. When the fovereign defigns to
eleft a companion of the garter, the chancellor be¬
longing to this order draws up the letters, which,
palling both under the fovereign’s fign-manual and
fignet of the order, are fent to the perfon by Garter
principal king at arms ; and are in this manner, or to
the fame effect: “ We, with the companions of our
“ moll noble order of the garter, affembled in chap-
“ ter, holden this prefent day at our caftle at Windfor,
“ confidering the virtuous fidelity you have fhewn,
“ and the honourable exploits you have done in our
“ fervice, by vindicating and maintaining our right,
“ &c. have eledled and chofen you one of the com-
“ panions of our order. Therefore, we require you
“ to make your fpeedy repair unto us, to receive the
“ enfigns thereof, and be ready for your inftallation
“ upon the —day of this prefent month, &c.”
The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold-wire, having commonly the letters of the
motto of the fame, is, at the time of ele&ion, buckled
upon the left leg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it was
prefented upon a velvet culhion, by Garter king at
arms, with the ufual reverence, whilft the chancellor
reads the following admonition, enjoined by the fta¬
tutes : “ To the honour of God omnipotent, and in
“ memorial of the blefled martyr St George, tie about
•• thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear
“ it as the fymbol of the molt illullrious order,
“ never to be forgotten or laid afide; that thereby
“ thou mayeft be adrtionilhed to be courageous ; and,
“ having undertaken a juft war, in which thou lhalt
“ be engaged, thou mayeft Hand firm, valiantly fight,
“ and fucceffively conquer.”
The princely garter being then buckled on, and the
words of its fignification pronounced, the knight-eledl
is brought before the fovereign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a Iky-coloured ribbon, {ibid. N° 5.)
whereunto is appendant, wrought in gold within the
garter, the image of St George on horfeback, with
his fword drawn, encountering with the dragon. In
the mean time the chancellor reads the following ad¬
monition : “ Wear this ribbon about thy neck, ad-
“ orned with the image of the blelfed martyr and
“ foldier of Chrift, St George, by whofe imitation
“ provoked, thou mayeft fo overpafs both profperous
“ and adverfe adventures, that having ftoutly van-
“ quilhed thy enemies both of body and foul, thou
“ mayeft not only receive the praife of this tranfient
“ combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal
“ victory.”
Then the knight defied kifles the fovereign’s hand ;
thanks his majetly for the great honour done him ;
rifes up, and falutes all the companions feverally, who
return their congratulations. N° 2. (ibid.) exhibits a
view of a knight of the garter in the habit of this
order.
IS N
Since
Garth.
GAR [ 3222 ] GAS
Since the inftitution of this order, there have been
' eight emperors and twenty-eight kings, befides nu¬
merous fovereign princes, enrolled as companions
thereof. Its origin is fomewhat differently related.
The common account is, that the countefs of Salifbury
at a ball happening to drop her garter, the king took
it up and prefented it to her with thefe words, “ Ho¬
rn foil qui mal y penfei. e. Evil to him that evil
thinks. This accident, it is faid, gave rife to the order
and the motto ; it being the fpirit of the times to-mix
love and war together: but as in the original ftatutes
of this order there is not the leaft conjefture to coun¬
tenance fuch a feminine inftitution, credit cannot be
given to this tradition : the true motive is therefore
attributed by very refpe&able hiftorians, to a nobler
origin; which is, that king Edward III. having ilfued
forth his own garter for the fignal of a battle, it ended
fo fortunately, that he thence took occafion to infti-
tute that order, not only as an incentive to honour
and martial virtue, but alfo as a fymbol of unity and
fociety.
GARTH (Sir Samuel), an excellent Englifh poet
and phyfician, was defcended from a good family in
Yorkfhire. He was admitted into the college of phyfi-
cians at London in 1693. He at that time zealoufly pro¬
moted and encouraged tbe ere&ing of the difpenfary
for the relief of the fick poor, by giving them advice
gratis, and medicines at low rates. This work of cha¬
rity having expofed him and many other phyficians to
the envy and refentment of feveral perfons of the fame
faculty as well as apothecaries, he ridiculed them, with
a peculiar fpirit and vivacity, in a poem called the
Difpe?ifary, in fix cantos, highly efteemed. He was
one of the moft eminent members of the famous fo¬
ciety called the Kit-Kat Club, which confifted of
noblemen and gentlemen diflinguifhed by their excel¬
lent parts and affedtion to the houfe of Hanover.
Upon the acceflion of George I. he was knighted,
and made phyfician in ordinary to his majefty, and
phyfician-general to the army. Nor were thefe more
than juft rewards even of his phylical merit. He had
gone through the office of cenfor of the college in
1702 ; and had pra&ifed always with great reputation,
and a ftridi regard to the honour and intereft of the
faculty, never Hooping to proftitute the dignity of
his profeffion, through mean and fordid views of felf-
intereft, to any, even the moft popular and wealthy
apothecaries. In a Heady adherence to this noble
principle, he concurred with the much celebrated Dr
Radcliffe, with whom he was alfo often joined in phy-
fical confultations. He had a very extenfive practice,
but was very moderate in his views of advancing his
own fortune ; his humanity and good-nature inclin¬
ing him more to makeufe of the great intereft be had
with perfons in power, for the fupppft and encourage¬
ment of other men of letters. He chofe to live with
the great in that degree of independency and freedom,
which became a man pofieffed of a fuperior genius,
whereof he was daily giving frefh proofs to the pub¬
lic. One of his laft performances in polite letters,
was his ifanflation of the whole fourteenth book, and
the ftory of Cinnus in the fifteenth book, of Ovid’s Me-
tamorphofes. Thefe, together with an Englifh ver-
Jion of the reft, were publifhed in 1717 ; and he has
prefixed an excellent preface to the whole, wherein
he not only gives an idea of the work, and points out Gas.
its principal beauties, but fhews the ufes of the poem, 
and how it may be read to molt profit. The diltem-
per which feized him the enfuing year, and ended not
but with his life, caufed a general concern ; which
was particularly teftified by lord Lanfdown, brother-
poet, though of a different party, in fome admirable
vcrfes written on the occafion. He died, after a fhort
illnefs which he bore with great patience, in January
1719.
GAS, the name given by Van Helmont, and after
him by other chemifts, to thofe eiaftic fluids extricated
from different terreftrial fubftances, and which are not
condenfible by cold. Of thefe a good number have
been obferved by Van Elelmont : fuch as, the gas ■yen-;
tofum, or atmofpherical airj the gas JylveJire, or fluid
extricated during fermentations and effervefcences, cal?
led by later authors, fixed, factitious, and fixable air ;
gas pingue, or the fluid expelled from inflammable
fubftanees by heat ; gas flanimeum, or the fluid pro¬
duced in the deflagration of nitre. To thefe other
authors have added infiaminable air or gas, nitrous-acid
gas, marine gas, alkaline gas, &c.
An account of the moft remarkable properties of
all thefe different fluids is given under the articles
Air, Chemistry, Damps, &c. Of their compofi-
tion very little is know" with certainty. Dr Prieltley
fome time ago difcovered a method of procuring very
pure atmofpherical air from a mixture of nitrous acid
wtih red lead, or with any dephlogifticated earth, as
related under the article Air, n° 44. Hence he con¬
cluded, that the nitrous acid, and likewife earth, en¬
tered into the compofition of the air we breathe. The
proofs of this, however, from fubfequent experiments,
feem tobebut flightlyfounded. It is certain, that part of
the earth, which in Dr Prieftley’s firft experiments was
thought to enter into the compofition of his dephlo¬
gifticated air, was afterwards found to feparate from
it, and to have been elevated merely by the force of
the air extricating itfelf from the terreftrial fubftance.
With refpeft to the acid, the cafe is ftill more dubious.
It was found that dephlogifticated air might be pro¬
cured from red-lead and oil of vitriol; to which pur-
pofe the following experiment is recorded in the Ap¬
pendix to the Chemical Di&ionary. “ Forty-eight
pennyweights of red-lead were put into a long necked
retort, the contents of which were ten cubic inches ;
and upon this red-lead, 24 pennyweights of oil of vi¬
triol were poured. The nofe of the rttort was then
iinmerftd under water, and over it an inverted jar
filled with water was placed. The mixture of oil of
vitriol and red-lead became very hot, and ten cubic
inches of air werefoon thrown into the jar without the
application of external heat. Upon applying the flame
of a lamp to the bottom of the retort, bubbles of air
paffed copioufly into the jars, which were fucceffively
changed, that the air received at different times of
the operation might be examined. The quantity of
air which had been expelled from tbe above mixture
of red-iead and vitriolic acid, was found to be 36 cu¬
bic inches, after the proper allowances for the air con¬
tained in the retort had been made; and this air was
found to have all the properties of that procured by
Dr Prieftley from nitrous acid and red lead.”
From fome late experiments made by Dr Prieftley
him-
Plate CXV.
GAS [ 3223 ] GAS
Gas. hirnfelf, it appears, that very pure air may be ob-
tained by means of the vitriolic acid, or indeed without
any acid at all. Inthecourfe of his experiments, the
do&or found, that dephlogifticated air might be obtained
from the green, blue, and white vitriols. Sufpefting,
however, the purity of thefe vitriols which were pre¬
pared by others, he prepared fome green vitriol him-
fclf by diflblving clean iron-filings in the vitriolic acid
diluted with water. Diddling the matter in a retort,
he had the fame refults as before ; the dephlogidicated
air which came over lad, being very turbid, and ex¬
ceedingly pure. —He now fufpe6ted the'purity of his
oil of vitriol, which at prefent is generally procured
from fulphur with the addition of nitre. He there¬
fore next employed the vitriolic acid prepared in Neu¬
mann’s manner, in which no nitre is ufed : but dephlo¬
gidicated air was dill produced from the combination
of iron filings with this purer acid. And led the
mixture of thefe two fnbdances might be fufpe&ed of
having attrafled pure air, in confequence of their ex-
pofure to the atmofphere during their combination,
he conduced the experiment in the following ferupu-
lous manner. He diflblved five pennyweights one
grain of iron in a fufficient quantity of pure oil of vi¬
triol which had been carefully prepared for this pur-
pofe by Mr Winch, fo as to be free/from any admix¬
ture of the nitrous acid. The didillation was per¬
formed in the fame retort in which the folution had
been made, and in the continuation of the fame pro-
cefs ; fo that all communication with the external air
was mod effe&ually prevented. Conducing the pro-
cefs with thefe attentions, and diddling the matter to
drynefs, the fucceeding products were, firft, the com¬
mon air a little phlogidicated; then a little fixed
air, and much vitriolic-acid air; and ladly, a confi-
derable quantity of dephlogidicated air. The reli-
duum dill weighed more than the iron filings em¬
ployed ; and had the heat been increafed, more- air
might perhaps have been procured.
Adding fredi oil of vitriol to this refiduum, and
treating it as before, but in a gun-barrel, a dill lar¬
ger quantity of dephlogidicated air was produced ; fo
that the oil of vitirol appeared capable of generating
dephlogidicated air as often as it was mixed with iron,
as well as the nitrous acid when mixed with red-lead,
&c. in his former experiments.
On putting an ounce of manganefe into a fmall re¬
tort, with a very long narrow neck, and expofing it
to a red fand-heat, 40 ounce-meafures of air were ex¬
pelled in different portions. Part of this, in every portion,
was fixpd air, and at fird almod wholly fo : but four-
fifths of the lad produce was the pured dephlogidi¬
cated air. From an ounce of calaminaris without ad¬
din.rt, 316 ounce-meaiures of gas were expelled by
a red heat: the whole of this, however, was fixed air,
except about four ounce-meafures, which were nearly
as good as common air.
In making fome experiments on vegetation, the
do&or difeovered, that dephlogidicated air was in fome
cafes produced naturally. Having obferved bubbles
of air that feemed to iffue fpontaneoufly from the roots
of- feveral plants growing in w’ater, he was at fird led
to fufpedl that this air had percolated through the
plant; which had probably feized upon and retained
the phlogidon of the sir, and then emitted the purer
part. He found this conjefture verified with regard
to the purity of the air ; for, on examining*fotne of it,
he found that one meafure of it, and one of nitrous
air, occupied the fpaceonly of one meafure.— Soon af¬
ter, he found that the plants had no lhare in the pro-
duddion of this air ; for, on taking them out of the
vials, the remaining water continued to emit air as
plentifully as when they were growing in it. Ht\ob¬
ferved too, that the vials and other veffels in which
this pure air had been emitted from the water had their
bottoms and fides more or lefs covered with a green
matter, from which the air evidently feemed to pro¬
ceed. It appeared to him, however, that this green
matter could neither be of an animal nor vegetable
nature; but that it was a fubftance fnigeneris ; and
that neither the external air nor animalcules couldhave
any (hare in the formation of it : for it was produced in
vials clofely corked, and in the middle veffel of Mr Par¬
ker’s apparatus *. But from fome experiments made
by others, it appears that the green matter will not be 1
depoiited in vials clofely corked, unkfs fome air is in¬
cluded ; and the quantity of the depofit bears fome
proportion to that of the air left in the vial. In o-
pen vials completely filled, and inverted in water, the
water contained in the vials has an intermediate com¬
munication with the atmofphere, and the procefsgoes
on as deferibed above : but if that communication is
flopped from the beginning, by inverting the vials in
quickfilver (a fluid impermeable to air), no green mat¬
ter or pure air is produced.
On filling a number of vials with different kinds of
water, as river-water, rain-water, pump-water, which;
contained a confiderable quantity of fixed air, he
found that no green matter was produced in any of
them, except in thofe which contained the pump-
water. Afterwards, however; he found that both the
green matter and pure air was produced in great plen¬
ty from water ftrongly impregnated with fixed air.
—One meafure of the purefl air he ever obtained in
this way, when mixed with two meafures of nitrous
air, occupied the fpace only of 0.44 of a meafure ;
“ which (fays Dr Prieftley) is quite as pure as dephlo¬
gifticated air is, at a medium.”
The moft remarkable circumflance in this produc¬
tion of air is the inftrumentality of the fun’s light inde¬
pendent of his mere ^7/. Concerning this, the doc¬
tor has the following obfervations:
“ Whatever air is naturally contained in water, or
in fubftances diffolved in water, as calcareous matter,
&c. becomes, after long ftanding, but efpecially .when
expofed to the fun, depurated, fo as at length to be¬
come abfolutely dephlogifticated ; and that this air,
being continually emitted by all water expofed to the
aftion of the fun’s rays, muft contribute to the me¬
lioration of the ftate of the atmofphere in general.
“ When water has been long kept in the (hade, it
has not generally yielded any other kind of air than
it would have yielded at firft ; and though, when kept
in an open veffel, the air has been better, it has never
been fo good as when expofed a much ftiorter time to
the fun.
“ No degree of warmth will fupply the place of
the fun’s light: and though, when the water is once
prepared by expofure to the fun, warmth will fuffice
to expel that airj yet, in this cafe, the air has never
18 N 2 been
GAS [ 3224 1 GAS
Gas been fo pure as that which has been yielded fpontane-
!l. oufly, without additional heat. The reafon of this
fc.’ignc. may that, befides the air already depurated, and
on that account ready to quit its union with the wa¬
ter, heat expels, together with it, the air that was
phlogifticated, and held in a clofer union with the wa¬
ter; which air, the attion of light, whatever that is,
would in time have depurated alio.
“ The quantity of air yielded by water fpontane-
oufly, far exceeds that which can be expelled from it
by heat. If the water naturally contains fixed air,
yet, in confequence of this expofure to the fun’s light,
it is all difiipated, and the natural refiduum of it be¬
comes pure dephlogifticated air. For no fixed air at
all, bat the pureft dephlogifticated air is at length pro¬
cured from it ; and water impregnated with fixed air
yields, after this expofure, the greateft quantity of
dephlogifticated air.” From foroe experiments made
by Dr Dobfon of Liverpool, and Mr Beckct of Bri-
ftol, it appears that air purer than the common at-
mofphere can be extra&ed from fea-water, and the
water of the hot well at Briftol.
A new fpecies of inflammable gas has been difco-
veredbyDr Ingenhoufz. This is procured by putting
a fingle dropofvitriolic ether into an inflammable air-pi-
ftol, containing about ten cubicinches : it communicates
to the common air contained in the piftol, a ftrong explo-
five force. It is very remarkable, that the gravity of
this inflammable gas exceeds that extra&ed from iron,
in the proportion of 150 to 25. It is even heavier
than common air, in the proportion of tyo to 138 :
fo that, if too great a quantity of it contained in the
air-piftol, and the confequent exclufion of too much
of the common air, prevent it from taking fire, it
will fall out, on holding the piftol a few feconds
inverted, with its mouth open ; and, in confequence
of the entrance of a proper quantity of common air
in its room, the explofion will take place.—Another
very remarkable circumftance is, that though ether
itfelf is fo very volatile, and evaporates fo quickly;
yet this elaftic vapour, generated from it, will remain
fome hours in an open glafs, without fuch diminution
from evaporation, or its mixing with the atmofphere,
as to deftroy its inflammable quality.
From thefe experiments we cannot conclude any
thing with certainty. They only evince, in one cafe,
the tranfmutation of the gas fylvejlre of Helmont,
our fixed air, into atmofpherical air. With regard to
this laft, it feems alfo to be pretty plain, that, in fome
cafes, the element of /re, in others that of light, zn-
ters largely into its compofition. But whether thefe
elements are, in fuch cafes, combined with any part
of the terreftrial matter, or whether they are only
new-modelled by fome different arrangement of their
parts, muft be determined by future experiments.
GASCOIGNE (Sir William}, chief juftice of the
court of king’s bench under Henry IV. A moft
learned and upright judge-: who,, being infulted on the
bench by the then prince of Wales, afterwards Hen¬
ry V. with equal intrepidity and eoolnefs committed
the prince to prifon ; and by this feafonable fortitude,
laid the foundation of the future glory of that great
monarch, who, from this event, dated his reforma¬
tion from the licentioufnefs of his youth. It is not
well authenticated that the prince (truck Sir William,
as recorded by Shakefpeare ; but all authors agree, Oafeoigne
that he interrupted the courfe of juftice, to fcreen a lj
lewd fervant. Sir William died in 1413. Gaflendi,
Gascoigne (George), an Englifh poet of fome
fame in the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
was born at Walthamftow in Effex, of an ancient
family, and educated at both univerfities, but principally
at Cambrige. From thence he removed to Gray’s Inn,
and commenced ftudent of the law ; but, having a
genius too volatile for that ftudy, he travelled abroad,
and for fome time ferved in the army in the Low
Countries. He afterwards went to France ; where he
became enamoured of a Scottilh lady, and married
her. Being at length, fays Wood, weary of thofe va¬
nities, he returned to England ; and fettled once more
in Gray’s Inn, where he wrote moft of his dramatic
and other poems. The latter part of his life he fpent
in his native village of Walthamftow, where he died
in the year 1578. He had the charafter of a polite
gentleman, an eloquent and witty companion, et vir
inter poetas fui feculi prajlantiffimus. His plays, firft
printed feparately, were afterwards, with feveral o-
ther poems, &c. reprinted in two volumes 410. the
firft volume in 1577, the fecond in 1587.
GASCOIN, or Gascoign, denotes the hinder thigh
of a horfe, which begins at the ftifle, and reaches to
the ply or bending of the ham.
GASCONADE, a boaft or vaunt of fomething
very improbable. The term has its rife from the Gab-
coons, or people of Gafcony in France, who it feems
have been diftinguiflied for bragging and rhodomon-
tado.
GASCONY, the moft fouth-weft province ofFrance,
is bounded by Guienne on the north, by Languedoc
on the eaft, by the Pyrenees which feparate it from
Spain on the fouth, and by the bay of Bifcay on the
weft. It had its name from the ancient inhabitants
called Gafcones, or Vafcones ; by the moderns Bafques,
or Vafques. After thefe were fubdued by the Franks,
they had for fome time dukes of their own, who were
fubjeft to the dukes of Aquitaine; but both were at
laft difpoffeffed by the kings of France. The country
produces corn, wine, fruits, tobacco, hemp, brandy,
prunes, &c. The inhabitants are noted for a corrupt
and vicious pronunciation of the French tongue, as
well as their vain-glorious boafting.
GASSENDI (Peter), one of the moft celebrated
philofophers France has produced, was born at Chan-
terfier, about three miles from Digne irr Provence, in
1592. When a child, he took particular delight in
gazing at the moon and ftars, as often as they appear¬
ed in clear unclouded weather. This pleafure fre¬
quently drew him into bye-places, in order to feaft his
eye freely and undifturbed ; by which means his pa¬
rents had him often to feek, not without many anxious
fears and apprehenfions. They therefore put him to
fchool at Digne ; where, in a fliort time, he made fuch.
an extraordinary progrefs in learning, that fome per-
fons, who have feen fpecimens of his genius, refolved to
have him removed to Aix, in order to ftudy philofo-
phy under Fefay, a learned minor friar. This propo-
fal was fo difagreeable to his father, who intended to
breed him up in his own way to country-bufinefs, as
being more profitable than that of a fcholar, that he
would confent to it only upon condition that he (hould
return
GAT
GAS [32
Gaflemli return home in two years at farlhefl:. Accordingly
P young Gaflendi, at the end of the appointed time, re-
Pfteus°" Pa'red to Chanterfier : but he had not been long there,
- when he was invited to be profeffor of rhetoric at Dig-
ne, before he was quite r6 years of age ; and he had
been engaged in that office but three years, when his
mafter Fefay dying, he was made profeffor in his room
at Aix. When he had been there a few years, he
compofed his Paradoxical Exercitations ; which, co¬
ming to the hands of Nicholas Peirefc, that great pa¬
tron of learning joined with Jofeph Walter prior of
Valette-in promoting him ; and he, having entered in¬
to holy orders, was firft made canon of the church of
Digne and doctor pf divinity, and then obtained the
wardenlhip or reftorlhip of that church. Gaflendi’s
fondnefs for aftronomy grev* up with his years , and
his reputation daily increafing, he was, in 1645, aP*
pointed royal profefibr of mathematics at Paris. This
inftitution being chiefly defigned for aftronomy, our
author read ledtures on that fcience to a crowded au¬
dience. However, he did not hold this place long;
for a dangerous cough and inflammation of the lungs
obliged him, in 1647, to return to Digne for the be¬
nefit of his native air.—Gaflendi wrote againft the me-
taphyficial meditations of Des Cartes; and divided
with that great man the philofophers of his time, al-
moft all of whom were Cartefians or Gaflendians. He
joined to his knowledge of philofophy and the mathe¬
matics, an acquaintance with the languages and a pro¬
found erudition. He wrote, I. Three volumes on E-
picurus’s Philofophy ; and fix others, which contain
his own philofophy. 2. Aftronomical works. 3. The
lives of Nicholas de Peirefc, Epicurus, Copernicus,
Tycho Brahe, Peurbachius, and Regiomontanus.
4» Epiftles, and other treatifes. All his works were
collefted together, and printed at Lyons in 1658, in
fix volumes folio. He died at Paris in 1655, aged 63.
GASTEROSTEUS, the stickle-back, in ich¬
thyology, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
thoracici. There are three rays in the membrane of
the gills; the body is carinated; and there are fome
diftinft prickles before the back-fin. There are 11
fpecies diftinguiftied by the number of prickles on the
back. One ofthefe fpecies, the aculeatus, ftickleback,
banfticle, or lharpling, is common in many of the Bri-
ti(h rivers. In the fens of Lincolnftiire, and fome ri¬
vers that proceed from them, they are found in prodi¬
gious quantities. At Spalding there are, once in feven
or eight years, amazing ftioals that appear in the Wel¬
land, und come up the river in form of a vaft column.
They are fuppofed to be the multitudes that have been
waftied out of the fens by the floods of feveral years,
and, collefted in fome deep hole, till, overcharged with
numbers, they are periodically obliged to attempt a
change of place. The quantity is fo great, that they
are ufed to manure the land, and trials have been made
to get oil from them. A notion may be had of this vaft
fhoal, by being informed, that a man being employed
by the farmer to take them, has got for a confiderable
time four {hillings a-day by felling them for a half¬
penny per buftiel.—This fpecies feldom reaches the
length of two inches; it hath three {harp fpines on the
back, that can be railed or depreffed at pleafure. The
Colour of the back and fides is an olive-green ; the bel-
)j white } but in fome the lower jaws and belly are of
25 .1
a bright crimfon.
CAST-hound. See Gaze
GASTRELL (Francis), bifliop of Chefter, was
born in 1662, appointed preacher to the fociety of
Lincoln’s Inn in 1694, and made biftiop of Chefter
in 1714. He preached a courfe of fermons for Boyle’s
ledlures ; engaged in the Trinitarian controverfy with
Mr Collins and Dr Clarke ; and publiftied two excel¬
lent pieces, the one intitled, Ckriftian Inftitutes, and
the other, A moral proof of a future fate. He vindi¬
cated the rights of the univerfity of Oxford, againft the
archbiftiop of Canterbury, in the appointment of the
warden of Manchefter college ; and oppofed the violent
proceedings againft biftiop Atterbury in the hoiife of
lords, though he diflikedthe biftiop as a man of arbi¬
trary principles. He died in 1725.
GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to
the ftomach.
Gastric Juice, a thin pellucid liquor, which di-
ftills from certain glands in the ftomach, for the dilu¬
tion, &c. of the food.
From fome late experiments it appears, that this
juice is the chief inftrument of digeftion ; but in what
manner this operation is performed by it, remains yet
a fecret. It is not pofleffed of any corrofive acrimony,
for this would aft upon all fubftancesindifcriminately;
but the gaftric juice is found to aft only upon particu¬
lar fubftances. The moft remarkable particularity of
this kind is, that though it very readily diflbives ani¬
mal fubftances when deprived of the vital principle, it
abfolutely refufes to touch thofe which are alive. This
would feem to favour the opinion formerly in vogue,
that digeftion was performed by means of a kind of
fermentation induced into the fubftances fwallowed for
food 5 as very probably the parts of living animals may
be capable of refifting thofe fermentations which readi¬
ly take place in dead ones. But whether or not this
is the cafe, muft be determined by future experiments.
GASTROCNEMIUS, in anatomy. See Anato¬
my, Table of the Mufcles.
GASTROMANCY, a method of devination by
water, praftifed by the ancient Greeks. See Divi¬
nation.
GASTRORAPHY, in furgery, the operation of
fewing up wounds of the abdomen. See Surgery.
GATE, in architefture, a large door, leading or
giving entrance into a city, town, caftle, palace, or
other confiderable building ; or a place giving paflage
to perfons, horfes, coaches, or waggons, &c. As to
their proportion, the principal gates for entrance thro’
which coaches and waggons are to pafs, ought never
to be lefs than feven feet in breadth, nor more than 12,
which laft dimenfion is fit only for large buildings.
The height of a gate is to be 1^ of the breadth, and
fomewhat more ; but as for common gates in inns, un¬
der which waggons go loaded with hay, ftraw, &c. the
height of them may be twice their breadth. See Ar¬
chitecture.
Gates cf Hell. This expreffion is ufed in fcrip-
ture, to denote figuratively, either the grave, or the
powers of darknefs, i. e. the devil and his angels.
The Mahometans ufe the expreffion literally, and
fuppofe that hell has feven gates. The firft is that
where Muffulmans, who incur the guilt of fin, will be
tormented. The fecond is for the Chriftians. The
third
G«ft
Gates.
G A U [92
Gataker, third is for the Jews. The fourth for the Sabians.
Garulcn. The fifth for the' Magians, or worfhippers of Sire. The
fixth for Pagans and idolaters. And the feventh for
hypocrites, who make an outward ihew of religion,
but have none.
GATAKER (Thomas), a learned critic and di¬
vine, was born at London in 1574, and ftudied at
St John’s college, Cambridge. He was afterwards
chofen preacher at Lincoln’s Inn ; which he quitted in
1611, for the re&ory of Rotherhithe in Surry. In
1620, he made a tour through the Low Countries;
and, in 1624, publifhed at London a book intitled,’
“ Tranfubftantiation declared by the confeffion of the
Popilh writers to have no neceffary foundation in God’s
word he wrote likewife a defence of this difcourfe.
In 1642, he was appointed one of the affembly of di¬
vines, and was engaged with them in writing annota¬
tions upon the bible. He died in July 1654, in the
80th year of his age. Belides the above works, he pu-
bliflied, 1. A differtation upon the ftyle of the New
Teftament. 2. Dc nomine tetragrammata, ' 3. De
diphtbongisyjive bivocalibns. 4. An edition'and tranf-
lation of the emperor Marcus Antoninus’s meditations.
5. A colleClion of fermons, in folio ; and many other
works. His piety and charity were very exemplary ;
and his moderty fo great, that he declined all eccle-
fiaftical dignity and court-preferments. His extenfive
learning was admired by Salmalius and other great
men abroad ; his houfe was a private feminary for
young gentlemen of this nation, and many foreigners
reforted to him to receive advice in their ftudies.
GAUDEN (Dr Jofeph), fon of John Gauden vi¬
car of Mayfield in Effex, was born there in T605. At
the commencement of the civil war, he was chaplain to
Robert earl of Warwick ; who taking part with the
parliament againit the king, was followed by his chap¬
lain. Upon the eftablilhment of the prefbyterian mo¬
del of church-goverment, he complied with the ruling
powers, and was nominated one of the affembly of di¬
vines who met at Wefiminfter in 1643, and took the
covenant; yet having offered fome fcruples and objec¬
tions to it, his name vvas afterward ftruck out of the
lift. Nor did he efpoufe the parliament-caufe any
longer than they adhered to their firft avowed princi¬
ples of reforming only, inftead of deftroying, mo¬
narchy and epifcopacy. In this fpirit, he was one of
tbofe divines who figned a proteftation to the army,
againft the violent proceedings that affefted the life of
the king : and a few days after his execution pnblifh-
ed the famous A Portraiture of his fa-
cred Majejiy in his folitude and fufferings ; which ran
through 50 editions in the courfe of a year. Upon the
return of Charles II. he was promoted to the fee of
Exeter ; and in 1662 vvas removed to Worcefter, much
to his regret, having flattered himfelf with the.hopes
of a tranflation to Winchefter : and his death happen¬
ed the fame year. He wrote many controverfial pie¬
ces fuited to the circumftances of the times, and to his
own views from them.—The Eikon Baftlike dbovc. men¬
tioned he publifhed as the king’s private meditations :
though on this point there has been a long controver-
fy. After the bifhop’s death, his widow, in a letter to
one of her fons, calls it “ The Jewel;” and faid, her
hufband had hoped to make a fortune by it; and that
/lie had a letter of a very great man’s, which would
?-6 ] G A V
char up that he writ it. This affertion, as the earl Gave!,
of Clarendon had predicted, was eagerly efpoufed by (Javclg|
the anti-royaliftsj in the view of difparaging Charles I.
But it has been obferved, that Gauden had too luxu¬
riant an imagination, which betrayed him into a rank- ;
nefs of ftyle in the Aliatic way ; and from thence, as
bifliop Burnet argues with others, it may be certain¬
ly concluded, that not he, but the king himfelf, was
the true author of the e<*«v Bao-/xixr.; in which there is
a noblenefs and juftnefs of thought, with a greatnefs of
ftyle, that made it be looked on as the beft written
book in the Englifh language.
GAVEL, or Gable, among builders. See Gable.
Gavel, in law : tribute, toll, cuftom, or yearly
revenue ; of which we had in old time feveral kinds.
See Gabel.
Gavel-A7«</, a tenure or cuftom belonging to
lands in the county of Kent. The word is faid by
Lambard to be compounded of three Saxon words,
gyfe, eal, kyn, *i omnibus cognatione preximis data.’"
Verftegan calls it gavelkind, quali “ give all kind,”
that is, to-each child his part; and Taylor, in his hi-
ftory of gavelkind, derives it from the Britifh gavel,
i. e. a hold -or tenure, and cetined, “ generatio aut fa¬
in Hi a and fo gavel cenned might fignify temira ge-
nerationis.—It is univerfally known what llruggles the
Kentiih men made to preferve their ancient liberties,
and with how much fucccfs thofe druggies were at¬
tended. And as it is principally here that we meet
with the cuftom of gavelkind, (though it was and is
to be found in fome other parts of the kingdom), we
may/airly conclude, that this was a part of thefe li¬
berties ;, agreeably to Mr Seldeh’s opinion, that gavel¬
kind, before the Norman conqueft, was the general cu¬
ftom of the realm. The diftinguifhing properties of this
tenure are various: fome of the principal are thefe.
1. The tenant is of age fufficient to alienate his eftate
by feoffment, at the age of 15. 2. The eftate does
not efcheat in cafe of an attainder and execution for fe¬
lony ; their maxim being, “ the father to the bough,
the fon to the plough.” 3. In moft places he had a
power of devifing lands by will, before the ftatute for
that purpofe was made. 4. The lands defcend, not
to the eldeft, youngeft, or any one fon only, but to
all the fons together; which was indeed anciently the
moftufual courfe of defcent all over England, tho’ in
particular places particular cuftoms prevailed.
GAVELET,' in law, an ancient and fpecial ceffa-
vit ufed in Kent, where the cutlom of gavelkind conti¬
nues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent
and fervices due to the loid, forfeits his lands and te¬
nements.
The procefs of the gavelet is thus. The lord is firft
to feek by the fteward of his court, from three weeks
to three weeks, to find fome diftrefs upon the tene¬
ment, till the fourth court ; and if at that time he
find none, at this fourth court it is awarded, that he
take the tenement in his hand in name of a diflrefs,
and keep it a year and a day without manuring; with¬
in which time, if the tenant pay his arrears, and make
reafonable amends for the with-holding, he ftiall have
and enjoy his tenement as before : if he come not be¬
fore the year and day be paft, the lord is to go to the
next county-court, with witneffes of what had paffed
at his own court, and pronounce there his procefs, to
have
G A U [ 3227 ] G A U
Gavelet have further witneffes ; and then by the award of his
II own court, he fhall enter and manure the tenement as
au ' his own : fo that if the tenant delired afterwards to
have and hold it as before, he muft agree with the
lord ; according to this old faying : “ Has he not iince
any thing given, or any thing paid, then let him pay
five pound for his were, e’rehe become healderagain.”
Other copies have the firft part with fome variation j
“ Let him nine times pay, and nine times repay.”
Gavelet, in London, is a writ ufed in the huft-
ings, given to lords of rents in the city of London.
Here the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by
fcire faciasto (hew caufe why the one fliould not
have his tenement again on payment of his rent, or the
other recover the lands on default thereof.
GAUGAMELA, (anc. geog.), a village of Atu-
ria, lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris; fa¬
mous for Alexander’s vidory over Darius. It is faid
to have been allowed to Darius. Hyftafpes for the
maintenance of a camel; and hence the name. It was
not far from a more cohfiderable place 'called Arbela;
whence the latter gave the name to the vi&ory. See
Arbela.
GAUGE-point of a folid meafure, the diameter of
a circle whofe area is equal to the folid content of the
fame meafure.
GAUGER, a king’s officer, who is appointed to
examine all tuns, pipes, hogfheads, and barrels of
wine, beer, ale, oil, honey, &c. and give them a mark
of allowance, before they are fold in any place within
the extent of his office.
GAUGING. See Geometry.
GAUL, the name given by the Romans tothepre-
fent kingdom of France.—The original inhabitants
were defcended from the Celtes or Gomerians, by
whom the greateft part of Europe was peopled \ the
name of Galli, or Gauls, being probably given them
long after their fettlement in that country.
The ancieat hiftory of the Gauls is entirely wrap¬
ped up in obfcurity and darknefs ; all we know con¬
cerning them for a long time is, that they multiplied
fo fail, that, their country being unable to contain
them, they poured forth in vaft multitudes.into other
countries, which they generally fubdued, and fettled
themfelves in. It often happened, however, that thefe
colonies were fo molelfed by their neighbours, that
they were obliged to fend for affiftance to their native
country. This was always very eafily obtained. The-
Gauls were, upon every occafion, ready to fend forth
great numbers of new adventurers j and as thefe fp.read
defolation where-ever they came, the very name of
Gauls proved terrible to moll of the neighbouring na-
Account of lions.—The earlidt excurfion of thefe people of which
the Gaiiiilh we have any diilintl account, was into Italy, under a
excurfions famed leader, named Bellavefus, about 622 years he-
nno ha y. fore jqe croffed the Rhone and the Alps, till
then unattempted ; defeated the Hetrurians ; and fei-
zed upon that part of their country, fince known by
the names of Lombardy and Piedmont.—The fecond
grand expedition was made by the Coenomani, a peo¬
ple dwelling between the rivers Seine and Loire, un¬
der a general named Elitonis.. They fettled in thofe
parts of Italy, now known by the names of Brefci*
ano, Cremonefe, Mantuan, Carniola, and Venetian.
— In a third excurfion, two other Gaulifli nations fet¬
tled on both fides of the river Po; and in a fourth, Gaul,
the Boii and Lingones fettled in the country between *” *■
Ravenna and Bologna. The time of thefe three laft
expeditions is uncertain.
The fifth expedition of the Gauls was more remark¬
able than any of the former, and happened about
200 years after that of Bellovefus. The Senones, fet¬
tled between Paris and Meaux, were invited into Italy
by an Hetrurian lord, and fettled themfelves in Um¬
bria. Brennus their king laid fiege to Clufium, a city
in alliance with Rome : and this produced a war with
the Romans, in which the latter were at firft defeated,
and their city taken and burnt; but at length the
whole army was cut off by Camillus, infomuch that
not a lingle perfon efcaped.
Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook againft
the Romans: in which, though they always proved un-
fuccefsful, by reafon of their want of military difci-
pline ; yet their fiercenefs and courage made them fo
formidable to the republic, that, on the firft news of
their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made,
fa orifices and public fupplicatious ofiered to the gods:,
and the law which granted an immunity from military
•fervice to priefts and old men, was, fpr the time, a-
boli fhed. a
Againft the Greeks, the expeditions of the Gauls Expedition
were very little more fuceefsful than againft the Ro- the
mans. The firft of thefe we hear of, was about 279
years before Chrift, in the year after Pyrrhus had in-
v ■ Jed Italy. At this time, the Gauls finding them¬
felves greatly overftocked at home, fent out three great
colonies to conquer new countries, for themfelves. One
of thefe armies was commanded by Brennus, another
by Ceretbrius, and the third hy Belgius. The firft
entered Pannonia or Hungary ; the fecond Thrace ;
and the third marched into Illyricum and Macedonia.
Here Belgius at firft met with great fuccefs ; and en¬
riched himfelf by plunder to fuch a degree, that Bren¬
nus envying him, refolved to enter the fame countries,
in order to (hare the fpoil. In a .firort time, however,
Belgius met with fuch a total defeat, that his army
was almoft entirely deftroyed; upon which Brennua
haftened to the fame place. His army at firft confift-
ed of 150,000 foot and 15,000 horfe : but two of his
principal officers revolted, and carried off 20,000 men,
with whom they marched into. Thrace ; where, having
joined Cerethrius, they feized on Byzantium.and the
weftern coaft of Propontis, making the adjacent parts
tributary to them.—To retrieve this lofs, Brennus fent
for frefh fupplies from Gaul; and having increafed his
army to 150,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horfe,
he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who op-
pofed him, and ravaged the whole country. He next
marched towards the ftraits of Thermopylae, with a
a defign to invade Greece ; but was flopped by the
forces fei>t to defend that pafs againft him. He paf-
fed the mountains, however, as Xerxes had formerly
done ; upon which the guards retired, to avoid being
furrounded. Brennus then, having ordered Acichc-
rius, the next to him in command, to follow at a di- ?
fiance with part of his army, marched with the btilk Mifoabfe-
of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich fate °f thehr
temple there. This enterprife proved exceedingly un- a m>r'
fortunate : a great number of his men were deltro] e l
by a dreadful ilorm of hail, thunder, and lightning ;
another
G A U [ 3228 ] G A U
Gal^- another part of his army was deftroyed by an eartli-
quake ; and the remainder, fume how or other, ima¬
gining themfelves attacked by the enemy, fought a-
gainft each other the whole night, fo that in the
morning fcarce one half of them remained. The Greek
forces then poured in upon them from all parts ; and
that in fuch numbers, that though Acichorius came
up in due time with his forces, Brennus found himfelf
unable to make head againft the Greeks, and was de¬
feated, with great daughter. He himfelf was def-
perately wounded ; and fo diftieartened by his mif-
fortune, that, having affembled all his chiefs, he advi-
fed them to kill all the wounded and difabled, and to
make the beil retreat they could; after which, he put
an end to his own life. On this occafion, it is faid
that 20,000 of thefe unhapy people were executed by
their own countrymen. Acichorius then fet out with
the remainder for Gaul; but by being obliged to
march through the country of their enemies, the ca¬
lamities they met with by the way were fo grievous,
that not one of them reached their own country. A
juft judgement, fay the Greek and Roman authors,
4 for their facrilegious intentions againft Delphi.
Gaul in- The Romans having often felt the effefts of the
vaded by Gaulilh ferocity and courage, thought proper at laft,
the Ro- ;n or(jer to humble them, to invade their country.
Their firft fuccefsful attempt was about 118 years be¬
fore Chrift, under the command of Quintus Marcius,
furnamed Rex. He opened a way betwixt the Alps
and the Pyrenees, which laid the foundation for con¬
quering the whole country. This was a work of im¬
mense labour of itfelf, and rendered ftill more difficult
by the oppofition of the Gauls, efpecially thofe cal¬
led the Staeni, who lived at the foot of the Alps.
Thefe people finding themfelves overpowered by the
confular army, fet fire to their houfes, killed their
wives and children, and then threw themfelves into
the flames. After this Marcius built the city of Nar-
bonne, which became the capital of a province. His
fuccefibr Scaurus alfo conquered fome Gauli/h nations ;
and in order to facilitate the fending troops from Ita¬
ly into that country, he made feveral excellent roads
between them, which before were almoft impaflable.
Thefe fucceffcs gave rife to the invafion of the Cimbri
and Teutones; an account of whofe unfortunate expe¬
dition is given under the articles Cimbri, Rome,
Teutones, &c.
From this time, the Gauls ceafed to be formidable
to the Romans, and even feem to have been for fome
time on good terms with them. At laft, however,
the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, which
5 brought Csefar over the Alps, and ended in the total
Surprifmg fubjeftion of the country. Orgetorix was the firft;
fucceis ot caufe of it; who had engaged avail number of his coun-
JiMusCac- jj.yjjjgj, to kurn their towns and villages, and to go in
fearch of new conquefts. Julius Casfar, to whofe lot
the whole country of Gaul had fallen, made fuch
hafte to come and fupprefs them, that he was got to
the Rhone in eight days ; broke down the bridge of
Geneva, and, in a few days more, finifhed the famed
wall between that city and mount Jura, now St Claude,
which extended feventeen miles in length, was fixteen
feet high, fortified with towers and caftles at proper
diftances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of
it. If his own account of it may be relied upon, he
did not fet out till the beginning of April; and yet GitA.
this huge work was finilhed by the ides or 13th of the  
month : fo that, fubtra&ing the eight days he was a-
coming, it mull have been all done in about five days:
a prodigious work, confidering he had but one legion
there, or even though the whole country had given
him affiftance. Whilft this was doing, and the re¬
inforcements he wanted were coming, he amufed the
Helvetii, who had fent to demand a paffage through
the country of the Allobroges, till he had got his
reinforcements ; and then flatly refufed it to them :
whereupon a dreadful battle enfued* in which they loft
one hundred and thirty thoufand men, in fpite of all
their valour; befides a number of prifoners, among
whom was the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the
leader of this unfortunate expedition. The reft fub-
mitted, and begged they might be permitted to go
and fettle among the iEdui, from whom they origi¬
nally fprung; and, at the requeft of thefe laft, were
permitted to go.
The Gauls were conftantly in a ftate of vari¬
ance with one another ; and Caefar, who knew
how to make the moft of thefe inteftine broils, foon
became the proteftor of the opprefled, a terror to the
opprefibr, and the umpire of all their contentions.
Among thofe who applied to him for help, were his
allies the JEdui; againft whom Arioviftus, king of
the Germans, joined with the Arverni, who inhabi¬
ted the banks of the Loire, had taken the country of
the Sequani from them, and obliged them to fend ho-
ftages to him. Casfar forthwith fent to demand the
reftitution of both, and, in an interview which he
foon after obtained of that haughty and treacherous
prince, was like to have fallen a facrifice to his per¬
fidy ; upon which he bent his whole power againft
him, forced him out of his ftrong intrenchments, and
gave him a total overthrow. Arioviftus efcaped, with
difficulty, over the Rhine ; but .his two wives, and a
daughter, with a great number of Germans of di-
(limftion, fell into the conqueror’s hand. Carfar, af¬
ter this fignal victory, put his army into winter-quar¬
ters, whilft he went over the Alps to make the necef- «
fary preparations for the next campaign. By this A genera! j
time all the Belgae in general were fo terrified at his c>n,ederac^
fuccefs, that they entered into a confederacy againft; j
the Romans, as their common enemy. Of this, Labi-
enus, who had been left in Gaul, fent Casfar notice ;
upon which, he immediately left Rome, and made
fuch difpatch, that he arrived upon their confines in a- ■
bout fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi fubmit-
ted to him ; but the reft, appointing Galba, king of
the Sueffones, general of all their forces, which a-
mounted to one hundred and fifty thoufand men,
marched direftly againft him. Caefar, who had fei-
zed on the bridge of the Axona, now Aifne, led his 7
light horfe and infantry over it; and, whilft the others Gaul*]
were incumbered in croffing that river, made fuch a ^^ated j
terrible (laughter of them, that the river was filled fUughtu-^i
with their dead, infomuch that their bodies ferved for * 'f
a bridge to thofe who efcaped. This new vidfory ftruck
fuch terror into the reft, that they difperfed them¬
felves ; immediately after which, the Suefibnes, Bel-
lovaci, Ambiones, and fome others, fubmitted to him.
The Nervii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and
Veromandui, againft them; and, having firft fecured
fome * q
GAR [ 32.29 ] GAR
I- Gan!. their wives and children, made a vigorous refiftance for
fome time ; but were at length defeated, and the great-
eft part of them (lain. The reft, with their wives and
old men, fuijrendered themfelves, and were allowed to
live in their,own cities and towns as formerly. The
Ac) 11 a tici were .next ,fubdued ; and, for their treachery
to the conqueror, were fold for Haves, to the number
of fifty thoufand. Young Craffus, the fon of the tri¬
umvir, fubdued likewife feven other nations, and took
poffeffion of their cities; which, not only completed
the copqpeft of the Belgse, but brought feveral nations
from beyond the Rhine to fubmit to the conqueror.
The Veneti, or ancient inhabitants of Vannes in Bri-
tany, who had been bkewife'obliged to fend hoftages
to the conqueror, were, in; the, mean time, making
great, preparations, by fea and' land, to recover their
liberty. Csefar, then in Illyricum, was forced to e-
quip a fleet on the Loire ; and, having given the com¬
mand of it to Brutus, went and defeated them by
land, as Brutus did by beaj; and, having pnt their
chief men to death, fold the, reft for,)laves. The
Unelli, with Vericlorix their chief, together .with the
Lexovii and Aulerci, were, about the fame time, fub¬
dued by Sabinus, ;and the Aquitani by, .Cralfus, with
the lofa of thirty thoufand men. There'remained no¬
thing but the countries'of the Morini and Menapii to
be conquered, of all Qaul. Ctefar marched himfelf
againft’.them : but he found them fp well intrenched in
their inacceffible forjyefles, that he contented himfelf
with burning and ravaging their country ; and, having
put his troopsinto winter-quprters, again puffed over the
Alps, to have a more watchful eye on fome of his ri¬
vals there. He was, however, fpon after ob)iged to come
to defend his Gaulifh conqUefts againft fome nations of
the Germans, who were coming to fettle there, to the
number of four hundred tho,uljand. Tbefe he to¬
tally defeated} and thep refolved to carry his conquer¬
ing arms into Getmany: but /or, an- account of his
i exploits there, fee the. article Germany. . • - ,
■ The Gauls Upon, his Return iqto Gaul, he found it labouring
Irevolt, but under a great famine, which had caufed a kind of uni-
are fub- verfaf revolti Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in
'dued. the country of the Eburopes,, now Liege, werebetray-
ed into an aiujuifh, py Ambiprix, .one of the Gaulifh
chiefs, ^nd hail moft of their men cut off. T)he Adu-
atici had fallen, upon QrCicero, who was left there
with one legion, and had reduced him to great ftraits:
at the fame time Labienus, with his legion, was at¬
tacked by Jndutiomarus, at the head of the Rheni
and Senones ; but had better luck than the reft, and;
by one boJLfally uppn them, put them to flight, and
killed their general.. Ctefar. acquired no fmall credit
by quelling all thefe revolts but each viflory loil the
lives ,of To many'of his troops, that he was forced to
have recourfe to Pompey for a frefh fupply, who. rea¬
dily granted him two of his own legions to fecure his
9 Gauliih conquefts.
A fecund But it was not long before the Gauls, ever.reftlefs
'revolt. under a foreign yoke, raifed up a .new revolR antbobr
liged him to return thither. His fgar Ttft Pompey
fhould gain the affefbons of the Roman people^ had
obliged him to ftrip the Gauls of their.gold. -and filyer,
to bribe them over to his intereft; apd this,gave, no
fmall handle to thofe frequent pevplts which happened
during his abfence. He'quickly, however, reduced
Vol, V.
the Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii, and Treviri; the lall Gai,!.
of whom had raifed the revolt, under the command of ~
Ambiorix: but he found the flame fpread much
farther, even to the greateft part of the Gauls, who
had chofen Vercingetprix their generaliffimo. Ctefar
was forced to leave Infubria, whither he had retired
tp watch the motions of Pompey, and, in the midlt
of winter and fnow, to repafs the Alps, into the pro¬
vince of Narbonne. Here he gathered his fcattered
troops with all poflible fpeed ; and, in fpite of the hard
■vveather, .b^fieged and took Noviodunum, now Noy-
ons ; and defeated Vercingetorix, who was come to
the relief .of that place. ,He next took (the city of
Avaricum, now Bourges, one of the ftrongeft in Gaul,
and which had a garrifon of forty thoufand men; of
whom he made fuch a dreadful daughter, that hardly
eight hundred efcaped. Whilft he wasbefieging Ger-
govia, the capital of the Arverni, he was informed
that the Nitiobriges, or Agenois, were in arms; and
that the iEdui were fending to Vercingetorix ten thou¬
fand men, which they were to have fent to reinforce
Csefar. Upon this news, he left Fabius to carry on
the fiege, and marched agiinrt the Aidui. Thefe,
upon his approach, fubmitted, in appearance, and
were pardoned; but foon after that whole nation rofe
up in arms, and murdered all the Italian troops in their
capital. Caefar, at this, was in great ftraits what
meafures to take ; but refolved at length to raife the
liege of Gergovia, and at once attack the enemy’s
camp, which he did with fome fuccefs: but when he
thought to have, gone to Noviodunum, or Noyons,.
where his baggage, military cheft, &c. were left, he
heard that the aEdui had carried it off, and burnt the
place. Labiemis, juftly. thinking that Csefar would
want his affiftance in the condition he now was, went
to join him, and in his way defeated a Gauhlh gene¬
ral, named Camfilogen'j, who came to oppofebis march:
but this did not hinder the revolt,from fpreading itfelf
all over Celtic Gaul, whither Vercingetorix had fent
for frelh fuppres, and, jn the mean time, attacked Cse¬
far ; but was defeated, and forced to retire to Alefia,
a ftropg place, now Alife in Burgundy, as is fuppo-
fed. 'Hither Caefar haftened, and befieged him ; and,
having drawn a double circumvallation, with a defign
to ftarve him in it, as he was likely to have done, up¬
on that account refufed all offers of a furrender from
him. At length, the long-expe&ed reinforcement
cairn?, confifting of one hundred and fixty thoufand
men, under four generals: thefe made feveral fruitlefs
attacks on Caefar’s trenches ; but were defeated in.three 7'j,ey are
feyeral battles, which at length obliged Verqingeto- again fub-
rix.to furrenejer at diferetion. Cscfar ufed all his pri- dued.
foners with great feverity, except the iEdui and Ar¬
verni, by whbfe means he hoped, tq gain their nations,
which vyere the moft potent of Celtic Gaul: nor was he
difappointed; for both of them fubmitted to him, and
the former received him into their capital, where he
fpent the winter, after he had put his army into win-
ter-qn^rtqrs. This campaign, as it proved oneof;the
bardeft .he. ever had, fq he gahjed;mqrf .glory by it
than any Roman general had done bpfore: yet could
not all by this procure from the fervile fenafe, now
wholly dedicated to hi;s rival, a prolongation of his
proconfulfhip; upon which he is reported to have laid
his hand upon his fword, andfaid, that that fliould do it.
18 O He
Gan!.
G A U [ 3*30 ] G A U
He was good as his word ; and the Gauls, upon
their former ill fuccefs, refolving to have as many fe-
parate armifcs as provinces, in order to embarrafs him
the more, Caefar, and his generals Labienus and Fa-
bius, were forced to fight them one after another;
which they did, however, with fuch fuccefs, that,
notwithftanding the hardnefs of the feafon, they fub-
dued the Bituriges, Garnuti, Rhemi, and Bellovaci,
with their general Correus, by which heat once quiet¬
ed all the Beigic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul.
The next who followed were the Treviri, the Eburo-
nes, and the Andes, under their general Dunmarus.
The lad place which held out againft him was Uxel-
Jodunum ; which was defended by the two laft a&ing
generals of the Gauls, iDrapes the Sefronian, and
X.uteriuS the Cadurcean. The place being ftrong,
and well garrifoned, Caefar was obliged to march thi¬
ther, from the fartheft part of Beigic Gaul; and foon
after reduced it, for rvant of water. Here again he
caufed the right-hands of all that were fit to bear
arms to be cut off, to deter the reft from revolting a-
Gaul re- fi-efh. Thus was the cqnqueft of Gaul finiflied from
dURoman t^,e A^PS and Pyrenees to the Rhine, all which vail
province was now reduced to a Roman province under the
government of a praetor. During his feveral expedi¬
tions into Gaul, Caefar is faid to have taken 800 cities ;
to have fubdued 300 different nations; and to have de¬
feated, in feveral battles, three] millions of men, of
whom one million w’ere killed, and another taken pri-
foners.—The hiltory of the country, from the time
of its conqueft by the Romans to the prefent, is gi¬
rt ven under the articles Rome and France.
Charafter, Gauls anciently were divided into a great num-
&c. of the berof different nations, which were continually at war
ancient . , , , . . , r 1
Gauls. wdh one another, and at variance among themielres.
Caefar tells us, that not only all their cities, cantoris,
and diftridts, but even almoft all families, were divided
and torn by fa&ions; and thus undoubtedly facilitated
the conqueft of the whole. The general chara&er
bf all thefe people Was an exceffive ferocity and love of
liberty. This laft they carried to fuch an extreme,
that either on the appearance of fervitude, or incapa¬
city of a£lion through old age, wounds, or chronic
difeafes, they put an end to their own lives, or pre¬
vailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when
they found themfelves fo flraitly befieged that tbty
could hold out no longer, inftead of thinking how to
obtain honourable terms of capitulation, their chief
care very often was to put their wives and children to
death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being
led into flavery. This exceflive love of liberty and
contempt of death, according to Strabo, very much
facilitated their conqueft by Csefar; for pouring their
numerous forces upon fuch an experienced enemy as
Csefar, their want of conduct very foon proved the
ruin of the whole.
The chief diverfion of the Gauls was hunting; and
indeed, confidering the vaft forefts with which their
country abounded, and the multitude of wild beafts
which lodged in them, they were under an abfoTute
neceffity to hunt and deltroy them, to prevent' the
country from being rendered totally' uninhabitable.
Befidesthis, however, they had alfo their hippodromes,
horfe and chariot races, tilts and tournaments; at all
ftf tvhich the bards affifted with their pderins, fongs,
and mufical inftruments.—For an account of their re- Gaul
ligion, fee the article Druid. II
The Gauls were exceffively fond of Rafting, in GauntloPe‘
which they were very profufe; as, like all other nor¬
thern nations, they were great lovers of good eating
and drinking. Their chief liquors were beer and
wine. Their tables were very low. They eat but little
bread, which was baked flat and hard, and eafily bro¬
ken in pieces : but devoured a great deal of fieih,
boiled, rbalied, of broiled ; and this they did in a very
flovenly manner, holding the piece in their hands,
and tearing it with their teeth. What they could not
part by this way, they cut with a little knife which
hung at their girdle. When the company was nume¬
rous, the Coryphee, or chief of the feaft, who was
either one of thericheft, or nobleft, or braveft, fat in
the middle, with the mafter of the houfe by his fide ;
the reft took their places next according to their rank,
having their fervants hdldingtheir fhields behind them.
Thefe feafts feldom ended without bloodfiied ; but if
by chance the feaft proved a peaceable one, it was
enerally accompanied not only with mufic and fongs,
ut likewife with dances, in which the dancers were
armed cap-a-pee, and beat time with their fWords upon
their fliields. On certain feftivals they were wont to
drefs themfelves in the fltins of beafts, and in that at¬
tire accompany the p'roceffions in honour of their
deities or heroes. Others dreffed themfelves in maf-
qnerade habits, fbme of them very indecent, and.play-
ed feveral antic and immodeft tricks. This laft ciiftom
continued long after their converfion to Chriftianity.
GAUNT-BELLitb, in the manege, is faift of a
horfe whofe belly Ihrinks up towards his flanks.
GAUNTLOPE, pronounced gauntlet, a military
punifhment for felony, or fome other heinous offence.
Iniiejfels hfnxiar, it is executed in the following man¬
ner. The whole Ihip’s crew is difpofed in two rows.
Handing face to face, on both -fides of the deck, fo as
to form a lane whereby to go forward on one fide, and
return aft on the other; each perfon being furnifhed
with a fmall twifted ebrd, called a knit tie, having two
or three knots upon it. The delinquent is then ftripptd
naked above the waift, and ordered to pafs forward
between the two rows of m‘eh, and aft on the other
fide, a certain mrmbeboff times, farely exceeding tfifeej
during Which every perfon gives him a ftripe as he runs
along. In his paffage through this painful ordeal, he
is fometimes tripped up, and very feverely handled
while incapable of proceeding. This puniftiment, which;
is called running the gauntlet, is feldom inflifted, except
for fuch crimes as will naturallye'xcite a general antipa¬
thy among the feamen; as, on fome occafions, the cul¬
prit wouldpafs without receiving a fingle blow, particu¬
larly in cafes of mutiny and fedition, to the punifti¬
ment of which our Rilors feentt to have a couftitutional
averfidn.
In the landfervice, when a foldier is fentenced to
run the gauntlope, the regiment is drawn but in two-
ranks facing each other; each foldier, having a fwitch
in his hand, lafhes the criminal as he runs along naked
from the waifl upwards. While he runs, the drums
beat at each end of the ranks. Sometimes he runs
three, five, or feven times, according to the nature oP
the offence. The major is on horfeback, and takes-
eare that-each foldier docs his duty.
GAVOTTA*
GAY [ 3231 ] GAY
Gavotta GAVOTTA, or Gavotte, is a kind of dance, the
fl air of which has two brifk and lively drains in common
Gay‘ time, each of which drains is twice played over. The
fird has ufually four or eight bars ; and the fecond
contains eight, twelve, or more. The fird begins with
a minim, or two crotchets, or notes of equal value, and
the hand rifing ; and ends with the fall of the hand
upon the dominant or mediant of the mode, but never
upon the final, unlefs it be a rondeau : and the lad
begins with the rife of the hand, and ends with the
fall upon the final of the mode.
Tempi di Gavotta, is when only the time or move¬
ment of a gavotte is imitated, without any regard to
the meafure, or number of bars or drains.—Little airs
are often found in fonatas, which have this phrafe to
regulate their motions.
GAUZE, or Gawse, in commerce, a very flight,
thin, open kind of duff, made of filk, fometimes of
thread. There are alfo figured gauzes, and fome
with gold or filver on filk ground.
GAY (John), a celebrated Englilh poet, de-
fcended from an ancient family in Devonfhire, was
born at Exeter, and received his education at the free
fchool of Barndaplc in that county, under the care of
Mr. William Rayner.—He was bred a mercer in the
Strand 5 but having a fmall fortune, independent of
bufinefs, and confidering the attendance on a fliop as
a degradation of thofe talents which he found himfelf
offeffed of, he quitted that occupation, and applied
imfelf to other views, and to the indulgence of his
inclination for the mufes. In 1712 we find him fe-
cretary, or rather domeftic ftcward, to the duchefs
of Monmouth, in which Ration he continued till the
beginning of the year 1714; at which time he accom¬
panied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover, whither that
nobleman was difpatched by queen Anne. In the
latter end of the fame year, in confequence of the
queen’s death, he returned to England, where he lived
in the higheft eftimation and intimacy of friendfhip
with many perfons of the firil diltindlion both in
rank and abilities.—He was even particularly taken
notice of by queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales,
to whom he had the honour of reading in manufcript
his tragedy of the Captives; and in 1726 dedicated
his Fables, by permiflion, to the duke of Cumberland.
— From this countenance (hewn to hfm, and number-
lefs promifes made him of preferment, it was reafon-
able to fuppofe, that he would have been genteelly
provided for in fome office fuitable to his inclination
and abilities. Inftead of which, in 1727, he was of¬
fered the pdace of gentleman-ufher to one of the young-
eft princeffes; an office which, as he looked on it as
rather an indignity to a man whofe talents might have
been fo much better employed, he thought proper to
refufe j and fome pretty warm remonftrances were
made on the occafion by his fincere friends and zea¬
lous patrons the duke and duchefs . of Queenlberry,
Which terminated in thofe two noble perfonages with¬
drawing from court in difguft. Mr Gay’s dependen¬
cies on the promifes of the great, and the difappoint-
ments he met wfith, he has figuratively defcribed in his
fable of the Hare with many friends. However, the
very extraordinary fuccefs he met with from public
encouragement made an ample amends, both with re-
fpeft to fatisfaflion and emolument, for thofe private
difappointments.— For, in the feafon of 1727-8, ap- Gay.
peared his Beggar's Opera', the vail fuccefs of which
was not only unprecedented, but almoft incredible.—
It had an uninterrupted run in London of fixty-three
nights in the firft feafon, and was renewed in the en-
fuing one with equal approbation. It fpread into all
the great towns of England ; was played in many
places to the thirtieth and fortieth time, and at Bath
and Briftol fifty; made its progrefs into Wales, Scot¬
land, and Ireland, in which laft place it was afted for
twenty-four fucceffive nights ; and laft of all it was
performed at Minorca. Nor was the fame of it con¬
fined to the reading and reprefentation alone, for the
card-table and drawing-room (hared with the theatre
and clofet in this refped ; the ladies carried about the
favourite fongs of it engraven upon their fan-mounts,
and fcreens and other pieces of furniture were deco¬
rated with the fame. In fhort, the fatire of this piece
was fo ftriking, fo apparent, and fo perfe&ly adapted
to the tafte of all degrees of people, that it overthrew
the Italian opera, that Dagon of the nobility and
gentry, which had fo long feduced them to idolatry,
and which Dennis, by the labours and outcries of a
whole life, and many other writers by the force of
reafon and reflexion, had in vain endeavoured to drive-
from the throne of public tafte. The profits of this-
piece was fo very great, both to the author and Mr
Rich the manager, that it gave rife to a quibble, which
became frequent in the mouths of many, viz. That it
had made Rich gay, and Gay rich ; and it has beea
afferted, that the author’s own advantages from ic
were not lefs than two thoufand pounds. In confe¬
quence of this fuccefs, Mr Gay was induced to write a
fecond part to it, which he entitled Polly. But the
difguft fubfifting between him and the Court, together
with the mifreprefentations made of him as having been
the author of fome difaffe&ed libels and feditious pam¬
phlets, occafioned a prohibition and fuppreffion of it to
be fent from the lord chamberlain, at the very time when
every thing was in readinefs for the rehearfal of it.
A very confiderable fum, however, accrued to him
from the publication of it afterwards in quarto.—Mr
Gay wrote feveral other pieces in the dramatic way,
and many very valuable ones in verfe. Among the latter,
his Trivia, or the Art of walking the Jlreets of London,
though his firft poetical attempt, is far from being
the leaft confiderable, and is what recommended him
to the efteem and friendftiip of Mr Pope: but, as
among his dramatic works his Beggar's Opera did at
firft, and perhaps ever will, (land as an unrivalled
mafter-piece, fo, among his poetical works, his Fables
hold the fame rank of eftimation, the latter having
been almoft as univerfally read as the former was re-
prefented, and both equally admired. Mr Gay’s dif-
pofition was fweet and affable, his temper generous,
and his converfation agreeable and entertaining. But
he had one foible, too frequently incident to men of
great literary abilities, and which fubjefted him at
times to inconveniencies which otherwife he needed not
to have experienced, viz. an excefs of indolence, with¬
out any knowledge of ceconomy. So that, though his
emoluments were, at fome periods of his life, very
confiderable, he was at others greatly ftraitened in his
circumftances ; nor could he prevail on himfelf to fol¬
low the advice of his friend dean Swift, whom we find
18 O 2 in
GAY [ 3232 ] G A Z
in many of his letters endeavouring to perfuade him
to the purchafing of an annuity", as a rtferve for the
exigencies that might attend on old age.—Mr Gay
ehofe rather to throw himfelf on patronage, than fe-
cure to himfelf an independent competency by the
means pointed out to him; fo that, after having un¬
dergone tnaay viciffitudes of fortune, and being for
feme time chiefly fupported by the libet'ality of the
duke and duchefs of Queenfberry, he died at their houfe
in Burlington-gardens, in December 1732. He was
interred in Weft mi niier-abbey, and a monument ere&ed
to his memory, at the expence of his aforementioned
noble benefactors, with an infeription exprefftve of their
regards and his own deferts, and an epitaph in verfe
by Mr Pope.
GAZA (Theodore), a famous Greek in the 15th
century, was born in 1398. His country being in¬
vaded by the Turks, he retired into Italy; where he
at firft fupported himfelf by tranferibing ancient au¬
thors, an employment the learned had frequent re-
courfe to before the invention of printing. His un¬
common parts and learning foon recommended him to
public notice ; and particularly to cardinal Beffarion,
who procured him a benefice in Calabria. He was
one of thofe to whom the revival of polite literature in
Italy was principally owing. He tranflated from the
Greek into Latin, Ariftotle's Hiftory of Animals,
Theophraftus on Plants, and Hippocrates’s Apho-
rifms; and put into Greek, Scipio’s Dream, and
Cicero’s Treatife on Old Age. He wrote feveral other
works in Greek and Latin; and died at Rome, in
I+7*-
GAZA, (anc. geog.) a principal city, and one of
the five fatrapies of the Philiftines. It was fituated
about loo.ftadia from the Mediterranean, on an arti¬
ficial mount, and ftrongly walled round. It was de-
ftroyed by Alexander the Great, and afterwards by
Antiochus. In the time of the Maccabees it was a
ftrong and flourilhing city; but was deftroyed a third
time by Alexander jannaeus. At prefent it has a mi-
ferable appearance. The buildings are mean, both as
to the form and matter. Some remains of its ancient
grandeur appear in the handfome pillars of Parian
marble which fupport fome of the roofs; while others
are difpofed of here and there, in different parts of al-
moft every beggarly cottage. On the top of the hill,
at the north-eaft corner of the town, are the ruins of
large arches funk low into the earth, and other foun¬
dations of a ftately building, from whence fome of
the bafhaws have carried off marble pillars of an in¬
credible fize. The caftle is a contemptible ftrufture,
and the port is ruined. E. Long. 34. 55. N. Lat.
31. 28.
GAZE-hound, or Gaji-hound, one that makes more
yfe of his fight than of his nofe. Such dogs are much
ufed in the north of England : they are fitter in an
open champaign country, jhan in bufhy and woody
places. If at any time a well-taught gaze-hound takes
a wrong way, he will return upon a fignal and begin
the chace afrefh. He is alfo excellent at fpying out
the fatteft of a herd; and having feparated it from the
reft, will never give over the purfuit till he has worried
it to death.
GAZELLA, in zoology, a fpecies of Capra.
GAZETTE, a oewfpaper, or printed account of
the tranfaiftions of all the countries in the known world,
in a loofe flieet or half-fheet. This name is with us;
confined to that paper of news publifhed by authority.
The word is.derived from a Venetian coin,
which was the ufual'price of the firft news-paper
printed there, and which was afterwards given to the
paper itfelf.
The firft gazette in England was published at Oxford,
the court being there, in .a folio half-fheet, Nov. 7,
1665. On the rempval of the court to London, the
title was changed to the 'London Gazette. . The Oxi
ford gazette was publiftied on Tuefdays, the London
on Saturdays; and thefe have continued to be the
days of publication ever fince.
GAZNA, a city of Afia, once much celebrated,
and the capital of a very extenfive empire ; but which
is now either entirely ruined, or become of fo little
confideration, that it is not taken notice of in our
books of geography.—This city was anciently an em-
pory and fortrefs of Sableftan, not far from the con¬
fines of India. During the vaft and rapid conquefts of
the Arabs, all this country had been reduced under
their fubje&ion. On the decline of the power of the
khalifs, however, the vaft empire eftabliftied by Ma¬
homet and his fucceffors was divided into a number of
independent principalities, moft of which were but of
ftiort duration. In the year of the Hegira 384, an-
fwering to the 994th of the Chriftian asra, the city of
Gazna, with fome part of the adjacent country, was
governed by Mahmud Gazni; who became a great
conqueror, and reduced under his fubje&ion a confi-
derable part of India, and moft of Perfia.
This empire continued in the family of Mahmud
Gazni for upwards of 200 years. None of his fuccef¬
fors, however, were poffeffed of his abilities; and there¬
fore the extent of the empire, inftead of increafing,
was very confiderably diminifhed foon after Mahmud’s
death. The Seljuks made themfelves mafters ofKho-
rafan, and could not be driven out ; the greateft part
of the Perfian dominions alfo fell off; and in the 547th
year of the Hegira, the race of Gazni fultans were en¬
tirely fet afide by one Gauri, who conquered Khofru
Shah the reigning prince, and beftowed his dominions
on his own nephew Gayathoddin Mohammed. Thefe
new foltans proved greater conquerors’ than the for¬
mer, and extended their dominions farther than even
Mahmud Gazni himfelf had done. They did not,
however, long enjoy the fovereignty of Gazna; for in
1218, Jenghiz Khan, having conquered the greateft:
part of China and almoft all Tartary, began to turn
his arms weftward; and fet out againft the fultan of
Gazna at the head of 700,000 men.
To oppofe this formidable army, Mohammed, the
reigning foltan, could mufter only 400,000 men ; and,
in the firft battle, 160,000 of his troops are faid to have
perifhed. After this victory, Jenghiz Khan advanced;
Mohammed not daring to riik a fecond battle, the
lofs of which would have been attended with the en¬
tire ruin of his kingdom. He therefore diftributed
his army among the ftrongeft fortified towns he had
in his dominions; all of which Jenghiz Khan took
one after another. The rapid progrefs of his con¬
quefts, indeed, almoft exceeds belief. In 1219 and
J 220, he had reduced Zarnuk, Nur, Bokhara, Otrar,
Saganak, Uzkant, Alftiaih, Jund, Tonkat, Khojend,
'
G A Z [ 3233 ] G A Z
Gazra. and Samarcand.—Mohammed, in the mean time, fled
firft to Bokhara; but on the approach of Jenghiz
Khan’s army, quitted that place, and fled to Samar-
cand. When this laft city was alfo in danger of being
invefted, the foltan did not think proper to trull him-
felf in.it more than in the other, though it was garrifon-
ed by no,coo of his bravefl: troops ; and therefore
fled through by-ways into the province of Ghilan in
Perfia, where he took refuge in a ftrong fortrefs call¬
ed Eftabad. But being alfo found out in this retreat,
he fled to an ifland in the Cafpian fea called Abifkun\
where he ended his days, leaving his empire, fuch as
it was, to his fon Jaloloddin.
The new foltan was a man of great bravery and
experience in war; but nothing was able to flop the
progrefs of the Moguls. In 1220 and 1221, they
made themfelves matters of all the kingdoms of Ka-
razm and Khorafan, committing every where fuch
maflacres as f.ere never heard of before or fince that
time. In the mean time Jaloloddin aflembled his for¬
ces with the utmoft diligence, and defeated two de¬
tachments of the Mogul army. This happened while
Jenghiz Khan was befieging Bamiyan ; but anfwered
little other purpofe, than ferving to bring upon that
city the terrible deftruftion, of which an account is
given under the article Bamivan. Immediately after
the redu£tion of that city, Jenghiz Khan marched to¬
wards Gazna;. which was very ftrongly fortifled, and
where he expe&ed to have found Jaloloddin. But he
had left the place 15 days before; and, as Jenghiz
Khan’s army was much reduced, he might perhaps
have flood his ground, had it not been for an acci¬
dent. He had been lately joined by three Turkifh
commanders, each of whom had a body of 10,000
men under his command. After his viftories over the
Moguls, thefe officers demanded the greateft (hare of
the fpoils; which being refufed, they feparated them¬
felves from the fokan. He ufed his utmott endea¬
vours to make them hearken to reafon ; and fent feve-
ral meflages and letters to them, reprefenting the in¬
evitable ruin which mutt attend their feparation, as
Jenghiz Khan was advancing againft them with his
whole army. At laft they were perfuaded to lay afide
their animoffties:’ but it was now too late ; for Jenghiz
Khan, being informed of what paffed, detached
60,000 horfe to prevent their joining the foltan’s ar¬
my ; who finding himfelf deprived of this powerful
aid, retired towards the river Indus. When he was
arrived there, he flopped in a place where the ftreatn
was moft rapid and the place confined, with a view
both to prevent his foldiers from placing any hopes of
fafety in flight, and to hinder the whole Mogul army
from attacking him at once. Ever fince his departure
from Gazna he had been tormented with a colic: yet, at
a time when he fuffered moft, hearing that the enemy's
vanguard was arrived at a place in the neighbourhood
called Herder, he quitted his litter, and, mounting a
horfe, marched with fome of his chofen foldiers in
-the night; furprifed the Moguls in their camp ; and
having cut them almoft all in pieces, without the lofs
of a Angle man on his fide, returned with a confide-
rable booty.
Jengziz Khan, finding by this that he had a vigi-
lant enemy to deal with, proceeded with great circum-
%eftion. When he came near the Indus, he drew out
his army in battalia : to Jagatay, one of his fons, he
gave the command of the right wing ; to Oktay, ano-
ther fon, he gave the command of the left; and put
himfelf in the centre, with 6000 of his guards. On
the other fide, Jaloloddin prepared for battle like one
who had no refource but in viflory. Pie fit ft fent the
boats on the Indus farther off; referring only one to
carry over his mother, wife, and children : but un¬
luckily the boat fplit when they were going to em¬
bark, fo that they were forced to remain in the camp.
The foltan took to himfelf the command of the main
body of the army. His left wing, drawn ,up under
fhelter of a mountain which hindered the whole right
wing of the Moguls from engaging at once, was com¬
manded by his vizir; and his right by a lord named
Amin Malek. This lord began the fight; and forced
the enemy’s left wing, notwithftanding the great dif-
parity of; numbers, to give ground. The right wing
of the Moguls likewife wanting room to extend itfelf,
the foltan made ,ufe of his left as a body of referve,
detaching from thence fome fquadrons to theafiiftance
of the troops who flood in need of them. He alfo
took one part of them with him when he went at the
head of his main body to charge that of Jenghiz
Khan ; which he did with fo much refolution and vi¬
gour, that he not only put it in diforder, but pene¬
trated into the place where Jenghiz Khan had origi¬
nally taken his ftation: but that prince, having had a
horfe killed under him, was retired from thence, to
give orders for all the troops to engage.
This difadvantage had like to have loft the Moguls
the battle ; for a report being immediately fpread that
the enemy had broken through the main body, the
troops werefo much difcouraged, that they would cer¬
tainly have fled, had not Jenghiz Khan encouraged
them by riding from place to place in order to fhew
himfelf. At laft, however, Jaloloddin’s men, who
were in all but 30,000, having fought a whole day
with ten times their number, were feized with fear,
and fled. One part of them retired to the rocks
which were on the ftiore of Indus, where the enemy’s
horfe could not follow them ; others threw themfelves
into the river, where many were drowned, though
fome had the good fortune to crofs over in fafety ;
while the reft, furrounding their prince, continued the
fight through defpair. The foltan, however, con-
fidering that he had fcarce 7000 men left, began to
think of providing for his own fafety : therefore, hav¬
ing bidden a final adieu to his mother, wife and chil¬
dren, he mounted a frefti horfe, and fpurred him into
the river, which be croffed in fafety, and even flopped
in the middle of it to infult Jenghiz Khan, who was
now arrived at the bank. His family fell into the
hands of the Moguls; who killed all the males, and
carried the tvomen into captivity.
Jaloloddin being now fecurely landed in India, got
up into a tree, in order to preferve himfelf from wild
beafts. Next day, as he walked melancholy among
the rocks, he perceived a troop of his foldiers, with
fome officers, three of wdiom proved to be his parti¬
cular friends. Thefe, at the beginning of the defeat,
had found a boat in which they had failed all night,
with much danger from the rocks, /helves, and rapid
current of the river. Soon after, he faw 300 horfe
coming towards him; who informed him of 4000 more-
thafc .
G A Z [ 3234 ] GEL
Gazrra that had efcaped by fwimming over the river; and
II _ thefe alfo foon after joined the reft. In the mean
Gelatina. tjme an 0f5cer 0f },is houfehold, named Jamalarra^ad,
knowing that his matter and many of his people were
efcaped, ventured to load a very large boat with arms,
provifions, money, and ftuff to clothe the foldiers;
with wdiich he croffed the river. For this important
fervice Jaloloddin made him fteward of his houfehold,
and furnamed him the Chofeti or the Glory of the faith.
For fome time after, the fultan’s affairs feemed to go
on profperoufly: he gained fome battles in India ; but
the princes of that country, envying his profperity,
confpired againtt him, and obliged him to repafs the
Indus. Here he again attempted to make head againft
the Moguls; but was at lad defeated and killed by
them, and a final end put to the once mighty empire
of Gazna.
The metropolis was reduced by Oktay ; who no
fooner entered the country in which it was fituated,
than he committed the moft horrid cruelties. The
city was well provided with all things neceffary for
fuftaining a fiege ; had a ftrong garrifon, and a brave
and refolute governor. The inhabitants, expefting
no mercy from Jenghiz Khan, who they knew had
fworn their ruin, were refolved to make a defperate
defence. They made frequent fallies on the beliegers,
feveral times overthrew their works, and broke above
loo of their battering rams. But one night, after an
obftinate fight, part of the city-walls fell down ; and
a great number of Moguls having filled up the ditch,
entered the city fword-in-hand. The governor per¬
ceiving all was loft, at the head of his braveft foldiers
ruihed into the thickett of his enemies, where he and his
followers were all {lain. However, Gazna was not entire¬
ly deftroyed, nor were the people all killed; for after
the maffacre had continued four or five hours, Oktay
ordered it to ceafe, and taxed thofe who were left alive
at a certain rate, in order to redeem themfelves and
the city. It doth not, however, appear that after this
time the city of Gazna ever made any confiderable
figure.—It was taken by the Moguls in the year 1222.
GECCO, in natural hiftory, a name given by the
Indians to their terrible poifon, which kills when mixed
with the blood in ever fuch a fmall quantity. They
fay that this gecco is a venomous froth or humour
vomited out of the mouths of their moft poifonous fer-
pents ; which they procure in this fatal ftrength, by
hanging up the creatures by the tails, and whipping
them to enrage them : they colleft this in proper vef-
fels as it falls ; and when they would ufe it, they either
poifon a weapon with it, or wounding any part of
the fiefh introduce the fmalleft quantity imaginable
into it ; and this is faid to hi immediate death.
GECKO. See Lacerta.
GEDDES (James), born of a refpeftable family
in Scotland in 1710, was educated for and prac-
tifed at the bar feveral years; but died of a confump-
tion before he arrived at the age of 40. He publifhed
sin eJJ'ay on the compofttion and manner of ’writing of the
ancients ; and left behind him feveral other trafts.
GELATINA, jelly, a form of food, or medicine,
prepared from the juices of ripe fruits, boiled to pro¬
per confiftence with fugar, or of the ftrong deco&ions
of the horns, bones, or extremities of animals boiled
to fuch a degree as to be ftiff and firm when col d,
without the addition of fugar. Gelati;^
The jellies of fruits are cooling, faponaceous, and ft
acefcent; and therefore are good as medicines in all G; d'ir
diforders of the prims vis arifing from alkalefcent
juices, efpecially when not given alone, but diluted
with w'ater. On the contrary, the jellies made, from ;
animal-fubftances are all alkalefcent, and are therefore '
good in all cafes where an acidity of the humours pre¬
vails : the alkalefcent quality of thefe, however, is in *
a great meafure taken off by adding lemon-juice and I
fugar to them. There were formerly a kind of jellies
much in ufe, called compound jellies ; thefe had the re- .
ftorative medicinal drugs added to them, but they are
now fcarce ever heard off.
Gelatina Jvenx,Oat-jelly •, a jelly of common oats,
recommended by many of the German phyficians in l
all heftic diforders, to be taken with broth of fnails .
and craw-fifh.—It is made by boiling a large quan- I
tity of oats, freed from the hufk, with fome hartf- i
horn fhavings and currants, together with a leg of 1
veal cut in pieces, and with the bones all broken : \
thefe are to be fet over the fire with a large quantity
of water, till the whole is reduced to a kind of jelly; ;
which when drained and cold will be very firm and
hard. A few fpoonfuls of this are to be taken every
morning, diluted with a bafin of either of the above- I
mentioned broths, or any other warm liquor.
GELD, in the Englifh old cuftoms, a Saxon word
fignifying money, or tribute. It alfo denoted a com- |
penfation for fome crime committed : Hence rwergeldt
in their ancient laws, was ufed for the value of a man j
{lain ; and orfgeld, of a beaft.
GELDENHAUR (Gerard), in Latin Geldenha-
rius, an hittorian and Froteftant divine in the 16th
century. He was a native of Nimeguen, and ftudied
claffical learning at Deventer. He went through his
courfe of philofophy at Louvaine, where he contrac¬
ted a very ftrift friendfhip with feveral learned men,
and particularly with Erafmus. He became reader
and hiftorian to Charles of Auftria, and afterwards to j
Maximilian of Burgundy. At length he embraced
the Protettant religion ; taught hittory at Marpurg ;
and afterwards divinity till his death, in 1542. He
wrote, I. Hiftory of Holland. 2. Hiftory of the
Low Countries; 3. Hiftory of the bifhops of Ut¬
recht ; and other works.
GELDERLAND. See Guelderland.
GELDERS. See Gueldres.
GELDING, the operation of caftrating any ani¬
mal, particularly horfes.
The operation confifts in cutting out the tefticles;
in performing which, three things are to be obferved:
firft, regard is to be had to th£ir age ; next to the
feafon of the year; and laftly to the ftate of the moon.
For the firft, if the operation is to be performed on a
colt, he may be gelded at nine or fifteen days old, if
the tefticles be come down ; in regard the fooner
he is gelt the better it will be for his growth, (hape,
and courage; though a horfe may be gelt at any age,
if proper care is taken in the cure. As for the fecond,
the beft time is about April or May, or elfe about the
latter end of September. And for the third, the wane
of the moon is the moft proper time for performing
this operation.
The manner of gelding is as follows. The beaft
be-
GEL [ 3235 ] GEL
Gelding bring caft dowt) on fome foft plate, the operator takes
^ li the ftones between his foremoft and his great finger,
?diert- and flitting the cod prefles the ftones forth ; then tak¬
ing a pair of nippers made very fmooth, either of fteel,
box, or brafil-wood, he claps the firings of the ftones
between them, very near to where the ftones are fet
on, and preffes them fo hard that there may be no
flux of blood ; then with a thin, drawing, cauterifing
iron, fears away the ftone. This done, he takes a
hard plafter made of rofin, wax, and wafhed turpen¬
tine, well diflolved together, and melts it on the head
of the firings : he then fears them, and melts more
of the falve, till fuch time as he has laid a good thick-
nefs of it upon the firings.
When this is done to one ftone, the nippers are
loofened, and the like is done to the other; and the
two flits of the cod are then filled with white fait,
and the otitfide of the cod is anointed with hog’s
greafe: and thus they let him rife, and keep him in a
warm ftable, without tying him up. If he fwells much
in his cods or fheath, they chafe him up and down,
and make him trot for an hour in a day, which foon
recovers him.
The manner of gelding a hog is as follows : The
operator, after having made two crofs flits or incifions
on the midft of the ftones, prefles them out, and
anoints the fore with tar. But another general me¬
thod, yet fome what more dangerous if not well done,
is, firfi to Out the ftone on the top, and after having
drawn that one forth, the operator puts in his fingers
at the fame flit, and with a lancet cuts the fkin be¬
tween the two ftones, and by that flit preffes out the
other ftone. Then having cleanfed out the blood, he
anoints the part with frefh greafe: and thus there is
but orie incifion made in the cod. Boar-pigs ought
to be gelt about fix months old ; yet they are com¬
monly gelded about three weeks or a month old.
GELENHAUSEN, a fatal! imperial town ofWet-
teravia in Germany, with a caftle built by the empe¬
ror Frederic I. E. Long. 8. 13. N. Lat. 50. 20.
GELENIUS (Sigifmuud), a learned and excellent
man, born of a good family at Prague, about the
year 1498. Erafmus conceiving an efteem for him
at Balil, recommended him to John Frobenius as a
correStor for his printing-houfe: which laborious
charge he accepted, and had a great number of He¬
brew, Greek, and Latin books to correct : he alfo
tratiflated many works himfelf from the Greek into
Latin ; and publiftied a di&ionary in four languages,
Greek, Latin, German, and Sdavonian. Profitable
and honourable employments were offered him in other
places, but nothing could tempt him to quit hrs peace¬
ful fituation at Bafil, He died in 1555. All his
Iran flat ions are highly efteemed.
GELLERT (Chriftian), one of the fineft geniufes
Germany has produced, was bom at Haenichen, near
Freyburg in Saxony in 1715 ; and ftudied at Leipfic,
at which univerfity he was for many years profeffor
of philofophy and the belles lettres. He early dif-
tinguifhed himfelf by his talent for poetry ; and con-
trafted a ftridf friendfhip with the moft learned and
polite writers in Germany. All his works are filled
with fentiment, and bear the impreffion of the fweet-
toefs of his difpofition. The moft confiderable of them
are his comedies, his fpiritual fongs and moral poems,
and particularly his facred odes, his fables, and his Gdli
tales. He died in T769, much lamented. A
GELLI (John Baptift), an eminent Italian wri- Gtr‘‘'
ter, was born of mean parents at Florence, in the
year 1498. He was bred a taylor : but had fuch an
extraordinary genius, that he acquired feveral lan¬
guages, and made an uncommon progrefs in the belles
lettres ; and though he cbntinued always to work at his
trade, became acquainted with all the wits and learned
men at Florence, and his merit was univerfally known.
He was chofen a member of the academy there, and
the city made him a burgefs. He acquired the higheft
reputation by his works, which are, 1. I. Capricci del
Bottaio, quarto ; which contains ten dialogues. 2.
La Circe, o£tavo : This, which alfo contains ten dia¬
logues, and treats of human nature, has been tranf-
lated into Latin, French, and Englilh. 3. Differ-
tations in Italian on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.
4. The comedies of La Sporta and La Errore; and
other works. He died in 1563.
GELLI BRAND (Henry), a laborious aftrono-
mer of the la ft century, was born in 1597. Though
he was not without good views in the church, yet he
became fo enamoured with mathematical ftudies, that
on the death of his father he became a ftudent at Ox¬
ford, contented himfelf with his private patrimony,
and devoted himfelf folely to them. On the death of
Mr Gunter, he was recommended by Mr Briggs to
the truftees of Grefham college, for the aftronomical
profeAbrihip there; to which he was ele&ed in 1627.
His friend Mr Briggs dying in 1630, before he had
finifhed his Trigonometric a Britannica, it was finifhed
by Gtllibrand at his requeft. He wrote feveral other
things, chiefly tending to the improvement of naviga¬
tion ; and died in 1636.
GELLIUS (Aldus), or (as he isfometimes called)
Agellius ; a celebrated grammarian, who lived in the
2d century under Marcus Aurelius and fome fucceed-
ing emperors. He wrote a coll eft ion of bbfervations
on authors, for the ufe of his children ; and called it
Nodes Atticce, becaufe compofed in the evenings of a
winter he fpent at Athens. The chief value of it, is
for-preferving many fafts and monuments of antiquity-
hot to be found elfewhere. Critics and grammarians
have bellowed much pains on this writer.
GELLY. See Gelatina.
GEM, in natural hiftory, a common name for all
precious ftones; of which there are two claffes, the pel¬
lucid and femipellucid.
The bodies compofing the chfsof pellucid gems are
bright, elegant, and beautiful foffils, naturally and
effentially compound, ever found in fmall detached
maffes, extremely hard, pellucid, and of great luftre ;
compofed of a very firm and pure matter, without any
admixture of earthy fubftance ; giving 'lire with fteel,
not fermenting with acid menftruums, and very diffi¬
cultly calcinable in the fife. Of this elafs there are two
genera ; the chroftafima, and the chroaftaces. See
Chrostasima and Chroastaces.
The bodies compofing the clafs of femipellucid gems,
are ftones naturally and effentially compound, not in¬
flammable nor foluble in water, found in detached maf¬
fes, and compofed of cryftalline mater, debafed by
earth: however, they are but flightly debafed, and
are of great beauty and brightnefs, of a moderate
GEM [ 3236 ] GEM
degree of tranfparency, and are ufually found in fmall
mafles.
Of this clafs there are two orders: the firft of which
con fids of the femipellucid gems, of but two variega¬
tions, and frequently of one plain fimple colour; tho’
fometimes veined: this order contains four genera, viz.
the fardae, the chalcedonies; the hydrophanae, and the
pramnion. See the articles Sardje, Chalcedonii,
Hydrophan^:, and Pramnion.
The fecond order of femipel.lucid gems, confiding of
thofe remarkable for their veins, zones, and variega¬
tions, contains alfo four genera, viz. the achatas, the
onyches, the fardonyches, and the camaea. See the
articles AcIhatas, Onyches, Sardonyches, and
Cjam/ea.
.The knowledge of gems depends principally on ob-
ferving their hardnefs and colour. Their hardnefs is
commonly allowed to dand in the following- order:
the diamond, the harded of all; then the ruby, fap-
phire, jacinth, emerald, amethyd, garnet, carneol,
chalcedony, onyx, jafper, agate, porphyry, and marble.
This difference, however, is not regular and condant,
but frequently varies. Good crydals may be allowed
to fucceed the onyx ; but the whole family of me¬
tallic glaffy fluors feem to be dill fofter.—In point of
colour, the diamond is valued for its tranfparency, the
ruby for its' purple, thd fapphire for its,blue, the eme¬
rald for its green, the jacynth for its orange, the
amethyd carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its
tawny, the jafper, agate, and porphyry for their ver¬
milion, green, and variegated colours, and the. garnet
for its tranfparent blood-red.
AH thefe gems are fometimes found coloured and
fpotted, and fometimes quite limpid and colourlefs. In
this cafe the diamond-cutter or polifher knows how tq
didinguilh their different'fpecies by their different de¬
grees of hardnefs uppn the mil). For the cutting or
polilhiog of gems, the fine powder of the fragments
of thofe that are next in degree of hardnefs is always
required fo grind away the fofter ; but as none of
them are harder than the diamond, this can only be
polilhed by its own powder,
Imitation or Counterfeiting of Gems, in Glafs.— Thp
art of imitating gems in glafs, is too confiderable ;to
be paffed without notice : fome of the leading com-
pofitions therein, we fliall briefly mention upon the
authority of Neri.
Thefe gems are made of paftes; and are noway in¬
ferior to the native ftones, when carefully made and
well polilhed, in brightnefs or tranfparence, but want
their hardnefs. , ; , , \
The general rules to be iobferved in making the paftes
are thefe: 1. That all the veffels in which they are
made be firmly luted, and the lute left to dry before
they are put, into the fire. 2. That fuch veffels be
chofen fqr the work, as will bear the.fire well. 3. That
the powders be.prepared on a porphyry ftone; not in
a metal mortar, which woulcj communicate a tinge to
them. 4. That the juft proportion in the quantity of
the feveral ingredients be nicely obferved. 5. That
the materials be all well mixed ; and, if not fuificiently
baked the firft time, to be committed to the fire a-
gain, wi,thoi3t breaking the pot : For if this be not
obferyed, they will be full of blifters and air-blad¬
ders. 6. That a fmall vacuity be always left at the top
of the pot, to give room to the fwelling of the ingre¬
dients.
To make pafte of extreme hardnefs, and capable of
all the colours of the gems, with great luftre and beau¬
ty.— Take of prepared cryftal,; ten pounds; fait of
polverine, fix pounds; fiftphur of lead, two pounds;
mix all thefe well together into a fine powder; make
the whole with common water into a hard paftej and
make this pafte into fmall cakes of about three ounces
weight each, with a hole,made in their middle; dry
them in the fun, and afterwards calcine them in the
ftraiteft part of a potter’s furnace. After this,
powder them, and levigate them to a perfect finenejs
on a porphyry-ftone, and fet this powder in pots in a
glafs-furnace to purify for three days: then caff, the
whole into water, and afterwards return it into the
furnace, where let it ftand 15 days, in which time all
‘foulnefs and blifters will difappear, and the pafte will
greatly refemble the natural jewels. To give this the
colour of the emerald, add to it brafs thrice calcined.;
for a fea-green, brafs fimply calcined to a rednefs ; for
a fapphire, add zaffer, with manganefe; and for a
topaz, manganefe and tartar. All the gems are thus
imitated in this, by the fame way,of working as the
making of coloured glaffes; and this is fo hard, that
they very much approach the natural gems.
The colour of all the counterfeit gems made of the
feveral paftes, may be made deeper or lighter, accord¬
ing to the work for which the ftones are defigned ;' and
it is a neceffary general rule, that fmall {tonesfa,r rings,
&c. require a deeper colpur, and large-ones a paler,
Befides the colours made from mangauefe, verdigreafc;
and zaffer, which are the ingredients commonly ufed,
there are other very fine ones which care and {kill
may prepare. Very fine red may be made from gold;
and one not much inferior tb that from if on; a yery
fine green from brafs or copper; a {ky-cplour, from
filver, and a much finer one from the granates: ofjlo-
hemia.
GEMARA, in Jewifti antiquities, a collection of
decifions and detesminations on the law, written after
the Mifna was completed.
It was called gemar ox perfection; becaufe it was
confidered as fo'perfeCt an explication .of the law, that
after it ,no further additions could be made, or any
thing,more defired. It is otherwife called the’/tf/wW.
SeeTA-LMuo.
GEMINI, the Twins, in aftronomy, one of the
12 figns of the zodiac, the third in order, beginning
with Aries. See Astronomy, n° 206.
GEMINIANI, a celebrated mufieian and compo-
fer, was born afftmcca i» the year 1680. Ifte recei¬
ved his firft inftrmftions in mufic from Al.effandro Scar¬
latti ; and after that became a pupil of Carlo Ambro-
fio Lunati, furnamed/AGcWtf, a moft celebrated per¬
former on the violin; after which he became a difciple
of Corelli, and under him finiflied his ftudies on, that
inftrument. In the year T714, he came to England ;
where in a fhort time he fo recommended himfelf by
his exquifite performance, that all who profeffed to
love and underftand mufic, were captivated with hear¬
ing him. Many of the nobility laid claim to the ho¬
nour of being his patrons; but he feemed chiefly to at¬
tach himfelf to Baron Kilmanfegge, chamberlain to
king George I. as eleftor of Hanover, and a favourite
GEM [ 32.
of that prince. In 1716, he pnblifhed and dedicated
to his patron X 2 fonatas a violino viclone e cemba¬
lo : the iirft fix with fugues and double flops as they
are vulgarly called ; the laft with airs of various mea-
fures, fuch as all’emandes, courants, andjiggs. This
publication was fo well reliftied by his patron, that he
mentioned Geminiani to the king as an excellent per¬
former; in confeqnence of which our mufician had
the honour to perform before his majefty, in concert
with the celebrated Handel who played on the harpfi-
chord.
But though Geminiani was exceedingly admired, yet
he'had not a talent at afibciating mufic with poetry, nor
do we find that he ever became a public performer: he
was therefore obliged to depend for hisfubfiftence on the
friendfhip of his patrons, and the profits which accru¬
ed to him from teaching. He had alfo the misfortune
to be an enthuliaft in painting; and the verfatility of
hij temper was fuch, that, in order to gratify this paf-
fion, he not only fufpended his ft tidies, and neglected
to exercife his talents, but involved himfelf in debts.
In 1727, he was offered the place of mafter and com*
ofer of the ftate-mufic in Ireland ; but this could not
e‘ conferred on a Catholic, and Geminiani refufed to
change his religion : upon which it was given to Mat¬
thew Dubourg, a young man who had been one of his
pupils, and was a celebrated performer on the violin.
Geminiani then fet himfelf to compofe parts to the 0-
pera quinta of Corelli ; or, in other words, to make
concertos of the firft fix of his folos. This work he
completed, and, with the help of a fubfcription, at the
head of which were the names of the royal family,
publilhcd in 1726. In 1732, he publifhed his ope¬
ra feconda, which contains a celebrated minuet that
goes by his name. He publifhed many other pieces,
the profits of which did not mych mend his circum-
flances ; but this perhaps was owing to bis rambling
difpofition and enthufraftic fondnefs of painting. He
was alfo an utter ftranger to the bufmefs of an orche-
ftra, and had no idea of the labour and pains neceffary
in the inftru&ion of fingers for the performance of mu¬
fic to which they were ftrangers. The confequence of
this was, that a concerto fpirituale, which he had ad-
vertifed for his own benefit in 1748, failed in the per-
formancer The audience, however, compaffionated
his dittrefs, and fat very filent till the books were
changed ; when the performance was continued with
compofitions of the author’s own, and which he exe¬
cuted in fuch a manner as was never forgot. The pro¬
fits arifing from this performance enabled him to take
a journey to Paris; where he ftaid long enough to get
plates engraven for a fcore of folos, and the parts of
two operas of concertos. About the year 1755 he re¬
turned to England, and advertifed them for fale.
In 1761, Geminiani went over to Ireland; and was
kindly entertained there by Mr Matthew Dubourg,
who had been his pupil, and was then mafter of the
king’s band in Ireland. This perfon through the
courfe of his life had ever been difpofed to render him
friendly offices ; and it was but a ftiort time after Ge-
miniani’s arrival at Dublin, that he was called upon to
do him the laft. It feems that Geminiani had fpent
many years in compiling an elaborate treatife on mufic,
which he intended for publication ; but foon after his
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female fer-
Vol. V.
37 ] G E M
vant, who, it was faid, was recommended to him for
no other end than that fhe might fteal it, it was con¬
veyed away, and could not be recovered. The great-
nefs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
■deep imprdfion on his mind 5 and, as is conjeflured,
haftened his end:; at leaft he furvived it but a fhort
time, ending his days on the 17th of September >762.
The following lift comprifes the whole of his publica¬
tions, except two or three articles of fmall account.
Twelve folos for a violin, opera prima ; fix concertos
in feven parts, opera feconda; fix concertos in feven
parts, opera terza ; twelve folos for a violin, opera
quanta ; fix folos for a violoncello, opera quinta'; the
fame made into folos for a violin ; fix concertos from
his opera quarta; fix concertos in eight parts, opera
fettima ; rules for playing in tafte ; a treatife on good
tafte ; the art of playing the violin; 12 fonatas from
his firft folos, opera undecima ; Ripieno parts to dit¬
to ; leflbns for the harpfichord ; Guida Annonica ; fup-
,plement to ditto ; the art of accompaniment, two
books ; his firft two operas of concertos in fcore ; and
the enchanted foreft.—Of his folos the opera prima is
efteemed the beft. Of his concertos fome are excellent,
others of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity.
The fixth of the third opera not only furpaffes all the
reft, but, in the opinion of the beft judges of harmony,
is the fined inftrumental compofition extant.
GEMMA, or Bud, in botany; a compendium or
epitome of a plant feated upon the ftem and branches,
and covered with fcales, in order to defend the tender
rudiments inclofed from cold and other external inju¬
ries, till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire
ftrength, and render any further protedlion unnecef-
fary.
Buds, together with bulbs, which are a fpecies of
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conftitute
that part of the herb called by Linnaeus bybernacula ;
that is, the winter-quarters of the future vegetable : a
very proper appellation, as it is during that feverefea-
fon that the tender rudiments are prorefted in the
manner juft ment ioned.
Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro¬
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa¬
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs; buds, living
foetufes, or infant-plants, which renew the fpecies as
certainly as the feed.
Buds are placed at the extremity of the young
(hoots, and along the branches, being fixed by a (hoi t
foot-ftalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of
the leaves, in the wings or angles of which the buds
in queftion were formed the preceding year. They
are fometimes placed Angle; fometimes two by two,
and thofe either oppofite or alternate; fometimes col-
ledted in greater numbers in whirls of rings.
With refpedl to their conftrudlion, buds are compo-
fed of feveral parts artificially arranged. Externally,
we find a number of fcales that are pretty. hard, fre¬
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpoon, and
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe fcales are
fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of which they
appear to be a prolongation. Their ufe is to defend
the internal parts of the bud ; which, being unfolded,
will produce, fome, flowers, leaves, and ftipula:; o-
thers, footftalks and fcales. All thefe parts, while
they remain in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded
18 P over
GEM [ 3238 ] GEM
over each other, and covered with a thick clammy
juice, which is fometimes refinotis and odoriferous, as
in the tacahamac-tree. This juice ferves not only to
defend the more tender parts of the embryo-plant from
cold, the affaults of infe&s, and other external in¬
juries ; but likewife from e'xceflive perfpiration, which,
in its young and infant ftate,' would be very deftru&ive.
It is confpicuous in the buds of horfe-chefnut, poplar
and willow trees.
In general, we may diftinguifh three kinds of buds;
•that containing the flower, that containing the leaves,
and that containing both flower and leaves.
The firft, termed gemma florifera, and by the French
:ioiiton a fleur or a contains the rudiments of
one or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and fur-
rounded with fcales. In feveral trees, this kind of bud
is commonly found at the extremity of certain fmall
branches, which are fhorter, rougher, and lefs gar-
nifhed wfth leaves, than the reft. The external fcales
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal ;
both are fiirnifhed with hairs, and in general more
fwelled than thofe of the fecond fort. The bud con¬
taining the flower too is commonly thicker, fhorter,
almoft fquare, lefs uniform, and lefs pointed ; being
generally terminated obtufely. It is called by Pliny
oculusgemma; and is employed in that fpecies of graft¬
ing called inoculation., or budding.
The fecond fpecies of bud, that, viz. containing
the leaves, termed gemma foliifera) and by the French
bouton a feuilles or a hois, ^contains the rudiments of
feveral leaves, which are varioufly folded over each other,
and outwardly furrounded by-fcales, from which the
fmall ftipulse/that are feated at the foot of the young
branches are chiefly produced. Thefe buds are com¬
monly more pointed than the former fort. In the
hazel-nut,-, however, they are perfectly round ; and in
horfe-chefnut, very, thick.
The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of the
preceding; and produces both flowers and leaves, tho’
not always in the fame manner. Sometimes the flowers
and leaves are unfolded at the fame time. This mode
of the flower and leaf bud* is termed by Linnaeus
gemma foliifera it Jhrifera. Sometimes the leaves pro¬
ceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon a fmall
branch, which afterwards produces flowers. This
mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by Linnaeus
gemma filiifero-florifera, and is the moft common bud
of any.
Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
leaves, are called barren; fuch as contain both leaves
and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we
may often, with cafe, foretel whether it contains leaves
only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
pear trees.
Neither the buds produced on or near the rOot, Call¬
ed by fome authors turionesy nor thofe produced on
the trunk, and from.the angles.or v/ings of the leaves,
contain, in ftrift propriety, an entire delineation of the
plant; fince the roots are wanting ; and in various
buds, as we hhye feen, fhoots. are contained with
leaves only, and not with flowers but as a branch
may be confidered as;a partfimilar to the whole plant,
and, if planted, would, in procefs of reyegetation, ex¬
hibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in gene-
xal allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or
the principles of the whole plant, which may be un¬
folded ad libitum; and thus refembles the feed, in
containing a delineation of the future plant in em¬
bryo : for although the bud wants a radicle, or plu-
mula, of which the feed is poffefled, yet it would un¬
doubtedly form one, if planted in the earth. But as
the medullary part adhering to the bud is too tender,
and by the abundance of juice flowing into it from the
earth would be difpofed to putrefaflion, the buds
are not planted in the foil, but generally inferted with¬
in the bark of another tree ; yet placed fo that thepro-
dndlion of the marrow, or pith, adhering to them,
may be inferted into the pith of the branch in which
the fiflure or cleft is made by which means there is a
large communication of juice. This propagation by
gems or buds, called inoculation) is cdmmonly prac-
tifxd with the firft fort of buds above defcribed.
From the obvious ufes of the buds, we may. colledf
the reafon why the fupreme Author of nature has
granted this fort of prote&ion to moft of the trees that
are natives of cold climates ; and, on the other hand,
denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo-
fphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo-
fhoots expofed to injuries and depredations from the
feverities of the weather. Of this latter kind are the
plants of the following lift ; fome of them very large
trees ; others, fmaller woody vegetables, of the fhrub
and under-fhrub kind : Citron, orange, lemon, cafFavaj
mock orange,blad-apple,fbrubhyfwallow-wort, ala.ter-
nus, ftmtbby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Cbrift’s-
thorn, Syrian mallow, baobab or Ethiopian, four-
gourd, Ju.flicia, wild fena, the acacias and fenfitive
plant, coral-tree, (linking bean-trefoil, medicago, o-
leander, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarifk, heath, Bar-
badoes cherry, lavatera, rue, fhrubby night-fhades,
Guinea-henweed, cyprefs, liguum-vitse, and favine a
fpecies of juniper.
On annual- plants, whofe root as well as ftalk pe»
riflies after a year, true buds are never produced ; in
their (lead, however, are protruded final] branches-,
like a little feather, from the wings of the leaves,
which wither without any farther expanfion, if the
plants .climb, and have no lateral branches; but if,
either by their own nature, or from.abundance of fap,
'the plants become branched, the ramulijuft mentioned
obtain an tncreafe fimilar-.to that of the whole plant.
The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift,
in which a plumula, or fmall feather, fends forth
branches without a fcaly covering ; as, in fuch coun¬
tries, this tender part requires no defence or protedion
from cold. A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds,
as it prote&s the tender embryo- enclofcd from all ex¬
terna.! injuries. When we therefore fpeak of trees
having Suds that are naked or without fcales, our
meaning is the fame as if we had faid that they have
no buds at all.
The buds that are to be unfolded the following
year, break forth from the evolved buds of the prefect
year, in. fuch a manner as to put on the appearance
of fmall eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves.
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the
fummer; as, in that feafon, the fap is expended on the
increafe of the parts of the plant: but in autumn-,,
when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed;
Gemma,-
or lind.
GEN [ 3239
Gemmatio placed on the wings, increafe; and the embryo-plant,
Pen larme Gonta'ne<^ *n ’3 expanded, that the leaves
   and flowers, the parts to be evolved the following
year, are diltin&ly vifible. Thus in horfe-chefnut the
leaves, and in cornel-tree the flowers, are each to be
obferved in their refpeftive buds.
As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if feparated from its parent vegetable, become
every way limilar to it; Linnaeus, to fliew the won¬
derful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by
which it appears, that, in a trunk fcarce exceeding a
fpan in breadth, ten thoufand buds (that is, herbs)
may be produced. What an' infinite number, then, of
]
GEN
iStunrt's
iConftit. of
Vi cot land.
plants might be raifed from a very large tree !
GEMMATIO, from gemma “ a bud a term
ufed by Linnaeus, expreffive of the form of the buds,
their origin, and their contents. It includes both
thofe properly called buds, and thofe which are feated
at the roots, Ayled bulbs.
As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footftalks of the leaves, of Jlipula, or of fcales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difcover-
ed, in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves,
or both.
GENDARMES, or Gens d’armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a feleCt body of horfe,
on account of their fucceeding the ancient Gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour; (fee Scots Gendarmes,./Vj/L?.)
Thefe troops are commanded by captain-lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the blood being their
captains: the king’s troop, befides a captain-lieute¬
nant, has two fublieutenants, three enfigns, and three
guidons.
Grand Gendarmes, at prefent are a troop compo-
fed of 250 gentlemen ; the king himfelf is their cap¬
tain, and one of the firft peers their captain-lieutenant,
who has under him two lieutenants, three enfigns, three
guidons, and other officers.
£»?<*// Gendarmery, are, the Scots Gendarmes, the
queen’s, the dauphin’s, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur¬
gundy, the EnglHh and Flemifli gendarmes, having
each a captain-lieutenant, fub-lieutenant, enfign, gui¬
don, and quarter-mafter.
Scots Gendarmes were originally inftituted by
Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the 5th
century, and forme? a part of his guard ; in which
Aation alfo they afted under other princes. It was their
prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of
the gendarmerie of France ; and, on particular occa-
fions, they even preceded the two companies of the
king's moufquetaires. The fons of the Scottilh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company ; and,
after Mary’s acceffion to the throne, its command be¬
longed to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his fon prince Hen¬
ry. This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo en¬
joyed by Charles I. and the next in command to this
prince was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. Georgi
of the Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he Gemict
refigned his commiffion into the hands of the French II,
king. Since that time, no native of Great Britain has Ggneaioey-
enjoyed this command. See Scots Guards.
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of
nouns, or names, to diftinguilh the two fexes.
This was the original intention of gender : but, after¬
wards, other words, which had no proper relation either
to the one fexorthe other, had genders affignedthem,
rather out of caprice -than reafon ; which is at length
eflablifhed by cuftom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in-;
troduced from one language into another. Thus,
bor, in Latin, is feminine ; but arbre, in French, is
mafeuline : and dens, in Latin, is mafeuline; but. dent,
in French, is feminine.
The oriental languages frequently neglcft the ufe of
genders : and the Perlian language has none at all ;
which is no difadvantage, the diltin&ion of genders
being in great meafure ufelefs.
The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter¬
minations, as bonus equus, “ a good horfe bona e-
qua, “ a good mare,” &c. But in Engliih, we fre¬
quently go further, and exprefs the difference of fex by
different words : as boar, fow ; boy, girl; buck, doe;
bull, cow ; cock, hen ; dog, bitch, &c.—We have
only about 24 feminines, diltinguilhed from the males;
by the variation of the termination of the male into efst
of which number are abbot, abbefs; count, coun-
tefs ; aftor, aftrefs ; heir, heirefs ; prince, princefs,
&c. which is all that our language knows of any thing
like genders.
The eaftern languages, as well as the vulgar lan¬
guages of the weft, have only two genders ; the maf¬
euline and feminine. The Greek and Latin have like-
wife the neuter, common, and the doubtful gender;
and befide thefe, they have the epicene, or promifeu-
ous, which under one Angle gender and termination
includes both the kinds.
GENDRE (Lewis le), anefteemed hiftorian, born
at Roan. He became canon of Notre Dame at Pa¬
ris, fubchantor of the fame church, andiaBbot of Notre
Dame at Claire Fontaine in the diocefe of Chartres.
He wrote a great number of works ; the principal of
which are, 1. The manners and cuftoms of the French,
in the different times of that monarchy. 2. An hi-
ftory of France, in three volumes folio, and in feven
volumes duodecimo. 3. The life of Cardinal d’Am-
boife. He died in 1733, aged 78.
Gendre (Gilbert Charles le), marquis of St Au-
bin, counfellor in the parliament of Paris, and after¬
wards mafter of requells in the king’s houfehold. He
wrote feveral works; but is chiefly diftinguilhed by his
Traite de l'opinion, 9 vols i2mo. a curious performance,
proving, by hiftoric examples, the empire of opinion
over the works of art and fcience. He died at Paris
in 1746, aged 59.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an-
Gordon, marquis of Huntley, fucceeded the duke of ceftors; or a fummary account of the relations’and al-
Lennoxin the year 1624, and took the title of captain
or commander in chief when Charles I. mounted the
Engliih throne. It is not certain whether Charles II.
was ever captain of this company ; but it was confer¬
red on his brother the duke of York, who was captain
liances of a perfon or family, both in thedired and col¬
lateral line.
The word is Greek, ymaMyiu; which is formed
of “ race, or lineage,’’ and as}'©-, “ difeourfe.”
In divers chapters and military orders, , it is required
10 P 2 that
Genealo*
gica
General
GEN [ 3240 J GEN
that the candrdates produce their genealogy, to fhcw
that they are. noble by fo many defcents.
GENEALOGICAARB0R,orTREE of Confangumi-
. ty, fignifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under the
figure of a tree, with its root, ftock, branches, &c. The
genealogical degrees are ufnally reprefented in circles,
ranged over, under, and afide each other. This the
Greeks C'&\\t\Jlernnata, a word fignifying crown, gar¬
land, or the like. See the articles Consanguinity and
Des'C£nt, and the plates there referred to.
GENEP, a (trong town ofGermany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, fubje&tothe king.of.Pruflia. E. Long.
4. 29. N. Eat. 51. 42.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a whole genus.
General Charge, in law. See Charge to enterHeir.
General TVr?///, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas. See Abstraction
and Idea.
All things that exift, Mr Locke obferves, being par¬
ticulars, it might be expe&ed that words fhould be fd
too in their iignification : but we find it quite contrary;
for moil of the words that make all languages are ge¬
neral terms. This is the effedl of reafoa and neceflity.
For,
Firft, it is impoffible that every, particular thing
fhould have a dillimft name; becaiife it is impoffible to
have diilindl ideas of every particular thing; to retain
its name, with its peculiar appropriation to that idea.
Secondly, it would be ufelefs, unlefs all could be
fuppofed to have the fame ideas in their minds. For
names, applied to particular things, whereof I alone
have the ideas in my mind, could not be fignificant
or intelligible to another who is not acquainted with
all thofe particular things which have fallen under my
notice.
Thirdly, it would be of nogreat ufe for the improve¬
ment of knowledge ; which, though founded in par¬
ticular things, enlarges itfelf by general views ; to
which things, reduced into forts under general names,
are properly fubfervient.
In things where we have occafion to confider and
difcourfe of individuals and particulars, we ufe pro¬
per names; as in perfons, countries, cities, rivers,
mounains, Sec. Thus we fee, that jockeys have par¬
ticular names for their horfes, becaufe they often have
occafion to maintain this or that particular horfe when
he is out of fight.
Afterwards obferving that a great number of things
refemble each other in ffiape, and other qualities, we
frame a general idea that takes in only the qualities in
■which thofe many particulars agree ; and to this idea
we give the name man, for example : in which there is
nothing new ; that which is peculiar to each individual
being left out, and only that which is common to all
retained. And thus we come to have a general idea
and a general name. By the fame method the mind
proceeds to more general notions and names ; as thofe
of animal, fubftance, being, thing, and fuch univerfal
terms as (land for any ideas whatfoever.
As to the fignification of general words, it is evi¬
dent they do not barely fignify one particular thing ;
neither do they fignify a plurality ; but they fignify a
genus, kind, or fort of things. See the articles Ab¬
straction aadGENUs^
General Warrant. See Warrant,
General of an Army, in the art of war, he who
commands in chief.
A general ought to be a man. of great courage and
conduift, to have great experience, and to be of good
quality. His condudi: appears in eftabliffiing his ma¬
gazines in convenient places ; in examining the coun¬
try, that he may not engage his troops too far while
he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in
fubfifting them ; and in knowing how to take the mod
advantageous pofis, either for fighting or fhunnin.g a
battle. His experience infpires his army with confi¬
dence, and an affurance of vidlory ; and his quality, by
creating refped, augments his authority. By his li*
berality he gets intelligence of the (Length and defigns
of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take
the moft fuccefsfnl meafures. A general ought like-
wife to be fond of glory, to have an averfion to flat¬
tery, to render himfelf beloved, and to keep a ftridl
difcipline.
The office of a general is, to regulate the march
and encampment of the army : in the day of battle, to
choofeout the mofl; advantageous ground; to make the
difpofition of the army ; to po(t the artillery ; and,
where there is occafion, tofend his orders by his aids-
de-camp. At a liege, he is to caufe the place to be
invefted ; to order the approaches and attacks ; to vifit
the works; and to fend out detachments to fecure his
convoys.
General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.
General of Horfe, and General of Foot, are polls
next under the general of the army, and thefe have up¬
on all occafions an abfolute authority over all the horfe
and foot in the army.
Adjutant-GvmHAi., one who attends the general,
affiils in council, and carries the general’s orders to
the army. He diftributes the daily orders to the ma¬
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge¬
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant-general
an exaft return, by battalion and company, of the
men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant-
general fees the infantry drawn up ; after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de¬
tail. In a liege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, and figns the warrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren¬
dezvous, and examines their condition ; he gives and
figns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.
lAeutenant-GznzKki., is the next in command af,
ter the general ; and provided he flrould die or be kil¬
led, the order is, that the oldeft lieutenant-general
ffiall take the command. This office is the firft mili¬
tary dignity after that of a general. One part of their
fundlion is, to affift the general with their counfel:
they ought therefore, if pofiible, to poflefs the fame
qualities with the general himfelf; and the more, as
they often command armies in chief.
The number of lieutenant-generals have been mul¬
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become mfmerous. They ferve either in the field,.
or
General,
:
GEN [ 3241 ] GEN
cv in feges, according to the dates of their commif-
fmns. In battle, the oldeft commands the right wing
.of the army,, the.fccond the left wing, the third the
centre ; the fourth the right wing of the fecond line,
the fifth the left wing, the fixth the centre ; and fo on.
In fiegcs, the lieutenant-generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they
judge proper for the advancement of the fiege during
the 24 hours they are in the trenches ; except the at¬
tacks, which they are not fo make without an order
from the general in chief.
Lktti cncnt - Gs a A L of the Ordnance. See Ord-
k A MCE.
Lieui-enanl-General of Artillery, is, or ought to
be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer}
to know all the powers of artillery; to underftand the
attack.and defence of fortified places, in all its diffe¬
rent branches ; how to difpofe of the artillery in the
day of battle to the heft advantage; to conduft its
march and retreat ; as alfo to be well acquainted with
all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, and
tp the laboratory, &c.
fl'/a/cr-GENERAL, the next officer to the lieutenant-
general. His chief bufmefs is to receive orders from
the genera], or in his abfence from the lieutenant-ge¬
neral of the day ; which he is to diftribute to the
brigade-majors, with whom he is to regulate the
guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him the
whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It
is the major-general of the day who is charged with
the encampment of the army, who places himfelf at
the head of it when they march, who marks out the
ground of the camp to the quarter-mafter-general,
and who places the new guards for the fafety of the
camp.
The day the army is to march, he di&ates to the
field-officers the order of. the march, which he has re¬
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with-reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efcorts, &c.
In fieges, if there are two feparate attacks, the
fecond belongs to him ; but if there is but one, he
takes, either from the right or left of the attack, that
which the lieutenant-general has not chofen.
When the army is under arms, he affilts the lieu¬
tenant-general, whofe orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his poll is
at the head of the guards of the army, until they are
near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different
corps ; after which he retires to his own proper poll:
for the major-generals are difpofed on the order of
battle as the lieutenant-generals are; to whom, how¬
ever, they are fubordinate, for the command of their
divifions. The major-general has one aid-de-eamp,
paid for executing his orders.
General is alfo ufed for a particular march, or
beat of drum ; -being the firlt which gives notice,
commonly in the morning early, for the infantry to be
in readinefs to march.
General is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks; or of all the houfes and congregations efta-
blilhed under the fame rule. Thus we fay, the gene¬
ra! of the Francifcans, Ciitertians, &c.
GENERATE, in mufic, is ufed to fignify the Generate
operation of that mechanical power ih nature, which d .
every found has in producing one or more differentGellelatlul>*-
founds. Thus any given found, however fimple, pro¬
duces filong with itfelf, its ofilave, and two other
founds extremely fiiarp, viz. its twelfth above, that is
to fay, the oftave of its fifth; and the other the feven-
teenth above, or, in other words, the double o&ave of
its third major.
Whether we fuppofe this procreation of founds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions one to ano¬
ther, as being determined at once by the partial and
total ofcillations of any mufical firing ; or from what¬
ever ceconomy of nature we choofe to trace.it; the
power of one found thus to produce another, when in
action, is faid to generate. The fame word is applied
by Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two
founds which, fimultaneoufly heard, produce a third.
GENERATOR, in mulic, fignifies the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the loweft C for the treble of the harpfichord, befides
its odave, will firike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, or
E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generator,
the G and E its produds or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, for G, its odave below is
fubftituted, which conftitutes a fifth from the genera¬
tor, or loweft C ; and for E, is likewife fubftituted its
fifteenth below, which, with the abovementioned C,
forms a third major. To the loweft notes, therefore,
exchanged for thefe in alt by fubftitution, the denomi¬
nations of produds or harmonics are likewife given,
whilft the C retains the name of their generator. But
ftill according to the fyftem of Tavtini, two notes in
concord, which when founded produce a third, may be
termed the concurring generators of that third. (See
Generation Harmonique, par M. Rameau; fee alfo that
delineation of Tartini’s fyftem called The power and
principles of harmony.}
GENERATING line or figure, in geometry,
is that which by its motion produces any other plane
or folid figure. See Geometry.
GENERATION, in phyfiology, the ad of pro¬
creating and producing a being limilar to the pa¬
rent.
According to Ariftotle, the male animals contain
the principle, and the female the matter, of generation;
for though both are furniftied indeed with a feminal
liquor, yet the femen of the males alone is prolific.
The moderns, on the other hand, as well thofe who
contend for the fyftem of generation from eggs, as
they who adopt that of the animalcules in the male-
feed, pretend that females have no fucli feminal liquor
at all, and that what has been commonly taken for it is
fome other animal-fluid.
Harvey is of opinion, that all females are furniftied
with eggs; and that the embryos, or young animals,
are formed in the fame manner as a chick in the egg
of any bird. Generation, according to this celebrated
phyfician, is effeded wholly by means of the uterus,
or womb, which conceives the foetus by a kind of
contagion communicated to it by the male-feed,
much ia the fame way as the load-ftone communicates
ipagnetifm
GEN [ 3*42 ] GEN
Generation, magnetifm to iron. This contagion, he thinks, a&s
' not only on the uterus, but is communicated to the
whole body of the female, which is altogether prolific;
though the uterus, he acknowledges, is the only part
that is capable of conceiving the foetus, juft as the brain
is alone capable of forming ideas and notions. Agree¬
able to this do&rine of Harvey, Steno and other ana-
tomifts have pretended to difcover certain eggs in the
ovaries or tefticles of women; which Mr Buffon de¬
nies to be the cafe, affirming, that there are no fuch
eggs to be found there.
We cannot enter into a detail of the reafonings for
and againft the fyftem of generation from eggs ; and
(hall therefore onlyobferve, that its advocates pretend
to have difcovered eggs in all the females on which
they made obfcrvations; that the largeft of thofe found
in women did not exceed the bignefs of a pea; that
they are extremely fmall in young girls under fourteen,
but that age and commerce with men makes them grow
larger; that there are more than twenty fuch eggs in
each ovary or tefticle ; that they are fecundated in the
ovary by the fpirituous and volatile part of the male-
feed ; that they afterwards are detached and fall into
the uterus through the Fallopian tubes; that here the
foetus is formed of the internal fubftance of the egg,
and the placenta of the exterior part.
Leewenhoek is the author of another fyftem of ge¬
neration, from animalcules in the male-feed. He tells
us, he difcovered many thoufands of thefe in a drop
lefs than a grain of fand- They are found in the fe-
men of all males whatever, but not in that of females ;
and are fo fmall, that 3,000,000,000 of them are not
equal to a grain of fand, whofe diameter is but the
hundredth part of an inch. When any of thefe ani¬
malcules gets into an egg fit to receive it, and this
falls into the womb through the Fallopian tubes, the
humours which diftil through the veifels of the womb,
penetrating the coats of the egg, fwell and dilate it, as
the fap of the earth does feed thrown into it. The pla¬
centa begins to appear like a little cloud, upon one fide
of the external coat of the egg; and, at the fame time,
the fpine of the embryo-animalcule is grown fobig, as
to become vifible ; and a little afterwards, the cere¬
brum and cerebellum appear like two bladders ; and
the eyes (land next, goggling out of the head; then the
beating of the heart, or pun£lum faliens, is plainly to
be feen; and the extremities difcover themfelves laft
of all.
Thefe animalcules are of different figures, feme like
* See Am- tadpoles, and others like eels *. In the femen of a man,
■mnlculc, and in that of a dog, there have been difcovered two
11° 48 58- different kinds of them, the one fuppofed to be males,
and the other females. Some even pretend to have
feen animalcules difengage themfelves from the mem¬
branes that furround them ; and that they then ap¬
peared perfedtly like men, with legs, arms, &c. like
thofe of the human body!
All the advocates for the fyftem of generation from
animalcules ftrongly oppofe that from eggs. They
contend, that thefe animalcules cannot be looked upon
as the inhabitants of the femen, fince they were of
greater extent than the liquor itfelf; not to mention,
that no fuch animals are found in any other liquors of
the body ; and fi-nce females have nothing fimilar to
thefe animals, they think it roaoifeft that the.prolific
principle refides in males. When they are afked. To Generate
what purpofe ferves fuch an immenfe profufion of hu- ;
man animalcules ? they anfwer, that it is agreeable to ]
the ordinary courfe of nature, both in the animal and
vegetable part of the creation. Theylikewife ftrengthen
their fyftem, by alledging the many examples we have
of fimilar transformations in the infeft-clafs of ani¬
mals, which, from caterpillars and fmall worms, be¬
come winged animals of the butterfly or fly kinds.
By this fyftem, fays Mr Buffon, the firft woman
cannot be faid to have contained the whole race of
mankind, as being all, according to it, the true pofte-
rity of the firft man, and in their animalcule ftate
contained only in him. On this principle, he proceeds
to invalidate the fyftem of generation from animalcules :
for fuppofing the fize of a man to be 1, then will that of
one of the fpermatic animalcules be tooO'ao 03666 > an£l
as a man is to an animalcule of the firft generation in
the fame ratio that this animalcule is to an animalcule
of the fecoud generation, it follows, that this laft will
be expreffed by the fra£lion to 6 <r 6 9 Wop a o 6 ogo.od 6'»
In this manner he computes the fize of the animalcules
of feveral generations, all fuppofed to be living ani¬
mals, notwithftanding that their minutenefs exceeds
the power of imagination to conceive ; and then tells
us, that the fyftem of generation from eggs is liable to
the fame obje&ions, whereof the detail may be feen
in his Hi/}. Natur. tom. ii. p. 157 et feq.
As to Buffon’s own fyftem, he thinks that every
part, both of animals and vegetables, contains an infi¬
nite number of organic molecules; that thefe molecules
affume fucceffively different forms, and are put into
different motions, according to the circumftances they
are in ; but that they are much more numerous in the
feminal liquors of both fexes, and the feeds of plants,
than in other parts; that thefe organic molecules make
the matter of nutrition ; that this matter is always a&ive,
and tends to organization, forming itfelf into different
fhapes, according to the moulds it meets with. When
the quantity of this organic matter is but fmall, as in
man and mod large animals, generation only takes ’
place at the age of maturity, and even then the number
of animals produced is but fmall. The cafe is juft the
reverfe in animals which abound with this matter, as
in fiflies, and molt birds.
With refpedft to the generation of mankind, the
fame author, thinks it a certain fa6t, that the male-
feed is received into the womb of the woman ; and
that, for this purpofe, it is highly probable the inter¬
nal orifice opens during the adt of coition. The fe¬
male-feed alfo makes its way into the womb, where,
being mixed with that of the male, they both toge¬
ther contribute to the formation of the foetus ; which
is either male or female, according as the feed of the
man or woman abounds moft with organic molecules ;
and the infant refembles either father or mother, ac¬
cording to the different combinations of thefe molecules.
Both thefe feminal liquors he thinks equally a&ive in
the formation of the foetus, and that they fix and
counterbalance each other; the molecules of each pa¬
rent being thereby determined to form fimilar parts
to thofe of the individual that furnifhed them, as the
head, trunk, arms, kgs, &c. He thinks the mole¬
cules proceeding from the genital parts fix themfelves
firft ; and that the other molecules arrange themfelves
fuccefiively
GEN
Generation, fuccefiivdy round thefe, in the fame order which they
f before occupied in the parent. When a great quan¬
tity of the feminal liquors of both fexes is received
into the womb, there are formed different fpheres of
attradlion, in different parts of thefe liquors ; thecon-
fequence of which is, that feveral fcetufes are formed
at the fame time.
Nearly akin to Mr BufFon’s fyftem, is that of Mr
IMaupertuis, which he has explained in his Venus
Phyfique. He obferves, that all the variety obfervable
among mankind, may have been accidental at firft ;
but being once__eft;ablifhed in the conftitution of the
parents, they become, natural to their pofterity. To
illuftrate this, he give? an inftance of a fexdigitary fa¬
mily at Berlin, who had fix fingers, or fix toes, and
frequently both : and that this peculiarity was tranf-
mitted equally by the father and mother, but was loft
by alliances with thofe who had only the ufual number
of fingers or toes.
He farther obferves, that moft animals, excepting
mankind, have ftated feafons for procreation ; and that
the females go with young fome a longer, others a
fhorter time. Mares go from eleven to twelve months ;
cows and hinds go nine months, as do alfo women ;
foxes and wolves, five months; and bitches go only
feven weeks; cats nine weeks; and rabbits but thirty-
one days. Moft birds are hatched in twenty-one days;
the canary-birds, and fome others, are hatched in
thirteen or fourteen days. It appears, therefore, that
there is an endlefs variety in the time and manner of
• the generation of animals.
Whoever reads this ftiort fketch of the different
theories of generation that have hitherto been invent¬
ed, will probably require no other arguments to con¬
vince him, that phyficians and philofophers are ftill as
ignorant of the nature of this myfterious operation as
they were in the days of Noah.
Concerning the formation and nutrition of the foetus
after tha female has conceived, there have alfo been
great dilputes; but as this fubjeft is more eafily in-
veftigated, and in fome meafure falls under the notice
of our fenfes, there is much lefs uncertainty concern¬
ing thefe matters than generation, or the manner in
which the embryo i? originally formed. The follow-
ing particulars are confirmed by the greateft number
of obfervations.
• About the feventh day, the eye may difcover the
firft lineaments of the foetus ; but thefe lineaments are
as yet very imperfeft. Two little veficles appear in
an almoft tranfparent jelly, the largeft of which is de-
Ilined to become the head of the foetus, and the other
fmaller one is referved for the trunk. But at this pe¬
riod no extremities are to be feen ; the umbilical chord
appears only as a very minute thread, and the placen¬
ta does not as yet abforb the red particles of the blood.
At the end of fifteen days, not only the head but the
features of the face begin to be developed.—The nofe
GEN
appears like a fmall prominent line ; and we are able to Generation,
diftinguifli another line under it, which isdeftined for the
feparation of the lips. Two black points appear in
the place of eyes, and two minute holes mark the ears.
At the fides of the trunk both above and below, we
fee four minute protuberances, which are the rudi¬
ments of the arms and legs. At the end of three
weeks the body of the foetus is fomewhat augmented,
and both the hands and feet are to be diftinguifiied.
The upper extremities are found to increafe falter than
the lower ones, and the feparation of the fingers is
accqmplifhed fooner than that of the toes.
Towards the end of the firft month, the foetus is
about an inch, long, and the human form may be de-
cifively afeertained : all the parts of the face may be
diftinguiihed ; thefliapeof the body is clearly marked
out, the haunches and the abdomen are elevated, the
fingers and toes are feparated from each other, and
the inteftines appear like minute threads. After fix
weeks the foetus is grown much longer, and the hu¬
man figure appears to be-more perfect, but the head
is ftill larger i* proportion than the other parts of the
body.
At the end of the fecond month, the foetus meafures
two iijches and a quarter; at the end of the third
month, three inches and a half; and about the fourth
or fifth month, ufually about five inches j and from
that time to the end of the ninth month, it gradually
increafes to about the length of twelve inches, fome-
times more, and fometimes not quite fo much.
The foetus during all this time affumes an oval fl¬
are, which correfponds with the lhape of the uterus,
ts fthin is found rdining on its breaft, with its knees
drawn up towards its chin, and its arms folded over
them. But it feems likely that the pollure of fome of
thefe parts is varied in the latter months of pregnan¬
cy, fo as to caufe thofe painful twitches which its tno-
_ther ufually feels from time to time.— In natural cafes,
its head is probably placed towards the os tineas from
the time of conception to that of its birth ; though
formerly it was confidered as being placed towards the
fundus uteri, till about the eighth or ninth month,
when the head, by becoming fpecifically heavier than
the other parts of the body, was fuppofed to be turn¬
ed downwards.
The capacity of the uterus increafes in proportion
to the growth of the foetus, but without becoming
thinner in its fubftance, as might naturally be expeft-
ed.—The nouriibment of the foetus, during all this
time, feems to be derived from the placenta, which ap¬
pears to be originally formed by that part of the ovum
which is next the fundus uteri. The remaining uncon-
nefted part of the ovum, and likewife the furface of
the placenta, are covered by a membrane called
chorion (a:), within which is another pellucid mem¬
brane called amnios (b) ; and thefe two include a
watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii, in which the
foetus
[ 3243 I
(a) Befides thefe two membranes, Dr Hunter has difeovered a third, which is the exterior one, being fuppofed to
be a lamella from the inner furface of the uterus. In the 'latter months of pregnancy it becomes gradually thinaer
and more connected with the chorion. He has named it membrana caduca.
(b) In fome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus, to the
allantois \ which is a refervoir, refembling a long and blind gut, fituated between the chorion and amnios. The hw-
n™n] Z^118 feerns to have no fuch refervoir, though fome writers have fuppofed that it does exift. From the ton erf
the bladder, a few longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical chord ; and thefe fibres have been confidered as.
the urachus, though'without having eyer been found pervious.
GEN
Generation foetus floats till the time of its birth (c).—In the firlt
II months of pregnancy, the invohicra bear a large pro-
ene 1S> portion to their contents, but this proportion is after¬
wards reverfed as the foetus increafes in bulk.
Theplacenta, which is the medium through which the
blood is conveyed from the mother to the foetus, and
the manner in which this conveyance takes- place, de-
ferve to be clearly defcribed, as being a fubjeft not
generally underllood.—Without fuch am explanation
it might perhaps be readily fuppofed, that the arteries
■of the uterus pafs into the fubflance of the placenta ;
and that the blood, after being conveyed through the
umbilical arteries to the foetus, is returned back by the
timbilical vein to the placenta, and from thence to the
uterus.—Such an idea, however, would be a very er¬
roneous one, and we fhall point out the true manner
in which this procefs is conduced.
The placenta is a broad, flat, and fpongey fubftance,
like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner furface of
the womb, ufually near the fundus, and appearing to
be made up by the ramifications of the umbilical ar¬
teries and vein. The arteries of the uterus difeharge
their contents into the fpongey cells of this cake ; and
the veins of the placenta, abforbing the blood from
thefe cells in the fame manner as they abforb it in the
corpora cavernofa penis, at length form the umbilical
vein, which pafies on to the liver, and from thence to
the heart of the foetus, by the vena cava. Its circu¬
lation, however, through the heart is not condudted in
the foetus as it is in the adult: in the latter, the blood
is carried from the right auricle of the heart through
the pulmonary artery, and is returned to the left auricle
* by the pulmonary vein ; but a dilatation of the lungs is
effential to the paflage of the blood through the pul¬
monary artery, and this dilatation cannot take place
till after the child is born and has refpired. This de¬
ficiency, however, is fupplied in the foetus, by an im¬
mediate communication between the right and left au¬
ricle of the heart, through an oval opening in the feptum,
which divides the two auricles, called foramen ovale.
The blood is returned again from the foetus, through
two arteries called the umbilicalartetries, which fome-
times arife from the iliacs, and fometimes from the a-
orta defeendens. Thefe two veffels taking a winding
courfe with the vein, form with that, and the mem¬
branes by which they are furrounded, what is called
the umbilical cord. Thefe arteries, after ramifying
through the fubftance of the placenta, open and dif¬
eharge their blood into its cells, from whence it is ab-
forbed by the veins of the uterus; fo that a conftant
depofition and abforption are carried on, and the foe¬
tus is found to have a circulation independent of its
mother.
Generation of Fijhes. See Fish.
Generation of Plants. See Botany, fed. v.
Generation of/«/£•(?/. See Insects.
Parts (^Generation. SeeANATOMY,n°57i,372.
GENESIS, among mathematicians, fignifies the for¬
mation or produ&ion of fome figure or quantity.
Genesis, among divines, a canonical book of the
GEN
Old Teftament, and the firft of the pentateuch or five Genetj
books of Mofes. The Hebrews call it Berefchith, or, li I
“ In the beginning,” thefe being the firft words in the Gciiev
book. The Greeks gave it the name of Genefsfroxn
its beginning with the hiftory of the creation of the
world. See Bible.
GENET, Gennet, ox Jennet, in the manege, de- ■
notes a fmalbfized well-proportioned Spanifh horfe.
To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spanilh j
faftiion, fo ftiort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe’s
flank.
GENETTE, in zoology. SeeVivERRA.
GENEVA, a city near the confines of France and
Switzerland, in E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat. 46. 20. It 1
has a fmall territory fubjed to it, and is a republic *. * See Si
The city, called in Latin alfo Geneva, in German zerlands
Gerf, and in French Geneve, is fituated where the i
Rhone makes it exit from the lake, 65 miles from J
Bern, 75 from Lyons, and 106 from Turin. A part i
of it Hands on an ifland in the Rhone, and part on a
the banks on both fides, being a handfome well-for- |
tified city, and pretty large. In fome of the ftreets f
are arched walks or piazzas. The Treble is a moft
charming place, planted with linden trees; and com-
manding a fine profped of the lake, and of feveral
ranges of mountains and rocks rifing behind one ano¬
ther, fome covered with vineyards and herbage, and
others with fnow, with openings betwixt them. Im¬
mediately below the city, the Rhone is joined by the
Arve. Over the former of thefe rivers are four bridges. ;
The inhabitants of Geneva are moftly Calvinifts. Of l
the fix churches, the cathedral of St Peter is the prin- ]
cipal, in which is a monument to the memory of Hen¬
ry duke of Rohan. The fervice in fome of thefe
churches is in French, in others in Italian, and in o-
thers in German. The guildhall is a ftately free-ftone •
edifice, fituated on an eminence, the afeent to which '
is without any fteps, fo that a perfon may not only
walk, but ride from the top to the bottom. Here is !
an arfenal, which is faid to contain arms for 12,000
men; and an univerfity, which has 12 profeflbrs be¬
longing to it, with a very valuable library. Several
learned men have either been natives, or profeflbrs and t
minifters, of this city ; particularly Calvin, Theodore '
Beza, the Diodati, the Turretrnes, the late Mr Le
Clerc, and others. As the quantity of corn produced
in the territory of the city is not fufficient for the cori-
fumption of the inhabitants, the republic has eredled
large granaries, which always contain a quantity to
fupply the inhabitants two years. The bakers, the :
inn-keepers, the garrifon, and the artificers, employed !
by the city, are obliged to take what corn they want
from thefc granaries, at a fmall advance of the prime
coft. Befides the revenue arifing from hence, the city
has other incomes, amounting to about i3o,ooD.dol- i
lars, with part of which it maintains a garrifon confift-
ing of 800 men, well difciplined, and cloathed in a
blue uniform turned up with red. The environs of
the city are extremely pleafant; which, with the good-
nefs of the air and provifions, the mildnefs of the go¬
vern-
(c) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been fuppofed to pafs into the osfophagus, and to afford
nourifliment to the feetus; but this does not feem probable. Children have come into the world without anoefopha-
gus, or any communication between the ftomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well-attefted inftance of a
child’s having been born without a placenta ; and it does not feem likely that any of the fluid can be abforbed through
the pores of the flein, the fldn in the feetus being everywhere covered with a great quantity of mucus.
[ 5244 1
GEN [ 3245 ] GEN
Geneva vernment, the politenefs of the inhabitants, the num-
bers of foreign gentlemen always refiding here, or paf-
fing from France, Germany, and other countries, to the
north of the Alps, to Italy, and others lying fouth of
them, render it a moft agreeable place: hence Mr Ad-
difon ftyled it, veryjuttly, tht court of the Alps. In
all the flreets are fountains and canals to fupply the in¬
habitants with water, which is raifed by engines from
the Rhone. The trade of the city is very confiderable,
it being a great thoroughfare, and having a variety of
manufa&ures, with a number of induftrious and inge¬
nious artificers, particularly in the watchmaking
branch. The library belonging to the city is well fur-
Tiiihed with excellent books, befides a curious collec¬
tion of medals and petrifactions, and fome ancient ma-
nufcripts. They are not fo rigid in keeping the fab-
bath here as the Calvinifts in England and Scotland:
for they tolerate, and even authorife, all manner of
manly exercifes on Sundays, after divine fervice ; and
then it is that the militia alfo are exercifed. The fun
rifes later here, and fets fooner, than in moft other
places of the fame latitude; which is owing to the Alps.
Mr Addifon fays, that there are merchants in Geneva
who are reckoned worth two millions of crowns, tho’,
perhaps, not one of them fpends 500 pounds a-year.
At the general hofpital, befides the city poor, poor
travellers are maintained for one day, and then dif-
miffed, with fome money in their pockets, to proceed
on their journey. As to the government, it is much
like that of Zurich and Bern. The number of bur¬
ghers is about 1500, and the principal magiftrates are
the four fyndics. There are no lefs than four coun¬
cils, viz. the general council of the citizens and bur¬
ghers, the council of 200, that of 60, and that of 25.
Of the laft, two perfons of the fame family cannot be
members at the fame time. A fon here, who refufes to
pay his father’s debts, is incapable of any office in the
ftate. No marriages are permitted unlefs both parties
are of the Proteftant religion. A woman of 40 years of
age muft not marry a man of lefs than 30 ; if ffie exceed
40, her hufband muft at leaft be 35 : nor muft a man
above 60 marry a woman, who is not, at leaft, 30. A
widow muft not alter her condition in lefs than fix
months after her hufband’s deceafe. The kings of
France and Britain are conftantly mentioned in their
public prayers here. It is faid that Calvin lied buried
in that part of the church-yard called Plain-palais;
but the particular fpot is either not known, or pretend¬
ed not to be known. Before the reformation, this ci¬
ty was the fee of a biffiop, who was poffeffed of the fo-
vereignty thereof at firft, jointly with its counts, and
afterwards with the dukes of Savoy ; but it got rid of
both, about the period abovementioned, and entered
into alliance with feveral of the cantons : at prefent,
however, thofe only with Bern and Zurich continue
in force. The king of France always keeps a relident
here. So much are the magiftracy. afraid of opening a
door to luxury andlicentioufnefs, that no theatre is per¬
mitted in the city. The lake, to which it gives name,
refembles a half-moon, whofe convex fide lies towards
Switzerland. On that fide it extends 18 leagues, rec¬
koning along the ihore, but on the Savoy fide not a-
bove 12 ; and its greateft breadth is upwards of feven.
As for its depth, in fome places it is faid to be unfa¬
thomable. Contrary to moft other lakes, it decreafes
You V.
in winter, and increafes in fummer, which is owing to Genev*
the melting of the. fnow in the neighbouring moun- GeJ^a
tains. It is hardly ever frozen over; and has the terri-  1
lories of no lefs than five different ftates bordering on
it, viz. the kingdom of France, the duchy of Savoy,
the canton of Bern, the bifliopric of Sion, and the re¬
public of Geneva.
Geneva, or Gin, among diftillers, an ordinary
malt fpirit, diftilled a fecond time, with the addition
of forae juniper-berries.
Originally, the berries were added to the malt in the
grinding ; fo that the fpirit thus obtained was flavour¬
ed with the berries from the firft, and exceeded all that
could be made by any other method. At prefent, they
leave out the berries entirely, and give their fpirits a
flavour by diftilling them with a proper quantity of oil
of turpentine ; which, though it nearly refembles the
flavour of juniper-berries, has none of their valuable
virtues.
GENGISKHAN, the renowned fovereign of the
Moguls, a barbarous and bloody conqueror. See
Jenghiz Khan, and (Hijlory of the) Moguls.
GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to cer¬
tain gods who were fuppofed to prefide over generation.
The genial gods, fays Feftus, were earth, air, fire,
and water. The twelve figns, together with the fun
and moon, were fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
GENII, a fort of intermediate beings, by the
Mahometans believed to exift, between men and angels.
They are of a groffer fabric than the latter, but much
more aftive and powerful than the former. Some of
them are good, others bad, and they are capable of
future falvation or damnation like men. The Orien¬
tals pretend that thefe genii inhabited the world many
thoufand years before the creation of Adam, under
the reigns of feveral princes, who all bore the com¬
mon name of Solomon : but falling at length into an
almoft general corruption, Eblis was fent to drive them
into a remote part of the earth, there to be confined:
that fome of that generation ftill remaining were by
Tahmurath, one of the ancient kings of Perfia, forced
to retreat into the famous mountains of Kaf; of which
fucceffions and wars they have many fabulous and ro¬
mantic ftories. They alfo make feveral ranks and de¬
grees among this kind of beings, (if they are not ra¬
ther different fpecies); fome being abfolut.ely called
Jin; fome Peri, or fairies; fome Div, or giants;
and other Tacouins, or fates.
GENIOGl.OSSI, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Pable of the mufcles.
GENIOHYOID^US, in anatomy. Ibid.
GENISTA, broom or dyers-weed ; a genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
of plants. There are feveral fpecies: of which
the moft remarkable are, the cytifo-genifta, or com¬
mon broom; and the tin&oria, or dyers-weed.—The
firft is too well known to need defcription. Its young
flowers are fometimes preferved as pickles; and the
plant, when burnt, affords a tolerably p^re alkaline
fait. Dr Mead relates the cafe of a dropfical patient
that was cured by taking half a pint of a decodfion
of green broom tops, with a fpoonful of whole white
muftard-feed, every morning and evening. The pa¬
tient had been tapped three times, and tried the ufual
. remedies before. An infufion of the feeds, drank
18 freely
GEN [ 3246 ] GEN
Genital freely, has been known to produce fimilar happy ef-
II. feds ; but thefe are by no means to be expefted in
Genius' every irrftance. Cows, horfes, and fheep, refnfe the
plant.—2. The tindoria is alfo a native of Britain.
It rifes with (hrubby (talks three feet high, garniflied
with fpear-fhaped leaves placed alternate, and termi¬
nated by feveral fpikes of yellow flowers, fucceeded
by pods. The branches of the plant are ufed by dy¬
ers, for giving a yellow colour ; from whence it is
called dyers-broom, green-wood, wood-waxen, or
dyers-weed. A dram and an half of the powdered
feeds operates as a mild purgative. A decodion of
the plant is diuretic ; and, like the former, has proved
ferviceable in dropfical cafes. Horfes, cows, goats,
and (heep, eat it.
GENITAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to the parts of generation. See Anat. n° 371.
GENITES, among the Hebrews, thofe defeend-
ed from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign
blood.
The Greeks diftinguiflied by the name of genites
fuch of the Jews as were iffued from parents, who, du¬
ring the Babylonifti captivity, had not allied with any
gentile family.
GENITIVE, in grammar, the fecond cafe of the
declenfion of nouns. The relation of one thing confi-
dered as belonging in fome manner to another, has oc-
cafioned a peculiar termination of nouns, called the^e-
uitive cafe : but, in the vulgar tongues, they make ufe
of a fign to exprefs the relation of this cafe. In Eng-
Jilh they prefix the particle of, in French de or du. See.:
Though in ftridnefs there are no cafes in either of
thefe languages; inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, which is otherwife in
the Latin.
GENIUS, a good or evil fpirit, or daemon, whom
the ancients fuppofed fet over each perfon, to dired
his birth, accompany him in life, and to be his guard.
See Daemon.
Among the Romans, Feftus obferves, the name ge¬
nius was given to the god who had the power of do¬
ing all things, deum qui vim obtineret rerum omnium
gerendarum; which Vofiius, de Idol, rather choofes
to read genendarum, who has the power of producing
all things; by reafon Cenforinus frequently ufe&gerere
for gignere.
Accordingly, St Auguftih de Civitat. Dei, relates,
from Varro, that the genius was a god who had the
power of generating all things; and prefided over them
when produced.
Feftus adds, that Aufuftius fpake of the genius as
the Son of God, and the Father of men, who gave
them life; others, however, reprefented the genius as
the peculiar or tutelary god of each place: and it is
certain, the laft is the moft ufual meaning of the word.
The ancients had their of nations, of cities, of
provinces, &c. Nothing is more common than the
following iftfeription on medals, genius populi rom.
“ the genius of the Roman people;” or genio pop.
rom. “ to the genius of the Roman people.” In this
iewfe,genius and lar were the fame thing; as, in effedl,
Cenforinus and Apulius affirm they were. Sec Lares
and Penates.
The Flatonifts, and other eaftern philofophers, up-
pofed the genii to inhabit the vaft region, or extent of Genius.
air, between earth and heaven. They were a fort of ^
intermediate powers, who did the office of mediators
between gods and men. They were the interpreters
and agents of the gods; communicated the wills of
the deities to men ; and the prayers and vows of men
to the gods. As it was unbecoming the majelly of the
gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns ; this became
the lot of the genii, whofe nature was a mean between
the two; who derived immortality from the one, and
paffions from the other; and who had a body framed
of an aerial matter. Moft of the philofophers, how¬
ever, held, that the genii of particular men were born
with them, and died; and Plutarch attributes the
ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the genii. See
Oracle.
The heathens, who conildered the genii as the guar¬
dians of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced
and were affli&ed at all the good and ill fortune that
befel their wards. They never, or very rarely, ap¬
peared to them ; and then only in favour of fome per¬
fon of extraordinary virtue or dignity. They likewife
held a great difference between the genii of different
men; and that fome were much more powerful than o-
thers: on which principle it was, that a wizard in Ap-
pian bids Anthony keep at a diftance from O&avius,
by reafon Anthony’s genius was inferior to and flood
in awe of that of O&avius. There were alfo evil ge¬
nii, who took a pleafure in perfecuting men, and
bringing them evil tidings : fuch was that in Patercu¬
lus, &c. which appeared to Brutus the night before
the battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvx,
and lemurcs. See Larvae aqdLEMUREs.
Genius, in matters of literature, 8cc. a natural ta¬
lent or difpofition to do one thing more than another j
or the aptitude a man has received from nature to per¬
form well and eafily that which others can do but in¬
differently and with a great deal of pains.
To know the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de¬
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which alone they are capable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fphere, they fall even below medio¬
crity in their profeffion. Art and induftry add much :
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
they are wanting. Every thing depends on genius.
A painter often pleafes without obferving rules ; whilft
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe he
has not the happinefs of being born with a genius for
painting.
A man born with a genius for commanding an army,
and capable of becoming a great general by the help
of experience, is one whofe organical conformation is
fuch, that his valour is no obftru&ion to his prefence
of mind, and his prefence of mind makes no abate¬
ment of his valour. Such a difpofition of mind cannot
be acquired by art: it can be poffeffedonly by a per¬
fon who has brought it with him into the world.—What
has been faid of thefe two arts may be equally applied
to all other profeffions. The adminiftration of great
concerns, the art of putting people to thofe employ¬
ments for which they are naturally formed, the ftudy of
phyfic, and even gaming itfelf, all require a genius.
Nature has thought fit to make a diftribution of her
talents among men, in order to render them neceffary
GEN [ 3247 ] GEN
Geiua5, to one another ; the wants of men being the very firlt
link of fociety : fhe has therefore pitched upon parti-
fcular perfons, to give them aptitude to perform rightly
fome things which fhe has rendered impoffible to o-
thers; and the latter have a greater facility granted
them for other things, which facility has been refufed
to the former. Nature, indeed, has made an unequal
diftribution of her blefiings among her children ; yet fhe
has difinherited none ; and a man divefted of all kinds
of abilities, is as great a phenomenon as an univerfal
genius.
From the diverfity of genius, the difference of in¬
clination arifes in man, whom nature has had the pre¬
caution of leading to the employments for which fhe
defigns them, with more -or lefs impetuofity in pro¬
portion to- the greater or leffer number of obftacles
they have to furmount, in order to render themfelves
capable of anfwering this vocation. Thus the incli¬
nations of men are fo very different, becaufe they fol¬
low the fame mover, that is, the impulfe of their ge¬
nius. This, as with the painter, is what renders on£
poet pleafing, even when he trefpaffes againft rules {
while others are difagreeable, notwithftanding their
ftridl regularity.
The genius of thefe arts, according to the abbe du
Bos, confifts in a happy arrangement of the organs of
the brain ; in a juft conformation of each of thefe or¬
gans ; as alfo in the quality of the blood, which dif-
pofes it to ferment, during exercife, fo as to furniflt
plenty of fpirits to the fprings employed in the func¬
tions of the imagination. Here he fuppofes that the
compofer’s blocd is heated ; for that painters and
poets cannot invent in cool blood ; nay, that it is evi¬
dent they mult be wrapt into a kind of enthufiafm
when thy produce their ideas. Ariftotle mentions a
poet who never wrote fo well as when his poetic fury
hurried him into a kind of frenzy. The admirable
pictures we have in Taffo of Armida and Clorinda,
were drawn at the expence of a difpofition he had to
real madnefs, into which he fell before he died. “ Do
you imagine, (fays Cicero,) that Pacuvius wrote in
cold blood ? No, it was impoflible. He muft have
been infpired with a kind of fury, to be able to write
fueh admirable verfes*’’
GENOA, a city of Italy, and capital of a repub¬
lic of the fame name, fituated in E. Long. 9. 36. N.
Lat. 44. 30.—By the Latin authors it is very fre¬
quently, though corruptly, called Janua\ and its pre-
fent territories made part of the ancient Liguria. The
sera of its foundation is not known. In the time of
the fecond Punic war it was a celebrated emporium ;
and having declared for the Romans, was plundered
and burnt by Mago the Carthaginian. It was after¬
wards rebuilt by the Romans ; and with the reft of
Italy continued under their dominion till the decline
of the weftern empire in 476. Soon after, it fell un¬
der the power of Theodoric the Oftrogoth j who ha¬
ving defeated the ufurper Odoaeer, became king of
Italy. This happened in the year 498 ; and in a fhort
time, the Goths being almoft entirely fubdued by
Belifarius the emperor Juftinian’s general, Genoa was
reannexed to the Roman empire. In 1638, it was
plundered and burnt by the Lombards, whofe king
Protharis eredted it into a provincial dukedom.
The Lombards continued mailers of Genoa till the
year 774, when they were conquered by Charles the Genius.
Great, fon to Pepin, king of France. He reduced
Liguria to the ancient bounds fettled by Auguflus,
and eredled it into a marquifate ; appointing his re¬
lation Jludeinarus the firft count or margrave. Ge¬
noa at this time being diftinguilhed for its wealth and
populoufnefs, began to give its name to the whole
coaft ; and continued under the dominion of thefe
counts for about 100 years, till the race of the Pepins
became entirely extinct in Italy, and the empire was
transferred to the German princes-*In the year 935
or 936, while the Genoefe forces were abfent on fomc
expedition, the Saracens furprifed the ctj, which they
plundered and burnt, putting to death a great num¬
ber of the inhabitants, and carrying others into cap¬
tivity. Having embarked their captives, together
with an immenfe booty, they fet fail for Africa : but
the Genoefe immediately returning, purfued the in¬
vaders ; and having entirely defeated them, recovered
all the captives and booty, and took a great many of
the enemy’s Ihips.
About the year 950, the Franks having loft ail
authority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form them¬
felves into a republic, and to be governed by their
own magiftrates, who were freely defied, and took
the name of Confuls. In order to fupport their in¬
dependence, they applied themfdves with great affiduity
to commerce and navigation ; and being apprehenfivo
that fome of the German emperors, who frequently
entered Italy as invaders, might renew their preten-
fions to their ftate, they confented to acknowledge
Berengarius III. duke of Friuli, who had been elec¬
ted emperor by a party of Italian nobles. Berenga¬
rius, who had much ado to maintain himfelf irl hi*
new dignity, endeavoured by his conceffionsto enlarge
the number of his friends and adherents ; and accord¬
ingly made no difficulty to confirm the new republit
in all its rights and privileges. After this the Ge¬
noefe began to extend their commerce from Spain <0
Syria, dnd from Egypt to Conftantinople 5 their vef-
fels, according to the cuftom of thefe times, being
fitted for fighting as well as merchandife. Having
thus acquired great reputation, they were invited*
In 1017, by the Pifans, who had likewife formed
themfelves into a republic, to join with them in an
expedition againft Sardinia, which had been conquered
by the Moors. In this expedition they were fuccefs-
ful j the iflatrd was reduced ; but from this time an
enmity commenced between the two republics, which
did not end but with the ruin of the Pifans.
The firft war with Pifa commenced about 30 years
after the Sardinian expedition, and lafted 18 years;
when the two contending parties having concluded
a treaty of peace, jointly fent their forces againft the
Moors in Africa, of whom they are faid to have
killed 100,000. The Genoefe were very a&ive in
the time of the? crtifades, and had a principal {hare
in the taking of Jerufalem. They alfo waged con-
fiderable wars with the Moors in Spain, of whom
they generally got the better. They alfo prevailed
againft the neighbouring Hates; and, in 1220, had
enlarged their territories beyond the llcirts of the Ap-
pennines, fo that the reft of Italy looked upon them
with a jealous eye : but in 1311 the factions which
had for a long time reigned in the city, notwith-
18 Qjz {landing
GEN [ 3248 1 GEN
‘ ftandlng ^11 its wealth and power, Induced the inha-
“ bitants to fubrait themfelves for 20 years to the do¬
minion of Henry VII. emperor of Germany. That
emperor, however, died in Aug nil 1312; and the vi¬
car he had left, foon after went to Pifa, upon which
the difl'entions in Genoa revived with greater fury than
ever. In 1317, a quarrel happened between the fami¬
lies of Spinola and Doria; which came to fuch an
height, that both parties fought in the ftreets for
24 days without intermiffion, raifed battering en¬
gines againft each others, houfes, and filled the . city
with blood. At laft the Spinolae quitted the city,
and retired to their territories in the Apennine moun¬
tains. The civil war continued till the year 1331;
when, by the mediation of the king of Naples, it was
concluded, that all exiles ihould return to the city ;
that the republic (hould be governed by the king’s
vicar; and all the offices of the ftate be equally di¬
vided between the Guelfs and the Gibellines, the two
•contending parties.
By this ruinous war, the coafl of Genoa, formerly
adorned with palaces and vineyards, was now reduced
to the appearance of a barren walle. So great was
the general defolation, that, according, to Petrarch,
the (peclators who failed along were {truck with afto-
nifhmeht and horror. Villani, a cotemporary author,
relates, that it was fuppofed by the learned, that
greater exploits had not been performed at the fiege
of Troy ; and that the Ioffes each party had fuftained
would have been fufficient to have purchafed a king¬
dom, the Genoefe republic being in his time the
richeft and moft powerful ftate in Chriftendom. The
annalift Stella informs us, that, before the war, the
*noft extravagant profufion and. luxury prevailed a-
mong the Genoefe : but that, towards the end, many
noble families were reduced to indigence and poverty;
fo that, about too years after, it became falh.ionable
for the nobles to live in a plain manner, without any
{hew or magnificenee.
In 1336, both parties, fufpending their mutual ani-
mofities, fent two fleets of 20 galleys each into the
German ocean, to theaffiftance of the king of France,
who was engaged in a war with Edward HI. king of
England. This naval expedition proved the caufe of
a moft remarkable revolution in the Genoefe govern¬
ment. The failors of the fleet, thinking themfelves
injured by their officers, whom they accufed of de¬
frauding them of their pay, proceeded loan open mu¬
tiny ; and, having expelled the admiral and other com¬
manders, feized the galleys. The king of France be¬
ing chofen arbitrator, decided in favour of the officers,
and imprifoned 16 of the chiefs of the mutineers. Upon
this feveral of the failors left the fleet, and returned to
Genoa ; where they went round the coafts, repeating
their mutinous complaints, which were greatly heark¬
ened to, upon a falfe report that the mutineers who
had been imprifoned were broke upon the wheel. The
fa&ious fpirit increafed; and at laft the Genoefe in¬
filled in a tumultuous manner for having an abbot of
their own choofing, and 20 of the people with the con-
fent of the captains of the republic affembled for that
purpofe. While the mob were impatiently expe&ing
their decifion, a mechanic, generally accounted a fool,
mounted a wooden bench, and called out that one
Simon Bucanigree ftipuld be chofen abbot. This be¬
ing inftantly echoed by the populace, he was firft de¬
clared abbot, then lord, and at laft duke of Genoa.
This new expedient did not at all anfwer the pur¬
pofe. The diffentions continued as violent as ever,
notwithftanding the power of the new magiftrates ;
and by thefe perpetual divifions the republic was at laft
fo much weakened, that in 1390 the king of France
was declared lord of Genoa. Under the French go¬
vernment, however, they foon became exceedingly
impatient; and, in 1422, the duke of Milan obtained
the fovereignty. With this fituation they were equally
difpleafed, and therefore revolted in 1436. Twenty-
two years after, finding themfelves preffed by a powerr
ful fleet and army fent by Alphonfo king of Naples,
they again conferred the Sovereignty of their ftate
upon the king of France. In 1460, they revolted
from the French ; and, four years after, put themfelves
again under the proteftion.of the duke of Milan ; from
whom they revolted in 1478. He was again declared
fovereign of the republic in 1488; and, 11 years after,
the city and- territories of Genoa were conquered by
•Lewis XII. of France.
. The almoft unparalleled ficklenefs of the Genoefe
difpofition was not to be correfted by this misfortune.
They revolted in 1506,; but next year were again fub-
dued by Lewis. Six years after, they again revolted ;
and in 1516, the city was taken and plundered by the
Spaniards. In 1328, Andrew Doria, a Genoefe ad¬
miral in the fervice of the French, undertook to ref-
cue his country from the dominion of foreign princes,
and reftore it to its liberty. Knowing well the fickle
difpofition of his countrymen, he took all occafions of
exciting difcontents among them againft the govern¬
ment. He perfuaded them, that the French (who had
again obtained the fovereignty) had left them only a
fhadow of liberty, while they pretended to proteft
them from their enemies. To the nobility he repre-
fented the difgrace of fuffering the government to be
veiled in the hands of foreigners lefs worthy of autho¬
rity than themfelves. Thus he foon formed a ftrong
faction, and formed his plan; for the execution of
which he took the, mpft proper time, namely, when
almoft three-fourths of {he.French garrifon had been
carried off by the plague.—He advanced with 500
men ; and his friends having opened the gates of the
city to him, he feized the principal polls, and thus
became mailer of it without drawing his fword. The
garrifon retired to the forts, where they foon after
capitulated, and being driven out of the city, Doria
re-eftablilhed the ancient form of government *.
The republic hath fince continued to preferve her
liberty, though greatly fallen from her ancient fplen-
dor, and now become a very inconfiderable ftate. In
1684, the Genoefe had the misfortune to fall under the.
refentment of Lewis XIV. at which time the city was
almoft deftroyed by a formidable bombardment. In
the year 1688, it was bombarded by admiral Byng,
and forced to capitulate ; but there were at that time
no views of making a permanent conqueft of the city.
In 1,730, the ifland of Corfica revolted from, the Ge¬
noefe, and could never afterwards be reduced by them ;
for which reafon it was fold to the French, who in
the year 1770 totally reduced it.
The Genoefe territories extend along that part of
the Mediterranean fea, commonly called the gulph ■ of
Genoa,
GEN [ 3H9 1 GEN
viGenoa. Genoa, about IJZ miles ; but their breadth is very un-
equal, being from eight to about 20 miles. Where
they are not bounded by the fea, the following ftates
and countries, taking them from weft to eaft, are
their boundaries, w'z. Piedmont, Montferat, Milan,
Placentia, Parma, the dukedom of Tufcany, and the
republic of Lucca. This tradt, though a great part
of it is mountainous, and fome of that barren enough,
yet produces plenty of excellent fruit, good pafture,
wood, garden-ftuff, and mulberry-trees, with fome
wine and oil, but little corn. What they want of the
la ft, they have either from Lombardy, Sicily, or
Naples. • -
Genoa ftands on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of a little gulph, partly on the flat, and
partly on the declivity, of a pleafant hill; in confequence
of which, it appears to great advantage from the fea.
It is deftnddd on the land-fide a by double wall, which
in circumference is about ten Italian miles* Two of
the ftreets confift entirely of a double ftraight row of
magnificent palaces. The others, though clean and
well paved, are. crooked and narrow. The palaces of
the nobility are almoft all of marble, and many of them
are painted on the outfide. That there fhould be fuch
a profufion of marble here, is not to be wondered at,
as the neighbouring hills abound with it. The city
contains a vaft number of palaces, churches, and con¬
vents, and feverdl hofpitals. The palace where the
doge refides, and where the great and little council,
and the two colleges of the procuratori and governa-
tori afiemble, is a large ftone building in the centre of
the city ; but it contains fome fine paintings in frefco;
two ftatues of Andrew and John Doria in white mar¬
ble ; and an arfenal, in which are faid: to be arms for
thirty-four thoufand men, with a fhield, containing
pnehundred and twenty piftol-barrels, and thirty-three
coats of mail, which, it is pretended, were worn by
as many Genoefe heroines in a croifade. Of the
.churches, the fineft are thofe of the annunciation, St
Mary Carignan, St Dominic, and St Martha. In the
cathedral is a difti made of a.fmgle emerald. All the
inhabitants here^ except.the principal ladies, who are
carried in chairs, walk on foot, on account of the nar-
rownefs of. fteepnefs of the ftreets. The fortifications
of the city, towards the fea, are. remarkably ftrong.
There are two fine ftone-bridges over the rivers Bon>
zevera and Bifagno, the firft whereof wafhes the weft,
and the other the eaft fide of the city, within which
there is alfo a furprifing ftone-bridge joining.two hills.
The harbour, though large, is far from being fate;
but no care or expence have been fpared, to render it
as fafe and commodious as poffible. The wind to
which it is. moft expofed, is that called Labeccio,or the
fouth-weft. The place where the republic’s galleys
lie, is called the Darfena, where are a great number
of Turkifti flaves. On arock,;on the weft fide of the
harbour, is the fanal or lightrhoufe, a high tower, on
the top of which is a lanthorn, containing thirty-fix
lamps. The trade.of Genoa is chiefly in velvets, da-
malks, plufh, and other filks, brocades, lace, gloves,
fweetmeats, fruits, oil, Parmefan cheefe, anchovies,
and medicinal drugs from the Levant; but the bad-
nefs of the harbour, and the high price of commodi¬
ties, greatly check its commerce.. In 1751, Genoa
was declared a free port for ten years, under certain
reftrictions : in that called Porto Franco, any merchant Gcnfing,
may have a ware-houfe, and import or export goods Gentiana.
duty free ; but fuch as are difpofed of in the city, or
on the continent, are taxed pretty high. The nobili¬
ty are allowed to trade in the wholefale way; to carry
on velvet, filk, and cloth manufactures ; and to have
fhares in merchant-fltips: and fome of them, as the
Palavacini, are a&pally the greateft merchants in Ge¬
noa. Another very profitable article of trade carried
on by them is banking, and dealing in bills of ex¬
change. A new academy of painting, feulpture, ci¬
vil andmilitary architecture, was inftituted here in'175-t.
One may walk the ftreets of Genoa in the night with
the greateft fafety, which is more than can be faid of
many cities in Italy. Exceffive fplendor and luxury
are, in feveral refpeCts, reftrained by falutary laws.
No beggars are permitted to afk alms in Genoa, and
the inns: are better than thofe at Turin. When a An¬
gle perfon is buried, a kind of garland of. all forts of
artificial flowers is placed on the coffin. The Ge¬
noefe in general are efteemed crafty, induftrious, and
inured to labour above the other Italians.
GENSING. See Panax.
GENTIANA, Gentian, in botany, a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. The moft remarkable fpecies are the fol¬
lowing :
1. The lutea, or common gentian of the fliops. It
is a native of the mountainous parts of Germany; from
whence the roots, the only part ufed in medicine, are
brought to this country. Thefe have a yellowiih-
brown colour, and a very bitter tafte. The lower
leaves are of an oblong oval fhape, a little pointed at
the end, ftiff, of a yellowifli green, and have five large
veins on the back of each. The ftalk rifes four or five
feet high, garniftied with leaves growing by pairs at
each joint, almoft embracing the ftalk at their bafe.
They are of the fame form with the lower, but dimi-
nilh gradually in their fize to the top. The flowers
come out in whorls at the joints on the upper part of
tlie ftalks, ftanding on (hort foot-ftalks, whofe origin
is in the wings of the leaves.. They are of a pale
yellow colour.—The roots of this plant are very fre¬
quently ufed in medicine as ftomachic bitters. In
tarte they are lefs exceptionable than moft of the fub-
flances of this clafs. Infufions of gentian-root fla¬
voured with orange-peel, are fufficiently grateful.
Some years ago a poifonous root was difcovered
among the gentian brought to London ; the ufe of
which occafioned violent diforders, and in fome cafes
death. This root is eafily diftinguilhed from the gen¬
tian, by its being internally of a vvhke colour, and void
of bitternefs.
2. The centaureum, or leffer centaury of the fliops,
is a native of many parts of Britain. It grows on
drypaftures; and its height is commonly proportioned
to the goodnefs of the foil, as in rich foils it will grow
to the height of a foot, but in poor ones not above
three or four inches. It is an annual plant, with up¬
right branching ftalks, garniftied with fmall leaves,
placed by pairs. The flowers grow in form of an
umbel at the top of the ftalk, and are of a bright
purple colour. They come out in July, and the feed
ripens in autumn. The plant cannot be cultivated in
gardens. The tops are an ufeful aperient bitter, in
which-
GEN [ 3250 ] GEN
Gentile, which view they are often ufed in the prefent pra&ice
Gentleman. cf me(i;cinej
GENTILE, in matters of religion, a Pagan, or
worfhipper of falfe gods.
The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews,
who called all thofe who were not of their name n-na
gojim, i. e. gentes, which in the Greek tranflations of
the Old Teftament is rendered Ta ee,a; in which fenfe it
frequently occurs in the New Teltament; as in Matth.
vi. 32. “ All thefe things the nations or Gentiles
feek.” Whence the Latin church alfo ufed gentes in the
fame fenfe as our Gentiles, efpecially in the New Te¬
ftament. But the word gertes foon got another ftg-
nification, and no longer meant all fuch as were not
Jews ; but thofe only who were neither Jews nor Chri-
ftians, but followed the fuperftitions of the Greeks and
Romans, &c. In this fenfe it continued among the
chriltian writers, till their manner of fpeech, together
with their religion, was publicly and by authority re¬
ceived in the empire; viXxzn gentiles, {taxagenies, came
into ufe: and then both words had two fignitications,
viz. in treatifes or laws concerning religion, they fig-
nified Pagans, neither Jews nor Chriftians ; and in
civil affairs, they were ufed for all fuch as were not
Romans.
Gentile, in the Roman law and hiftory, a name
which fometimes expreffes what the Romans otherwife
called barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome
or not: but this word was ufed in a more particular
fenfe for all ftrangers and foreigners not fubje& to the
Roman empire.
Gentilis (Albericus), profeffor of civil law at
Oxford; an Italian by birth. He had quitted Italy
V'ith his father, on account of religion. He wrote
feveral works ; three books, in particular, Dejure belli,
which have not been unferviceable to Grotius. He died
at London in 1608.
Gentilis (Scipio), brother to the former, and as
celebrated a civilian as he, forfook his native country
that he might openly profefs the Proteftant religion.
He was counfellor of the city of Nuremberg, and pro¬
feffor of law with uncommon reputation. He was a
great humanift; and in his leftures, as well as books,
mixed the flowers of polite learning with the thorns of
the law. He died in 1616.
GENTLEMAN. Under this denomination are
• See comprehended all above the rank of yeomen *, where-
Convnonalty ^y noblemen are truly called gentlemen.
A gentleman is ufually defined to be one who, with¬
out any title, bears a coat of arms, or whofe anceftors
have been freemen ; and by the coat that a gentle¬
man giveth, he is known to be, or not to be, defeend-
ed from thofe of his name that lived many hundred
years fince.
The word is formed of the French gentilbomme; or
rather of gentil, “ fine, fafhionable, or becoming 5” and
the Saxon man, q. d. honeftus, or bonejlo loco natus.—
The fame fignification has the Italian gentilhuo?no, and
the Spanilh hidalgo, or bijo dalgo, that is, the fon of
fomebody, or of a perfon of note.—If we go farther
back, we fhall find gentleman originally derived from
the Latin gentilis homo; which was ufed among the
Romans for a race of noble perfons of the fame name,
born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofe anceftors
hadnererbeenllavesorputtodeath bylaw. ThusCicero,
in his 'Topics, “ Gentiles funt, qui inter fe eodem funt Gentler
nomine, ab ingenuis oriundi, quorum majorum nemo fer- <^crH1
vitutem fervivit, qui capite non funt diminuti, &c.--Some
hold that it was formed1 from i. e. pagan ; and
that the ancient Franks, who conquered Gaul, which
was then converted to Chriftianity, were called <gr»//7e.f
by the natives, as being yet heathen^.— Others relate,
that towards the declenfion of the Roman empire, as
recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus, there were two
companies of brave foldiers, the one called gentiliurn,
and the alhte feutarforum ; and that it was hence we
derive the names gentleman and efquire. See Esquire.
—This fentiment is confirmed by Pafquie’r, who fup-
pofes the appellation gentiles and ecuyers to have been
tranfmitted to us from the Roman foldiery ; it being
to the gentiles and feutarii, who were the braveft of the
foldiery, that the principal benefices and portions of
lands were aifigned. See Benefice.-—The Gauls ob-
ferving, that, during the empire of the Romans, the
feutarii and gentiles had the belt tenements or appbint-
ments of all the foldiers on the frontiers of the pro¬
vinces, became infenfibly accuftomed to apply the fame
names, gentilhommes and ecuyers, to fuch as they
found their kings gave the beft provifions or appoint¬
ments to.
GsLKTL'EUA.n-'UJber af the Black Rod. See Rod.
Gentlemen of the Chapel; officers whofe duty and
attendance is in the royal chapel, being hr number
thirty-two. Twelve of them are priefts ; the other
twenty, commonly called clerks of the chapel, affift in
the performance of divine fervice. One of the firft
twelve is chofen for confeffor of the houfehold ; whofe
office it is to read prayers every morning to the houfe¬
hold fervants, to vifit the fick, examine and prepare
communicants, and adminifter the facrament. One of
twenty clerks, well verfed in mtific, iT chofen firft or-
ganift, who is matter of the children, to inftru£t them
in mufic, and whatever elfe is neceffary for the fervice
of the chapel ; a fecond is likewife an organift; a third,
a lutanift; and a fourth, a violift. There are likewife
three vergers, fo called from the filver rods they carry
in their hands ; being a ferjeant, a yeoman, and groom
of the vettry: the firft attends the dean and fub-dean,
and finds furplices and other neceffaries for the chapel;
the fecond has the whole care of the chapel, keeps the
pews, and feats the nobility and gentry; the groom
has his attendance within the chapel-door, and looks
after it.
GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, de¬
notes a number of beings which agree in certain ge¬
neral properties common to them all: fo that a genus
is nothing elfe but an abftradl idea, expreffed by fome
general name or term. See Logic, n° 18, &c.
It is plain, therefore, that by a genus we do not
barely fignify one particular, thing, nor yet a plurality
of things; but a fort or kind of things, all agreeing
in certain general properties.
Thus animal is faid to be a genus in refpeft of man
and brute, in regard man and brute agree in the common
nature and character of animal: fo a right-lined figure
of four (ides, is a genus in refpedf of a parallelogram
and a trapezium ; and fo likevvife is fubftance, in
refpedl of fubftance extended, which is body, and
thinking fubftance, which is mind.
The method by which the mind advances to form
genera
GEN [ 3251 ] GEO
genera is, according to Mr Locke, as follows.- -
Obferving feveral things, that differ from the mind’s
idea of man, for inftauce, and therefore cannot be
comprehended under that name, to agree with man in
feme certain qualities; by retaining only thofe quali¬
ties, and uniting them into one idea, it gets another
more general idea, to which giving a name, it makes
a new genus, or a term of a more comprehenfive ex-
tenfion. Thus, by leaving out the fhape, and other
properties fignified by the word mant and retaining
only a body with life, fenfe, and fpontaneous motion,
we form the idea iignified by the name animal. By
the fame way the mind proceeds to body, fubitance,
and at laft to being, thing, and fuch univerfal terms
as (land for any ideas whatever.
This fhews the reafon why, in defining things, we
make ufe of the genus, namely, to fave the labour of
enumerating the feveral Ample ideas which the next
term ftands for: from whence it appears, that genus
is no more than an abftraft idea, comprehending a
greater or lefs number of fpecies, or more particular
claffes. See Species.
Genus is alfo ufed for a chara&er or manner appli¬
cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition :
in which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in di¬
vers fciences, as rhetoric, anatomy, and natural hiftory.
Genus, in rhetoric. Authors diftinguifh the art
of rhetoric, as alfo orations or difeourfes produced
thereby, into three genera or kinds, demonftrative,
deliberative, and judiciary. To the demonftrative
kind belong panegyrics, genethliacons, epithalami-
ums, funeral harangues, &c. To the deliberative
kind belong perfuafions, diffuafions, commendations,
&c. To the judiciary kind belong defences and ac-
cufations.
Genus, in natural hiftory, a fubdivifion of any
clafs or order of natural beings, whether of the ani¬
mal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in
certain common charadlers. See Botany and Zoo¬
logy.
Genus, in mufic, by the ancients called genus me-
lodijc, is a certain manner of dividing and fubdividing
the principles of melody ; that is, the confonant and
dilfonant intervals, into their concinnous parts.
The moderns confidering the octave as the moft
perfect of intervals, and that whereon all the concords
depend, in the prefent theory of mufic, the divifion
of that interval is confidered as containing the true
divifion of the whole feale.
But the ancients went to work fomewhat different¬
ly : the diateffaron, or fourth, was the leaft interval
which they admitted as concord ; and therefore they
fought firft how that might be moft conveniently di¬
vided ; from whence they conftituted the diapente
and diapafon.
The diateffaron being thus, as it were, the root and
foundation of the fcale, what they called the genera,
or kinds, arofe from its various divifions; and hence Geocentric
they defined the genus modalandi to be the manner of P.
dividing the tctrachord and difpofing its four founds GcoSraP
as to fuccefiion.
The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic,
chromatic, and diatonic. The two full were varioufty
fubdivided : and even the laft, tho’ that is commonly
reckoned to be without any fpecies; yet different au¬
thors have propofed different divifions tinder that
name, without giving any particular names to the
fpecies, as was done to the other two.
For the chara&ers, &c. of thefe feveral genera, fee
Enharmonic, Chromatic, and Diatonic.
GEOCENTRIC, in aftronomy, is applied to a
planet, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the
earth, or as having the earth for its centre, or the
fame centre with the earth.
GEOFFREY ^Monmouth, bilhopof St Afaph,
called by our ancient biographers Gallofridus Menu-
metenfis. Leland conjedlures that he was educated in
a Beuedi&ine convent at Monmouth, where he was
born; and that he. became a monk of that order.
Bale, and after him Pits, call him archdeacon of
Monmouth; and it is generally afferted that he was
made bilhop of St Afaph in the year 1151 or 1152, in
the reign of king Stephen. His hiftory was proba¬
bly finilhed after the year 1138. It contains a fabu¬
lous account of Britifh kings, from the Trojan Brutus,
to the reign of Cadwallader in the year 690. But
Geoffrey, whatfoever ceiifure he may deferve for his
credulity, was not the inventor of the ftories he re¬
lates. It is a tranflation from a manuferipe written
in the Britilh language, and brought to England from
Armorica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Ox¬
ford. But the atchievements of king Arthur, Merlin’s
prophecies, many fpeeches and letters, were chiefly
his own addition. In excufe for this hiltorian, Mr
Wharton judicioufly obferves, that fabulous hiftories •
were then the falhion, and popular traditions a recom¬
mendation to his book.
GEOFFROY (Stephen Francis), a celebrated
phyfician, botanift, and chemift, born at Paris in
1672. After having finiflied his ftudies, he travelled
into England, Holland, and Italy. In 1704, he
received the degree of dodlorof phyfic at Paris ; and
at length became profeffor of chemiltry, and phyfici¬
an of the Royal College. He was a member of the
Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of
Sciences. He wrote, 1. Several very curious Thefes
in Latin, which were afterwards tranflated into French.
2. An excellent treatife, intitled Ttaflatus dc Mate¬
ria Medicat Jive de Medicamentorum ftmplicium, hif-
toria, virtute, dcieftu, & ttfu. He died at Paris,
in 1731.
GEOGRAPHICAL mile, the fame with the
fea-mile ; being one minute, or the doth part of a
degree of a great circle on the earth’s furface.
GEOGRAPHY.
/GEOGRAPHY from y» terra, and defeription of the terreftrial globe, and particularly of
vjr yi>a$u feribo') ; the do&rine or knowledge of the the known and inhabitable parts thereof, with all its
earth, both as in itfelf, and as to its affections; or a different divifions..
Sect,
3252
G E O G R
  Sect. I. Hiflory of the Science*
At what time the fcience of geography began firft
to be ftudied among mankind is entirely uncertain. It
is generally agreed, that the knowledge of it was de¬
rived to the Greeks, who firll of the European na¬
tions cultivated this fcience, from the Egyptians
or Babylonians; but it is impoflible to determine
which of thefe two nations had the honour of the in¬
vention. Herodotus tells ns, that the Greeks firll
learned the pole, the gnomon, and the twelve divi-
fions of the day, from the Babylonians. By Pliny,
i and Diogenes Laertius, however, we are told, that
Seafons of Thales 0f Miletus firft found out the paffage of the
covered ^by ^un frorn tropic to tropic; which he could not have
Thales. ^ done without the affiftance of a gnomon. He is faid
to have been the author of two books, the one on
the tropic, and the other on the equinox ; both of
which he probably determined by the gnomon ; and
by this he was led to the difcovery of the four fea-
fons of the year, which are determined by the folft-i-
ces and equinoxes.
Thales divided the year into 365 days ; which was
undoubtedly a method difcovered by the Egyptians,
and communicated by them to him. It is laid to
have been invented by the fecond Mercury, furnamed
Trifmegiftus, who, according to Eufebius, lived about
50 years after the Exodus- Pliny tells us exprefsly,
that this difcovery was made by obferving when the
fbadow returned to its marks; a clear proof that it
was done by the gnomon. Thales alfo knew the me¬
thod of determining the height of bodies by the
length of their lhadows, as appears by his propofing
a this method for meafuring the height of the Egyp-
iConje£hire tian pyramids. Hence many learned men have been
concerning Gf opinion, that as the ufe of the gnomon was known
the Ep p- Egypt l°ng before the dawn of learning in Greece,
tian pyra- the pyramids and obelilks, which to common travel-
midsamlo- lers appeared only to be buildings of magnificence,
Wks. were jn reality as many fun-dials on a very large fcale,
and built with a defign to afcertain the feafon of the
year, by the variation of the length of their ftiadows:
and, in confirmation of this opinion, it was found by
M. Chazelles in 1694, that the two fides, both of
the larger and fmaller pyramids, ftood exactly north
and fouth ; fo that, even at this day, they form true
meridian lines.
From the days. of Thales, who flouriihed in the
fixth century before Chrift, very little feems to have
been done towards the eftablilhment of geography
for 200 years. During this period, there is only one
aftronomical obfervation recorded; namely, that of
Melon and Euftemon, who obferved the fummer fol-
flice at Athens, during the archonfhip of Apfeudes,
on the 21 ft of the Egyptian month Phamenoth, in
the morning, being the 27th of June, 432. B. C.
This obfervation was made by watching narrowly the
lhadow of the gnomon, and was done with a defign
to fix the beginning of their cycle of 19 years.
3 Timocharis and Ariftillus, who began to obferve
Longitudes about 295 B. C. feem to have been the firft who al¬
ludes deter temPted t0 the longitudes and latitudes of the fix-
nuned. ftar3» by confidering their diftances from the equa¬
tor. One of their obfervations gave rife to the dif¬
covery of the preceffion of the equinoxes, which was
A P H Y. Setf. IJ
firft obferved by Hipparchus about J50.years after j Histor;'
and he made ufe of Timocharis and Ariftillus’s me- —If
thod, in order to delineate the parallels of latitude,
and the meridians on the furface of the earth; thus f
laying the foundation of the fcience of geography as
we have it at prefent.
But though the latitudes and longitudes were thus 1
introduced by Hipparchus, they were not attended
to by any of the intermediate aftronomers, till the
days of Ptolemy. Strabo, Vitruvius, and Pliny, have'
all of them entered into a minute geographical de-
fcription of the fituation of places, according to the jj
length of the ftiadows of the gnomon, without taking
the lead notice of the degrees and minutes of longi- , j
tude and latitude.
The difcovery of the longitudes and latitudes im¬
mediately laid a foundation for making maps, or de¬
lineations of the furface of the earth in piano, on a
very different plan from what had been attempted be- •
fore. Formerly the maps were little more than rude 4 i
outlines and topographical fketches of different coun- |
tries. The earlieft were thofe of Sefoftris, mentioned eru mapslq
by Euftathius; who fays, that “ this Egyptian king, j
having traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his ‘
march in maps, and gave copies of his maps not only 1
to the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great
aftoniftiment.—Some have imagined, that the Jews
made a map of the Holy Land, when they gave the
different portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh : for Jo-
(hua tells us, that.they w'ere fent to walk through the
land, and that they defcribed. it in feven parts in a ;
book ; and Jofephus tells us, that when Joftiua fent 1
out people from the different tribes to meafure the
land, he gave them, as companions, perfons well j
fkilled in geometry, who could not be miftaken in
the truth.
The firft Grecian map on record is that of Ana¬
ximander, mentioned by Strabo, lib. i. p. 7. It has.
been .conje&ured by fome, that thiVwas a general j
map of the then known world, and is imagined to
be the one referred to by Hipparchus under the de-
fignation of the ancient map. Herodotus minutely i
defcribes a map made by Ariftagoras tyrant of Mi¬
letus, which will ferve to give us fome idea of the j
maps of thofe ages. He tells us, that Ariftagoras
(hewed it to Cleomenes king of Sparta, with a view of
inducing him to attack the king of Perfia, even in his
palace at Sufa, in order toreftore the lonians to their
ancient liberty. It was traced upon brafs or copper,
and contained the intermediate countries which were 1
to be traverfed in that march. Herodotus tells us,
that it contained “ the whole circumference of the
earth, the whole fea, or ocean, and all the rivers
but thefe words muft not be underftood literally. From
the ftate of geography at that time, it may be fairly jj
concluded that by the fea was meant no more than
the Mediterranean; and therefore, the earth or land
fignified the coafts of that fea, and more particularly
the Leffer Afia, extending towards the middle of Per- j 1
fia. The rivers were the Halys, the Euphrates, and ij
Tigris, which Herodotus mentions as neceffary to be
croffed in that expedition. It contained one ftraight ;
line, called \\\<i Royal Highway, which took in all the h
ftations or places of encampment from Sardis to Sufa,
Of thefe there were x 11 in the whole journey, con.
taining j
I. G E O G P
• taining 13,500 ftadia, or 1687 Roman miles of
5000 feet each.
Thefe itinerary maps of the places of encampment
were indifpenfably neeeffary in all armies. Athenaeus
quotes Baston as author of a work intitled. The en-
camptnents of Alexander's march ; and likewife Amyn-
tas to the fame purpofe. Pliny tells us, that Diog-
netus and Baeton were the furveyors of Alexander’s
marches, and then quotes the exaft number of miles
according to their menfuration; which he after¬
wards confirms by the letters of Alexander himfelf.
It likewife appears, that Alexander was very care¬
ful in examining the meafures of his furveyors, and
took care to employ the moft Ikilful in every country
for this purpofe. The fame author alfo acquaints us,
that a copy of this great monarch’s furveys, was given
by Xenocles his treafurer, to Patrocles the geogra¬
pher, who, as Pliny informs us, was admiral of the
fleets of Seleucus and Antiochus. His book on geo¬
graphy is often quoted both by Strabo and Pliny ; and
it appears, that this author furnifhed Eratofthenes
with the principal materials for conftru&ing his map
of the oriental part of the world.
Eratofthenes was the firft who attempted to reduce
geography to a regular fyftem, and introduced a regu¬
lar parallel of latitude. This was traced over certain
places where the longeft day was of the fame length.
He began it from the ftraits of Gibraltar ; and it thence
pafled through the Sicilian fea, and near the fouthern
extremities of Peloponnefus. From thence it was con¬
tinued through the Ifland of Rhodes and the Bay of
Iffus ; and there entering Cilicia, and crofling the ri¬
vers Euphrates and Tigris, it was extended to the
mountains of India. By means of this line, he endea¬
voured to reftify the errors of the ancient map, fup-
pofed to be that of Anaximander. In drawing this
parallel, he was regulated by obferving where the
longeft day was fourteen hours and an half, which Hip¬
parchus afterwards determined to be the latitude of
36 degrees.
The firft parallel through Rhodes was ever after¬
wards confidered with a degree of preference, like the
foundation-ftone of all ancient maps; and the longi¬
tude of the then known world was often attempted to
be meafured in ttadia and miles, according to the ex¬
tent of that line, by many fucceeding geographers.
Eratofthenes foon after attempted, not only to draw
other parallels of latitude, but alfo to trace a meridi¬
an, at right angles to thefe, palling through Rhodes
and Alexandria, down to Syene and Meroe ; and as
the progrefs he thus made tended naturally to enlarge
his ideas, he at laft undertook a ftill more arduous talk,
namely, to determine the circumference of the globe,
by an a&ual meafurement of a fegment of one of its
great circles. Here he made his computation by uni¬
ting certain accurate obfervations made in the heavens,
swith a correfponding diftance carefully furveyed and
taken upon a meridian of the earth. The fegment of
the meridian which he pitched upon for this purpofe,
was that between Alexandria and Syene, the diftance
betwixt which places was found to be 5000 ftadia.
The angle of the lhadow on the fun-dial of Alexan¬
dria was equal to the 50th part of the circle ; but at
Syene there was no lhadow on the day of the fummer
folftice 5 and that this might be the more accurately
Vol. V.
. A P H Y. 3253
obferved, they dug a deep well, which being perpen- Historx.
dieular, was completely illuminated at the bottom '
when the fun was vertical. Even this, however, was
not fufficient to give the exaft line of the tropic ; be-
caufe the fun was found to be vertical, or to call no
lhadow at all, for a circular fpace of 300 ftadia. The
reafon of this is, that the apparent diameter of the fun
is 32 minutes, and he mull; therefore appear perpendi¬
cular to an extent of ground equivalent to that fpace.
The inveftigation of this problem of the circum¬
ference of the earth was eflentially neceffary for deter¬
mining the radical principles of all maps; and there¬
fore the moft eminent of the ancient geographers made
repeated attempts to difcover this exadlly. Eratofthe¬
nes made the circumference 250,000 or 252,000 fta¬
dia ; thus allowing 700 ftadia, or 87!- Roman miles,
to each degree. Hipparchus added 25,000 ftadia to
this meafurement of Eratofthenes, which increafed the
degree to 96 Roman miles. Poffidonius, however, ha¬
ving obtained a more accurate meafurement than that
of Eratofthenes, reduced the circumference of the
earth to 180,000 ftadia, and the degree to 62! Ro¬
man miles. 7
The map of Eratofthenes, though the bed of Inaccuracy
which antiquity can boaft, was neverthelefs exceed- °/ the an‘
ingly imperfedt and inaccurate. It contained little cient niaps*
more than the dates of Greece, and the dominions of
the fucceflbrs of Alexander, digefted according to
the furveys above-mentioned. He had feen, indeed,
and has quoted, the voyages of Pytheas into the great
Atlantic ocean, which gave him fome faint idea of the
weftern parts of Europe; but fo imperfedt, that they
could not be realifed into the outlines of a chart. Stra¬
bo tells us, that he was extremely ignorant of Gaul,
Spain, Germany, and Britain. He was equally ig¬
norant of Italy, the coafts of the Adriatic, Pontns,
and all the countries towards the north. We are alfo
told by the fame author, that Eratofthenes made the
diftance between Epidamnus or Dyrrhachium on the
Adratic, and the bay of Thermae on the iEgean fea, to
be only 900 ftadia, when in reality it was above 2000 ;
and in another inftance, he had enlarged the diftance
from Carthage to Alexandria to 15,000 fladia, when
in reality it was no more than 900c.
Such was the ftate of geography and the nature of
the maps prior to the time of Hipparchus; who, as
already obferved, made a clofer connedtion between
geography and aftronomy, by determining the longi¬
tudes and latitudes from celeftial obfervations. It muft
be owned, however, that the previous fteps to this
new projeftion of the fphere had been in a great mea-
fure made eafy by Archimedes, upwards of 50 years
before the time of Plipparchus, when he invented his
noble theorems for meafuring the furface of a fphere
and its different fegments.
It appears that war has been generally the occafion
of making the moft accurate maps of different coun¬
tries ; and therefore geography made great advances
from the progrefs of the Roman arms. In all the pro¬
vinces occupied by that people, we find that camps
were every where conftrufted at proper intervals, and
roads were raifed with fubftantial materials, for making
an eafier communication between them ; and thus ci-
vilifation and furveying were carried on according to
fyftem throughout the extent of that large empire.
18 R Every
3254
Histoty
GEOGRAPHY.
Se£t. II.
. Every new war produced a new furvey and itinerary
' of the countries where the fcenes of adfion paffed; fo
that the materials of geography were accumulated by
every additional conqueft. Polybius tells us, that at
the beginning qf the fecond Punic war, when Hanni¬
bal was preparing his expedition againft Rome, the
countries through which he was to pafs, were careful¬
ly meafured by the Romans. Julius Casfar caufed a
general furvey qf the Roman empire to be made, by a
decree of the fenate. Three furveyors, Zenodoxus,
Theodotus, and Polyclitus, had this talk affigned
them, and are faid to have completed it in 25 years.
The Roman itineraries that are ftill extant, alfo (hew
what care and pains they had been at in making fur-
veys in all the different provinces of their empire ; and
Pliny has filled the third, fourth, and fifth books of
his Natural Hiftory with the geographical diftances
that were thus meafured. We have likewife another
fet of maps ftill preferved to us, known by the name
of the Peutingerian Tables, publilhed by Welfer and
Bertius, which give a fufficient fpecimen of what Ve-
getius calls the Itinera Pifta, for the clearer dire&ion
of their armies in their march.
The Roman empire had been enlarged to its great-
ell extent, and all its provinces well known and fur-
veyed, when Ptolemy, in the reign of Antoninus Pi¬
us, about 150 years after Chrift, compofed his fyftem
of geography. The principal materials he made ufe
of for compofing this work, were the proportions of the
gnomon to its Jhadonu, taken by different aftronomers
at the times of the equinoxes and folflices; calcula¬
tions founded upon the length of the longeft days ;
the meafures or computed diftances of the principal
roads contained in their furveys and itineraries 5 and
the various reports of travellers and navigators, who
often determined the diftances of places by hearfay
and conjecture. All thefe were compared together,
and digefted into one uniform body or fyftem ; and af-
wards wrere tranflated by him into a new mathe¬
matical language, expreffmg the different degrees of
longitude and latitude, according to the invention of
Hipparchus, but which Ptolemy had the merit of car¬
rying into full praCtice and execution, after it had
been negleCted for upwards of 250 years. With fuch
imperfeft and inaccurate materials, it is no wonder to
find many errors in Ptolemy’s fyftem. Neither were
thefe errors fuch as had been introduced in the more
diftant extremities of his maps, but even in the very
centre of that part of the world which was the beft
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and where
all the famed ancient aftronomers had made their obfer-
vations.—Yet this fyftem, with all its imperfe&ions,
continued in vogue till the beginning of the prefent
century. The improvements in geography which at
that time, and fince have taken place, were owing to
the great progrefs made in aftronomy by feveral emi¬
nent men who lived during that period. More correft
methods and inftruments for obferving the latitude
were found out, and the difcoveryof Jupiter’s fatellites
afforded a much eafier method of finding the longitudes
than was formerly known. The voyages made by
different nations alfo, which were now become much
more frequent than formerly, brought to the know¬
ledge of the Europeans a vaft number of countries utter-
ly unknown to them before. The latevoyagesof Captain
Cooke, made by order of his Britannic Majefly, have History.
contributed more to the improvement of geography
than any thing that has been- done during the prefent
century ; fo that now the geography of the utmofl
extremities of the earth is in a fair way of being much
better known to the moderns, than that of the moft
adjacent countries was to the ancients. This, howe¬
ver, muft be underftood only of the fea-coafts of thefe
countries ; for, as to their internal geography, it is lefs
known now than before, except in a very few places.
On the whole, it may be obfcrved, that geography ||
is a fcience even yet far from perfeftion. The maps ^ imper- J*
of America and the eaftern parts of Alia are, perhaps,
more unfinilhed than any of the reft. Even the maps
of Great Britain and Ireland are very imperfect and
unfatisfa&ory; and the numbers we have of them, va¬
ried, and republilhed, without any real improvement,
juftly confirm an obfervation made by Lord Bacon,
namely, that an opinion of plenty is one of the caufes
of want. The late Dr Bradley was of opinion, that |
there were but two places in England whofe longitude
might be depended upon as accurately taken ; and that
thefe were the obfervatory at Greenwich, and.Serburn-
caftle the feat of the Earl of Macclesfield in Oxford-
(hire ; and that their diftance was one degree in fpace,
or four minutes in time. Even this was found to be
inaccurate, the diftance in time being obferved by the
late tranfit of Venus to be only three minutes and
forty-feven feconds. It were well, however, if there,
were no greater errors with regard to other places:
but if we examine the longitude of the Lizard, we
ftiall find fcarce any two geographers that agree con¬
cerning it; fome making it 40 40' from London ; o-
thers 50, and 50 14'; while fome enlarge it to 6°.
Our beft maps are therefore ftill to be cbnfidered as
unfinilhed works, where there will always be many
things to be added and corrected, as different people
have an opportunity.
Sect. II. Principles and Practice of Geography.
The praftical part of geography confifts in meafu-
ring the diftances between different places on the fur-
face of the earth, and laying them down upon paper
according to their different longitudes and latitudes.
For this purpofe, an exaft obfervation of the longitudes
and latitudes of the different places is fufficient; for
when once thefe are known, the diftance between the
places themfelves is eafily found, that is to fay, pro¬
vided the extent of the circumference of the earth is
known ; for without this, it is impoffible to afcertain
the diftance between any two places except by a£Iual
menfuration. For the folution of this problem, it is only jjow^to
neceflary to meafure one degree of the earth’s furface; rneafurc a i
which may be done in the following manner. Having degree <>f \
found exactly the latitude of the place from whence 8 ;
your menfuration is to commence, by the dire&ions
given under Astronom y, n°209. proceed exactly north¬
ward orfouthward, carefully meafuringthe diftance as
you go along, till you find by another celeftial obfer¬
vation that you are got to one degree of latitude either
farther north or farther fouth than the place from
whence you fet out. The diftance between the two
places is the length of a degree on the earth’s furface ;
and confequently, if multiplied by 360, will give the
roeafure of the whole circumference of the earth.
This
Sean. GEO
* Princi- This itiethodj however, though in theory it feems to
ples be fo eafy and fimple, is neverthelefs attended with
Practice V£r^ almoft infurmountable, difficulties in
« practice. It is impoffible to find a perfect plane on the
furface of the earth, which extends for fo great a length,
In the menfuration of a degree, therefore, the inequali¬
ties with which the earth every where abounds are found
to be exceeding great obftacles. For this reafon, we
are obliged to have recourfe to trigonometrical calcu¬
lations of the diftances between different places, till we
arrive at one diftant from that whence we fet out by a
degree of latitude. But it is impoffible to make any
calculation in the trigonometrical way without fome
fmall error ; nay, often not without a very great one ;
for the different dates of the atmofphere are found
greatly to affeft trigonometrical menfurations. Hence
there hath arifen a prodigious difagreement among
thofe who have attempted to meafure the circumfe-
ference of the terraqueous globe ; for as a degree of
the earth’s furface cannot be meafured but by many
calculations, the error in one being repeated in all the
reft mud neceffarily become very-.confiderable at lad.
Thofe who firft attempted this menfuration, computed
the circumference of the earth to be 50,000 Italian
miles; by Ptolemy it was reckoned only 21,600 of the
fame miles ; and the more modern geometricians have
computed the circumference of the earth at about
25,009 miles.
A method more eafily pra&ieable would feem to be
by attempting to meafure the degrees of longitude.
We know, that at the equator a degree of longitude is
equal to a degree of latitude; but as we advance to¬
wards either of the poles, the degrees of longitude com
tinually decreafe by reafon of the approximation of the
meridians to each other, till at the pole itfelf they to*
tally vanifh. If we know the length of a degree of
longitude at the equator, therefore, we can eafily, by
a geometrical calculation liable to no unavoidable er¬
ror, find the length of a degree of longitude at any
diftance either north or fouth from the equator. A-
gain, if we know the meafure of a degree of longitude
at any diftance from the equator, we may eafily, by a
like calculation, find the length of a degree of longi¬
tude at the equator itfelf. If, therefore, attempts are
made to meafure the degrees of longitude at the equa¬
tor itfelf, and in many different places north and fouth
from it, making at the fame time proper geometrical
calculations, it is plain that all thefe different opera¬
tions will tend to confirm or cofreft one another, and
by their mutual agreement or difagreement among
themfelves we will know which of them comes neareft
the truth.
As a difference in longitude makes alfo a difference
in the hour of the day, we have from thence a much
eafier method of meafuring a degree of longitude than
of meafuring one of latitude. We know, that if two
places are diftant from each other by 15 degrees of
longitude, it will be one o’clock in the afternoon in
the one, when it is only twelve o’clock in the other.
If they are diftant from each other by a fingle degree
of longitude, it will be four minutes after twelve at
the one, when it is exaftly twelve at the other. If
they are diftant half a degree, the difference will be
two minutes; or if a quarter of a degree, the differ¬
ence in time will be one minute. Inftruments for
G R A P H Y. 3255
computing time, arc now brought to fitch a degree Princi-
of perfe&ion, that if two of them are exa&ly fet with
each other, they may 'be fafely trufted for a much Pr active
longer time than what is neceffary for the operation —  
We now fpeak of. Having therefore chofen our firft
ftation, and drawn there a meridian line as dire&ed at
Astronomy', n° 174, 175. wemuft obferveexa&ly when
the fun is in the meridian, and then fet our time-piece
to twelve o’clock. We muft then proceed diredly
eaftward or weftward a confiderable way, till we ar¬
rive at fome other convenient ftation ; and having
there alfo drawn a meridian line, w’e are to obferve
exaftly by it when the fun comes to the meridian, and
looking upon our time-piece at the fame time, we will
know how much the one place differs from the other
in longitude By the diftance of time fhewn by the time¬
piece either before or after twelve, when the fun is
exactly in the meridian of the fecond ftation.
The advantages which this method hath over the
other, arife from the exaftnefs with which the inftru-
ment is fuppofed to meafure time, and from there being
a lefs fpace on the furface of the earth to be meafured
than in the other. A minute, or even half a minute
of time, may be obferved by a proper inftrument very
exaCtly ; and one of Mr Harrifon’s time-pieces may
undoubtedly be trufted as perfectly exaCt for two or
three days. If we attempt the menfuratidn of a de¬
gree of longitude at the equator, we muft choofe' out
fecond ftation at a confiderable diftance before wecan
expeCt a variation in time great enough to be obferved
with any tolerable accuracy : thus before a difference of
one minute at the equator could be perceived, we muft
travel more than 17 Engliffi miles eaftward or weft-
ward; but in the latitude of 60 degrees we would only
have half that fpace to travel, and therefore could
meafure it with more exa&nefs; at the latitude of 70
degrees, little more than a third of that fpace would
require to be meafured ; and at 80 degrees, fcarce an
eighth part. The extreme cold in thefe high latitudes,
however, renders it almoft impoffible to penetrate fo
far ; though the voyage of the Hon. Conftantine Phipps
afforded a very favourable opportunity for a menfura¬
tion of this kind, and feveral as favourable opportu¬
nities as could be wilhed .occurred in- the voyages
of captain Cook, had fuch a thing been thought of.
Yet it is not to be expeCfed that the extent of
the earth’s circumference will ever be known with
great accuracy, though we are certainly not yet ar¬
rived at the neareft approximation to truth which is
attainable on this fubjedt. 10
Hitherto we have fuppofed the circumference - of Earth not
the earth to be exa&ly circular, or the globe itfelf to Y1,cxa<a
be a perfect fphere ; but, from fome obfervations, this p
appears not to be the cafe. Some time ago, the
French made an obfervation, fliewing that a pendulum
vibrates flower in proportion as it is brought nearer to
the equator : that is, the gravity or celerity of defcent
of the pendulum, and of all other bodies, is lefs in
countries approaching to the equator than in places
near either pole. This excited the curiofity of the
celebrated philofophers Huygens and Newton, who
thence conjedhired that the earth tnuft have fome other
figure than what was commonly fuppofed. Sir Ifaac
Newton afterwards demonftrated that this diminution
of weight naturally arifes from the earth’s rotation
18 R 2 round
3256 G E O G R
Pajnc*- round its axis ; which, according to the laws of cir-
ples cular motion, repels all heavy bodies from the axis of
Pr a?'pice raot‘on : l^at th*® motion, being fwifter at the equa-
-    tor than in parts more remote, the weight of bodies
,*o 7 ^art^> mull alfo be much lefs there than nearer the poles *.
Sl J8‘ —To determine this matter, feveral mathematicians
were by the French king employed to meafure a de¬
gree on the earth’s furface in different parts of the
world ; and, according to their menfurations, the dia¬
meter of the earth from north to fouth is fliorter than
tI that from eaft to weft, by 36 miles.
Of finding With regard to the method of finding the longi-
the long!- tudes and latitudes of particular places, rules have
tndes and been already laid down under Astronomy, n° 209. and
autu es. 282^283. The fame thing, however, may be done by
other methods. Thus, the latitude may be found by
obferving exatily the meridian altitude of the fun, and
knowing his declination for that day, the declination
fubtra&ed from the meridian altitude gives the com¬
plement of,the latitude, and this laft fubtra&ed from
90° leaves the latitude required. As to the longitude,
Mr Harrifon, by his invention of time-pieces which
go much more exatdly than either clocks or watches
could be made to dp formerly, hath in a great mea¬
fure facilitated that. For, fuppofing any perfon, pof-
feffed of one of thefe time-pieces, to fet out on ajour-
ney, from London. If he adjufts his time-piece
properly before he goes away, he will know the hour
at London exaftly, let him go where he pleafes; and
wl)en he hath proceeded fo far either eaftward or weft-
ward, that a difference is perceived betwixt the hours
flrown by his time-piece, and thofe on the clocks or
watches at the place to which he goes, the diftance of
that place from London in degrees and minutes of
jongitude will be known ; and if the length of a de¬
gree of longitude is known, the real diftance between
the two places may alfo be eafily found. It is not to
be expeAed, however, that any inftrument, with what¬
ever care it may be conftruAed, can always be de¬
pended upon as an exaft meafurer of time ; and there¬
fore frequent corredtions of longitudes taken in this
manner will be neceffary. The method of finding the
longitude from the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites ap¬
pears to be the beft of any. Eclipfes of the fun, and
occultations of the ftars by the moon, are alfo very
proper,, though they happen but feldom. Eclipfes of
the moon have alfo been made ufe of dor this purpofe;
but it is found impoffible to obferve either the begin¬
ning or end of a lunar eclipfe with the accuracy ne¬
ceffary for determining the longitude of any place.
—All. thefe different methods agree in this, that they
determine the longitude by the difference of time be¬
tween the obfervation of the phenomenon in two
different places; and of this time, four minutes are to
be allowed for every degree of longitude either eaft:
qr weft.
71 . After the geographer is thus become acquainted
fcrcnt kin'd", witlfithe longitudes and latitudes of a great number of
of maps. diffVyent places,, h,e may delineate them upon paper, or
make awr?/, either ,of the _ whole world, or of any
particular country .with which he is beft acquainted.
General maps of the world, or of very large trads, an-
fwyer the purpofe of (hewing in what manner the diffe¬
rent countries of the world lie with refped to each o-
then They cannot be madeoffuch a fixe as to admit
A P H Y.
Sea. ir. i
the delineation of many particular towns or cities, net- Princ
ther indeed is it at all required. Where the whole P^'I1E(1S
world is delineated at once, the mind can hardly take pRACTI
in more than the idea of the fituations of different   
kingdoms from one another ; the fituations of the dif¬
ferent cities of each particular kingdom being almoft
wholly overlooked, and not attended to: and this hap¬
pens likewife where a very large portion of the globe, as
one of the four quarters, is reprefented on a tingle map.
Befides thefe, therefore, it is neceffary to have parti¬
cular maps of all the different countries done upon a
larger fcale, that thus the mind may not be fatigued
by endeavouring to comprehend too much at once. The
qualifications which maps ought to have, in order to
render them complete, are, 1. That they reprefent the
countries exa&ly of the fame (hape, and in the fame
proportions to the eye, that they really have on the
earth itfelf. 2. That the divifions of one country
from another be diftin&ly marked, and readily per¬
ceptible, without a difagreeable and tedious Larch.
3. That the longitudes and latitudes of different places
be found exa&ly on the map, and with little or no
trouble.
The foundation of all maps is what is called tfo
projettion of the fphere, i. e. the delineation of thofe
circles apparently traced out by the fun in the hea¬
vens, upon fome fubltance, either plane or fpherical,
defigned to reprefent the furface of the earth ; upon
which alfo are delineated the parallels of latitude, and
the meridians, in as great numbers as the fize of the
map will admit of without eonfufion.
Thefe delineations upon a fpherical furface are very
eafy: and under the article Globe, full dire&ions arc
given for the conftruftion of the fpherical fubftances
upon which maps of the earth and the heavens^
are ufually delineated} and which, when furnifhed
with the reft of their apparatus, are called terreftriat
and celefiialglobes. The method of drawing the maps
for thefe globes, is never followed in any other cafe
for which reafon it is alfo referred to the article
Globe. The ordinary kinds of maps are conftru&ed
by delineating the circles of the fphere upon a plane
furface, according to the rules of perfpeftive. This
is properly the proje&ion of the fphere; and is de¬
figned to give a view of the terraqueous globe, as it
would appear, at fome diftance, to an eye that could
take in the whole extent of it at once.
§. 1. Of Proje{lions of the Sphere, and Maps.
Of proje&ions there are two kinds, the orthographic.
and ftereographic; both of which reprefent the furface
of the earth proje&ed upon the plane of one of its
great circles. rj.
I. The orthographic fuppofes the eye to be placed Orthogra-
at an infinite diftance in the axis of the circle of pro- phic pro-
je&ion, while the fecond fuppofes it to be only in the jeftion'
pole of that circle. The circles on which the projec¬
tions are ufually made, are, the equator, fome of the
meridians, or the rational horizon of fome particular
place. For maps of the world, a meridian is generally
chofen ; and moft commonly that one which paffts
through Ferro, one of the Canary Elands, becaufe
thus the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, are
conveniently delineated in one circle, and America in:
the other.
x. To
Sea.
Princi¬
ples
and
Practic;
*4
On the
plane of
ftaeridian.
*d Plate
CXV.
I * 5
On the e
quator,
fig. 2.
•On any
" particular
horizon,
fig- 3-
I 17
Stereogra¬
phic pro-
je£Uon.
I.
1. To project the fphere orthographicaliy on the
plane of any meridian, we have only to confider, that
. as the eye is fuppofed to be at an infinite diftance, all
- the rays which come from the difk of the earth are
parallel; and confequently all lines drawn from the
eye to the difk muft be perpendicular to the latter.
^ Let, therefore, A B C D, (fig. i.) reprefent the
plane of one of the meridians. The equator, which
cuts all the meridians in the middle, muft be repre-
fented by an infinite number of points let fall upon
the plane of projeftion, and dividing it exaftly in the
middle ; that is, by the right line B D. The parallels
of latitude, being alfo perpendicular to the plane of
the meridian, will be marked out by an infinite num¬
ber of right lines let fall from their peripheries upon
that plane, thus forming the right lines ab, c d, &c.
The meridians will likewife be reprefented on the difk
by an infinite number of right lines let fall perpendi¬
cularly from their peripheries upon the plane of pro-
jetlion, and thus will form the elliptic curves AioC
AzoC, &c. From an inlpedtion of the figure, there¬
fore, it appears, that in this projedlion both longitudes
and latitudes are meafured by a line of fines, and both
of them decreafe prodigioufly as we approach the edges
of the diik ; and hence the countries which lie at a
diftance from the equator are exceedingly diftorted,
and it is even impoflible to draw them with any degree
of accuracy. The orthographic proje&ion on the
plane of a meridian, therefore, is never ufed for a map
of the world.
2. On the plane of the equator, the orthographic
projedlion reprefents the meridians as ftraight lines
diverging from a centre, and the parallels of latitude
as concentric circles. The latter, however, are by no
means to be placed at equal diftances from each other;
for the meridians are to be divided by the line of firtes,
as in the laft; and thus the equatorial parts of the
globe are as much diftorted and confufed as the polar
ones were in the foregoing. Thisprojeftion, therefore,
is feldom ufed for a map of the whole world, though
it anfwers very well for a reprefentation of the polar
regions.
3. On the horizon of any particular place, except
either of the poles, or any point lying difeftly under
the equator, the Orthographic projedlion reprefents
both parallels and meridians by fegments of ellipfes.
The figure finews a map done on the horizon of Ur
of the Chaldees : it is obvious, however, that a confi-
derable degree of difiortion takes place here alfo ;
though lefs than in the former cafes. Proje&ions of
this kind, therefore, are ufed only for the eonftrudi'on
of folar'eclipfes. See Astronomy, n° 26^;
II. The Jlereographic projeiflion of the fphere fop-
pofes the eye to be in the pole of the circle of projec¬
tion. The la ws of this proje&ian are,
1. A right circle is projected into a line of half
tangents.
2. The reprefentation of a right circle, perpendi¬
cularly oppofed to the eye, will be a circle in the plane
of the projeftion. !
3. The reprefentation: of a circle placed oblique to
the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the projec¬
tion.
4. If a great circle is to be proje&ed upon the
plane of another great circle, its centre will lie in the
GEOGRAPHY. 3257
line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the primi- Princi-
tive by the tangent of its elevation above the plane of r^d*
the primitive. , PraTtic*
5. If a lefier circle, whofe poles lie in the plane of,  
the proje&ion, were to be proje&ed ; the centre of its
reprefentation would be in the line of meafures, di¬
ftant from the centre of the primitive, by the fecant
of the lefier circles diftance from its pole, and its femi-
diameter or radius be equal to the tangent of that
diftance.
6. If a leffer circle were to be proje&ed, whofe
poles lie not in the plane of the projeftion, its diameter
in the projeftion, if it falls on each fide of the pole of
the primitive, will be equal to the fum of the half tan¬
gents of its greateft and neareft diftance from the pole
of the primitive, fet each way from the centre of the
primitive in the line of meafures.
7. If the lefler circle to be proje&ed fall entirely
on one fide of the pole of the prcjtflion, and do not
encompafs it; then will its diameter be equal to the
difference of the half tangents of its greateft and neareft
diftance from the pole of the primitive, fet off from
the centre of the primitive one; and the fame way in
the line of meafures.
8. In the ftereographic proje&ion, the angles made
by the circles of the furfae’e of the fphere, are equal to
the angles made by their reprefentatives in the plane of
their projection.
For a demonftration of thefe laws, fee the articles
Perspective and Projection. The method of de¬
lineating general maps of the world will, however, be
eafily underftood by the following directions. r8
x. To delineate a map of the earth upon the plane °“*£e ^
of a meridian. Draw a circle of any convenient mag- *
nitude, as ABCD, to reprefent one half of the earth’s fig. g, *
dife; draw two diameters AB, CD, interfeCting each
other at right angles; AB will then reprefent the e-
quator, and CD that meridian which is direCtly per¬
pendicular to the plane of projection, C will be the
north pole, and D the fouth pole. Divide the circle
into 360 equal parts, reprefenting the degrees of lati¬
tude; or into fmaller parts, if it can admit of fuch a di-
vilion, to reprefent minutes. Then, by means of a fee-
tor, divide the equator AB into two lines of lemitan-
gents EA and EB, which will reprefent the degrees of
longitude. Then with the fecant of 8o°, as a radius
deferibe the arch of the circle Cc D, which reprefents
a meridian cutting the plane of projection at an angle
of 8o°; with the fecant of 70°, deferibe the arch CdD,
which reprefents a meridian cutting the plane of pro¬
jection at 70° ; and thus proceed with the reft of the
meridians, which are ufually drawn at every ten de¬
grees longitude, as the parallels are at every ten de¬
grees latitude. Thefe laft are to be drawn with the
tangents for radii as the meridians are with the fe*
cants ; GH, reprefenting the parallel of ten degrees,
with the tangent of 8o°, that of 20 with the tangent of
70, See. The ecliptic AQB is drawn with the tan¬
gent of 66. 31 for a radius, its greateft diltance from,
the equator being 23. 29. This is the moft common
projection for maps of the world, and is that on which
the nliip Plate CXVI. is delineated. It hath this difad-
vantage, however, that neither the degrees of longitude
nor latitude continue of the fame length, even under the
fame parallel; and confequently the ftiapc of the coun¬
tries
2358
PRI NC I-
G E O G It
tries fs fomewliat dlHorted: it isalfo exceedingly diffi¬
cult to find the precife degree of longitude or la¬
titude belonging to any place, upon maps of this
kind, as mull be evident from an infpedtion of the fi¬
gures.
A P H Y.
Sea. II.
property which cannot be found in any other but Princi
themfelves.
If, inftead of its globular figure, we fuppofe the pE
earth to have a conical one, it is plain, that the meri¬
dians would be reprefented by ftraight lines diverging
2. On the plane of the horizon. Suppofe, for in- from the apex of the cone, while the parallels are ffiewn P'ojeftion) ic
'fiance, it is defired to have London the centre of the by concentric circles, placed at equal difiances. This kind .r
map: its latitude we will fuppofe to be 51 degrees 32 ofprojedtion is fhewn in the map ofthe world, Plate cxvn. fuppofed t
minutes. Take then the point E (fig. 5.) for Lon- It hath this great advantage, that the longitudes and la- become,
don ; and from this, as a centre, deferibe the circle titudes may be found with the greateft eafe, by means
ABCD to reprefent the horizon ; which you are then of a moveable index placed on the centre. The whole
to divide into four quadrants, and each of thefe into earth may alfo be thus reprefented on a fingle circle:
90 degrees. Let the diameter BD be the meridian, but thus the countries towards the fouth pole are pro-
B the northern quarter, D the fouthern ; the line of digioufly augmented in breadth in proportion to their
equino&ial eafi and weft (hews the firft vertical, A the length ; for the degrees of longitude conftantly increafe
weft, C the eaft, or a place of 90 degrees from the ze- the farther we are removed from the pole, while thofe
nith in the firft vertical. All the verticals are repre- of latitude ftill remain the fame. This apparent error,
fented by right lines drawn from the centre E to the however, doth not in the leaft affedl the real propor-
feveral degrees of the horizon. Divide BD into 180 tion of the map, or render it more difficult to find the
degrees, as in the former rtiethod j the point in EB, longitudes or latitudes upon it» Jr ,
reprefenting 51 deg. 32 min. of the arch B C, will 2. Mercator’s proje£Uon fuppofes the earth, inftead Mercator’s^ p
be the projection of the north pole, which note with of a globular, to have a cylindrical figure ; in confe- pmjeftion,
the letter P. The point in ED reprefenting 51 deg. quence of which, the degrees of longitude become of
32 min. of the arch DC, (reckoning from C towards an equal length throughout the whole furface, and are der4
D), v/ill be the projection of the interfedtion of the marked out on the map by parallel lines. The circles
equator and meridian of London ; and from this, to- of latitude alfo are reprefented by lines croffing
wards P, write the numbers of the degrees, 1, 2, 3, the former at right angles, but at unequal diftances.
See. As alfo towards D, and from B towards P, viz, The farther we remove from the equator, the longer
51, 52, 53, &c. the degrees of latitude become in proportion to thofe
Then taking the correfponding points of equal de- of longitude, and that in no lefs a degree than as the
grees, 88, 89, &c. about thofe, as diameters, de- fecant of an arch to the radius of the circle: that is,
feribe circles, which will reprefent parallels, or if we make one degree of longitude at the equator
circles of latitude, with the equator, tropics, and the radius of a circle; atone degree diftant from the
polar circles. For the meridians, firft deferibe a equator, a degree of latitude will be exprefled by the
circle through the three points A, P, C. This fecant of .one degree; at ten degrees difiance, by the
will reprefent the meridian 90 degrees from Lon- fecant of ten degrees; and fo on *. A map of the* See
don. Let its centre be M in BD, (continued to the worlej, therefore, cannot be delineated upon this pro- QXyf4
point N, which reprefents the fouth pole), PN being jeftion, without diftorting the fhape of the countries
the diameter, through M draw a parallel to AC, viz. in an extraordinary manner. The proje&ion itfelf is,
FH, continued each way to K and L. Divide the however, very ufeful in navigation, as it ftiews the dif-
circle PHNF into 360 degrees ; and from the point ferent bearings with perfect accuracy, which cannot be
P draw right lines to the feveral degrees, cutting done upon any other map. See the map of the New
KFHL; through the feveral points of interfedion, Difcoyeries, Plate CXVII. ^
end the two poles P, Nj as through three given points, 3, The globular projeAion, is an invention of
deferibe circles reprefenting all the meridians. The M. de la I^Lire, and is more ufeful than any of the projeftion.
centres for deferibing the arches will be in the fame former , for exhibiting the true ffiape of the coun-
KL, as being the fame that are found by the former tries. It may be made in the following manner: Ha-
interfe&ion ; but are to be taken with this caution, ving drawn a circle, reprefenting one half of the
that for the meridian next BDN towards A, the mott earth’s dife, draw two diameters as before, which re*
remote centre towards L be taken for the fecond, the prefent the equator and vertical meridian. Divide
fecond from this, &c.—The circles of longitude ar>d each of thefe into x 80 equal parts, for the meafures of
latitude thus drawn, infert the places from a table, the degrees of longitude and latitude. Then, through
Maps of this kind nvay be ufeful for particular purr the two poles, and every tenth divifion on the equator,
pofes : but the irregular .length of the degrees, both draw arches of circles for the meridians; and in like
of longitude and latitude, render them very unfit for mariner, through;every tenth degree on each femicir.cle,
reprefenting the countries in their proper lhape; and draw an arch, which ftiall likewife pafs through every
the difficulties in finding the particular degrees of Ion- tenth divifion on the meridian, for the parallels of la-
gitude and latitude are even greater in this than any titude.
other projection, as is evident from the infpeCtion of IV. The conftruftion of maps of. particular ParI® Conftrnc-
fig. 4. of the earth requires a different operation. Large tion 0f par<
III. Befides thefe, there may be a variety of other portions of its furface may indeed be drawn on theticular
•projections, though few of them are applicable to any plane of the meridian, as before directed ; but when map$.
particular purpofe. The three following are thofe a fmall part, as the ifland of Britain for inftance, is to
•melt generally ufeful, as having each fome peculiar be reprefented on a large fcale, it would be found
diffi-
Sea.
Princi.
r LES
Pr ACTIC
IT.
GEOGRAPHY.
2359
■ difficult to draw the arches of fiich large circles as mark out feven or eight of thofe degrees upon a right Princi.
are necefi'ary, and therefore the following method line, for the length of your intended map. On the
may be adopted. In this cafe, the degrees of long!- extremities of this line raife two perpendiculars, upon pRAC-riCE
Ltude and latitude may be both reprefented by ftraight wdiich mark out ten degrees of latitude for the height    
lines. It is to be remembered, however, that though of it. Then, having completed the paralleilogram,
the degrees of latitude always continue of an equal confult the table for the length of a degree of longitude
length, it is not fo with thofe of longitude. They in Lat. 6o°, which is found to be very nearly one half
mult necefiarily decreafe as we approach the pole, a degree of latitude. It will always be proper, however.
The proportion in which they decreafe, may be found to draw a vertical meridian exa&ly in the middle of the
by the line of longitudes on the plain fcale j or by parallellogram, to which the meridian on each fide may
the following converge; and from this you are to fet off the degrees
of longitude on each fide. Then, having divided the
TABLE, {hewing the Number of Miles contain- lines bounding your map into as many parts as can con-
ed in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of veniently be done, to ferve for a fcale, you may by
Latitude from the Equator.
Suppofe, then, it is required to draw the meridians
and parallels for a map of Britain. This ifland is
known to lie between 50 and 60 degrees of latitude,
and two and feven of longitude. Having therefore cho-
fen the length of your degrees of latitude, you muff
their means fet off the longitudes and latitudes with-
much lefs trouble than where curve lines are ufed. This
method may always be followed where a particular
kingdom is to be delineated, and will reprefent the
true figure and fituation of the places with tolerable ex-
aftnefs. The particular points of the compafs, on
which the towns lie with refpedt to one another, or
their bearings, cannot be exa&ly known, except by a
globe, or Mercator’s projeftion. Their diftances, how¬
ever, may by this means be accurately expreffed, and
this is the only kind of maps to which a fcale of miles-
can be truly adapted.
$.2. Defcription and Ufe of the Glohes and Armillary
Sphere.
When we have thus difeovered, by means of maps,
or any other way, the true fituation of the different
places of the earth with regard to one another, we
may eafily know every other particular relative to
them ; as, how far diftant they are from us, what hour
of the day it is, what feafon of the year, &c. at any
particular place. As each of thefe problems, how¬
ever, would require a particular and fometimes trou-
blefome calculation, machines have been invented, by
which all the calculations may be faved, and every pro¬
blem in geography may be folved mechanically, and in
the moft eafy and expeditious manner. Thefe ma¬
chines are the celeftial and terreltrial globes, and the
armillary fphere; of which, and the method of ufing
them, we proceed to give a defcription.
If a map of the world be accurately delineated on.The tei>-
a fpherical ball, the furface thereof will reprefent the
furface of the earth : for the higheft hills are fo in-®0 C‘
confiderable with refpeft to the bulk of the earth, that
they take off no more from its roundnefs than grains of
fand do from the roundnefs of a common globe ; for
the diameter of the earth is 8000 miles im round num¬
bers, and no known hill upon it is much above three
miles in perpendicular height.
For the proof of the earth’s being fpherical, fee A-
stronomy, n° 123.
With regard to what we call up and down, fee the
article Gravity.
To an obferver placed any where in the indefinite
t proportion your degrees of longitude to it. By fpace,. where there is nothing to limit his view, all re-
the table you find, that in the latitude of 50° the mote obje&s appear equally diftant from him ; and
length of a degree of longitude is to one of latitude as feem to be placed in a vaft concave fphere, of which
38,57 is to 60; that is, a degree of longitude in his eye is the centre. The moon is much nearer to us
lat. 50, is fomewhat more than half the length of a than the fun; fome of the planets are fometimes nearer,
degree of latitude. The exa£t proportion may eafily and fometimes farther from us, than the fun ; others
be taken by a diagonal fcale 5 aft^r which you are to of them never comefo near to us as the fun always is;.
the
336o
GEOGRAPHY.
as
The face of
the heavens
and of the
earth repre-
fentcd in a
machine.
the remoteft planet in our fyftem is beyond compari-
fon nearer to us than any of the fixed bars are : and
yet all thefe celeftial objedls appear equally diftant from
us. Therefore, if we imagine a large hollow fphere
of glafs to have as many bright ftuds fixed to its infide,
there are ftars vifible in the heaven, and thefe ftuds
be of different magnitudes, and placed at the fame
angular diftancesfrom each other as the ftars are; the
fphere will be a true reprefentation of the (tarry heaven,
to an eye fuppofed to be in its centre, and viewing it all
around. And if a fmall globe, with a map of the earth
upon it, be placed on an axis in the centre of this (tarry
fphere, and the fphere be made to turn round on this
axis, it will reprefent the apparent motion of the hea¬
vens round the earth.
If a great circle be fo drawn upon this fphere, as to
divide it into two equal parts or hemifpheres, and the
plane of the circle be perpendicular to the axis of the
fphere, this circle wall reprefent the equinoftial, which
Sea. ir.
divides the heaven into two equal parts, called the fible horizon is that circle which a man (landing upon
northern and the (outhern hemifpheres ; and every point
of that circle will be equally diftant from the poles, or
ends of the axis in the fphere. That pole which is in
the middle of the northern hemifphere, will be called
the north pole of the fphere; and that which is in the
middle of the fouthern hemifphere, the fouthpole.
If another grand circle be drawn upon the fphere, in
fuch a manner as to cut the equinoftial at an angle of
23t degrees i*1 two oppofite points, it will reprefent
the ecliptic, or circle of the fun’s apparent annual mo¬
tion ; one half of which is on the north fide of the e-
quinoftial, and the other half on the fouth.
If a large ftud be made to move eaftward in this e-
cliptic, in fuch a manner as to go quite round it in the
time that the fphere is turned round weftward 366
times upon its axis ; this ftud will reprefent the fun,
changing his place every day a 365th part of the eclip¬
tic ; and going round weftward, the fame way as the
ilars do ; but with a motion fo much flower than the
motion of the ftars, that they will make 366 revolu¬
tions about the axis of the fphere, in the time that the
fun makes only 365. During one half of thefe revo¬
lutions, the fun will be on the north fide of the equi¬
noftial ; during the other half, on the fouth ; and at
the end of each half, in the equinoftial.
If we fuppofe the terreftrial globe in this machine to
be about one inch in diameter, and the diameter of the
(tarry fphere to be about five or fix feet, a fmall infeft:
on the globe would fee only a very little portion of its
furface ; but it would fee one half of the (tarry fphere,
the^convexity of the globe hiding the other half from
its view. If the fphere be turned weftward round the
globe, and the infeft. could judge of the appearances
which arife from that motion, it would fee fome ftars
- riling to its view in the eaftern fide of the fphere, whilft
others were fetting on the weftern: but as all the ftars
are fixed to the fphere, the fame ftars would always
rife in the fame points of view on the eaft fide, and fet
in the fame points of view on the weft fide. With
the fun it would be otherwife; becaufe the fun is not
fixed to any point of the fphere, but moves (lowly
along an oblique circle in it. And if the infeft; (hould
look towards the fouth, and call that point of the
globe, where the equinoftial in the fphere feems to cut
it on the left fide, the eajlpoint; and where it cuts the
globe on the right fide, the •wef point; the little ani- Prince b
mal would fee the fun rife north «f the eaft, and fet ple
north of the weft, for iSz^ revolutions ; after which, alul
for as many more, the fun would rife fouth of the eaft, RAC7
and fet fouth of the weft. And in the whole 365 revo¬
lutions, the fun would rife only twice in the call point,
and fet twice in the weft. All thefe appearances would
be the fame, if the (tarry fphere ftood (till (the fun on¬
ly moving in the ecliptic) and the earthly globe were
turned round the axis of the fphere eattward. For, as
the infeft; would be carried round with the globe, he
would be quite infenfible of its motion, and the fun and
ftars would appear to move weftward.
We may imagine as many circles deferibed upon
the earth as we pleafe ; and we may imagine the plane
of any circle deferibed upon the earth to be continued,
until it marks a circle in the concave fphere of the
heavens. is
The horizon is either fenfihlc or rational. The fe
:le whi< ’
a large plane obferves to terminate his view all around,
where the heaven and earth feem to meet. The plane
of our fenfible horizon continued to the heaven, divides
it into two hemifpheres; one vifible to us, the other
hid by the convexity of the earth.
The plane of the rational horizon, is fuppofed pa¬
rallel to the plane of the fenfible ; to pafs through the
centre of the earth, and to be continued to the hea¬
vens. And although the plane of the fenfible horizon
touches the earth in the place of the obferver, yet this
plane, and that of the rational horizon, will feem to
coincide in the heaven, becaufe the whole earth is but
a point compared to the fphere of the heaven.
The earth being a fpherical body, the horizon, or li- The pole
mitof our view, mull change as we change our place.
The poles of the earth, are thofe two points on its
furface in which its axis terminates. The one is called
the north pole, and the other the fouth pole.
The poles of the heavens, are thofe two points in
which the earth’s axis produced terminates in the
heaven ; fo that the north pole of the heaven is direft-
ly over the north pole of the earth, and the fouth pole
of the heaven is direftly over the fouth pole of the
earth.
The equator is a great circle upon the earth, every Equator,
part of which is equally diftant from either of the poles.
It divides the earth into two equal parts, called the nor¬
thern and fouthern hemifpheres. If we fuppofe the plane
of this circle to be extended to the heaven, it will mark
the equinoftial therein; and will divide the heaven into
two equal parts, called the northern and fouthern he¬
mifpheres of the heaven. 1S>
The meridian of any place is a great circle paffing Meridia
through that place and the poles of the earth. We may
imagine as many fuch meridians as we pleafe; becaufe
any place that is ever fo little to the eaft or weft of any
other place, has a difterent meridian from that place;
for no one circle can pafs through any two fuch places
and the poles of the earth.
The ?jieridian of any place is divided by the poles
into two femicircles: that which paffes thro’ the place
is called the geographical, or upper, meridian ; and that
which paffes through the oppofite place, is called the
lo<wer meridian.
When the rotation of the earth brings the plane of
the
(iKOGr.AriiY
LMa((' C'XYT
SPHERE
^Tortli
South
(/{u/'j:,,//,?
Xox-fh
-K ait
, / / , G^OGRAPHT . ^ ^Plate CXVI
s/ /&z/r~//ts lyfc/un //lUt/tjr Su/t i>e///>/^ /rie/my/rf <r//7if£u)at/,* K< \?yA£j, an</ /& /wint
'/ C<7m/ia/<> c>?t uVucA //tc vAun rtdfs c*e£*rfa*/w<?/?/ J&tty/'ee o/t J}///Vu//J, and fa* ewy J2jearee. <?f id. arfli
fCidou/ft t/wAna/ian. c ‘ ‘
• /AJ<•//<Ay///? /
| PBfffCI-
11'
; Pra
Sea. II. GEOGRAPHY. 3361
the geographical meridian to the fun, it is noon or mid’ are circles drawn perpendicularly through every tenth Princi-
day to that place} and when the lower meridian comes degree of the equator, interfering each other at the
to the fun, it ig mid-night. poles: but on globes of or under a foot diameter, pRACTIcr
_ All places lying under the fame geographical meri- they are only drawn through every fifteenth degree of   
dian, have their noon at the fame time, and confe- the equator; thefe circles are generally called meridi-
quently all the other hours. AH thofe places are ans> fometimes circles of longitude, and at other times
fa id to have the fame longitude, becaufe no one of them hour-circles.
lies either eaft ward or weftward from any of the reft. The globe is hung in a brafs-ring called the brazen
If we imagine 24 femicircles, one of which is the meridian; and turns upon a wire in each pole funk
geographical meridian of a given place, to meet at the half its thicknefs into one fide of the meridian ring ;
poles, and to divide the equator into 24 equal parts ; by which means that fide of the ring divides the globe
each of thofe meridians will come round to the fun in into two equal parts, called the eajlern and usejlern
24 hours, by the earth’s equable motion round its axis hemifpheres ; as the equator divides it into two equal
in that time. And, as the equator contains 360 de- parts, called the northern and fouthern hemifpheres.
grees, there will be 15 degrees contained between any The ring is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees,
two of thefe meridians which are neareft to one ano- on the fide wherein the axis of the globe turns. One
ther: for 24 times 15 is 360. And as the earth’s half of thefe degrees are numbered, and reckoned,
motion is eaftward, the fun’s apparent motion will be from the equator to the poles, where they end at 90:
weftward, at the rate of 15 degrees each hour. There- their ufe is to ftiew the latitudes of places. The de-
fore, grees on the other half of the meridian are numbered
They whofe geographical meridian is 15 degrees from the poles to the equator, where they end at 90:
weftward from us, have noon, and every other hour, an their ufe is to flrew how to elevate either the north or
hour fooner than we have. They whofe meridian is fouthpoleabove theh&rizon, accordingto thelatitudeof
fifteen degrees weftward from us, have noon, and e- any given place, as it is north or fouth of the equator.
The brazen meridian is let into two notches made
in a broad flat ring called the •wooden horizon; the
upper furface of which divides the globe into two
equal parts, called the upper and lower hemifpheres.
One notch is in the north point of the horizon, and
very other hour, an hour later than we have : and fo
on in proportion, reckoning one hour for every fifteen
degrees.
For the ecliptic circle, figns, and degrees, fee A-
STRONOMY, n° 122,—137,
|Troi>ics. The tropics are leffer circles in the heaven, parallel the other in the fouth. On this horizon are fevtral
to the equinoftial; one on each fide of it, touching concentric circles, which contain the months and days
the ecliptic in the points of its greateft declination ; of the year, the figns and degrees anfwering to the
fo that each tropic is 23^ degrees from the equinoc- fun’s place for each month and day, and the 32 points
tial, one on the north fide of it, and the other on the of the compafs.—The graduated lide of the brafs me-
fouth. The northern tropic touches the ecliptic at ridian lies towards the eaft fide of the horizon, and
the beginning of Cancer, the fouthern at the begin- ftiould be generally kept towards the perfon who works
ning of Capricorn ; for which reafon the former is call- problems by the globes.
ed the tropic of Cancer, and the latter the tropic of Ca~ There is a fmall horary circle, fo fixed to the north
Capricorn. part of the brazen meridian, that the wire in the north
Polar* P°^ar ^rcles in the heaven, are each 23^ de- pole of the globe is in the centre of that circle; and
circles. grees from the poles, all around. That which goes on the wire is an bidex, which goes over all the 24
round the north pole, is called the arttic circle. The hours of the circle, as the globe is turned round its
fouth polar circle, is called the antarftic circle, from axis. Sometimes there are two horary'circles, one
its being oppofite to the ar&ic. between each pole of the globe and the brazen meridian.
The ecliptic, tropics, and polar circles, are drawn There is a thin flip of brafs, called the quadrant of
upon the terreftrial globe, as well as upon the celef- altitude, which is divided into 90 equal parts or de-
tial. But the ecliptic, being a great fixed circle in grees, anfwering exaiftly to fo many degrees of the
the heavens, cannot properly be faid to belong to the equator. It is occafionally fixed to the uppermoft
terreftrial globe ; and is laid down upon it only for point of the brazen meridian by a nut and ferew. The
the conveniency of folving fotne problems. So that, divifions end at the nut, and the quadrant is turned
if this circle on the terreftrial globe was properly di- round upon it.
vided into the months and days of the year, it would
not only fuit the globe better, but would alfo make
The terref-
trial globe
deferibed.
Piste CXVI
fig. 2.
the problems thereon much eaficr.
Defcription of the Terrejlrial Globe.
The equator, ecliptic, and tropics, polar circles,
2. Defcription and Ufe of the Armillary Sphere. 3*
The exterior parts of this machine are, a comPagcs jrJ
of brafs rings, which reprefent the principal circles offeribed.
the heaven, viz. 1. The equinoctial A A, which is di- pi f
vided into 360 degrees (beginning at its interfeftion ^^
and meridians, are laid down upon the globe in the with the ecliptic in Aries) for (hewing the fun’s right
manner already deferibed. The ecliptic is divided afeenfion in degrees; and alfo into 24 hours, for ftiew-
into 12 figns, and each fign into 30 degrees. Each ing his right afeenfion in time. 2. The ecliptic BB,
tropic is 23I degrees from the equator, and each po- which is divided into 12 figns, and each fign into 30
lar circle 23I degrees from its refpeCtive pole. Circles degrees, and alfo into the months and days of the
are drawn parallel to the equator, at every ten degrees year; in fuch a manner, that the degree or point of
diftance from it on each fide to the poles: thefe circles the ecliptic in which the fun is, on any given day,
are called parallels of latitude. On large globes there ftands over that day in the circle of months. 3. The
Vol. V. 18 S tropic
3362 GEOGRAPHY. Sed. II.
Princi- tropic of Cancer CC, touching the ecliptic at the be-
PandS K'nn‘nS Cancer in e, and the tropic of Capricorn
Practice &D, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Ca-
 pricorniny'; each 234-degrees from the equinodtial
circle. 4. The arftic circle £, and the antar&ic
circle F, each 231- degrees from its refpedfive pole at
N and S. 5. The equino&ial colure GG, paifing
through the north and fouth pdles of the heaven at N
and S, and through the equinodlial points Aries and
Libra, in the ecliptic. 6. The folltitial colure HH,
palling through the poles of the heaven, and through
the folftitial points Cancer and Capricorn in the ec¬
liptic. Each quarter of the former of thefe colures is
divided into 90 degrees, from the equinoftial to the
poles of the world, for fhewing the declination of the
fun, moon, and liars; and each quarter of the latter,
from the ecliptic at e and f, to its poles b and d, for
Ihewing the latitude of the ilars.
In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun T, which .is carried round the ecliptic
BB, by turning the nut: and in the fouth pole of the
ecliptic is a pin d, on which is another quadrantal
wire, with a fmall moon Z upon it, which may be
moved round by the hand: but there is a particular
contrivance for caufing the moon to move in an orbit
which crolfes the ecliptic at an angle of 5^ degrees,
in two oppofite points called the moan’s nodes; and
alfo for fhifting thefe points backward in the ecliptic,
as the moon’s nodes Ihift in the heaven.
Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terreftrial
globe /, fixt on an axis KK, which extends from the
north and fouth poles of the globe at n and /, to thofe
of the celeftial fphere at N and S. On this axis is
fixed the flat celeftial meridian LL, which may be fet
dire&ly over the meridian of any place on the globe,
and then turned round with the globe, fo as to keep
over the fame meridian upon it. This flat meridian
is graduated the fame way as the brafs meridian of a
common globe, and its ufe is much the fame. To this
globe is fitted the moveable horizon MM, fo as to
turn upon two ftrong wires proceeding from its eaft
and weft points to the globe, and entering the globe
at the oppofite points of its equator, which is a move-
able brafs ring let into the globe in a groove all a-
round its equator. The globe may be turned by hand
within this ring, fo as to place any given meridian
upon it, dire&ly under the celeftial meridian LL. The
horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its out-
ermoft edge, within which are the points of the com-
pafs for ftiewing the amplitude of the fun and moon
both in degrees and points. The celeftial meridian
LL, pafles thro’ two notches in the north and fouth
oints of the horizon, as in a common globe : but
ere, if the globe be turned round, the horizon and
meridian turn with it. At the fouth pole of the fphere
is a circle of 24 hours, fixed to the rings; and on the
axis is an index which goes round that circle, if the
globe be turned round its axis.
The whole fabric is fupported on a pedeftal N, and
may be elevated or deprefled upon the joint 0, to any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc
,7J, which is fixed in the ftrong brafs arm J^, and
Aides in the upright piece R, in which is a fcrew at
r, to fix it at any proper elevation.
In the box Tare two wheels (as in Dr Long’s Princi-j
fphere), and two pinions, whofe axes come out at V j
and U; either of which may be turned by the fmall pRAcTICS
winch IF. When the winch is put upon the axis V, 
and turned backward, the terreftrial globe, with its ho¬
rizon and celeftial meridian, keep at reft ; and the
whole fphere of circles turns round from eaft, by fouth,
to weft, carrying the fun T, and moon Z, round the
fame way, and caufing them to rife above and fet be¬
low the horizon. But when the winch is put upon
the axis U, and turned foreward, the fphere with the
fun and moon keep at reft ; and the earth, with its
horizon and meridian, turn round from weft, by fouth,
to eaft ; and bring the fame points of the horizon to
the fun and moon, to which thefe bodies came when
the earth kept at reft and they were carried round it;
ftiewing that they rife and fet in the fame points of
the horizon, and at the fame times in the hour-circle,
whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven.
If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes
round its hour-circle ; but if the fphere be turned,
the hour-circle goes round below the index.
And fo, by this conftru&ion, the machine is equally
fitted to fhew either the real motion of the earth, or
the apparent motion of the heaven.
To reftify the fphere for ufe, firft flacken the fcrew
r in the upright ftem R, and taking hold of the arm
move it up or down until the given degree of la¬
titude for any place be at the fide of the ftem R ; and
then the axis of the fphere will be properly elevated
fo as to ftand parallel to the axis of the world, if the
machine be fet north and fouth by a fmall compafs:
this done, count the latitude from the north pole, up¬
on the celeftial meridian LL, down towards the north
notch of the horizon, and fet the horizon to that la¬
titude ; then, turn the nut b until the fun T comes to
the given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the fun
will be at its proper place for that day : find the place
of the moon’s afeending node, and alfo the place of
the moon, by an Ephemeris, and fet them right ac¬
cordingly : laftly, turn the winch W, until either the
fun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian
comes to the fun (according as you want the fphere or
earth to move) and fet the hour-index to the XII,
marked noon, and the whole machine will be redlified.
 Then turn the winch, and obferve when the
fun or moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour-
index will fhew the times thereof for the given day.
As thofe who underftand the ufe of the globes will
be at no lofs to work many other problems by this
fphere, it is necdlefs to enlarge any farther upon it.
3. Diredions for ufng Globes.
In ufing globes, keep the eaft fide of the horizon
towards you (unlefs the problem requires the turning
of it), which fide you may know by the word Eaft
upon the horizon; for then you have the graduated
fide of the meridian towards you, the quadrant of al¬
titude before you, and the globe divided exadlly into
two equal parts, by the graduated fide of the meri-
dian. 3J
In working fome problems, it will be neceffary to Dii-eaions «
turn the whole globe and horizon about, that you may for ufing
look on the weft fide thereof; which turning will be the terref- t
apt to jog the ball fo, as to fhift away that degree of tri" £ ‘’k5*
the
; Seft. II. GEOGRAPHY. 3363
s Princi- the globe which was before fet to the horizon or me-
I Pa^jS ridian : to avoid which inconvenience, youmaythruft
'5 Practice ’n t^ie feather-end of a quill between the ball of the
 globe and the brazen meridian ; which, without hurt¬
ing the ball, will, keep it from turning in the meri¬
dian, whilft you'turn the weft fide of the horizon to¬
wards you.
Prob. I. T'o find the latitude and longitude of any
given place upon the globe—Turn the globe on its axis,
until the given place comes exaclly under that gra¬
duated fide of the brafen meridian on which the de¬
grees are numbered from the equator; and obferve
what degree of the meridian the place then lies under;
which is its latitude, north or fouth, as the place is
north or fouth of the equator.
The globe remaining in this pofition, the degree of
the equator, which is under the brafen meridian, is
the longitude of the place, which is eaft or weft, as the
place lies on the eaft or weft fide of the firft meridian
of the globe.—^All the Atlantic ocean, and America,
is on the weft fide of the meridian of London; and
the greateft part of Europe, and of Africa, together
w’ith all Afia, is on the eaft fide of the meridian of
London, which is reckoned the firft meridian of the
globe by the Britifti geographers and aftronomers.
Prob. II. The longitude and latitude of a place being
given, to find that place on the globe.—Look for the gi¬
ven longitude in the equator (counting it eaftward or
weftward from the firft meridian, as it is mentioned to
be eaft or weft ;) and bringing the point of longitude
in the equator to the brafen meridian, on that fide
which is above the fouth point of the horizon : then
count from the equator, on the brafen meridian, to the
degree of the given latitude, towards the north or
fouth pole, according as the latitude is north or fouth }
and under that degree of latitude on the meridian, you
will have the place required.
Prob. III. To find the difference of longitude, or
difference of latitude, betnueen any two given places.—
Bring each of thefe places to the brafen meridian, and
fee what its latitude is: the leffer latitude fubtrafted
from the greater, if both places are on the fame fide
of the equator, or both latitudes added together if
they are on different fides of it, is the difference of la¬
titude required. And the number of degrees contain¬
ed between thefe places, reckoned on the equator,
when they are brought feparately under the brafen
meridian, is their difference of longitude, if it belefs than
180 ; but if more, let it be fubtra&ed from 360, and the
remainder is the difference of longitude required. Or,
Having brought one of the places to the brafen
meridian, and fet the hour-index to XII, turn the
globe until the other place comes to the brafen meri¬
dian ; and the number of hours and parts of an hour,
paffed over by the index, will give the longitude in time;
which may be eafily reduced to degrees, by allowing
15 degrees for every hour, and one degree for every
four minutes.
N. B. When we fpeak of bringing any place to the
brafen meridian, it is the graduated fide of the meri¬
dian that is meant.
Prob. IV. Jlny place being given, to find all thofe
places that have the fame longitude or latitude with it.
—Bring the given place to the brafen meridian ; then
all thofe places which lie under that fide of the meri¬
dian, from pole to pole, have the fame longitude with 1’rinci-
the given place. Turn the globe round its axis; and
all thofe places which pafs under the fame degree of pRAt.TICl
the meridian that the given place does, have the fame 
latitude with that place.
Since all latitudes are reckoned from the equator,
and all longitudes are reckoned from the firft meridian,
it is evident, that the point of the equator which is
cut by the firft meridian, has neither latitude nor lon¬
gitude.—The greateft latitude is 90 degrees, becaufe
no place is more than 90 degrees from the equator :
And the greateft longitude is 180 degrees, becaufe
no place is more than 180 degrees from the firft me¬
ridian.
Prob. V. To find the antceci, periceci, and anti¬
podes, of any given place.—Bring the given place to
the brafen meridian ; and having found its latitude,
keep the globe in that fituation, and count the fame
number of degrees of latitude from the equator to¬
wards the contrary pole ; and where the reckoning
ends, you have the anted, oi the given place upon the
globe. Thofe who live at the equator have no anted.
The globe remaining in the fame pofition, fet the
hour-index to the upper XII on the horary circle, and
turn the globe until the index comes to the lower XII;
then, the place which lies under the meridian, in the
fame latitude with the given place, is the ^er/arc/requi¬
red. Thofe who live at the poles have no perieci.
As the globe now ftands (with the index at the low¬
er XII), the antipodes of the given place will be under
the fame point of the brafen meridian where its ant¬
ed flood before. Every place upon the globe has its
antipodes.
Prob. VI. To find the diftance between any two
places on the globe.—Lay the graduated edge of the
quadrant, of altitude over both the places, and count
the number of degrees intercepted between them on
the quadrant; then multiply thefe degrees by 60, and
the produdl will give the diftance in geographical
miles : but to find the diftance in miles, multiply the
degrees by 6g^, and the produdt will be the number
of miles required. Or, take the diftance betwixt any
two places with a pair of compaffes, and apply that
extent to the equator; the number of degrees, inter¬
cepted between the points of the compaffes, is the
diftance in degrees of a great circle ; which may be
reduced either to geographical miles, or to Englifli
mileSj as above.
Prob. VII. stf place on the globe being given, and
its diftance from any other place; to find all the other
places upon the globe which are at the fame diftanct
from the given place. —Tbnng the given place to the bra¬
fen meridian, and ferew the quadrant of altitude to
the meridian dire&ly over that place ; then keeping
the globe in that pofition, turn the quadrant quite
round upon it, and the degree of the quadrant that
touches the fecond place will pafs over all the other
places which are equally diftant with it from the gi¬
ven place.
This is the fame as if one foot of a pair of compaf¬
fes was fet in the given place, and the other foot ex¬
tended to the fecond place, whofe diftance is known ;
for if the compaffes be then turned round the firft
place as a centre, the moving foot will go over all
thofe places which are at the fame diftance with the
18 S 2 fecond
3364
P-RI N C I-
and
PR ACTtCE
GEOGRAPHY.
Sea. II.
fecond from it.
Pros. VIII. Tki hour of ike day at any place be¬
ing given, to find all t ho fie places where it is noon at that
■ time.—-Bring the given place the brafen meridian, and
fet the index to the given hour; this done, turn the
globe until the index points to the upper XII, and then
all the places that lie under the brafen meridian have
noon at that time.
N. B. The upper XII always Hands for noon; and
when the bringing of anyplace to the brafen meridian
is mentioned, the fide of that meridian on which the
degrees are reckoned from the equator is meant, un-
lefs the contrary fide be mentioned.
Pros. IX. The hour of the day at any place being
given, to find what o’clock it then is at any other place.
—Bring the given place to the brafen meridian, and fet
the index to the given hour; then turn the globe, un¬
til! the place where the hour is required comes to the
meridian, and the index will point out the hour at
that place.
Pros. X. To find the fun’s place in the ecliptic, and
his declination, for any given day of the year.—Look
on the horizon for the given day, and right againft it
you have the degree of the fign in which the fun is (or
his place) on that day at noon. Find the fame degree
of that fign in the ecliptic line upon the globe, and
having brought it to the brafen meridian, obferve what
degree of the meridian Hands over it; for that is the
fun’s declination, reckoned from the equator.
Prop. XI. The day of the month being given, to find
all thofe places of the earth over which the fun will pafs
vertically on that Find the fun’s place in the e-
cliptie for the given day, and having brought it to
the brafen meridian, obferve what point of the meri¬
dian is over it-; then, turning the globe round its axis,
all thofe places which pafs under that point of the me¬
ridian are the places required ; for as their latitude is
equal, in degrees and part^ of a degree, to the fun’s
declination, the fun muH be direfilly over-head to each
of them at its refpe&ive noon.
Prob. XII. A place being given in the torrid zone,
to find thofe two days of the year on which the fun Jhall
be vertical to that place.—Bring the given place to the
brafen meridian, and mark the degree of latitude that
is exaftly over it on the meridian ; then turn the globe
round its axis, and obferve the two degrees of the e-
cliptic which pafs exa&ly under that degree of lati¬
tude: lallly, find on the wooden horizon, the two days
of the year in which the fun is in thofe degrees of the
ecliptic, and they are the days required: for on them,
and none elfe, the fun’s delination is equal to the la¬
titude of the given place; and confequcntly, he will
then be vertical to it at noon.
Pros. XIII. To find all thofe places of the north fri¬
gid zone, where the fun begins to Jhine conflantly with¬
out fetting, on any given day, from the Z\Ji of March
to the 2$d of Sept ember.—On thefe two days, the fun
is in the equinoftial, and enlightens the globe exa&ly
from pole to pole : therefore, as the earth turns round
its axis, which terminates in the poles, every place
upon it will go equally through the light and the dark,
and fo make the day and night equal to all places of the
earth. But as the fun declines from the equator, to¬
wards either pole, he will Hiine juH as many degrees
round that pole, as are equal to his declination from
the equator: fo that no place within that diflance of Princi-<
the pole will then go through any part of the dark, j
and confequently the fun will not fet to it. Now, as pRACTICSi
the fun’s declination is northward, from the 2ill of  
March to the 23d of September, he muH conHantly
fliine round the north pole all that time ; and on the
day that he is in the northern tropic, he Ihines upon
the whole north frigid zone ; fo that no place within
the north polar circle goes through any part of the
dark on that day. Therefore,
Having brought the fun’s place for the given day to
the brafen meridian, and found his declination (by
Prob. IX.) count as many degrees on the meridian,
from the north pole, as are equal to the fun’s declina¬
tion from the equator, and mark that degree from the
pole where the reckoning ends : then turning the globe 11
round its axis, obferve what places in the north frigid
zone pafs dire&ly under that mark; for they are the
places required.
The like may be done for the fouth frigid zone,
from the 23d of September to the 2tH of March, du¬
ring which time the fun Ihines conHantly jon the fouth
pole.
Prob. XIV. To find the place over which the fun is
vertical at any hour of a given day.—Having found
the fun’s declination for the given day (by Prob. X.)
mark it with a chalk on the brazen meridian: then
bring the place where you are (fuppofe Edinburgh)
to the brazen meridian, and fet the index to the given
hour ; which done, turn the globe on its axis, until
the index points to XII at noon; and the place on
the globe, which is then direflly under the point of
the fun’s declination marked upon the meridian, has
the fun that moment in the zenith, or dire&ly over
head.
Prob. XV. The day and hour of a lunar eclipfe be¬
ing given ; to find all thofe places of the earth to which it
will be vifible. —The moon is never eclipfed but when
fhe is full, and fo diredlly oppofite to the fun, that the
earth’s (hadow falls upon her. Therefore, whatever
place of the earth the fun is vertical to at that time,
the moon muH be vertical to the antipodes of that
place: fo that the fun will be then vifible to one half
of the earth, and the moon to the other.
Find the place to which the fun is vertical at the
given hour (by Prob. XIV.) elevate the pole to the
latitude of that place, and bring the place to the upper
part of the brazen meridian, as in the former problem :
then, as the fun will be vifible to all thofe parts of the
globe which are above the horizon, the moon will be
vifible to all thofe parts which are below it, at the time
of her greatefi obfeuration.
Prob. XVI. To rettify the globe for the latitude,
the zenith, and the fun’s place.—Find the latitude of
the place, (by Prob. I.) and if the place be in the
northern hemifphere, raife the north pole above the
north point of the horizon, as many degrees (counted
from the pole upon the brazen meridian) as are equal
to the latitude of the place. If the place be in the
fouthern hemifphere, raife the fouth pole above the
fouth point of the horizon as many degrees as are
equal to the latitude. Then, turn the globe till the
place comes under its latitude on the brafen meridian,
and fafien the quadrant of altitude fo, that the cham¬
fered edge of its nut (which is even with the gradu¬
ated
Sed. II. GEOGRAPHY. 3365
’riwcj- ated edge) may be joined to tbe zenith, or point of
ples latitude. This done, bring the fntt’s place in the eclip-
, and tic for the given day (found by Prob. X.) to the gra-
r act ice (juate(j p](jc 0f tjie traze,n meridian, and Cet the hour-
index to XII at noon, which is the uppermoft XII on
the hour-circle; and the globe will be re&ified.
Pros. XVII. The latitude of any place, not exceed¬
ing 66i degrees, and the day of the month, leing given}
to find the time of fun rifing and fetting, and confis-
quently the length of the day and Having rec¬
tified the globe for the latitude, and for the fun’s
place on the given day (as dire&ed in the ipreceding
problem), bring the fun’s place in the ecliptic to the
eaftern fide of the horizon, and the hour-index will
foew the time of fun-riling ; then turn the globe on its
axis, until the fun’s place comes to the weftern fide of
the horizon, and the index ■will fhew the time of fun-
fettrng.
The hour of fun-fetting doubled,, gives the length
of the day; and the hour of fnn-riEng doubled, gives
the length <k£ the night.
Prob. XVIII. The latitude \of any .place, and tlse
day -of the month, being given ; to findrwhen. the morning
twilight begins, and the evening twilight ends, at that
/>/««. —This problem is .often limited: for, when the
fun /does not go 18 degrees below the horizon, the
twilight continues the whole night; and for feveral
nights together in fummer, between 49 and 664- de¬
grees of latitude; and the nearer to 664, the greater
is the number of thefe nights. But when it does be¬
gin and end, the following method will ihew the time
for any given day.
Reftify the globe, and bring the fun’s place in the
ecliptic to the eaftern fide of the horizon; then mark
L with a chalk that point of the ecliptic which is in the
‘weflern fide of the horizon, it being the point oppo¬
site to the fen’s place: this'done, lay the quadrant of
altitude over the faid point, and turn the globe eaft-
ward, keeping the quadrant at the chalk mark, until
k is juft 18 degrees high on the quadrant ; and the
index will point out the time when the morning twi¬
light begins: for the fun’s place will then be 18 de¬
grees below the cattern fide of the horizon. To find
the time when the evening twilight ends, bring the
fun’s place to the weftern fide of the horizon; and the
point oppofite to it, which was marked with the chalk,
will be rifing in the eaft: then, bring the quadrant
over that point, and keeping it thereon, turn the globe
weft ward, until the faid point be 18 degrees above
the horizon on the quadrant, and tbe index will fhew
the time when the evening twilight ends; the fun’s
place being then 18 degrees below the weftern fide of
the horizon.
Prob. XIX. To find on what day of the year the
fun begins to fhine conjiantly without fetting, on any
given plate in the north frigid zone; and how long he
continues to do fo—Reftify the globe to the latitude
of the place, and turn it about until feme point of the
ecliptic, between Aries and Cancer, coincides with the
north point of the horizon where the brazen meridian
cuts it; then find, on the wooden horizon, what day of
the year the fun is in that point of the ecliptic; for that is
the day on which the fen begins to (bine cohftantly on
the given place, without fetting. This done, turn
the globe, until feme point of the ecliptic, between
Cancer and Libra, coincides with the north point of the Pxinci-
horizon, where the brazen meridian cuts it; and find, p“ds
on the wooden horizon, on what day the fen is in that Practice
point of the ecliptic; which is the day that the fun 
leaves off conftantly fliining on the faid place, and
rifes and fets to it as to other places on the globe.
The number of natural days, or complete revolutions
of the fun about the earth, between the two days above
found, is the time that the fun keeps conftantly above
the horizon without fettieg: for all that portion of
the ecliptic, which lies between the two points which
interfeft the horizon in the very north, never fets be¬
low it; and there is juft as much of the oppofite part
of the ecliptic that never rifes : therefore, the fun will
keep as long conftantly below the horizon in winter, as
above it in fummer.
Prob. XX. To find in what latitude the fun fsines
canfiantly without felting, for any length of thne lefs
than 1824- of our days atid nights.—Find a point in the
ecliptic half as many degrees from the beginning of
Cancer (eithertoward Aries or Libra) as there are na¬
tural days in the time given; and bring that point to
the north fide of the brazen meridian, on which the
degrees are numbered from the pole towards the equa¬
tor: then, keep the globe from turning on its axis,
and Hide the meridian up or down until the ferefaid
point of the ecliptic, comes to the north point of the
horizon, and then the elevation of the pole will be
equal to the latitude required.
Prob. XXL The latitude of a place, not exceeding
664- degrees, and the day of the month, being given; to
find the fun’s amplitude or point of the compafs on which
he rifes or fets.—Redify the globe, and bring the fun’s
place to the eaftern fide of the horizon ; then obferve
what point of the compafs on the horizon Hands right
againft the fun’s place, for that is his amplitude at ri¬
fing. This done, turn the globe weftward, until the
fun’s place comes to the weftern fide of the horizon,
and it will out the point of his amplitude at fetting.
Or, you may count the rifing amplitude in degrees,
from the eaft point of the horizon, to that point where
the fun’s place cuts it; and the fetting amplitude,
from the weft point of the horizon, to the fun’s place
at fetting.
Prob. XXII. The latitude, the fun’s place, and his
altitude, being given ; to find the hour of the day, and
the fun’s azimuth, or number of degrees that he is di-
ft ant from the meridian. — Redify the globe, and bring
the fen’s place to the given height upon the quadrant
of altitude; on the caftern fide of the horizon, if the
time be in the forenoon; or the weftern fide, if it be
in the afternoon: then the index will ftiew the hour ;
and the number of degrees in the horizon, intercepted
between the quadrant of altitude and the fouth point,
will be the fun’s true azimuth at that time.
Prob. XXIII. The latitude, hour of the day, and
the fun’s place, being given; to find the fun’s altitude and
azimuth.—Redify the globe, and turn it until the in¬
dex points to the given hour; then lay the quadrant of
altitude over the fen’s place in the ecliptic, and the de¬
gree of the quadrant cut by the fen’s place is his alti¬
tude at that time above the horizon ; and the degree
of the horizon cut by the quadrant is the fun’s azimuth,
reckoned from the feuth.
Prob. XXIV. The latitude, the fun’s altitude, and
his
3366
Princi¬
ples
and
Practice
G EOGRAPHY.
Se£t. Hi I
bis azimuth Icing given', to find his place in the ecliptic,
the day of the month, and hour of the day, though they
had all been /^. — Rectify the globe for the latitude
and zenith, and fet the quadrant of altitude to the given
azimuth in the horizon ; keeping it there, turn the
globe on its axis until the ecliptic cuts the quadrant
in the given altitude : that point of the ecliptic which
cuts the quadrant there, will be the fun’s place ; and
the day of the month anfwering thereto, will be found
over the like place of the fun on the wooden horizon.
Keep the quadrant of altitude in that pofition; and,
having brought the fun’s place to the brazen meridian,
and the hour-index to XII at noon, turn back the
globe, until the fun’s place cuts the quadrant of alti¬
tude again, and the index will Ihew the hour.
Any two points of the ecliptic, which are equi-
diftant from the beginning of Cancer or of Capri¬
corn, will have the fame altitude and azimuth at the
fame hour, though the months be different; and there¬
fore it requires fome care in this problem, not to mif-
take both the month and the day of the month : to
avoid which, obferve, that from the 20th of March
to the 2 1 ft: of June, that part of the ecliptic which is
between the beginning of Aries and beginning of
Cancer is to .be ufed; from the .21ft of June to. the
23d of September, between the beginning of Cancer
and beginning of Libra ; from the 23d of September
■.to the 21 ft of December, between the beginning of
Libra and the beginning of Capricorn ; and from the
'21 ft of December to the 20th of March, between
the beginning of Capricorn and beginning of Aries.
And as one can never be at a lofs to know in what
.quarter of the year he takes the fun’s altitude and
azimuth, the above caution with regard to the quar¬
ters of the ecliptic will keep him right as to the month
rand day thereof.
.Pros. XXV. To find the length of the longejl day
.at any given place.—If the place be on the north fide
of the equator (find its latitude by Prob. I.) and ele¬
vate the north pole to that latitude ; then, bring the
beginning of Cancer to the brazen meridian, and fet
the hour-index to XII at noon. But if the given
place be on the fouth fide of the equator, elevate the
fouth pole to its latitude, and bring the beginning of
Capricorn to the brafs meridian, and the hour-index
to XII. This done, turn the globe weftward, until
the beginning of Cancer or Capricorn (as the latitude
is north or fouth) comes to the horizon ; and the in¬
dex will then point out the time of fun-fetting, for it
will have gone over all the afternoon hours, between mid¬
day. and fun-fet; which length of time being doubled,
will give the whole length of the day from fun-riling
to fun-fetting. For, in all latitudes, the fun rifes as
long before mid-day, as he fets after it.
Prob. XXVI. To find in what latitude the longejl
day is, of any given length, lefs than 24 hours.—li
the latitude be north, bring the beginning of Cancer
to the brafen meridian, and elevate the north pole to
about 66J degrees ; but if the latitude be fouth,
bring the beginning of Capricorn to the meridian,
and elevate the fouth pole to about 66J- degrees ; be-
caufe the longeft day in north latitude is, when the
fun is in the tirft point of Cancer; and in fouth latitude,
when he is in the firft point of Capricorn. Then fet the
hour-index to XII at noon, and turn the globe weft-
ward, until the index points at half the number oFPrinc
hours given; which done, keep the globe from turn- PLE!
ing on its axis, and Aide the meridian down in the pR^"rr
notches, until the aforefaid point of the ecliptic [viz.  
Cancer or Capricorn) comes to the horizon; then,
the elevation of the pole will be equal to the latitude
required.
Prob, XXVII. The latitude of any place, not ex-
ceeding 66^ degrees, being given ; to find in what cli¬
mate the place //.— Find the length of the longeft day
at the given place, by Prob. XXV. and whatever be
the number of hours whereby it exceedeth twelve,
double that number, and the fum will give the climate
in which the place is.
Prob. XXVIII.. The latitude, and-the day of the
month, being given ; to find the hour of the day when
the fun Jhines.SeX the wooden horizon truly level,
and the brafen meridian due north and fouth by a ma¬
riner’s-compafs; then, having redtified the globe,
ftick a fmall fewing-needle into the fun’s place in
the ecliptic, perpendicular to. that part of the furface
of the globe : this done, turn the globe on its axis,
until the needle.comes to the brafen meridian, and fet
the hour-index to XII at noon ; then, turn the globe
.on its axis, until the needle points exadtly towards
the fun (which it will do when it cafts no (hadow on
ithe globe), and the index will fhew the hour of the
day.
4. The Ufe of the Celejlial Globe. %6
Having done for the prefent with the terreftr.ial How to
globe, we (hall proceed to the ufe of the celeftial; die celeC
firft premifing, that as the equator, ecliptic, tropics, S10116,
polar-circles, horizon, and brafen meridian, are ex¬
actly alike on b6th globes, all the former problems
concerning the fun are folved the fame way by both
globes. The method alfo of reftifying the celeftial globe
is the fame as rectifying the terreftrial. N. B. The
fun’s place for any day of the year Hands diredtly
over that day on the horizon of the celeftial globe, as
it does on that day of the terreftrial.
.The latitude and longitude of the ftars, or of all Lat^Jc
other celeftial phenomena, are reckoned in a very dif- and loi^
ferent manner from the latitude and longitude of places tu<!e of
on the earth : for all terreftrial latitudes are reckoned
from the equator ; and longitudes from the meridian
of fome remarkable place, as of London by the Bri-
tifh, and of Paris by the French. But the aftrono-
mers of all nations agree in reckoning the latitudes of
the moon, ftars, planets, and comets, from the eclip,-
tic ; and their longitudes from the equino&ial cqlure,
in that femi-circle of it which cuts the ecliptic at the
beginning of Aries ; and thence eaft ward, quite round,
to the fame femi-circle again. Confequently thofe
ftars which lie between the equinodlial and the north¬
ern half of the ecliptic, have north declination and
fouth latitude ; thofe which lie between the equinoc¬
tial and the fouthcrn half of the ecliptic, have fouth
declination and north latitude ; and all thofe which
lie between the tropics and poles, have their declina¬
tions and latitudes of the fame denomination.
There are fix great circles on the celeftial globe,
which cut the ecliptic perpendicularly, and meet in
two oppofite points in the polar circles; which points
are each ninety degrees from the ecliptic, and are cal¬
led
Se<5t. II. G E O G
*k i nci- led its poles. Thefe polar points divide thofe circles
PLES into 12 femicircles ; which cut the ecliptic at the be-
« ai d ginnings of the twelve figns. They refemble fo ma-
BL— ny meridians on the terreftrial globe : and as all places
which lie under any particular meridian-femicircle on
that globe, have the fame longitude; fo all thofe
points of the heaven, through which any of the above
iemicircles are drawn, have the fame longitude. — And
as the greateft latitudes on the earth are at the north
and fouth poles of the earth, fo the greateft latitudes
in the heaven are at the north and fouth poles of the
ecliptic.
For the divifion of the ftars into conftellations, &c.
fee Astronomy, n° 203. 206.
Prob. I. To Jirid the right afce'nfton and destination
of the fun 1 or any fixed far.— Bring the fun’s place in
the ecliptic to the brafen meridian : then that degree
in the equinoftial which is-cut by the meridian, is the
{nodi right afcenfioh ; and that degree of the meridian
which is over the fun’s place, is his declination. Bring
any fixed ftar to the meridian, and its right afcenfion
will be cut by the meridian in the equinodtial; and the
degree of the meridian that ftands over it, is its de¬
clination.
So that right afcenfion and declination, on the ce-
leftial globe, are found in the fame manner as longi¬
tude and latitude on the terreftrial.
Prob. II. To find the latitude and longitude of any
far.—If the given ftar be on the north fide of the
ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant of al¬
titude on the north pole of the ecliptic, where the
twelve femicircles meet, which divide the ecliptic into
the 12 figns ; but if the ftar be on the fouth fide of the
ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant on
the fouth pole of the ecliptic: keeping the 90th de-
ree of the quadrant on the proper pole, turn the qua-
rint about, until its graduated edge cuts the ftar :
then, the number of degrees in the quadrant, be¬
tween the ecliptic and the ftar, is its latitude ; and
the degree of the ecliptic, cut by the quadrant, is the
ftar’s longitude, reckoned according to the fign in
which the quadrant then is.
Prob. III. To reprefent the face of the Jlarry fir¬
mament, as feen from any given place of the earth, at
any hour of the night.—Redify the celeftial globe for
the given latitude, the zenith, and fun’s place, in eve¬
ry refped, as taught by the XVIth problem for the
terreftrial; and turn it about, until the index points
to the given hour : then, the upper hemifphere of the
globe will reprefent the vifible half of the heaven for
that time; all the ftars upon the globe being then in
fuch fituations, as exadly correfpond to thofe in the
heaven. And if the globe be placed duly north and
fouth, by means of a fmall fea-compafs, every ftar in
the globe will point toward the like ftar in the hea¬
ven: by which means, the conftellations and remar¬
kable ftars may be eafily known. All thofe ftars
which are in the eaftern fide of the horizon, are then
riling in the eaftern fide of the heaven ; all in the
weftern, are fetting in the weftern fide; and all thofe
under the upper part of the brafen meridian, between
the fouth point of the horizon and the north pole, are
at their greateft altitude, if the latitude of the place be
north ; but if the latitude be fouth, thofe ftars which
lie under the upper part of the meridian, between the
R A P H Y. 3367
north point of the horizon and the fouth pole, are at Princi-
their greateft altitude. PLjS
Prob. IV. The latitude of the place, and day ofpK^JCT
the month, being given ; to find the time •when any  
known filar will rife, or be upon the meridian, or fet.
— Having redified the globe, turn it about until the
given ftar comes to the eaftern fide of the horizon,
and the index will ftiew the time of the ftar’s rifing ;
then turn the globe weftward, and when the ftar
comes to the brafen meridian, the index will {hew the
time of the ftar’s coming to the meridian of your
place; laftly, turn on, until the ftar comes to the
weftern fide of the horizon, and the index will {hew
the time of the ftar’s fetting. N. B. In northern la¬
titudes, thofe ftars which are lefs diftant from the
north pole than the quantity of its elevation above
the north point of the horizon, never fet; and thofe
which are lefs diftant from the fouth pole than the
number of degrees by which it isdeprefled below the ho¬
rizon, never rife : and vice verfa in fouthern latitudes.
Prob. V. To find at what time of the year a given
far will be upon the meridian, at a given hour of the
night.— Bring the given ftar to the upper femicircle
of the brafs meridian, and fet the index to the given
hour ; then turn the globe, until the index points to
XII at noon, and the upper femicircle of the meri¬
dian will then cui me nin s piacc, amwenng 10 tne
day of the year fought; which day may be eafily
found againft the like place of the fun among the
figns on the wooden horizon.
Prob. VI. The latitude, day of the month, and azi¬
muth of any known far, being given ; to find the hour
of the night.—Having rectified the globe for the lati¬
tude, zenith, and fun’s place, lay the quadrant of al¬
titude to the given degree of azimuth in the horizon:
then turn the globe on its axis, until the ftar comes to
the graduated edge of the quadrant; and when it
does, the index will point out the hour of the night.
Prob. VII. The latitude of the place, the day op
the month, and altitude of any known far, being given ;
to find the hour of the night.—Redify the globe as iir
the former problem, guefs at the hour of the night,
and turn the globe until the index points at the fup-
pofed hour : then lay the graduated edge of the qua¬
drant of altitude over the known ftar; and if the de¬
gree of the ftar’s height in the quadrant upon the
globe anfwers exadly to the degree of the ftar’s ob-
ferved altitude in the heaven, you have gueffed exadly :
but if the ftar on the globe is higher or lower than
it was obferved to be in the heaven, turn the globe
backwards or forewards, keeping the edge of the qua¬
drant upon the ftar, until its centre comes to the ob-
ferved altitude in the quadrant; and then the index
will (hew the true time of the night.
Prob. VIII. An eafy method for finding the hour of
the night by any two known fars, without knowing ei¬
ther their altitude or azimuth ; and then, of finding both
their altitude and azimuth, and thereby the true meri¬
dian.—Tie one end of a thread to a common mulket-
bullet; and, having redified the globe as above, hold
the other end of the thread in your hand, and carry it
{lowly round betwixt your eye and the ftarry heaven,
until you find it cuts any two known ftars at once.
Then guefling at the hour of the night, turn the globe
until the index points to that time in the hour-circle ;•
which 1
3368
GEOGRAPHY.
Sea.ir
Princi- which done, lay the graduated edge of the quadrant or as is neceffary to anfwer any common purpofe. The Paine.§
ples over a0y one 0f tbefe two ftars on the globe, which circles drawn round the centre at the diftance of . PhR'.:
1 quadrant cuts the other ftar alfo, you have guefled the rifes and fets, and on what point the twilight begins *
time exactly ; but if it does not, turn the globe flow- and ends.
ly backwards or forwards, until the quadrant (kept up- In order to make ufe of this analemma, it is only
on either ftar) cuts them both through their centres : neceffary to conlider, that, when the latitude of the
and then, the index will point out the exa& time of place and the fun’s declination are both north or both,
the night; the degree of the horizon, cut by the qua- fouth, the fun rifes before fix o’clock, between the eaft
drant, will be the true azimuth of both thefe ftars from and the elevated pole; that is, towards the north, if
the fouth ; and the ftars themfelves will cut their true the latitude and declination are north ; or towards the
altitudes in the quadrant. At which moment, if a fouth, if the latitude and declination are fouth. Let us
common azimuth-compafs be fo fet upon a floorer le- now fuppofe it is required to find the time of the fun’s
vel pavement, that thefe ftars in the heaven may have riling and fetting, the length of the daysand nights, the
the fame bearing upon it (allowing for the variation of time when the twilight begins and ends, and what point
the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has in the of the horizon the lun rifes and ftts on, for the Lizard
wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended over point in England, Frankfort in Germany, or Abbeville
the north and fonth points of that compafs will be di- in France, on the 30th of April. The latitude of thefe
redly in the plane of the meridian : and if a line be places by the maps will be found nearly 5c0 north,
drawn upon the floor or pavement, along thecourfe of Place the moveable index fo that its point may touch
the thread, and an upright wire be placed in the fouth- 50° on the quadrant of north latitude in the figure ;
moft end of the line, the (hadow of the wire will fall then obferve where its edge cuts the parallel line on
upon that line, when the fun is on the meridian, and
ftiines upon the pavement.
Prob. IX. To find the place of the moon, or of any
planet; and thereby to Jhenn the time of its rifing, futh-
•  r.,.TV, . *TT >s ephe.
which April 30th is wTote. From this reckon the
hour-lines towards the centre, and you will find that
the parallel-line is cut by the index nearly at the di¬
ftance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the fun rifes at
one hour fifteen minutes before fix, or 45 minutes
meris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in the after four in the morning, and fets 15 minutes after
ecliptic, for the given day of the month; and, accord- feven in the evening. The length of the day is
jng to its longitude and latitude, as fttewn by the ephe- 14 hours 30 minutes. Obferve how far the interfec-
meris, mark the fame with a chalk upon the globe, tion of the edge of the index with the parallel of
havino* thp frnrn if »*niir»A if« Anvil onfK ie *L„      
Then, having reftified the globe, turn it round its
axis weftward ; and as the faid mark comes to the ea-
ftern fide of the horizon, to the brafen meridian, and
to the weftern fide of the horizon, the index will fliew
at what time the planet rifes, comes to the meridian, and
fets, in the fame manner as it would do for a fixed ftar.
For an explanation of the harveft-moons by a globe,
fee Astronomy, n° 168.
For the defeription and ufe of a planetary globe, fee
Astronomy, n° 320.
For the equation of time, fee Astronomy, n° 181.
April 30th is diftant from any of the concentric circles;
which you will find to be a little beyond that marked
two points of the'compafs; and this (hews, that on the 30th
of April the fun rifes two points and fomewhat more
from the eaft towards the north, or a little to the
northward of E. N. E. and fets a little to the north¬
ward of W. N. W. To find the beginning and end¬
ing of twilight, take from the graduated arch of the
circle 174 degrees with a pair of compafies; move one
foot of the compafles extended to this diftance along
the parallel for the 30th of April, till the other juft
touches the edge of the index, which mnft ftill point
at 50. The place where the other foot refts on the
parallel of April 30th, then denotes the number of
hours before fix at which the twilight begins. This is
Most of the above problems may alfo be performed
Solution of by means of accurate maps; but this requires a great
feveral pro-deal of calculation, which is often very troubldome.      fe... „
aaakmma" ^ie ■^■na'emma* or Orthographic Projedion, delineated fomewhat more than three hours and an half; which
a emma. on 2<1 pjate q^VI. will folve many of the moft curious ; ftiews, that the twilight then begins foon after two
and with the afiiftance of the maps will be almoft equi- in the morning, and likewife that it begins to appear
valent to a terreftrial globe. The parallel lines drawn near five points from the eaft towards the north. The
on this figure reprefent the degrees of the fun’s decli- ufes of this analemma may be varied in a great number
nation from the equator, whether north or fouth, a- of ways ; but the example juft now given will be fuf-
mounting to 234- nearly. On thefe lines are marked ficient for the ingenious reader.—The fmall circles on
the months and days which correfpond to fuch and the fame plate, marked Ifiand, Promontory, &c. are ad-
fuch declinations. The fize of the figure does not ad- ded in order to render the maps more intelligible, by
mit of having every day of the year inferted; but by filewing how the different fubje&s are commonly dc-
making allowance for the intermediate days, in pro- lineated on them,
portion to the reft, the declination may be gueffed at
with tolerable exaiftnefs. The elliptical lines are de-
figned to fliew the hours of fun-rifingor fun-fetting be-
Having thus explained the ufe of the globes, and
general principles of geography, we mult refer to the
fore or after fix o’clock. As 60 minutes make an snaps for the fituation of each particular country, with
hour of time, a fourth part of the fpace between each regard to longitude, latitude, &c. and to the names
of the hour-linss will reprefent 15 minutes; which the of the countries as they occur in the order of the al-
eye can readily guefs at, and which is as great exadt- phabet, for the moft remarkable particulars concerning
ac£s as can be expedled from any mechanical invention, them.
GEOMETRY,
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Plate
Part I.
[ i }
G E O M
E T R Y
ORlGiNAtLY fignified no- more than the art of
meafuring the earth, or any dhtances or dimen-
fions within it: but at prefent it denotes the Icience
of magnitude in general; comprehending the doc¬
trine and relations of whatever is fufceptible of aug¬
mentation or diminution, confidered in that light.
Hence to geometry may be referred the confidera-
tion not only of lines, furfaoes, and folids; but alfo of
time, velocity, number, weight, ire.
This fcience had its rife among the Egyptians, who
were in a manner compelled to invent it, to remedy
confufion which generally happened in their lands,
from the inundations of the river Nile, which carried
away all boundaries, and effaced all the limits of their
poffeflions. Thus this invention, which at firft con-
fifted only in meafuring the lands, that every perfon
might have what belonged to him, was called geo¬
metry, or the art of meafuring land; and it is pro¬
bable that the draughts and fchemes, which they were
annually compelled to make, helped them to difeover
many excellent 'properties of thefe figures; which
fpeculations continued to be gradually improved, and
are fo to this day.
From Egypt geometry paffed into Greece ; where
it continued to receive new improvements in the hands
of Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, ire. The
Elements of Geometry, written by this laii in 15
books, are a moft convincing proof to what perfec¬
tion this fcience was carried among the ancients.
However, it muft be acknowledged, that it fell fliort
of modern geometry ; the bounds of which, what
by the invention of fluxions, and the difeovery of the
almoft infinite orders of curves, are greatly enlar¬
ged.
We may diftinguifh the progrefs of geometry into
three ages; the firlt of which was in its meridian glory
at the time when Euclid’s Elements appeared; the fe-
cond, beginning with Archimedes, reaches to the time
of Des Cartes, who, by applying algebra to the ele¬
ments of geometry, gave a new turn to this fcience,
which has been carried to its utmoft perfedlion by Sir
Ifaac Newton and Mr Leibnitz.
In treating this ufeful fubjedt, we (hall divide it into
two parts; the firft containing the general principles;
and the fecond, the application of thefe principles to
the menfuration of furfaces, folids, ire.
PART I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY.
Art. I. A Point is that which is not made up of parts,
-cV or which is of itfelf indivifible.
2. A line is a length without breadth, as B——
Geometry 3. The extremities of a line are points; as the ex-
PUes, tremities of the line AB, are the points A and B, fig. x.
n 4. If the line AB be the neareft diftance between
its extremes A and B, then it is called a /Irait /int, as
A B ; but if it be not the neareft diftance, then it is
called a curve line, as a b, fig. 1.
5. A furface is that which is confidered as having
only length and breadth, but no thicknefs, as fig. 2.
6. The terms or boundaries of a furface are lines.
7. A plain furface is that which lies equally between
its extremes.
8. The inclination between two lines meeting one
another, (provided they do not make one continued
line), or the opening between them, is called an angle;
thus the inclination of the line AB to the line CB
(fig. 3.) meeting one another at B, or the opening be¬
tween the two lines AB and CB, is called an angle.
9. When the lines forming the angle are right lines,
then it is called a right-lined angle, as fig. 4.; if one
of them be right and the other curved, it is called
a mixed angle, as fig. 5.; if both of them be curved
it is called a curve-lined angle, as fig. 6.
10. If a right line AB fall upon another DC, (fig. 7.)
fo as to incline neither to one fide nor to the other ;
but make the angles ABD, ABC, on each fide equal
to one another; then the line AB is faid to be per¬
pendicular to the line DC, and the two angles are cal¬
led right-angles.
11. An obtufe angle is that which is greater than a
right one, as fig. 8. ; and an acute angle, that which
is lefs than a right one, as fig. 9.
12. If a right line DC be fattened at one of its ends
C, and the other end D be carried quite round, then
the fpace comprehended is called a circle; the curve¬
line deferibed by the point D, is called the periphery-
or circumference of the circle; the fixed point C is cal¬
led the centre of it; fig. io.
13. The deferibing line CD is called the radius, viz.
any line drawn from the centre to the circumference;
whence all radii of the fame or equal circles are equal.
14. Any line drawn through the centre, and termi¬
nated both ways by the circumference, is called a dia¬
meter, as BD is a diameter of the circle BADE. And
the diameter divides the circle and circumference in¬
to two equal parts, and is double the radius.
15. The circumference of every circle is fuppofed
to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; and
each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called mi¬
nutes ; and each minute into 60 equal parts, called fe-
cands; and thefe into thirds, fourths, &c. thefe parts
being greater or lefs according as the radius is.
16. Any part of the circumference is called an arch,
or arc; and is called an arc of as many degrees as it
contains parts of the 360, into which the circumfe¬
rence was divided : thus if AD be the of the cir¬
cumference, then the arc AD is an arc of 45 de¬
grees.
17. A line drawn from one end of an arc to the
other, is called a chord, and is the meafure of the arc:
( a ) thus
Part I
[ 2 ] G E O M
thus the right line AB is the chord of the arc ADB,
fig. II.
18. Any part of a circle cut off by a chord, is called
a figment; thus the fpace comprehended between the
chord AB and circumference ADB (which is cut off
by the chord AB) is called a figment. Whence it is
plain,
i//, That all chords divide the circle into two feg-
ments.
idly, The lefs the chord is, the more unequal are
the fegmeilts, and e contra.
idly, When the chord is greateft, viz. when it is a
diameter, then the fegments are equal, viz. each a fe-
micircle.
19. Any part of a circle (lefs than a femicircle) con¬
tained between two radii and an arc, is called a fee-
tor ; thus the fpace contained between the two radii,
AC, BC, and the arc AB, is called the fedtor, fig. 12.
20. The right line of any arc, is a line drawn per¬
pendicular from one end of the arc, to a diameter
drawn through the other end of the fame arc; thus
(fig. 13.) AD is the right fine of the arc AB, it being
a line drawm from A, the one end of the arc AB, per¬
pendicular to CB, a diameter palling through B, the
other end of the arc AB.
Now .the fines Handing on the fame diameter, ftill
increafe till they come to the centre, and then beco¬
ming the radius, it is plain that the radius EC is the
greatell poffible fine, and for that reafon it is called
the whole fine.
Since the whole fine EC muft be perpendicular to
the diameter FB (by def. 20.), therefore producing
the diameter EG, the two diameters FB, EG, mult
crofs one another at right angles, and fo the circum¬
ference of the circle mult be divided by them into four
parts, EB, BG, GF, and FE, and thefe four parts are
equal to one another (by def. IO.), and fo EB a qua-
1 drant, or fourth part of the circumference ; therefore
the radius EC is always the fine of the quadrant, or
fourth part of the circle EB.
Sines are faid to be of fo many degrees, as the arc
contains parts of the 360, into which the circumfe¬
rence is fuppofed to be divided ; fo the radius being
the fine of a quadrant, or fourth part of the circum¬
ference, which contains 90 degrees (the fourth part
of 360), therefore the radius mull be the fine of 90
degrees.
21. The part of the radius comprehended between
the extremity of the right fine and the lower end of
the arc, viz. DB, is called the verfed fine of the arc
AB.
22. If to any point in the circumference, viz. B,
there be drawn a diameter FCB, and from the point
B, perpendicular to that diameter, there be drawn the
line BH; that line is called a tangent to the circle in
the point B ; which tangent can touch the circle only
in one point B, elfe if it touched it in more, it would
go within it, and fo not be a tangent but a chord, (by
art. 17.)
23. The tangent of any arc AB, is a right line
drawn perpendicular to a diameter through the one
end of the arc B, and terminated by a line CAH,
drawn from the centre through the other end A; thus
BH is the tangent of the arc AB.
E T R Y.
24. And the line which terminates Ae tangent,
viz. CH, is called the fecant of the arc AB.
25. What an arc wants of a quadrant is called the
complement of that arc; thus AE, being what the arc
AB wants of the quadrant EB, is called the comple¬
ment of the arc AB.
26. And what an arc wants of a femicircle is called
the fupplement of that arc ; thus fince AF is what the
arc AB wants of the femicircle BAF, it is the fupple¬
ment of the arc AB.
27. The fine, tangent, l£c. of the complement of
any arc, is called the co-Jine, co-tangent, &c. of that
arc ; thus the fine, tangent, izc. of the arc AE is cal¬
led the co-fine, co-tangent, tc. of the arc AB.
28. The fine of the fupplement of an arc is the fame
with the fine of the arc itfelf; for, drawing them ac¬
cording to the definitions, there refults the felf-fame
line.
29. A right-lined angle is meafured by an arc of a
circle ueferibed upon the angular point as a centre,
comprehended between the two legs that form the
angle ; thus (fig. 14.) the angle ABD is meafured by
the arc AD of the circle CADE that is deferibed upon
the point B as a centre ; and the angle is faid to be
of as many degrees a^ the arc is; fo if the arc AD be
45 degrees, then the angle ABD is faid to be an angle-
of 45 degrees.
Hence the angles are greater or lefs, according as
die arc deferibed about the angular point and termi¬
nated by the two legs contain a greater or a lefs num¬
ber of degrees.
30. When one line falls perpendicularly on another,,
as AB on CD, fig. 15. then the angles are right (by
the 10th def.) ; and deferibing a circle on the centre
B, fince the angles ABC ABD are equal, their mea-
fures muft be fo too, i. e. the arcs AC AD muft be e-
qual ; but the whole CAD is a femicircle, fince CD,,
a line pafling through the centre B, is a diameter ;
therefore each of the parts AC AD is a quadrant, /. e.
90 degrees; fo the meafure of a right angle is always
90 degrees.
31. If one line AB fall any way upon another, CD",
then the fum of the two angles ABC ABD is always
equal to the fum of two right angles; fig. 16. For
on the point B, deferibing the circle CAD, it is plain,
that CAD is a femicircle (by the 14th) ; but CAD is
equal to CA and AD the meafure of the two angles;
therefore the fum of the two angles is equal to a
femicircle,, that is, to two right angles, (by the
laftj.
Cor. 1. From whence it is plain, that all the angles
which can be made from a point in any line, towards
one fide of the line, are equal to two right angles.
2. And that all the angles which can be made about
a point, are equal to four right ones.
32. If one line AC crofs another BD in the point
E, then the oppofite angles are equal, viz. BEA to
CED, and BEC equal to AED ; fig. 17. For upon
the point E, as a centre, deferibing the circle ABCD,
it is plain ABC is a femicircle, as alfo BCD (by the
14< k) ; therefore the arc ABC is equal to the arc
BCE ; and from both taking the common arc BC,
there will remain AB equal to CD, i. e. the angle BEA
equal to die angle CED (by art. 29.) After the fame
manner
Part I. G E O M
manner we may prove, that the angle EEC is equal
to the angle AED.
33. Lines which are equally diftant from one ano¬
ther, are called parallel lines ; as AB, CD, fig. 18.
34. If a line GH crofs two parallels AB, CD, (fig.
19.^ then the external oppofite angles are equal, viz.
GEB equal to CFH, and AEG equal to HFD. For
fince AB and CD are parallel to one another, they
may be confidered as one broad line, and GH crofling
it ; then the vertical or oppofite angles GEB CFH are
equal (by art. 32.), as alfo AEG and HFD by the fame.
3$. If a line GH crofs two parallels AB CD, then
the alternate angles, viz. AEF and EFD, or CFE and
FEB, are equal; that is, the angle AEF is equal to
the angle EFD, and the angle CFE is equal to the
angle FEB, for GEB is equal to AEF (by art. 32.),
and CFH is equal to EFD (by the fame); but GEB is
equal to CFH (by the laft) ; therefore AEF is equal
to EFD. The fame way we may prove FEB equal
to EFC.
36. If a line GH crofs two parallel lines AB, CD,
then the external angle GEB is equal to the internal
oppofite one EFD, or GEA equal to CFE. For the
angle AEF is equal to the angle EFD (by the lafi) ;
but AEF is equal to GEB (by art. 32 ), therefore
GEB is equal to EFD. The fame way we may prove
AEG equal to CFE.
37. If a line GH crofs two parallel lines AB, CD,
then the fum of the two internal angles, viz. BEF and
DFE, or AEF and CFE, are equal to two right an¬
gles ; for fince the angle GEB is equal to the angle
EFD (by art. 36.), to both add the angle FEB, then
GEB and BEF are equal to BEF and DFE; but GEB
and BEF are equal to two right angles (by art. 31.),
therefore BEF and DFE are alfo equal to two right
angles. The fame way we may prove that AEF and
CFE are equal to two right angles.
38. A figure is any part of fpace bounded by lines
or a line. If the bounding lines be Ilrait, it is called
a refiilineal figure, as fig. 20. if they be curved, it
is called a eurvineal figure, as fig. 21. and fig. 22.;
if they be partly curve lines and partly ftrait, it is cal¬
led a mixt figure, as fig. 23.
39. The moft (imple rectilinear figure is that which
is bounded by three right lines, and is called a triangle,
as fig. 24.
40. Triangles are divided into different kinds, both
with refpeCt to their fides and angles : with refpeCt
to their fides they are commonly divided into three
kinds, viz.
41. A triangle having all its three fides equal to one
another, is called an equilateral triangle, as fig. 25.
42. A triangle having two of its fides equal one a-
nother, and the third fide not equal to either of them,
is called m Ifofceles triangle, as fig. 26.
43. A triangle having none of its fides equal to one
another, is called a fealene triangle, as fig. 2 7.
44. Triangles, with refpeCI to their angles, are di¬
vided in three different kinds, viz.
45. A triangle having one of its angles right, is cal¬
led a right-angled triangle, as fig. 28.
46. A triangle having one of its angles obtufe, or
greater than a right angle, is called an obtufe-angled
triangle, as fig. 29.
E T R Y. 1 3 ]
47. Laftly, a triangle having all its angles acute, is
called an acute-angled triangle, as fig. 30.
48. In all right-angled triangles, the fides compre¬
hending the right angle are called the legs, and the lide
oppofite to the right angle is called the hjpofheuufj.
Thus in the right-angled triangle ABC, fig. 31. (the
right angle being at B) the two fides AB and BC,
which comprehend the right angle ABC, are the legs
of the triangle ; and the fide AC, which is oppofite to
the right angle ABC, is the hypothenufe of the right-
angled triangle ABC.
49. Both obtufe and acute angled triangles are in
general called oblique-angled triangles in all which
any fide is called the bafe, and the other two the
fides.
50. The perpendicular height of any triangle is a
line drawn from the vertex to the bafe perpendicular¬
ly ; thus if the triangle ABC (fig. 32.) be propofed,
and BC be made its bafe, then A will be the vertex,
viz. the angle oppofite to the bale ; and if from A you
draw the line AD perpendicular to BC, then the line
AD is the height of the triangle ABC Handing on BC
as its bafe.
Hence all triangles Handing between the fame pa¬
rallels have the fame height, fince all the perpendicu¬
lars are equal by the nature of parallels.
51. A figure bounded by four fides is called a quad¬
rilateral or quadrangular figure, as ABDC, fig. 33.
52. Quadrilateral figures whole oppofite fides are
parallel, are called parallelograms. Thus in the quad¬
rilateral figure ABDC, if the fide AC be parallel to the
fide BD which is oppofite to it, and AB be parallel to
CD, then the figure ABDC is called a parallelogram.
53. A parallelogram having all its fides equal and
angles right, is called a fqnare, as fig. 34.
54. That which hath only the oppofite fides equal
and its angles right, is called a reClangle, as fig. 3 $.
55. That which hath equal fides but oblique angles,
is called a rhombus, 2.% fig. 36. and isjull an inclined
fquare.
56. That which bath only the oppofite fides equal
and the angles oblique, is called a rhomboides, as
fig. 37. and may be conceived as an inclined rec¬
tangle.
57. When none of the fides are parallel to another,
then the quadrilateral figure is called a trapezium.
58. Every other right lined figure, that has more
fides than four, is in general called a polygon. And
figures are called by particular names according to the
number of their fides, viz. one of five fides is called a
pentagon, of fix a hexagon, of feven a heptagon, and fo
on. When the fides forming the polygon are equal to
one another, the figure is called a regular figure or
polygon.
59. In any triangle ABC (fig. 38.) one of its legs, as
BC, being produced towards D, the external angle
ACD is equal to both the internal oppofite ones taken
together, viz. to ABC and BAC. In order fo prove
this, through C, draw CE parallel to AB; then fince
CE is parallel to AB, and the lines AC and BD croffeth
them, the angle ECD is equal to ABC (by art. 36.)
and the angle ACE equal to CAB (by art. 35.) ; there¬
fore the angles ECD and EC A are equal to the angles
ABC and CAB ; but the angles ECD and ECA are to-
( a 2 )• • gethef
Part I.
[ 4 ] G E O M
gether equal to the angle ACD; therefore the angle
ACD is equal to both the angles ABC and CAB taken
together.
Cor. Hence it may be proved, that if two lines AB
and CD (fig. 39.) be croffed by a third line EF, and
the alternate angles AEF and EFD be equal, the lines
AB and CD will be parallel; for if they are not pa¬
rallel, they muft meet one another on one fide of the
line EF (f’uppofe at G) and fo form the triangle EFG,
one of whofe fides GE being produced to A, the ex¬
terior angle AEF muft (by this article) be equal to the
fum of the two angles EFG and EGF ; but, by fuppo-
fition, it is equal to the angles EFG alone ; therefore
the angle AEF muft be equal to the fum of the two
angles EFG and EGF, and at the fame time equal to the
angle EFG alone, which is abfurd; fo the lines AB and
CD cannot meet, and therefore muft be parallel.
60. In any triangle ABC, all the three angle! taken
together are equal to two right angles. To prove this,
you muft produce BC, one of its legs, to any diftance,
fuppofe to D ; then by the laft propolition, the exter¬
nal angle, ACD, is equal to the fum of the two in¬
ternal oppofite ones CAB and ABC ; to both add the
angle ACB, then the fum of the angles ACD and ACB
will be equal to the fum of the angles CAB and CBA
and ACB. But the fum of the angles ACD and ACB,
is equal to two right ones (by art. 32.), therefore the
fum of the three angles CAB and CBA and ACB, is
equal to two right angles ; that is, the fum of the three
angles of any triangle ACB is equal to two right
angles.
Cor. r. Hence in any triangle given, if one of its
angles be known, the fum of the other two is alfo
known : for fince (by the laft) the fum of all the three
is equal to two right angles, or a femicircle, it is plain,
that taking any one of them from a femicircle or 180
degrees, the remainder will be the fum of the other
two. Thus (in the former triangle ABC) if the angle
ABC be 40 degrees, by taking 40 from 180 we have
140 degrees; which is the fum of the two angles BAG,
ACB : the converfe of this is alfo plain, viz. the fum
of any two angles of a triangle being given, the other
angle is alfo known by taking that fum from 180 de¬
grees.
2. In any right-angled triangle, the two acute angles
muft juft make up a right one between them ; conl'e-
quently, any one of the oblique angles being given,
we may find the other by fubtraifting the given one
from 90 degrees, which is the fum of both.
61. If in any two triangles, ABC (fig. 40.) DEF
(fig. 41.) two legs of the one, viz. AB and AC, be e-
qual to two legs of the other, viz. to DE and DF,
each to each refpedlively, i. e. AB to DE and AC to
DF; and if the angles included between the equal
legs be equal, viz. the angle BAC equal to the angle
EDF ; then the remaining leg of the one lhall be
equal to the remaining leg of the other, viz. BC to
EF ; and the angles oppofite to equal legs lhall be e-
qual, viz. ABC equal to DEF (being oppofite to the
equal legs AC and DF), alfo ACB equal to DFE
(which are oppofite to the equal legs AB and DE).
For if the triangle ABC be fuppofed to be lifted up
and put upon the triangle DEF, and the point A on
the point D ; it is plain, fince BA and DE are of equal
E T R Y.
length, the point E will fall upon the point B ; and
fince the angles BAC EDF are equal, the line AC will
fall upon the line DF; and they being of equal length,
the point C will fall upon the point F; and fo the line
BC will exactly agree with the line EF, and the tri¬
angle ABC will in all refpe<fts be exactly equal to the
triangle DEF ; and the angle ABC will be equal to
the angle DEF, alfo the angle ACB will be equal to
the angle DFE.
Cor. x. After the fame manner it may be proved,
that if in any two triangles ABC, DEF, (fee the pre-
cedihg figure) two angles ABC and ACB of the one,
be equal to two angles DEF and DFE of the other,
each to each refpedtively, viz. the angle ABC to the
angle DEF, and the angle ACB equal to the angle
DFE, and the fides included between thefe angles be
alfo equal, viz. BC equal to EF, then the remaining
angles and the fides oppofite to the equal angles, will
alfo be equal each to each refpe<5lively; viz. the angle
BAC equal to the angle EDF, the fide AB equal to
DE, and AC equal to DF; for if the triangle ABC be
fuppofed to be lifted up and laid upon the triangle
DEF, the point B being put upon the point E,
and the line BC upon the line EF, fince BC and EF
are of equal lengths, the point C will fall upon the
point F, and fince the angle ACB is equal to the angle
DFE, the line CA will fall upon the line FD, and by
the lame way of reafoning the line BA will fall upon
the line ED; and therefore the point of interfedtion
of the two lines BA and CA, viz. A, will fall upon the
point of interfeftion of the two lines ED and FD, viz.
D, and confequently BA will be equal to ED, and AC
equal to DF, and the angle BAC equal to the angle
EDF.
Cor. 2. It follows likewife from this article, that if
any triangle ABC (fig. 42.) has two of its fides AB
and AC equal to one another, the angles oppofite to
thefe fides will alfo be equal, viz. the angles ABC
equal to the angle ACB. For fuppofe the line AD,
bifecfting the angle BAC, or dividing it into two equal
angles BAD and CAD, and meeting BC in D, then the
line AD will divide the whole triangle BAC into two
triangles ABD and DAC; in which BA and AD two
fides of the one, are equal to CA and AD two fides of
the other, each to each respectively, and the included
angles BAD and DAC are by fuppofition equal; there¬
fore (by this article) the angle ABC muft be equal to
the angle ACB.
62. Any angle, as BAD (fig. 43.) at the circumfe¬
rence of a circle BADE, is but half the angle BCD at
the centre Jlanding on the fame arch BED. To de¬
mon ftrate this, draw through A and the centre C, the
right line ACE, then the angle ECD is equal to both
the angles DAC and ADC (by art. 59.) ; but fince
AC and CD are equal (being two radii of the fame
circle) the angles fubtended by them muft be equal
alfo, (by art. 62. cor. 2.) i. e. the angle CAD equal to
the angle CDA ; therefore the fum of them is double
any one of them, i. e. DAC and ADC is double of
CAD, and therefore ECD is alfo double of DAC ; the
fame way it may be proved, that ECB is double of
CAB ; and therefore the angle BCD is double of the
angle BAD, or BAD the half of BCD, which was to
be proved.
Cor,,
iiPart I.
G E O M
Cor. i. Hence an angle at the circumference is mea-
fured by half the arc it fubtends; for the angle at the
centre (ftanding on the fame arc) is meafured by the
whole arc (by art. 29.); but lince the angle at the
centre is double that at the circumference, it is plain the
angle at the circumference mufl be meafured by only
half the arc it Itands'upon.
Cor. 2. Hence all angles, ACB, ADB, AEB, &c.
(fig. 44.) at the circumference of a circle, ftanding on
the fame chord AB, are equal to one another; for by
the laft corollary they are all meafured by the fame arc,
viz. half the A B which each of them fubtends.
Cor. 3. Hence an angle in a fegment greater than
a femicircle is lefs than a right angle: thus, if ADB
be a fegment greater than a femicircle,' (fee the laft
figure) than the arc AB, on which it ftands, muft be
lefs than a femicircle, and the half of it lefs than a
quadrant or a right angle; but the angle ADB in the feg¬
ment is meafured by the half of AB, therefore it is lefs
than a right angle.
Cor. 4. An angle in a femicircle is a right angle.
For fince ABD (fig. 46.) is a femicircle, the arc AED
muft alfo be a femicircle: -but the angle ABD is mea¬
fured by half the arc AED, that is, by half a femi¬
circle or quadrant; therefore the angle ABD is a right
one.
Cor. 5, Hence an angle in a fegment lefs than a
femicircle, as ABD, (fig. 45.) is greater than a right
angle : for fince the arc ABD is lefs than a femicircle,
the arc AED muft be greater than a femicircle, and fo
it is half greater than a quadrant, i. e. than the mea-
fure of a right angle ; therefore the angle ABD, which
is meafured by half the arc AED, is greater than a
right angle.
63. If from the centre C of the circle ABE, (fig 47.)
there be let fall the perpendicular CD on the chord AB,
then that perpendicular will hifeld the chord AB in the
point D. To demonftrate this, draw from the centre
to the extremities of the chord the two lines CA, CB;
then fince the lines CA and CB are equal, the angles
CAB, CBA,which they fubtend muft be equal alfo, (by
art. 62. cor. 2.) but the perpendicular CD divides the
triangle ACB into two right-angled triangles ACD and
CDB, in which the turn of the angles ACD and CAD
in the one, is equal to the firm of the angles DCB and
OB in the other, each being equal to a right angle,
(by cor. 2. of art. 61.) but CAD is equal to CBD,
therefore ACD'is equal to BCD. So in the two tri¬
angles ACD and BCD, the two legs AC and CD in
the one, are equal to the two legs, BC and CD in the
other, each to each refpedively, and the included
angles ACD and BCD are equal; therefore the re¬
maining legs AD and BD are equal (by art. 61.) and
confequently AB bifefted in D.
64. If from the centre C of a circle ABE, there be
drawn a perpendicular CD omthe chord AB, and pro-
•duced till it meet the circle in F, then the line CF bi-
feds the arch AB in the point F; for (fee the fore¬
going figure) joining the points A and F, F and B by
the ftreight lines AF, FB, then in the triangles ADF,
BDF, AD is equal to DB (by art. 63.) and DF com¬
mon to both; therefore AD and DF, two legs of the
triangle ADF, are equal to BD and DF, two legs of
the triangle BDF, and the included angles ADF BDF
E T R Y. {
are equal, being both right; therefore (byart. 6r.)
the remaining legs AF and FB are equal; but in
the fame circle equal lines are chords of equal arches,
therefore the arches AF and FB are equal. So the
whole arch AFB is bifeded in the point F by the line
CF.
Cor. 1. From art. 63. it follows, that any line bi-
feding a chord at right angles is a diameter; for fince
(by art. 63.) a line drawn from the centre perpendi¬
cular to a chord, bifeds that chord at right angles;
therefore, converfly, a line bifeding a chord at right
angles, muft pafs through the centre, and confequent¬
ly be a diameter.
Cor. 2. From the two laft articles it follows, that
the fine of any arc is the half of the chord of twice
the arc; for (fee the foregoing fcheme) AD is the fine
of the arc AF, by the definition of a fine, and AF is
half the arc AFB, and AD half the chord AB (by
art. 63.) ; therefore the cotollary is plain.
65. In any triangle, the half of each fide is the
fine of the oppofite angle ; for if a circle be fuppofed
to be drawn through the three angular points A, B,
and D of the triangle ABD, fig. 48. then the angle
DAB is meafured by half the arch BKD (by cor. i. of
art. 62.) but the half of BD, viz. BE, is the fine of
half the arch BKD, viz. the fine of BK (by cor. 2. of
the laft) which is the meafure of the angle BAD ;
therefore the half of BD is the fine of the angle BAD;
the fame way it may be proved, that the half of AD
is the fine of the angle ABD, and the half of AB is
the fine of the angle ADB.
66. The fine, tangent, be. of any arch is called al¬
fo the fine, tangent, &c. of the angle whofe meafure
the arc is: thus becaufe the arc GD (fig. 49.) is the
meafures of the angle GCD ; and fince GH is the fine,
DE the tangent, HD the verfed fine, CE the fecant,
alfo GK the co-fine, BF the co-tangent, and CP' the
co-fecant, 13c. of the arch GD ; then GH is called the
fne, DE the tangent, &c. of the angle GCD, whofe
meafure is the arch GD.
6?- If two equal and parallel lines, AB and CD
(fig. 50.) be joined by two others, AC and BD ; then
thefe Jhall alfo be equal and parallel. To demonftrate
this, join the two oppofite angles A and D with the
line AD ; then it is plain this line AD divides the qua¬
drilateral, ACDB, into two triangles, viz. ABD, ACD,
in which AB a leg of the one, is equal to DC a leg of
the other, by fnppolition, and AD is common to both
triangles; and fince AB is parallel to CD, the angle
BAD will be equal to the angle ADC, (by art. 36.)
therefore in the two triangles BA and AD, and the
angle BAD, is tqual to CD and DA, and the angle
ADC; that is, two legs and the included angle in the
one, is equal to two legs and the included angle in the
other; therefore (by art. 61.) BD is equal to AC,
and fince the angle DAC is equal to the angle ADB,
therefore the lines BD, AC are parallel (by cor.
art. $9.)
Cor. 1. Hence it is plain, that the quadrilateral
ABDC is a parallelogram, fince the oppofite fides are
parallel.
Cor. 2. In any parallelogram the line joining the
oppofite angles (called the diagonal) as AD, divides
the figure into two equal parts, fince it has been pro¬
ved
5.5
GEOMETRY.
Parti
ved that the triangles ABD ACD are equal to one a-
uother.
Cor. 3. It follow^ alfo, that a triangle ACD on the
fame bafe CD, and between the fame parallels with
a parallelogram ABDC, is the half of that parallelo¬
gram.
Cor. 4. Hence it is plain, that the oppofite fides of
a parallelogram are equal; for it has been proved,
that ABDC being a parallelogram, AB will be equal
to CD, and AC equal to BD.
68. All parallelograms on the fame or equal bafes,
and between the fame parallels, are equal to one ano¬
ther ; that is, ifBD and GH (fig. 5:1.) be equal, and
the lines BH and AF be parallel, then the parallelo¬
grams ABDC, BDFE, and EFHG, are equal to one
another. For AC is equal to EF, each being equal to
BD, (by cor. 4. of 67.) To both add CE, then AE will
be equal to CF. So in the two triangles ABE CDF,
AB a leg of the one, is equal to CD a leg in the o-
ther; and AE is equal to CF, and the angle BAE is
equal to the angle DCF (by art. 36.) ; therefore the
two triangles ABE CDF are equal (by art. 61.) ; and
taking the triangle CKE from both, the figure ABKC
will be equal to the figure KDFE; to both which add
the little triangle KBD, then the parallelogram ABDC
will be equal to the parallelogram BDFE. The fame
way it may be proved, that the parallelogram EFHG
is equal to the parallelogram EFDB ; fo the three pa¬
rallelograms ABDC, BDFE, and EFIIG will be equal
to one another.
Cor. Hence it is plain, that triangles on the fame
bafe, and between the fame parallels, are equal;
lince they are the half of the parallelograms on the
fame bafe and between the fame parallels, (by cor. 3.
of laft art.)
69. hi any right-angled triangle, ABC, (fig. 52.)
the fquar: of the hypothenufe BC, viz. BCMH, is equal
to the fum of the fquares made on the two fides AB and
AC, viz. to ABDE and ACGF. To demonftrafe this,
through the point A draw AKL perpendicular to the
hypothenufe BC, join AH, AM, DC, andBG; then
it is plain that DB is equal to BA (by art. 53.), alfo
BH is equal to BC (by the fame) ; fo in the two
triangles DBC ABH, the two legs DB and BC in the
one are equal to the two legs AB and BH in the o-
ther ; and the included angles DBC and ABH are al-
. fo equal; (for DBA is equal to CBH, being both
right; to each add ABC, then it is plain that DBC
is equal to ABH) therefore the triangles DBC ABH
are equal (by art. 61.) but the triangle DBC is half
of the fquare ADBE (by cor. 3. of 67.) and the tri¬
angle ABH is half the parallelogram BKLH (by the
fame), therefore half the fquare ABDE is equal to
half the parallelogram BKLH. Confequently the fquare
ABI^E is equal to the parallelogram BKLH. The
fame way it may be proved, that the fquare ACGF is
equal to the parallelogram KCML. So the fum of the
fquares ABDE and ACGF is equal to the fum of the
parallelograms BKLH and KCML, but the fum of
thefe parallelograms is equal to the fquare BCMH;
therefore the fum of the fquares on AB and AC is e-
qual to the fquare on BC.
Cor. 1. Hence in a right-angled triangle, the hypo¬
thenufe and one of the legs being given, we may ea-
fily find the other, by taking the fquare of the given
leg from the fquare of the hypothenufe, and the fquare
root of the remainder will be the leg required.
Cor. 2. Hence, the legs in a right-angled triangle
being given, we may find the hypothenufe, by taking
the fum of the Iquares of the given legs, and extrac¬
ting the fquare root of that fum.
70. If upon the line AB (fig. 53.) there be drawn
a femicircle ADB, whole centre is C, and on the
point C there be raifed a perpendicular to the line AB, 1
viz. CD; then it is plain the arc DB is a quadrant, or
contains 90 degrees; fuppofe the arc DB to be divid¬
ed into 9 equal arcs, each of which will contain 10
degrees, then on the point B railing BE perpendicu¬
lar to the line AB, it will be a tangent to the circle in
the point B, and if to every one of the divifions of the
quadrant, viz. B 10, B 20, B 30, B 40, ire. you draw
the fine, tangent, Ire. (as in the fcheme) we lhall
have the fine, tangent, ire. to every 10 degrees in
the quadrant: and the fame way we may have the
fine, tangent, ire. to every Angle degree in the qua¬
drant, by dividing it into 90 equal parts beginning
from B, and drawing the fine, tangent, ire. to all the
arcs beginning at the fame point B. By this method
they draw the lines of fines, tangents, ire. of a certain (
circle on the fcale; for after drawing them on the
circle, they take the length of them, and fet them oft
in the lines drawn for that purpofe. The fame way,
by fuppofing the radius of any number of equal parts,
(fuppofe 1000, or 10,000, ire.) it is plain the fine,
tangent, ire. of every arc mutt confift of fome num¬
ber of thefe equal parts, and by computing them in
parts of the radius, we have tables of fines, tangents,
&c. to every arc in the quadrant, called natural fines,
tangents, &c. and the logarithms of thefe give us tables
of logarithmic fines, tangents, ire. See Logarithms.
71. In any triangle, ABC, (fig. I.) if one of its Geometry
fides, as AC, be bife&ed in E, (and confequently AC Plates,
double of AE) and through E be drawn ED, parallel to n911,
BC, and meeting AB in D, then BC will be double
of ED, and AB double of AD. Through D draw DF,
parallel to AC, meeting BC in F : for fince, by con-
ftru<ftion, DF is parallel to AC, and DE parallel to
BC; therefore, (by art. 36.) the angle BFD will
be equal to the angle BCA, (and by the fame ar¬
ticle) the angle BCA will be equal to the angle DEA,
confequently the angle BFD will be equal to the angle
DEA; alfo, (by art. 36.) the angle BDF will be e-
qual to the angle DAE; and fince DF is parallel to
EC, and DE parallel to FC, the quadrilateral DFGE
will be a parallelogram ; and therefore, (by art. 59.
cor. 4.) DF will be equal to EC, which, by conftruc-
tion, is equal to AE; fo in the two triangles BDF
DAE, the two angles BFD and BDF in the one, are
equal to the two angles DEA and DAE in the other,
each to each refpe&ively ; and the included fide DF,
is equal to the included fide AE ; therefore, (by art 6r.
cor. 1.) AD will be equal to DB, and confequently AB
double of AD ; alfo (by the fame) DE will be equal
to BF; but DE is alfo (by art. 67. cor. 4.) equal to
FC ; therefore BF and ED together, or BC, will be
double of DE.
After the fame manner it may be proved, that if in
the triangle AKG, (fig. 2.) AE be taken equal to a
third
iPart I.
C 7 ]
G E O M
third part of AK, and through E be drawn ED, paral¬
lel to KG, and meeting AG in D ; then ED will be
equal to a third part of GK, and AD equal to a third
part of AG.
Likewife if in any triangle ABC, (fig. 3.) upon the
fide AB, be taken AE, equal to one-fourth, one-fifth,
one-fixth, ire. of AB, and through E be drawn ED
parallel to BC and meeting AC in D ; then DE will be
one-fourth, one-fifth, one-fixth, ire. ofBC, and AD
the like part of AC ; and, in general, if in any tri¬
angle ABC, there be aflumed a point E on one of its
fides AB, and through that point be drawn a line ED,
parallel to one of its fides BC, and meeting the other
fide AC in D; then whatever part AE is of AB, the
fame part will ED be of BC, and AD of AC.
Cor. Hence it follows, that if in any triangle ABC,
there be drawn ED, parallel to one of its fides BC, and
meeting the other two in the points E and D, then
AE : AB :: ED : BC :: AD : AC; that is, AE is to
AB, as ED is to BC, and that as AD to AC.
72. If any two triangles ABC, fig. 4. a b c, fig. 5.
are fimilar, or have all the angles of the one equal to
all the angles of the other, each to each refpeftively ;
that is, the angle CAB equal to the angle cab, and the
angle ABC equal to the angle ab c, and the angle ACB
equal to the angle a c b ; then the legs oppoiite to the
equal angles are proportioned, viz. AB : ab :: AC :
ac :: and AB : a b :: BC : be :: and AC : ac :: BC :
b c. On AB of the largeft triangle fet oft’AE equal to
a b, and through E draw ED parallel to BC, meeting
AC in D ; then fince DE and BC are parallel, and AB
crofting them, the angle AED will (by art. 36.) be
equal to the angle ABC, which (by fuppofition) is e-
quat to the angle a be, alfo the angle DAE is (by fup¬
pofition) equal to the angle cab; To in the two tri¬
angles AED, a be, the two angles DAE AED of the
one, are equal to two angles cab a be of the other,
each to each refpeffively, and the included fide AE
is (by conftruction) equal to the included fideab;
therefore, (by art. 61. cor. 1.) AD is equal to ac, and
DE equal to cb; but fince, in the triangle ABC, there
is drawn DE parallel to BC one of its fides, and meet¬
ing the two other fides in the points D and E, there¬
fore (by cor. art. 71.) AB : AE :: AC : AD, and AB:
AE :: BC : DE, and AC : AD :: EC : DE; and in
the three laft proportions, inftead of the fines AE, DE,
and AD, putting in their equals ab, be, and ac, we
fliall have AB : ab :: AC : ac, and AB : ab BC :
be, and laftly, AC : ac :: BC : be.
73. The chord, fine, tangent, &c. of any arc in one
circle, is to the chord, fine, tangent, ire. of the fame
arc in another, as the radius of the one is to the ra¬
dius of the other, fig. 6, 6. Let ABD abd be two
circles, BD b d two arcs of thefe circles, equal to one
another, or confifting of the fame number of degrees;
FD fd the tangents, BD bd the chords, BE be the
fines, ire. of thefe two arcs BD bd, and CD cd the
|| radii of the circles; then fay, CD : c d :: FD : f d,
and CD : cd :r BD ; bd, and CD : cd BE : be,
tec. For fince the arcs BD bd are equal, the angles
BCD bed will be equal; and FD fd, being tangents
to the points D and d, the angles CDF c d f will be
equal, being each a right angie (art. 22.) fo in the
two triangles CDF c d f, the two angles FCD CDF of
E T R Y.
the one, being equal to the two angles Fed cdf of
the other, each to each, the remaining angle CFD>
will be equal to the remaining angle c f d (by art. 60.);
therefore the triangles CFD cfd are fimilar, andcon-
fequently (by art. 73.) CD : cd ::.FD : fd. In the
fame manner it may be demonftrated, that CD : c d ::
BD : bd, and CD : cd :: BE be, &c.
74. Let ABD (fig. 7.) be a quadrant of a circle de-
feribed by the radius CD ; BD any arc of it, and BA
its complement; BG or CF the fine, CG or BP' the co-
line ; DE the tangent, and CE the.fecant of that arc
BD. Then fince the triangles CDE CGB are fimilar
or equiangular, it will be (by art. 72.) DE: EC::
GB : BC, i. <?. the tangent of any arc, is to the fecant
of the fame, as the fine of it is to the radius. Alfo
fince DE : EC :: GB : BC ; therefore, by inverting
that proportion, we have EC : DE :: BC : GB, /. c.
the fecant is to the tangent, as the radius is to the
fine of any arc.
Again, fince the triangles CDE CGB are fimilar,
therefore (by art. 72.) it will be CD : CE :: CG :
CB, i. e. as the radius is to the fecant of any arc, fo
is the co-fine of that arc to the radius. And by in¬
verting the proportion we have this, viz. as the fecant
of any arc is to the radius, fo is the radius to the co¬
fine of that arc.
75. In all circles the chord of 60 is always equal in
length to the radius. Thus in the circle AEBD,
(fig. 8.) if the arc AEB be an arc of 60 degrees, then
drawing the chord AB, 1 fay AB lhall be equal to the
radius CB or AC ; for in the triangle ACB, the angle
ACB is 60 degrees, being meafured by the arc AEB
therefore the fum of the other two angles is 120 de¬
grees, (by cor. i.of 60.) ; but fince AC and CB are
equal, the two angles CAB, CBA will alfo be equal ;
confequently each of them half their fum 120, viz. 60
degrees ; therefore all the three angles are equal to
one another, confequently all the legs, therefore AB
is equal to CB.
Cor. Hence the radius from which the lines on any
fcale are formed, is the chord of 60 on the line of
chords..
Geovtetrical Problems.
Prob. r. From a point C (fig. 9.) in a given line
AB to raife a perpendicular to that line.
Rule. P’rom the point C take the equal diftances CB-,
CA on each fide of it. Then ftretch the compafles to
any diftance greater than CB or CA, and with one
foot of them in B, fweep the arc EP' with the other ;
again, with the fame opening, and one foot in A^
fweep the arc GH with the other, and'thefe two arcs
will interfecT one another in the point D ; then join
the given points C and D with the line CD, and that
fliall be the perpendicular required.,
2. To divide a given right line AB (fig. 10.) into
two equal parts ; that is, to bifeft it.
Rule. Take any diftance with your compaflTes that
you are fure is greater than half the given line ; then
fetting one foot of them in B, with the other fweep
the arc DFC ; and with the fame diftance, and one
foot in A, with the other fweep the arc CED ; thefe
two arcs will interfeft one another in the points CD,
which joined by the right line DC will bifeft AB in G.
3. From
I 8 ]
Part
G E O M
3. From a given point D, (fig. 11.) to let fall a
perpendicular on a given line AB.
Rule. Set one foot of the compafles in the point D,
and extend the other to any diftance greater than the
leaft diftance between the given point and the line,
and with that extent fweep the arc AEB, cutting the
line in the two points A and B, then (by the laft
prob.) bifeft the line AB in the point C ; laftlyjoin C
and D, and that line CD is the perpendicular re*
c.uired.
4. (Fig. ra.) Upon the end B of a given right line
BA, to raife a perpendicular.
Rule. Take any extent in your compafles, and with
one foot in B fix the ofher in any point C without the
given line ; then with one point of the compafles in
C, defcribe with the other the circle EBD, and thro’
E and C draw the diameter ECD meeting the circle
in D ; join D and B, and the right line DB is that
required ; for EBD is a right angle (by cor. 4. of 63.)
j. (Fig. 13.) To draw one line parallel to another
given line AB, that ihall be diftant from one another
by any given diftance D.
Rule. Extend your compafles to the given diftance
D ; then fetting one foot of them in any point of the
given line (fuppofe A,) with the other fweep the arc
FCG j again, at the fame extent, and one foot in any
other point of the given line B, fweep the arc HDK,
4ind draw the line CD touching them, and that will
be parallel to the given line AB, and diftant from it
by the line D as was required.
6. (Fig. 14.) To divide a given line AB into any
number of equal parts, fuppofe 7.
Rule. From the point A draw any line AD, making
an angle with the line AB, then through the point B,
draw a line BC parallel to AD; and from A, with
any fmall opening of the compafles, fet off a number
of equal parts (on the line AD,) lefs by one than the
propofed number (here 6.) ; then from B fet off the
fame number of the fame parts (on the line BC) ; laft-
ly, join 6 and r, 2 and y, 3 and 4, 4 and 3, 5 aftd 2,
6 and r, and thefe lines will cut the given line as re¬
quired.
7. (Fig. ry.) To quarter a given circle, or to di¬
vide it into four equal parts.
Rule. Through the centre C of the given circle,
draw a diameter AB, then upon the point C raife a
perpendicular DCE to the line AB ; and thefe two
diameters AB and DE (hall quarter the circle.
8. (Fig. 16.) Through three given points A, B, and
D, to draw a circle. Note, The three points muft
not lie in the fame {freight line.)
Rule. Join A and B, alfo B and D, with the {freight
lines AB BD ; then (by prob. 2.) bifeiff AB with the
line EC, alfo BD with the line FC, which two lines
will cut one another in fome point C ; that is the
centre of the circle required : then fixing one point
of your compafles in D, and ftretching the other to A,
defcribe the circle ABDG, which will pafs through
the three points given. The reafon of this is plain
from cor. 1. of art. 64.
9- (Fig. 17.) From the point A of the given line
AB, to draw another line (fuppofe AC) that {hall make
with AB an angle of any number of degrees, fup-
pofe 41.
E T R Y.
Rule. Let the given line AB be produced, then take
off your fcale the length of the chord of 60 degrees,
which is equal to the radius of the circle the fcale was
made for (by art. 7y.) ; and letting one foot in A,
with the other fweep off the arc BC ; then with your
compafles take from your fcale the chord of 4y de¬
grees, and fet off'that diftahce from B to C. Laftly,
join A and C, and the line AC is that required. For
the angle CAB, which is meafured by the arc BC, is
an angle of 4y degrees, as was required.
10. An angle BAC (fig. 18.) being given, to find
how many degrees ircontains.
Rule. With your compafles take the length of your
chord of 60 from your fcale. Then, fetting one foot
of them in A, with the other fweep the arc BC, which
is the arc comprehended between the two legs AB,
AC produced if needful. Laftly, take with your com¬
pafles the diftance BC, and applying it to your line of
chords on the fcale, you will find how many degrees
the arc BC contains, and confequently the degrees of
the angle BAC which was required.
ir. Three lines x, y, and z being given, (fig. 19.
19.) to form a triangle of them ; but any two of thefe
lines taken together muft always be greater than the
third.
Rule. Make any one of them, as x, the bafe ; then
with your compafles take another of them, as 2, and
fetting one foot in one end of the line x, as B, with
the other fweep the arc DE ; and taking with your
compafles the length of the other y, fet one foot of
them in A, the other end of the line x, and with the
other fweep the arc FG, which will cut the other in
C ; laftly, join CA and CB, and the triangle CAB is
that required.
12. To make a triangle, having one of its legs of
any number of equal parts (fuppofe 160,) and one of
the angles at that leg yo degrees, and the other 44
degrees.
Rule. Draw an indefinite line ED, (fig. 20.) then
take off the line of equal parts with your compafles,
160 of them, and fet them on the indefinite line, as
BC ; then (by prob. 9.) draw BA, making the angle
ABC of yo degrees, and (by the fame) draw from C
the line AC, making the angle ACB of 44 degrees ;
which two lines will meet one another in A, and the
triangle ABC is that required. See Trigonometry.
13. Upon a givqn line AB (fig. 21.) to make a
{quare.
Rule. Upon the extremity A of the given line AB,
raife a perpendicular AC (by prob, 4.); then take AC
equal to AB, and with that extent, fetting one foot
of the compafles in C, fweep with the other foot the
arc GH ; then with the fame extent, and one foot in
B, with the other fweep the arc EF, which will meet
the former in fome point D ; laftly, join C and D, D
and B, and the figure ABDC will be the fquare re¬
quired.
14. On a given line AB (fig. 22.) to draw a rhomb
that {hall have one of its angles equal to any number
of degrees, fuppofe 60 degrees.
Rule. From the point A of the given line AB,
draw the line AC, making the angle CAB of 60 de¬
grees, (by prob. 9.) then take AC equal to AB, and
with that extent, fixing one foot of the compafles in
Part II.
G E O M
B, with the other defcribe the wc GH j and at ttie
fame extent, fixing one foot of the compafles in C,
with the other defcribe the are EF cutting the former
in D ; laftly, join CD and DB, and the figure ACDB
is that required.
IS- Given two lines x and z, of thefe two to make
a redlangle.
Jtu/e. Draw a line, as AB, (fig. 23. 23.) equal in
length to one of the given lines x j and on the extre¬
mity A of that line, raife a perpendicular AC, on
which take AC equal to the other line 2 j then take
with your compafles the length of the line AB, and
at that extent, fixing one foot of them in C, with the
other fweep the arc EF ; and alfo taking with your
compafles the extent of the line AC, fix one foot of
them in B, and with the other fweep the arc GH,
E T K Y. [ 9 )
which will meet the former in D 1 laflly, join CD and
BD, and the figure ABDC will be that required.
16. Two lines x and 2 being given, of thel’e to
form a rhomboides that fliall have one of its angles
any number of degrees, fuppofe 50.
/?///?. Draw aline AB (fig. 24. 24 ) equal in length
to one gf the lines, as x; then draw the line AC,
making with the former the angle BAC equal to the
propofed, fuppofe 50 degrees, and on that line take
AC equal to the given line z ; then with your com¬
pafles take the length of AB, and fixing one foot in
C, fweep the arc EF ; alfo, taking the length of
AC, and fetting one foot in B, with the other iweep
the arc GH, which will cut the former in D ; then
join CD and DB, fo the figure ACDB will be that re.
quired.
PART II.
THE APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE MENSURATION
OF SURFACES, SOLIDS, 6c.
Chap. I. Of the Menfuration of Lines and Angles.
A Line, or length, to be meafured, whether it be
difiance, height, or depth, is meafured by a line
lefs than it. With us the leaft meafure of length is an
inch : not that we meafure no line lefs than it, but
becaufe we do not ufe the name of any meafure be¬
low that of an inch ; .exprefling lefler meafures by the
fractions of an inch : and in this treatife we ufe deci¬
mal fractions as the eafieft. Twelve inches make a
foot; three feet and an inch make the Scots ell; fix
ells make a fall; forty falls make a furlong; eight fur¬
longs make a mile : fo that the Scots miles is 1184
paces, accounting every pace to be five feet. Thefe
things are according to the ftatutes of Scotland ; not-
withftanding which, the glaziers ufe a foot of only
eight inches ; and other artifts for the moft part ufe
an Englilh foot, on account of the feveral fcales marked
on the Englilh foot-meafure for their ufe. But the
Englilh foot is fomewhat lefs than the Scots; fo that
185 of thefe make 186 of thofe.
Lines, to the extremities and any intermediate
point of which you have eafy accefs, are meafured by
applying to them the common meafure a number of
times. But lines, to which you cannot have fuch ac¬
cefs, are meafured by methods taken from geometry;
the chief whereof we lhall here endeavour to explain.
The firll is by the help of the geometrical fquare.
“ As for the Englilh meafures, the yard is 3 feet,
“ or 36 inches. A pole is fixteen feet and a half, or
“ five yards and a half. The chain, commonly called
“ Gunter’s chain, is four poles, or 22 yards, that is,
“ 66 feet. An Englilh ftatute-mile is fourfcore chains,
11 or 1760 yards, that is, 5280 feet.
“ The chain (which is now much in ufe, becaufe it
<l is very convenient for furveying) is divided into
“ 100 links, each of which is 7Ty5 of an inch: whence
“ it is eafy to reduce any number of thofe links to
“ feet, or any number of feet to links.
“ A chain that may have the fame advantages in
“ furveying in Scotland, as Gunter’s chain has in Eng-
“ land, ought to be in length 74 feet, or 24 Scots ells,
te if no regard is had to the difference of the Scots
<c and Englilh foot above-mentioned. But, if regard
is had to that difference, the Scots chain ought to
“ confift of 74^ Englilh feet, or 74 feet 4 inches and
f of an inch. This, chain being divided into too
“ links, each of thofe links is 8 inches and TyA of
il an inch. In the following table, the moff noted
“ meafures are exprefled in Englilh inches and deci-
“ mals of an inch.”
Englifh Inch.
The Englilh foot, is - - 12
The Paris foot, - - - 12
The Rhindland foot, meafured by Mr Picart, 12
The Scots foot, - - -12
The Amfterdam foot, by Snellies and Picart, 11
The Dantzick foot, by Hevelius, - 1 r
The Danilh foot, by Mr Picart, - 12
The Swedilh foot, by the fame, - 11
The Bruflels foot, by the fame, - 10
The Lyons foot, by Mr Auzout, - 13
The Bononian foot, by Mr Caflini, - 14
The Milan foot, by Mr Auzout, - 15
The Roman palm ufed by merchants, accord¬
ing to the fame, - .9
The Roman palm ufed by architects, 8
The palm of Naples, according to Mr Auzout, 10
The Englilh yard, - - 36
The Englilh ell, - - 45
The Scots ell, - - 37
The Paris aune ufed by mercers, according to
Mr Picart, - - 46
The Paris aune ufed by drapers, according to
the fame, - - 46
The Lyons aune, by Mr Auzout, - 46
The Geneva aune, - - 44
The Amllerdam ell, - - 26
The Danilh ell, by Mr Picart, - 24
(*>)
Dec.
000
788
362
065
297
465
692
828
458
938
631
791
779
314
coo
000
200
786
680
570 ■
760
800
930
The
t 1° ]
G E O M
Englijh Inch.
The Swedifh ell, - - 23
The Norway ell, - - 24
The Brabant or Antwerp ell, - 27
The Brulfels ell, - - 27
The Burges ell, - - 27
The brace of Bononia, according to Auzout, 2J
The brace ufed by architects in Rome, 30
The brace ufed in Rome by merchants, 34
The Florence brace ufed by merchants, ac¬
cording to Picart, - - 22
The Florence geographical brace, 21
The vara of Seville, - ‘33
The vara of Madrid, ... 39
The vara of Portugal, - 44
The cavedo of Portugal, - 27
The ancient Roman foot, - 11
The Perfian arifh, according to Mr Grxves, 38
The Ihorter pike of Conftantinople, accord¬
ing to t^e fame, - 25
Another pike of Conftantinople, according to
Meff. Mallet and De la Porte, - 27
Dec.
380
510
170
260
550
200
730
270
910
570
127
166
031
354
632
364
576
920
P R O P O S I T I ONI.
Prob. Todefcribs the flrutture of the geometrical
fquare.—The geometrical fquare is made of any folid
matter, as brais or wood, or of any four plain rulers
Geometry joined together at right angles, (as in fig. I.) where
Plates, A is the centre, from which hangs a thread with a
;a<SI11* fmall weight at the end, fo as to be directed always
to the centre. Each of the fides BE and DE is divi¬
ded into an hundred equal parts, or (if the fides be
long enough to admit of it) into a thoufand parts; C
and F at two fights, fixed on the fide AD. There is
moreover an index GH, which, when there is occa-'
fion, is joined to the centre A, in fuch manner as that
it can move round, and remain in any given fituation.
On this index are two fights perpendicular to the
right line going from the centre of the inftrument :
thefe are K and L. The fide DE of the inftrument
is called the upright fide ; E the reclining fide.
PROPOSITION II.
Fig. 2. To meafure an accejfibk height, AB, ly the
help of a geometrical fquare. Us dfiance being blown.
—Let BR be an horizontal plane, on which there
ftands perpendicularly any line AB : let BD, the gi¬
ven diftance of the obfervator from the height, be 96
feet; let the height of the obfervator’s eye be fuppo-
fed 6 feet: and let the inftrument, held by a fteady
hand, or rather leaning on a fupport, be direcled to¬
wards the fummit A, fo that one eye (the other being
ihut) may fee it clearly through the fights ; the per¬
pendicular or plumb-line meanwhile hanging free, and
touching the furface of the inftrument : let now the
perpendicular be fuppofed to cut off on the right fide
KN 80 equal parts. It is clear that LKN, ACK, are
■fmiilar triangles; for the angles LKN, ACK are right
angles, and therefore equal; moreover LN and AC
are parallel, as being both perpendicular to the hori¬
zon ; eonfequently, (by art. 60. cor. 1. Part 1.) the
angles KLN, KAC, are equal; wherefore, (by art.
60. cor. 2. of Part I.) the angles LNK, and AKC, are
likewife equal: fo that in the triangles NKL, KAC,
(by art. 72. of Part L> as NK : KL :: KC (/. r. BD)
E T R Y.
: CA ; that is, as 80 to 100, fo is 96 feet to CA.
Therefore, by the rule of three, CA will be found to
be 120 feet; and CB, which is 6 feet, being added,
the whole height is 126 feet.
But if the diftance of the obfervator from the height,
as BE, be fucb> that when the inftrument is directed
as formerly toward the fummit A, the perpendicular
falls on the angle P, oppofite to H, the centre of the
inftrument, and BE or CG be given of 120 feet; CA
will alfo be 120 feet. For in the triangles HGP, ACG,
equiangular, as in the preceding cafe, as PG : GH : r
GC : CA. But PG is equal to GH ; therefore GC is
likewife equal to CA : that is, CA will be 120 feet,
and the whole height 126 feet as before.
Let the diftance BF be 300 feet, and the perpendi¬
cular or plamb-line cut off 40 equal parts from the re¬
clining fide : Now, in this cafe, the angle, QAC, QZI,
are equal, and the angles QZI, ZIS, are equal; there¬
fore the angle ZIS is equal to the angle QAC. But
the angles ZSI QCA are equal, being right angles
therefore, in the equiangular triangles AC(£, SZI, it
will be, as ZS : SI : : CQ^: CA ; that is, as 100 to
40, lb is 300 to CA. Wherefore, by the rule of three,
CA will be found to be of 102 feet. And1, by adding
the height of the obfervator, the whole BA will be
126 feet. Note, that the height is greater than the
diftance, when the perpendicular cuts the right fide,
and lefs if it cut the reclined fide : and that the height
and diftance are equal, if the perpendicular fall on the
oppofite angle.
SCHOLIUM.
If the height of a tower, to be meafured as above,
end in a point, (as in fig. 3.) the diftance of the ob-
fervator oppofite to it, is not CD, but is to be accounted'
from the perpendicular to the point A ; that is, to CD
muft be added the half of the tbicknefs of the tower,
viz. BD : which muft likew-ife be underftood in the
following propofitions, when the cafe is fimilar.
PROPOSITION HI.
Fig. 4. From the height of a lower PM given, to
find a dijlance on the horizontal plane BC, by the geo¬
metrical fquare—Let the inftrument be fo placed, as
that the mark C in the oppofite plane may be feen
through the fights; and let it be obferved how many
parts are cut off by the perpendicular. Now, by what
hath been already demonllrated, the triangles AEF,
ABC, are fimilar ; therefore, it will be as EF, to AE,
fo AB (compofed of the height of the tower BG, and
of the height of the centre of the inftrument A, above
the tower BG) to the diftance BC. Wherefore, if,
by the rule of three, you fay, as EF to AE, fo is AB
to BC, it will be the diftance lought.
PROPOSITION IV.
Fig. 5. To meafure any dflance at land or fea, by
the geometrical fquare.-*-\n this operation, the index is
to be applied to the inftrument, as was Ihown in the
defeription ; and, by the help of a fupport, the inftru¬
ment is to be placed horizontally at tlie point A ; then
let it be turned till the remote point F, whofe diftance
is to be meafured, be feen through the fixed fights;
and bring the index to be parallel with the other
fide of the inftrument, obferve by the fights upon it
any acceflible mark B, at a fenfible diftance : then
carrying the inftrument to the point B, let the im¬
moveable
PartIL
?' Part II.
[ ]
G E O M
moveable fights be dire(Jled to the firlt ftation A, and
the fights of the index to the point F. If the index
cut the right fide of the fquare, as in K, in the two
triangles tiRK, and BAF, which are aequiangular, it
will be as BR to RK, fo BA (the diftance of the Ra¬
tions to be meafured with a chain) to AF ; and the
diftance AF fought will be found by the rule of three.
But if the index cut the reclined iide of the fquare in
any point L, where the diftance of a more remote
point is fought ; in the triangles BLS, BAG, the fide
LS (hall be to SB, as BA to AG, the diftance fought;
which accordingly will be found by the rule of three.!
PROPOSITION V.
B'ig. 6. To mtafure an accejjible height by means
of a plain mirror—Let AB be the height to be mea¬
fured ; let the mirror be placed at C, in the horizon¬
tal plane BD, at a known diftance BC ; let the obfer-
ver go back to D, till he fee the image of the fummit
in the mirror, at a certain point of it, which he muft
diligently mark; and let DE be the height of the ob-
fervator’s eye. The triangles ABC and EDC are
equiangular; for the angles at D and B are right
angles ; and ACB, ECD, are equal, being the angles
of incidence and reflexion of the ray AC, as is demon-
ftrated in optics ; wherefore the remaining angles at
A and E are alfo equal: therefore it will be, as CD
to DE, fo CB to BA ; that is, as the diftance of the
obfervator from the point of the mirror in the right
line betwixt the obfervator and the height, is to the
height of the obfervator’s eye,: fo is the diftance of
the tower from that point of the mirror, to the height
of the tower fought; which therefore will be found
by the rule of three.
Note r. The obfervation will be more exaft, if, at
the point D, a ftaff be placed in the ground perpen¬
dicularly, over the top of which the obfervator may
fee a point of the glafs exa<Stly in a line betwixt him
and the tower.
Note 2. In place of a mirror maybe ufed the fur-
face of water contained in a veflel, which naturally
becomes parallel to the horizon.
PROPOSITION VI.
Fig. 7. To meafure an acceffible height AB
means of two fluffs.—Let there be placed perpendicu¬
larly in the ground a longer ftaffDE, likewife a Ihorter
one FG, fo as the obfervator may fee A, the top of
the height to be meafured, over the ends D F of the
two ftaffs; let FH and DC, parallel to the horizon,
meet DE and AB in H and C ; then the trianglds FHD,
DCA, (hall be equiangular; for the angles at C and
H are right ones ; likewife the angle A is equal to the
angle FDH; wherefore the remaining angles DFH,
and ADC, are alfo equal : wherefore, as FH, the di¬
ftance of the ftaffs, to HD, the excefs of the longer
ftaff above the Ihorter; fo is DC, the diftance of the
longer ftaff from the tower, to CA, the excefs of the
height of the tower above the longer ftaff. And
thence CA will be found by the rule of three.
To which if the length DE be added, you will have
the whole height of the tower BA.
SCHOLIUM.
Fig. 8. Many other methods may be occafionally
contrived for meafuring an accefllble height. For ex¬
ample, from the given length of the lhadow BD, to
E T R Y.
find out the height AB, thus : Let there be ereifted a
ftaff CE perpendicularly, producing the lhadow EF :
The triangles ABD, CtF, are equiangular ; for the
angles at B and £ are right; and the angles ADB and
CB’E are equal, each being equal to the angle of the
fun’s elevation above the horizon : Therefore, as EF,
the lhadow of the ftaff, to EC, the ftaff itfelf; fo BD,
the lhadow of the tower, to BA, the height of the
tower. Though the plane on which the lhadow of
the tower falls be not parallel to the horizon, if the
ftaff be eredted in the fame plane, the rule will be the
fame.
PROPOSITION VII.
To me afire an inacceffible height by means of two
fluffs.—Hitherto we have fuppofed the height to be ac-
ceflible, or that we can come at the lower end of it ;
now if, becaufe of fome impediment, we cannot get to
a tower, or if the point whole height is to be found
out be the fummit of a hill, fo that the perpendicular
be hid within the hill; if, for want of better inftru-
ments, fuch an inacceflible height is to be meafured by
means of two ftaffs, let the firft qbfervation be made
with the ftaffs DE and FG, (as in prop. 6.) ; then the
obfervator is to go off in a diredl line from the height
and firft ftation, till he come to the fecond ftation ;
where (fig. ri.) he is to place the longer ftaff perpen¬
dicularly at RN, and the Ihorter ftaft' at KO, fo that
the fummit A may be feen along their tops ; that is,
fo that the points KNA may be in the fame right line.
Through the point N, let there be drawn the right line
NP parallel to FA : Wherefore in the triangles KNP,
KAF, the angles KNP, KAF are equal, alfo the angle
AKF is common to both ; confequently the remaining
angle KPN is equal to the remaining angle KFA. And
therefore, PN : FA :: KP : KF. But the triangles
PNL, FAS are fimilar; therefore, PN : FA :: NL :
SA. Therefore, (by the n. y. Eucl.) KP : KF :: N
L : SA. Thence, alternately, it will be, as KP (the
excefs of the greater diftance of the fliort ftaff from
the long one above its lefler diftance from it) to NL,
the excefs of the longer ftaff above the fliorter ; fo
KF, the diftance of the two Rations of the Ihorter ftaff
to SA, the excefs of the height fought above the height
of the fliorter ftaff. Wherefore SA will be found by
the rule of three. To which let the height of the
fliorter ftaff be added, and the fum will give the whole
inacceflible height BA.
Note 1. In the fame manner may an inacceflible
height be found by a geometrical fquare, or by a plain
fpeculum. But we fliall leave the rules to be found
out by the ftudent, for his own exercife.
Note 2. That by the height of the ftaff we under-
ftand its height above the ground in which it is fixed.
Note 3. Hence depends the method of ufing other
inftruments invented by geometricians; for example,
of the geometrical crofs: and if all things be juftly
weighed, a like rule will ferve for it as here. But
we incline to touch only upon what is moft material.
PROPOSITION VIII.
Fig. 9. To meafure the diflance AB, to one of whofe
extremities we have accefs, by the help of four flaffs. 
Let there be a ftaff fixed at the point A ; then going
back at fome fenfible diftance in the fame right line,
let another be fixed in C, fo as that both the points A
( b 2 ) and
[ 12 ] G E O M
and B be covered and hid by the ftaff C : likewife go¬
ing off in a perpendicular from the right line CB, at
the point A, (the method of doing which (hall be fliown
in the following/cAc/iww*), let there be placed another
llaff at H ; and in the right line CKG (perpendicular
to the fame CB, at the point B), and at the point of it
K, fuch that the points K, H, and B may be in the
fame right line, let there be fixed a fourth ftaff. Let
there be drawn, or let there be i'uppofed to be drawn,
a right line GH parallel to CA. The triangles KGH,
HAB, will be equiangular ; for the angles HAB KGH
are right angles. Alfo the angles ABH, KHG are
equal; whereforfe, as KG (the excels of CK above
AH) to GH, or to CA, the diftance betwixt the firft
and fecond ftaff; fo is AH, the diftance betwixt the
firft and third ftaff, to AB the diftance fought.
SCHOLIUM.
Fig. 10. To draw on a plane a right line AE per¬
pendicular to CH, from a given point A ; take the
right lines AB, AD, on each fide equal ; and in the
points B and D, let there be fixed ftakes, to which let
there be tied two equal ropes BE, DE, or one having
a mark in the middle, and holding in your hand their
extremities joined, (or the mark in the middle, if it
be but one), draw out the ropes on the ground ; and
then, where the two ropes meet, or at the mark,
when by it the rope is fully ftretched, let there be
placed a third (lake at E ; the right line AE will be
perpendicular to CH in the ‘point A (prob. i. of
Part I.). In a manner not unlike to this, may any
problems that are refolved by the fquare and com-
palfes, be done by ropes and a cord turned round as
a radius.
PROPOSITION IX.
Fig. 12. To meafure the difiance AB, one of •whofe
extremities is acccfiiblee—From the point A, let the
right line AC of a known length'be made perpendicu¬
lar to AB, (by the preceding/rWiaitw) : likewife draw
the right line CD perpendicular to CB, meeting the
right line AB in D: then as DA : AC : : AC : AB.
Wherefore, when DA and AC are given, AB will be
found by the rule of three.
SCHOLIUM.
All the preceding operations depend on the equality
of fome angles of triangles, and on the fimilarky of
the triangles arifing from that equality. And on the
fame principles depend innumerable other operations
which a geometrician will find our of himfelf, as is
very obvious. However, fome of thefe operations
require fuch exa&nefs in the work, and without it are
fo liable to errors, that, ceteris paribus, the following
operations, which are performed by a trigonbmetrkal
calculation, are to be preferred ; yet could We not o-
mit thofe above, being moft eafy in praftice, and moft
clear and evident to thofb Who have only the firft e-
lements of geometry. But if you are provided with
inftruments, the following operations are more to be
relied upon. We do not infill on the eafieft cafes to
thofe who are Ikilled in plain trigonometry, which is
indeed neeeffary to any one who would apply himfelf
to pratftice. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION X.
Fig. 13. To deferibe the cmftruBion and ufe of the
biometrical quadrant—The geometrical quadrant is
E T r Y. Partir
the fourth part of a circle divided into 90 degrees, to
which two fights are adapted, with a perpendicular or
plumb-line hanging from the centre. The general ufe
of it is for inveftigating angles in a vertical plane,
comprehended under right lines going from the centre
of the inftrument, one of which is horizontal, and the
other is dimfted to fome vifible point. This inftru¬
ment is made of any folid matter, as wood, copper, isrc.
PROPOSITION XI.
"*Fig. 14. To defcribe and make ufe of the grapho-
meter.—The graphometer is a femicircle made of any
hard matter, of wood, for example, or brals, divided
into 180 degrees ; fo fixed on a fulcrum, by means of
a brafs ball and focket, that it eafily turns about, and
retains any fituation ; two fights are fixed on its dia¬
meter. At the centre there is commonly a magneti-
cal needle in a box. There is likewife a moveable
ruler, which turns round the centre, and retains any
fituation given it. The ufe of it is to obferve any
angle, whofe vertex is at the centre of the inftrument
in any plane, (though it is moft commonly horizontal,
or nearly fo), and to find how many degrees it con¬
tains.
PROPOSITION XII.
Fig. T5. and 16. To defcribe the manner in which
angles are mcafured by a quadrant or graphometer.-~-
Let there be an angle in a vertical plane, compre¬
hended between a line parallel to the horizon HK,
and the right line RA, coming from any remarkable
point of a tower or hill, or from the fun, moon, or a
ftar. Suppofe that this angle RAH is to be menfnred
by the quadrant: let the inftrument be placed in the
vertical plane, fo as that the centre A may be in the
angular point: and let the fights be directed towards
the objecft at R, (by the help of the ray coming from
it, if it be the fun or moon, or by the help of the vi-
fual ray, if it is any thing elfe), the degrees and mi¬
nutes in the arc BC cut off by the perpendicular, will
meafure the angle RAH required. For, from the
make of the quadrant, BAD is a right angle ; there¬
fore BAR is likewife right, being equal to it. But, be-
caufe HK is horizontal, and AC perpendicular, HAC
will be a right angle ; and therefore equal alfo to
BAR. From thofe angles fubtriwS: the part HAB that
is common to both ; and there will remain the angle
BAC equal to the angle RAH. But the arc BC is the
meafure of the angle BAC ; confequently, it is like¬
wife the meafure of the angle RAH.
Note, That the remaining arc on the quadrant DC
is the meafure of the angle RAZ, comprehended be¬
tween the forefaid right line RA and AZ which points
to the Zenith.
Let it now be required to meafure the angle ACB
(fig. 16.) in any plane, comprehended between the
right lines AC and BC, drawn from two points A and
B, to the place of ftation C. Let the graphometer
be placed at C, fupported by fulcrum (as was fliown
above) ; and let the immoveable fights on the fide of
the inftrument DE be directed towards the point A ;
and likewife (while the inftrument remains immove¬
able) let the fights of the ruler FG (which is move-
able about the centre C) be direfted to the point B.
It is evident that the moveable ruler cuts off an arc
DH, which is the meafure of the angle ACB fought.
Moreover,
V Part II.
G E O M
Moreover, by the fame method, the inclination of CE,
or of FG, may be obferved with the meridian line,
which is pointed out by the magnetic needle inclofed
in the box, and is moveable about the centre of the
inftrument, and the meafure of this inclination or
angle found in degrees.
PROPOSITION XIII.
Fig. 17. To meafure an accejfible height by the geo¬
metrical quadrant.—By the I2,h prop, of this Part, let
the angle C be found by means of the quadrant. Then
in the triangle ABC, right-angled at B, (BC being
fuppofed the horizontal diltance of the obfervator
from the tower), having the angle at C, and the fide
BC, die required height BA will be found by the 3 d
cafe of plain trigonometry. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION XIV.
Fig. 18. To meafure an inaccejfible height by the
geometrical quadrant.—Let the angle ACB be obfer¬
ved with the quadrant (by the 12th prop, of this Part) ;
then let the obferver go from C to the fecond ftation
D, in the right line BCD (provided BCD be a hori¬
zontal plane) ; and after meafuring this diftance CD,
take the angle ADC likewife with the quadrant.
Then, in the triangle ACD, there is given the angle
ADC, with the angle ACD ; becauf ACB was given
before : therefore (by art. 59. of Part I.) the remain¬
ing angle CAD is given likewife. But the fide CD is
likewife given, being the diftance of the ftation C and
D ; therefore (by the firft cafe of oblique-angled tri¬
angles in trigonometry) the fide AC will be found.
Wherefore, in the right-angled triangle ABC, all the
angles and the hypothenufe AC are given ; confe-
quently, by the fourth cafe of trigonometry, the height
fought AB will be found ; as alio (if you pleafe) the
diftance of the ftation C, from AB the perpendicular
within the lull or inacceffible height-
PROPOSITION XV.
Fig. 19. From the top of a given height, to meafure
the diftance BC.—Let the angle BAC be obferved by
the 12th prop, of this; wherefore in the triangle ABC,
right-angled at B, there is given by obfervation the
angle at A; whence (by the J9th art. of Part I.) there
will alio be given the angle BCA: moreover the fide
AB (being the height of the tower) is fuppofed to be
given. Wherefore, by the 3d cafe of trigonometry,
BC, the diftance fought, will be found.
PROPOSITION XVI.
Fig. 20. To meafure the diftajice of two places A
and B, of which one is acceffible, by the graphometer.—
Let there be erefted at two points A and C, fufficiently
diftant, two vifible figns ; then (by the 12th prop, of
this Part) let the two angles BAC, BCA, be taken by
the graphometer. Let the diftance of the ftations A
and C be meafured with a chain. Then the third angle
B being known, and the fide AC being Hkewife
known ; therefore, by the firft cafe of trigonometry,
the diftance required, AB will be found.
PROPOSITION XVII.
Fig. 21. To meafure by the graphometer, the di¬
ftance of two places, neither of which is acc ffible.—
Let twttftations C and D be chofen, from each of which
the places may be Teen whofe diftance is fought; let
the angles ACD, ACB, BCD, and likewife the angles
^DC, BDA, CDA, be meafured by the graphoraeter ;
E T R Y. [ I3 ]
let the diftance of the ftations C and D be meafured
by a chain, or (if it be necelfary) by the preceding
practice. Now, in the triangle ACD, there are given
two angles ACD and ADC ; therefore, the third CAD
is likewife given ; moreover the fide CD is given ;
therefore, by the firft cafe of trigonometry, the fide
AD will be found. After the fame manner, in the tri¬
angle BCD, from all the angles and one fide CD given,
the fide BD is found. Wherefore, in the triangle
ADB, from the given fides DA and DB, and the angle
ADB contained by them, the fide AB (the diftance
fought) is found by the 4th cafe of trigonometry of
oblique-angled triangles.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
Fig. 22. It is required by thegraphotueter and qua¬
drant, to me a fur e an acceftible height AB, placed fo on
a fteep, that one can neither go near it in an horizontal
plane, nor recede from it, as we fuppofed in the folution
of the 14th prop.—Let there be chofen any fituation as
C, and another D ; where let fume mark be ereifted:
let the angles ACD and ADC be found by the grapho¬
meter ; then the third angle DAC will be known.
Let tlie fide CD, the diftance of the ftations, be mea¬
fured with a chain, and thence (by trigon.) the fide
AC will be found. Again, in the triangle ACB, right-
angled at B, having found by the quadrant the angle
ACB, the other angle CAB is known likewife : but
the fide AC in the triangle ADC is already known ;
therefore the height required AB will be found by the
4th cafe of right-angled triangles. If the height of
the tower is wanted, the angle BCF will be found by
the quadrant; which being taken from the angle ACB
already known, the angle ACF will remain : but the
angle FAC was known before ; therefore the remain¬
ing angle AFC will be known. But the fide AC was
allb known before ; therefore, in the triangle AFC,
all the angles and one of the fides AC being known,
AF, the height of the tower above the hill, will be
found by trigonometry.
SCHOLIUM.
It were eafy to add many other methods of meafu¬
ring heights and diftances; but, if what is above be
underftood, it will be eafy (efpecially for one that is
verfed in the elements) to contrive methods for this
purpofe, according to the occafion : fo that there is
no need of adding any more of this fort. We fhall
fubjoin here a method by which the diameter of the
earth may be found out.
PROPOSITION XIX.
Fig. I. To find the diameter of the earth from one Geometry
obfervation.—Let there be chofen a high hill AB, near Plate, J
the fea-lhore, and let the obfervator on the top of it, n° IV.
with an exaft quadrant divided into minutes and le-
conds by tranfverfe divifions, and fitted with a tele-
fcope in place of the common fights, meafure the angle
ABE contained under the right line AB, which goes to
the centre, and the right line BE drawn to the fea, a
tangent to the globe at E ; let there ,be drawn from
A perpendicular to BD, the line AF meeting BE in F.
Now in the righ.t-ang-led triangle BAF all the angles
are given, alfo the fide AB, the height of the hill;
which is to be found by fome of the foregoing me¬
thods, as exactly as poffible ; and (by trigonometry)
the fides BF and AF are found. But, by cor. 36tl1
3. Eud,
[ i4 ] G E O M
J. Eucl. AF is equal to FE; therefore BE will be
known. Moreover, by 36th 3. Eucl. the rectangle
under BA and BD is equal to the fquare of BE. And
thence by 17th 6. Eucl. as AB : BE : : BE : BD.
Therefore, fince AB and BE are already given, BD
will be found by 11th 6. Eucl. or by the rule of three;
and fubtradting BA, there will remain AD the diame¬
ter of the earth fought.
SCHOLIUM.
Many other methods might be propofed for mea-
furing the diameter of the earth. The moft exadt is
that propofed by Mr Picart of the academy of fciences
at Paris.
“ According to Mr Picart, a degree of the meridian
u at the latitude of 490 21', was 57,060 French toifes,
“ each of which contains fix feet of the fame mea-
u fure : from which it follows, that, if the earth be an
“ exadl fphere, the circumference of a great circle of
<c it will be 123,249,600 Paris feet, and the femidia-
u meter of the earth 19,615,800 feet: but the French
u mathematicians, who of late have examined Mr Pi-
cart’s operations, allure us, that the degree in that
“ latitude is 57,183 toifes. They meafured a degree
“ in Lapland, in the latitude of 66° 20', and found it
“ of 57,438 toifes. By comparing thefe degrees, as
<l well as by the obfervations on pendulums, and the
theory of gravity, it appears that the earth is an
“ oblate fpheroid; and (fuppofing thole degrees to be
“ accurately meafured) the axis or diameter that paf-
“ fes through the poles will be to the diameter of the
<c equator, as 177 to 178, or the earth will be 22 miles
<f higher at the equator than at the poles. A degree
has likewife been meafured at the equator, and found
(f to be confiderably lefs than at the latitude of Paris;
“ which confirms the oblate figure of the earth. But
“ an account of this laft menfuration has not been pu-
<f blilhed as yet. If the earth was of an uniform den-
“ fity from the furface to the centre, then, according
“ to the theory of gravity, the meridian would be an
“ exaft ellipfis, and the axis would be to the diameter
“ of the equator as 230 to 231 ; and the difference of
“ the femidiameter of the equator and femiaxis about
*( 1 7 miles.”
In what follows, a figure is often to be laid down on
paper, like to another figure given ; and becaufe this
likenefs confifts in the equality of their angles, and in
the fides having the fame proportion to each other (by
the definitions of the 6th of Eucl.) we are now to Ihew
what methods practical geometricians ufe for making
on paper an angle equal to a given angle, and how
they conllitute the fides in the fame proportion. For
this purpofe they make ufe of a protractor, (or, when
it is wanting, a line of chords), and of a line of equal
parts.
PROPOSITION XX.
Fig. 2. 3. 4. 5. and 6. To defcribe the conftruliioii
and ufe of the protrattor, of the line of chords, and of
the line of equal parts. The protraCtor is a fmall fe-
niicircle of brafs, or fuch folid matter. The femicir-
cumferenee is divided into 180 degrees. The ufe of
if is, t6! draw angles on any plane, as on paper, or to
examine the extent of angles already laid down. For
this laft purpofe, let the fmall point in the centre of the
protraCtor be placed above the angular point, and let
E r R Y.
the fide AB coincide with one of the fides that contain
the angle propofed ; the number of degrees cut off by
the other fide, computing on the protraCtor from B,
will fhow the quantity of the angle that is to be mea¬
fured.
But if an angle is to be made of a given quantity on
a given line, and at a given point of that line, let AB
coincide with the given line, and let the centre A of
the inftrument be applied to that point. Then let
there be a mark made at the given number of degrees;
and a right line drawn from that mark to the given
point, will conftitute an angle with the given right line
of the quantity required ; as is manifefi.
This is the moft natural and eafy method, either for
examining the extent of an angle on paper, or for de-
fcribing on paper an angle of a given quantity.
But when there is fcarcity of inftruments, or becaufe
a line of chords is more eafily carried about, (being
defcribed on a ruler on which there are many other
lines befides), practical geometricians frequently make
ufe of it. It is made thus: let the quadrant of a circle
be divided into 90 degrees ; (as in fig. 4.) The line
AB is the chord of 90 degrees ; the chord of every
arc of the quadrant is transferred to this line AB, which
is always marked with the number of degrees in the
correfponding arc.
Note, that the chord of 60 degrees is equal to the
radius, by corol. 15. 4th Eucl. If now a given angle
EDF is to be meafured by the line of chords from the
centre D, with the diftance DG, (the chord of 60 de¬
grees), defcribe the arch GF ; and let the points G
and F be marked where this arch interfe&s the fides
of the angle. Then if the diftance GF, applied on the
line of chords from A to B, gives (for example) 25 de¬
grees, this jfhall be the meafure of the angle propofed.
When an obtufe angle is to be meafured with this
line, let its complement to a femicircle be meafured,
and thence it will be known. It were eafy to tranf-
fer to the diameter of a circle the chords of all arches
to the extent of a femicircle; but fuch are rarely found
marked upon rules.
But now, if an angle of a given quantity, fuppofe of
50 degrees, is to be made at a given point M of the
right line KL (fig. 6.) From the centre M, and the
diftance MN, equal to the chord of 60 degrees,defcribe
the arc QN. Take off an arc NR, whofe chord is e-
qual to that of 50 degrees on the line of chords; join
the points M and R ; and it is plain that MR fhall con¬
tain an angle of 50 degrees with the line KL propo¬
fed.
But fometimes we cannot produce the fides, till they
be of the length of a chord of 60 degrees on our feale;
in which cafe it is fit to work by a circle of propor¬
tions (that is a fetftor), by which an arc may be made
of a given number of degrees to any radius.
The quantities of angles are likewife determined by
other lines ufually marked upon rules, as the lines of
fines, tangents, and fecants; but, as thefe methods are
not fo eafy or fo proper in this place, we omit them.
To delineate figures fimilar or like to others given,
befides the equality of the angles, the fame proportion
is to be preferved among the fides of the figure that is
to be delineated, as is among the fides of the figures
given. For which purpofe, on the rules ufed by artifts,
there
Part II.
Part II.
G E O M
there is a line divided into equal parts, more or lefs in
number, and greater or lefler in quantity, according
to the pleafure of the maker.
A foot is divided into inches; and an inch, by means
of tranfverle lines, into too equal parts ; fo that with
this fcale, any number of inches, below 12, with any
part of an inch, can be taken by the compafles, pro¬
viding fuch part be greater than the one ioo,h part
of an inch. And this exa&nefs is very necefTary in
delineating the plans of houfes, and in other cafes.
PROPOSITION XXL
Fig. 7. To lay down on papert by the protraftor or
line of chords, and line of equal parts, a right-lined
fgttre like to one given, providing the angles and fides
of the figure given be known by obfervation or men fur a-
iion. For example, fuppofe that it is known that in
a quadrangular figure, one fide is of 235 feet, that the
angle contained by it and the lecond fide is of 84°, the
fecond fide of 288 feet, the angle contained by it and the
third fide of 72°,and that the third fide is 294f'eet. Thefe
things being given, a figure is to be drawn on paper
like to this quadrangular figure. On your paper at a
proper point A, let a right line be drawn, upon which
take 235 equal parts, as AB. The part reprefenting
a foot is taken greater or lefler, according as you
would have your figure greater or lei's. In the ad¬
joining figure, the 100th part of an inch is taken for
a foot. And accordingly an inch divided into 100
parts, and annexed to the figure, is called a fcale of
100 feet. Let there be made at the point B (by the
preceding p opofition) an angle ABC of 85°, and let
BC be taxen of 288 parts like to the former. Then
let the angle BCD be made of 720, and the fide CD
of 294 equal parts. Then let the fide AD be drawn;
and it will eompleat the figure like to the given. The
meafures of the angle A and D can be known by the
protractor or line of chords, and the fide AD by the
line of equal parts ; which will exactly anf'wer to the
correfponding angles and to the fide of the primary
figure.
After the very fame manner, from the fides and an¬
gles given, which bound any right-lined figure, a figure
like to it may be drawn, and the relt of its fides and
angles be known.
COROLLARY.
Hence any trigonometrical problem in right-lined
triangles, may be refolved by delineating the triangle
from what is given concerning it, as in this propofi-
tion. The unknown fides are examined by a line of
equal parts, and the angles by a protractor or line of
chords.
PROPOSITION XXII.
The diameter of a circle being given, to find its cir¬
cumference nearly .—The periphery of any polygon in-
feribed in the circle is lefs than the circumference,and
the periphery of any polygon deferibed about a circle
is greater than the circumference. Whence Archi¬
medes firft difeoved that the diameter was in propor¬
tion to the circumference, as 7 to 22 nearly ; which
ferves for common ufe. But the moderns have
computed the proportion of the diameter to the
circumference to greater exadlnefs. Suppofing the
diameter 100, the periphery will be more than
314, but lefs than 315. The diameter is more near-
E T R Y. [ I5 ]
ly to the circumference, as 113 to 355. But Ludol-
phus van Cuelen exceeded the labours of all; for by
immenfe ftudy he found, that, fuppoling the diameter
100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
the periphery will be lefs than
314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,33s,327,751,
but greater than
314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,338,327,950;
whence it will be eafy, any part of the circumference
being given in degrees and minutes, to aflign it in
parts of the diameter.
Of Surveying and ]\leafuring t/'LAND.
fliTHERTO we have treated of the meafuring of
angles and fides, whence it is abundantly eafy to lay
down a field, a plane, or an entire country : for to
this nothing is requfite but the protradlion of triangles,
and of other plain figures, after having meafured their
fides and angles. But as this is efteemed an important
part of practical geometry, we (hall fubjoin here an
account of it with all poflible brevity; fuggefting with¬
al, that a furveyor will improve himfelf more by one
day’s praHice, than by a great deal of reading.
PROPOSI LION XXIIL
To explain what furveying is, and what infirmnents
Surveyors ufe—Firfl, it is neceflary that the furveyor
view the field that is to be meafured, and inveftigate
its fides and angles, by means of an iron chain (having
a particular mark at each foot of length, or at any
number of feet, as may be mofl convenient for redu¬
cing lines or furfaces to the received meafures), and
the graphometer defered above. Secondly, It is ne¬
ceflary to delineate the field in piano, or to form a
map of it; that is, to lay down on paper a figure fi-
milar to the field ; which is done by the protractor (or
line of chords) and of the lin» of equal parts. Thirdly,
It is neceflary to find out the area of the field fo fur-
veyed and reprefented by a map. Of this laft we are
to treat below.
The fides and angles of fmall fields are furveyed by
the help of a plain table : which is generally of an ob¬
long rectangular figure, and fupported by a fulcrum, fo
as to turn every way by means of a bail and locket.
It has a moveable frame,, which furrounds the board,
and ferves to keep a clean paper put on the board
clofe and tight to it. The fides of the frame facing
the paper are divided into equal parts every way.
The board hath belides a box with a magnetic needle,
and moreover a large index with two fights. On the
edge of the frame of the board are marked degrees
and minutes, fo as to fupply the room of a grapho¬
meter.
PROPOSITION XXIV.
Fig. 8. To delineate a field by the help of a plain-
table, from one fiatiou whence all its angles may be feen
and their difiances meafured by a chain.—Let the field
that is to be laid down be ABCDE. At any conve¬
nient place F, let the plain-table be erefted; cover it
with clean paper, in which let fome point near the middle
reprefent the flation. Then applying at this place the
index with the fights, direct it lb as that through the
fights fome mark may be feen at one of the angles,
fuppofe A ; and from the point F, reprefenting the
ftation, draw a faint right line along the fide of the
index : then, by the help of the chain, let FA the dif-
tanca-
i6 ] G E O M
tance of the fhtion from the forefaid angle be mea-
fured. Then taking what part you think convenient
for a foot or pace from the line of equal parts, fet off
on the faint line the parts correfponciing to the line FA
that was meafured ; and let there be a mark made re-
prefenting the angle of the field A. Keeping the table
immoveable, the lame is to be done with the reft of
the angles; then right lines joining thofe marks lhall
include a figure like to the field, as is evident from y,
6. Eucl.
COROLLARY.
The fame thing is done in like manner by the gra-
phometer: for having obferved in each of the tri¬
angles, AFB, BFC, CFD, tffc. the angle at the ftation
F, and having meafured the lines from the ftation to
the angles of the field, let fimiliar triangles be pro¬
tracted on paper (by the 21. prop, of this) having their
common vertex in the point of ftation. All the lines,
excepting thofe which reprefent the fides of the field,
are to be drawn faint or obfcure.
Note i. When a fiirveyor wants to lay down a
field let him place diftindtly in a regifter all the ob-
fervations of the angles, and the meai’ures of the fides,
until, at time and place convenient, he draw out the
figure on paper.
Note 2. The obfervations made by the help of the
graphometer are to be examined : for all the angles
about the point F ought to be equal to four right ones,
(by cor. 2. art. 30. of Part I.)
PROPOSITION XXV.
Fig. 9. To lay down a field by means of two fia-
tions, from each of which alt the angles can be feen, by
measuring only the difiance of the fiations.—Let the in-
ftrUment be placed at the ftation F: and having chofen
a point reprefenting it upon the paper which is laid
upon the plain table, let the index be applied at this
point, fo as to be moveable about it. Then let it be
direCIed fucceffive!!y to the feveral angles of the field :
and when any angle is feen through the fights, draw
an obfcure line along the fide of the index. Let the
index, with the fights, be dire&ed after the fame
manner to the ftation G : on the obfcure line drawn
along its fide, pointing to . A, fet off from the fcale of
equal parts a line correfponding to the meafured di-
ftance of the ftadons, and this will determine the point
G. Then remove the inftrument to the ftation G,
and applying the index to the line reprefenting the
diftance of the ftations, place the inftrument fo that
the firft ftation may be feen through the fights. Then
the inftrument -remaining immoveable, let the index
be applied at the point reprefenting the fecond ftation
G, and be fucceffively direCted by means of its fights,
to all the angles of the field, drawing (as before) ob¬
fcure lines: and the interfeCtion of the two obfcure
lines that were drawn to the fame angle from the two
ftations will always reprefent that angle on the plan.
Care mult be taken that thofe lines be not miftaken
for one another. Lines joining thofe interfeCIions will
form a figure on the paper like to the field.
SCHOLIUM.
It will not be difficult to do the fame by the gra¬
phometer, if you keep a diftinCt account of your ob¬
fervations of the angles made by the line joining the
ftations, and the lines drawn from the ftations to the
E T R Y. Part II.
refpe&ive angles of the field. And this is the moft
common manner of laying clown whole countries. The
tops of two mountains are taken for two ftations, and
their diftance is either meafured by fome of the me¬
thods mentioned above, or is taken according to com¬
mon repute. The fights are fucceffively direCted to¬
wards cities, churches, villages, forts, lakes, turnings
of rivers, woods, &c.
Note, The diftance of the ftations ought to be great
enough, with refpeCt to the field that is to be mea¬
fured ; fuch ought to be chofen as are not in a line
tvith any angle of the field. And care ought to
be taken likewife that the' angles, for example, FAG>
FDG, See. be neither very acute, nor very obtufe.
Such angles are to be avoided as much as poffible; and
this admonitiqn is found very ufeful in practice.
PROPOSITION XXVI.
Fig. 10. To lay down any field, however irregular
its figure may be, by the help of the graphometer.—Let
ABCEDHG be fuch a field. Let its angles (in going
round it) be obferved with a graphometer (by the 12.
of this) and noted down ; let its fides be meafured
with a chain ; and (by what was faid on the 21. of
this) let a figure like to the given field be protracted
on paper. If any mountain is in the circumference,
the horizontal line hid under it is to be taken for a
fide, which may be found by two or three obfervations
according to fome of the methods deferibed above ;
and its place on the map is to be diftinguiffied by a
Ihade, that it may be known a mountain is there.
If not only the circumference of the field is to be
laid down on the plan, but alfo its contents, as villages,
gardens, churches, public roads, we muft proceed in
this manner.
Let there be (for example) a church F, to be laid
down in the plan. Let the angles ABF BAF be ob¬
ferved and protracted on paper in their proper places,
the interfeCtion of the two fides BF and AF will give
the place of the church on the paper : or, more exact¬
ly, the lines BF AF being meafured, let circles be de»-
feribed from the centres B and A, with parts from the
fcale correfponding to the diftances BF and AF, and
the place of the church will be at their interfeCtion.
Note 1. While the angles obferved by the grapho¬
meter are taken down, you muft be careful to diftin-
guiffi the external angles, as E and G, that they may
be rightly protraCted afterwards on paper.
Note 2. Our obfervations of the angles may be exa¬
mined by computing if all the internal angles make
twice as many right angles, four excepted, as there'
are fides of the figure : (for this is demonftrated by
32. 1. Eucl.) But in place of any external angle DEC,
its complement to a circle is to be taken.
PROPOSITION XXVII.
Fig. 11. To lay down a plain field without infiru-
ments—If a fmall field is to be meafured, and a map
of it to be made, and you are not provided with in-'
ftruments; let it be fuppofed to be divided into tri¬
angles, by right-lines, as in the figure ; and after mea-
furing the three fides of any of the triangles, for ex¬
ample of ABC, let its fides be laid down from a con¬
venient fcale on paper, (by the 22. of this.) Again,
let the other two fides BD CD of the triangle CBD
be meafured and protraCted on the paper by the fame
fcale
Part II.
G E O M
fcale as before. In the fame manner proceed with
the reft of the triangles of which the field is compof'ed,
and the map of the field will be perfected ; for the
three fules of a triangle determine the triangle ;
whence each triangle on the paper is fimilar to its cor-
refportdent triangle in the field, and is fimilarly iitua-
ted; confequently the whole figure is like to the whole
field.
S C H 0 L 1 U M.
If the field be fmall, and all its angles may be feen
from one ftation, it may be very well laid down by
the plain-table, (by the 24. of this.) If the field be
larger, and have the requifite conditions, and great
exaclnefs is not expedied, it likewife may be plotted
by means of the plain-table, or by the graphometer,
(according to the 2J. of this;) but in fields that
are irregular and mountainous, when an exadt map
is required, we are to make ufe of the graphome¬
ter, (as in the 26. of this,) but rarely of the plain-
table.
Having protradled the bounding lines, the particu¬
lar parts contained within them may be laid down by
the proper operations for this purpofe, (delivered in
the 26th propofition ; and the method defcribed in the
27th propofition may be fometimes of fervice ;) for
we may truft more to the meafuring of fides, than to
the- observing of angles. We are not to compute
four-fided and many fided figures till they are refolv-
ed into triangles : for the fides do not determine thofe
figures.
In the laying down of cities, or the like, we may
make ufe of any of the methods defcribed above that
may be moft convenient.
The map being finifhed, it is transferred on clean
paper, by putting the firft Iketch above it, and mark¬
ing the angles by the point of a fmall needle. Thefe
points being joined by right lines, and the whole illu¬
minated by colours proper to each part, and the fi¬
gure of tire mariner’s compafs being added to diftin-
guifti the north and fouth, with a fcale on the margin,
the map or plan will be finifhed and neat.
We have thus briefly and plainly treated of furvey-
ing, and ftiown by what inftruments it is performed ;
having avoided thofe methods which depend on the
magnetic needle, not only becaufe its direction may
vary in different places of a field (the contrary of this
at leaft doth not appear,) but becaufe the quantity of
an angle obferved by it cannot be exadily known ;
for an error of two or three degrees can fcarcely be
avoided in taking angles by it.
As for the remaining part of furveying, whereby
the area of a field already laid down on paper is found
in acres, roods, or any other fuperficial meafures; this
we leave to the following iecftion, which treats of the
menfuration of furfaces.
e< Befides the inftruments defcribed above, a fur-
“ veyor ought to be provided with an off-fet ftaff equal
“ in length to 10 links of the chain, and divided into
“10 equal parts. He ought likewife to have 10 ar-
<e rows or fmall ftraight (licks near two feet long, (hod
“ with iron ferrils. When the chain is firft opened,
“ it ought to be examined by the ’ off-fet ftaff. In
“ meafuring any line, the leader of the chain is to
“ have the 10 arrows at firft fetting out. When the
E T R Y.
[ 17 I
chain is ftretched in the line, and the near end
touches the place from which you meafure, the
leader fticks one of the 10 arrows in the ground, at
the far end of the chain. Then the leader leaving
the arrow, proceeds with the chain another length;
and the chain being ftretched in the line, fo that the
near end touches the firft arrow, the leader fticks
down another arrow at his end of the chain. The
line is preierved ftraight, if the arrows be always
fet fo as to be in a right line with the place you
mealure from, and that to which you are going.
In this manner they proceed till the leader have no
more' arrows. At the eleventh chain, the arrows
are to be carried to him again, and he is to ftick
one of them into the ground, at the end of the chain.
And the fame is to be done at the 21. 31. 41. frc.
chains, if there are fo many in a right line to be
meafured. In this manner you can hardly commit
an error in numbering the chains, unlefs of iq chains
at once.
“ The off-fet ftaff ferves for meafuring readily the
diftances of any things proper to be reprefented itr
your plan, from the ftation-line while you go alortg.
Thefe diftances ought to be entered into your field-
book, with the correfponding diftances from the laft
ftation, and proper remarks, that you may be ena¬
bled to plot them juftly, and be in no danger of
miftaking one for another when you extend your
plan. The field-book may be conveniently divided*
into five columns. In the middle column the angles
at the feveral ftations taken by the theodolite are to
be entered, with the diftances from the ftations. The
diftances taken by the off-fet ftaff, on either fide of
the ftation-line, are to be entered into columns on
either fide of the middle column, according to their
pofition with refpect to that line. The names
and characters of the objects, with proper re¬
marks, may be entered in columns on either fide pf
thefe laft.
“ Becaufe, in the place of the graphometer delcri-
bed by our author, furveyors now make ufe of the
theodolite, we (hall fubjoin a defcription of Mr Sif-
fon’s lateft improved theodolite from Mr Gardner’s
practical furveying improved. See a figure of it in
the IVtfc Plate.
“ In this inftrument, the three ftaffs, by brafs fer¬
rils at top, fcrew into bell-metal joints, that are
moveable between brafs pillars, fixed in a ftrong
brafs plate ; in which, round the centre, is fixed a
focket with a ball moveable in it, and upon which
the four (crews prefs, that fet the limb horizontal:
Next above is another fuch plate, through which the
faid fcrews pafs, and on which, round the centre,
is fixed a fruftum of a cone of bell-metal, whofe axis
(being connected with the centre of the bell) is
always perpendicular to the limb, by means of a
conical brafs ferril fitted to it, whereon is fixed
the compafs-box ; and on it the limb, which is a
ftrong bell-metal ring, whereon are moveable three
brafs indexes ; in whofe plate are fixed four brafs
: pillars, that, joining at top, hold the centre pin
: of the bell-metal double fextant, whofe double in-
: dex is fixed on the centre of the fame plate:
: Within the double fextant is fixed the fpirit-level,
( c ) “ and
[ i8 ]
G E O M
and over it the telefcope.
“ The compafs-box is graved with two diamonds
for north and fouth, and with 20 degrees on both
fides of each, that the needle may be fet to the
variation, and its error alfo known.
t< The limb has two fieurs de /ari?‘againft the dia¬
monds in the box, inltead of 180 each, and is cu-
rioufly divided into whole degrees, and numbered
to the left hand at every xo to twice 180, having
three indexes dillant 120, (with Nonius’s divifions
on each for the decimals of a degree,) that are
moved by a pinion fixed below one of them, with¬
out moving the limb; and in another is a fcrew
and fpring under, to fix it to any part of the limb.
It has allb divifions numbered, for taking the quar¬
ter girt in inches of round timber at the middle
height, when Handing 10 feet horizontally diftant
from its centre ; which at 20 mult be doubled, and
at 30 tripled ; to which a ftiorter index is ufed, ha¬
ving Nonius’s divifions for the decimals of an inch ;
but an abatement muft be made for the bark, if not
taken oft'.
“ The double fextant is divided on one fide from
under its centre (when the fpirit-tube and telefcope
are level) to above 60 degrees each way, and num¬
bered at 1 o, 20, <£rc. and the double index (through
which it is moveable) Ihews on the fame fide the de¬
gree and decimal of any altitude or depreflion to that
extent by Nonius’s divifions: On the other fide are
divifions numbered, for taking the upright height
of timber, &c. in feet, when diftant 10 feet; which
at 20 muft be doubled, and at 30 tripled; and alio
the quantities for reducing hypothenufal lines to ho¬
rizontal. It is moveable by a pinion fixed in the
double index.
“ The teleicope is a little ihorter than the diameter
of the limb, that a fall may not hurt it; yet it will
magnify as much, and fliew a diftant objedt as per¬
fect, as moft of triple its length. In its focus are
very fine crofs wires, whofe interfedlion is in the
plane of the double fextant; and this was a whole
circle, and turned in a lathe to a true plane, and is
fixed at right angles to the limb ; fo that," when¬
ever the limb is fet horizontal, (which is readily
done by making the fpirit-tube level over two fcrews,
and the like over the other two,) the double fex¬
tant and telefcope are moveable in a vertical plane;
and then every angle taken on the limb (though the
telefcope be never fo much elevated or deprelfed)
will be an angle in the plane of the horizon. And
this is abfolutely neceflTary in plotting a horizontal
plane.
“ If the lands to be plotted are hilly, and not in a-
ny one plane, the lines meafured cannot be truly
laid down on paper, without being reduced to one
plane, which muft be the horizontal, becaufe angles
are taken in that plane.—
<( In viewing your objects, if they have much alti¬
tude or depreffion, either write down the degree
and decimal fliewn on the double fextant, or the
links Ihewn on the back fide ; which laft fubtracted
from every chain in the ftation-line, leaves the
length in the horizontal plane. But if the degree
is taken, the following table will Ihew the quantity.
E T R Y.
A Table of the links to be fubtrailed out of every chain
in hypothenufal lines of feveral degrees altitude, or
deprefion, for reducing tketn to horizontal.
Degrees. Links.
23,074  8
24,495  9
25,84 10
27,13  ”
28,36
Degrees. Links.
4,05  i
5,73  f
7,02  |
8,11  1
11,48-
Degrecs. Links.
14,07   3
16,26   4
18,195  5
19,95    6
21,565  7
“ Let the firft ftation line really meafure X107 links,
“ and the angle of altitude or depreflion be 19°, 95:
“ looking in the table you will find againft 190, 95, is
11 6 links. Now 6 times 11 is 66, which fubtracled
“ from 1107, leaves 1041, the true length to be laid
(C down in the plan.
“ It is ufeful in furveying, to take the angles, which
“ the bounding lines form, with the magnetic needle,
“ in order to check the angles of the figure, and to
“ plot them conveniently afterwards.”
Of the Surfaces of Bodies.
The fmalleft fuperficial meafure with us is a fquare
inch; 144 of which make a fquare foot. Wrights
make ufe of thefe in the meafuring of deals and planks ;
but the fquare foot which the glaziers ufe in meafur-
ing of glafs, confifts only of 64 fquare inches. The
other meafures are, firft, the ell fquare; fecondly,
the fall, containing 36 fquare ells; thirdly, the rood,
containing 40 falls; fourthly, the acre, containing 4
roods. Slaters, mafons, and pavers, ufe the ell
fquare and the fall; furveyors of land ufe the fquare
ell, the fall, the rood, and the acre.
The fuperficial meafures of the Englifh are, firft,
the fquare foot; fecondly, the fquare yard, contain-
ing 9 fquare feet, for their yard contains only 3 feet;
thirdly, the pole, containing 30j fquare yards; fourth¬
ly, the rood, containing 40 poles; fifthly, the acre,
containing 4 roods. And hence it is eafy to reduce our
fuperficial meafures to the Englifti, or theirs to ours.
“ In order to find the content of a field, it is moft:
“ convenient to meafure the lines by the chains de-
“ feribed above, p. 9. that of 22 yards for comput-
“ ing the Englilh acres, and that of 2 4 Scots ells for
“ the acres of Scotland. The chain is divided into
“ 100 links, and the fquare of the chain is 10,000
“ fquare links; 10 fquares of the chain, or 100,000
“ fquare links, give an acre. Therefore, if the area
“ be exprefled by fquare links, divide by 100,000, or
“ cut off five decimal places, and the quotient ftiall
“ give the area in acres and decimals of an acre.
“ Write the entire acres apart-, but multiply the de-
“ cimals of an acre by 4, and the produift fliall give
“ the remainder of the area in roods and decimals of
“ a rood. Let the entire roods be noted apart after
“ the acres; then multiply the decimals of a rood by
“ 40, and the product ftiall give the remainder of the
“ area in falls or poles. Let the entire falls or poles
“ be then writ after the roods, and multiply the deei-
“ mals of a fall by 36, if the area is required in the
“ meafures of Scotland ; but multiply the decimals of
“ a pole by 30I, if the area is required in the meafures
“ of England, and the product: ftiall give the remain-
“ der of the area in fquare ells in the former cafe, but
Part II.
Part II.
C E O M
f< in fquare yards in the latter. If, in the former cafe,
t( you would reduce the decimals of the fquare ell to
“ Iquarefeetjtnultiply them by 9.50694; but, in the lat-
« ter cafe, the decimals of the Englilh fquare yard are
« reduced to fquare feet, by multiplying them by 9.
“ Suppofe, for example, that the area appears to
« contain 12.65842 fquare links of the chain of 24
“ ells; and that this area is to be exprelfed in acres,
« roods, falls, &c. of the meafures of Scotland. Di-
« vide the fquare links by 100,000, and the quotient
ei 12.65842 fliows the area to contain 12 acres TVobVo
<( of an acre. Multiply the decimal part by 4, and
« the product 2.63368 gives the remainder in roods
“ and decimals of a rood. Thofe decimals of the
« rood being multiplied by 40, the product gives
“ 25.3472 falls. Multiply the decimals of the fall by
“ 36, and the product gives 12.4992 fquare ells.
“ The decimals of the fquare ell multiplied by 9.50994
<l give 4.7458 fquare feet. Therefore the area pro-
te pofed amounts to 12 acres, 2 roods, 25 falls, 12
fquare ells, and 4T75Vo5 fquare feet.
“But if the area contains the fame number of
“ fquare links of Gunter’s chain, and is to be expreffed
“ by Englilh meafures, the acres and roods are com-
“ puted in the fame manner as in the former cafe.
a The poles are computed as the falls. But the deci-
“ mals of the pole, viz. are t0 he multiplied
“ by 301 (or 30.25), and the produft gives 10.5028
*( fquare yards. The decimals of the fquare yard,
“ multiplied by 9, give 4-5252 fquare feet; there-
“ fore, in this cafe, the area is in Englilh meafure 12
“ acres, 2 roods, 25 poles, 10 fquare yards, and
“ 47soVo5 fquare feet.
“ The Scots acre is to the Englilh acre, by ftatute,
. “ as 100,000 to 78,694, if we have regard to the dif-
<f ference betwixt the Scots and Englilh foot above
“ mentioned. But it is cuftomary ia forae parts of
“ England to have 18,21, ire. feet to a pole, and
“ 160 fpeh poles to an acre ; whereas, by the ftatute,
“ i6f feet make a pole. In fuch cafes the acre is
“ greater in the duplicate ratio of the number of feet
“ to a pole.
“ They who meafure land in Scotland by an ell of
“37 Englilh inches, make the acre lefs than the true
“ Scots acre by 593/5 fquare Englilh feet, or by a*
“ bout -‘5 of the acre.
“ An hulband-land contains 6 acres of fock and
“ fythe-land, that is, of land that may be tilled with
“ a plough, and mown with a fythe ; 13 acres of
“ arable land make an oxgang or oxengate; four
“ oxengate make a pound-land of old extent (by a de-
“ cree of the Exchequer, March it. 1585), and is
“ called librata terrx. A forty-lhilling land of old ex-
“ tent contain^eight oxgang, or 104 acres.
“ The arpent, about Paris, contains 32400 fquare
“ Paris feet, and is equal to 2| Scots roods, or 37W
“ Englilh roods.
“ The aflus quadratus, according to Varro, Collu-
“ mella, ire. was a fquare of 120 Roman feet. The
“ jugerum was the double of this. It is to the Scots
“ acre as 10,000 to 20,456, and to the Englilh acre
“ as 10,000 to 16,097. It was divided (like the as)
“ into 12 unci*, and the uncia into 26, fcrupula.”—
This, with the three preceding paragraphs, are taken
e t it y. [ ,9 )
from an ingenious manufeript, written by Sir Robert
Stewart profeflor of natural philofophy. The greateft
part of the table in p. 9,10. was taken from it likewife.
PROPOSITION XXVIII.
Fig. 12. To find out the area of a reltangular paral¬
lelogram ABCD.—Let the fide AB, for example, be
J feet long, and BC (which conftitutes with BA a right
angle at B) be 17 feet. Let 17 be multiplied by 5,
and the produift 85 will be the number of fquare feet
in the area of the figure ABCD. But if the parallelo¬
gram propofed is not reiftangular as BEFC, its bale B(;
multiplied into its perpendicular height AB (not into
its fide BE) will give its area. This is evident from
art. 68. of Part I.
PROPOSITION XXIX.
Fig. 13. To find the area of a given triangle.—"Let
the triangle BAC be given, whole bafe BC is fuppofed
9 feet long: let the perpendicular AD be drawn from
the angle A oppofite to the bafe, and let us fuppole
AD to be 4 feet. Let the half of the perpendicular
be multiplied into the bafe, or the half of the bafe in¬
to the perpendicular, or take the half of the product
of the whole bafe into the perpendicular, the product
gives 18 fquare feet for the area of the given triangle.
But if only the fides are given, the perpendicular is
found either by protracting the triangle, or by i2th~
and 13th 2. Eucl. or by trigonometry. But how the
area of a triangle may be found from the given fides
only, Ihall be Ihewn in the 31s' propofition.
PROPOSITION XXX.
Fig. 14. To find the area of any re Hi lineal figure.—
If the figure be irregular, let it be refolved into tri¬
angles ; and drawing perpendiculars to the bafes in
each of them, let the area of each triangle be found
by the preceding propofition, and the fum of thefe a-
reaswill give the area of the figure.
SCHOLIUM ,1.
In meafuring boards, planks, and glafs, their fides
are to be meafured by a foot-rule divided into 100
equal parts; and after multiplying the fides, the deci¬
mal fractions are eafily reduced to lefler denominati¬
ons. The menfuration of thefe is eafy, when they
are re«5langular parallelograms.
SCHOLIUM 2.
If a field is to be meafured, let it firft be plotted on
paper, by forae of the methods above deferibed, and
let the figure fo laid down be divided into triangles, as
was fhown in the preceding propofition.
The bafe of any triangle, or the perpendicular up¬
on the bafe, or the diftance of any two points of the
field, is meafured by applying it to the fcale according
to which the map is drawn.
SCHOLIUM 3.
But if the field given be not in a horizontal plane,
but uneven and mountainous, the fcale gives the hori¬
zontal line between any two points, but not their dif¬
tance meafured on the uneven furface of the field.
And indeed it would appear, that the horizontal plane
is to be accounted the a/ea of an uneven and hilly
country. For if fuch ground is laid out for building
on, or for planting with trees, or bearing corn, fince
thefe ftand perpendicular to the horizon, it is plain,
that a mountainous country cannot be confidered as
of greater extent for thofe ufes than the horizontal
( c 3 ) plane ;
PartH.
[40 ] G E O M
plane; nay, perhaps, for nourifhing of plants, the ho¬
rizontal plane may be preferable.
If, however, the area of a figure, as it lies regu¬
larly on the furfaee of the earth, is to be meafured,
this may be eafily done by refolving it into triangles
as it lies. The fum of their areas will be the area
fought; which exceeds the area of the horizontal fi¬
gure more or lefs, according as the field is more or
lei’s uneven.
PROPOSITION XXXI.
Fig. 13. The fide s of a triangle being given, to find
the area, without finding the perpendicular.—Let all
the fides of the triangle be collected into one fum ;
from the half of which let the fides be feparately fub-
trafted, that three differences may be found betwixt
the forefaid half fum and each fide; then let thefe
three differences and the half fum be multiplied into
one another, and the fquare root of the product will
give the area of the triangle. For example, let the
fides be 10, 17, 2t ; the half of their fum is 24; the
three differences betwixt this half fum and the three
fides, are 14, 7, and 3. The firft being multiplied by
the fecond, and their produdl by the third, we have
294 for the prod lift of the differences; which multi¬
plied by the forefaid hifif fum 24, gives 7056; the
fquare root of which 84 is the area of the triangle.
The demonftration of this, for the fake of brevity,
we omit. It is to be found in feveral treatifes, par¬
ticularly in Clavius’s Practical Geometry.
PROPOSITION XXXII.
Fig. 15. The area of the ordinate figure ABEFGH
in equal to the produtt of the half circumference of the
polygon, multiplied into the perpendicular drawn from
the centre of the circunfcrihed circle to the fide of the
polygon.—For the ordinate figure can be refolved into
as many equal triangles, as there are fides of the fi¬
gure ; and fince each triangle is equal to the produdl
of half the bafe into the perpendicular, it is evident
that the fum of all the triangles together, that is the
polygon, is equal to the produiff of half the fum of the
bafes (that is the-half of the circumference of the po-
lygon) into the common perpendicular height of the
triangles drawn from the centre C to one of the fides;
for example, to AB.
PROPOSITION XXXIII.
Fig. 16. The area of a circle is found by multiply¬
ing the half of the periphery into the radius, or the half
of the radius into the periphery.—For a circle is not dif¬
ferent from an ordinate or regular polygon of an infi¬
nite number of fides, and the common height of the
triangles into which the polygon or circle may be fup-
pofed to be divided is the radius of the circle.
Were it worth while, it were eafy to demonftrate
accurately this propofition, by means of the inferibed
and circumfcribed figures, as is done in the 5th prop,
of the treatife of Archimedes concerning the dimen-
iions of the circle.
COROLLART.
Hence alfo it appears, that the area of the fedbor
ABCD is produced by multiplying the half of the arc
into the radius, and likewif’e that the area of the
fegment of the circle ADC is found by fubtracling
from the area of the fedlor the area of the triangle
ABC.
E T R Y.
PROPOSITION XXXIV.
Fig. 17. The circle is to the fquare of the diameter,
as \i to 14 nearly.—For if the diameter AB be fup-
pofed to be 7, the circumference AHBK will be almoft
22 (by the 22d prop, of this Part), and the area of
the fquare DC will be 49; and, by the preceding prop,
the . area of the circle will be 381.: therefore the
fquare DC will be to the inlcribed circle as 49 to 381,
or as 98 to 77, that is, as 14 to li; Qe E. D.
If greater exaclnei’s is required, you may proceed
to any degree of accuracy : for the fquare DC is to
the inferibed circle, as 1 to 1—f+ x—7 + ^—tt + tV
ire. in infinitum.
“ This feries will be of no fervice for computing the
“ area of the circle accurately, without fome further
“ artifice, becaufe it converges at too How a rate.
“ The area of the circle will be found exactly enough
“ for mofi: purpofes, by multiplying the fquare of the
“ diameter by 7854, and dividing by 10,000, or cut-
a ting off four decimal places from the produft ; for
“ the area of the circle is to the circumfcribed fquare
“ nearly as 7854 to r 0,000.”
PROPOSITION. XXXV.
Fig. 18. To find the area of a given eilipfe.—Let
ABCD be an eilipfe, whofe greater diameter is BD,
and the leffer AC, bife&ing the greater perpendicu¬
larly in E. Let a mean proportional HF be found (by
13th 6. Eucl.’) between AC and BD, and (by the 33d
of this) find the area of the circle deferibed on the di¬
ameter HF. This area is equal to the area of the
eilipfe ABCD. For becaufe, as BD to AC, fo the
fquare of BD to the fquare of HF, (by 2. cor. 20tfl
6. Eucl.) : but (by the 2d 12. Eucl.) as the fquare of
BD to the fquare of HF, fo is the circle of the dia¬
meter BD to the circle of the diameter HF : there¬
fore as BD to AC, fo is the circle of the diameter BD
to the circle of the diameter HF. And (by the 5th
prop, of Archimedes of fpheroids) as the greater dia¬
meter BD to the leffer AC, fo is the circle of the dia¬
meter BD to the eilipfe ABCD. Confequently (by
the 11th 5. Eucl.) the circle of the diameter BD will
have the fame proportion to the circle of the diameter
HF, and to the ellipfe ABCD. Therefore, (by 9*h
5. Eucl.) the area of the circle of P.ie diameter HF will
be equal to the area of the eilipfe ABCD. Q. E, D.
S C H 0 L 1 U M.
From this and thetwo preceding propofitions, a me¬
thod is derived of finding the area of an eilipfe. There
are two ways: Ist, Say, as one is to the leffer diame¬
ter, fo is the greater diameter to a fourth number,
(which is found by the rule of three.) Then again
fay, as 14 to 11, fa is the fourth number found to the
area fought. But the fecond way is^horter. Multi¬
ply the leffer diameter into the greater, and the pro-
du£I by 11 ; then divide the whole produit by 14, and
the quotient will be the area fought of the eilipfe. For
example. Let the greater diameter be to, and the lef¬
fer 7; by multiplying 10 by 7, the produdl is 70 ; and
multiplying that by II, it is 770; and dividing 770 by
14, the quotient will be 55, which is the area of the
eilipfe fought.
“ The area of the eilipfe will be found more accu-
“ rately, by multiplying the product of the two dia-
(< meters by 7854.”
We
kit II. G E O M
We fhall add no more about other plain furfaces,
whether retflilinear or curvilinear, which feldom occur
in pratflice ; but fliall fubjoin fome propofitions about
nieafuring the furfaces of folids.
PROPOSITION XXXVI.
To vieafure the furface of any prifm.—By the 14th
definition of the 11th End. a prifm is contained by
planes, of which two oppofite Tides (commonly called
the bafes) are plain redilineal figures; which are either
regular and ordinate, and meafured by prop. 32. of
this; or however irregular, and then they are rneafu-
red by the 28th prop. The other Tides are parallelo¬
grams, which are meaTured by prop. 28th ; and the
whole Tnperficies of the prifm coniilts of the Turn of
thofe taken altogether.
PROPOSITION XXXVII.
To meafure the fuperficies of any pyramid.—Since its
bafis is a redilineal figure, and the reft of the planes
terminating in the top of the pyramid are triangles;
thefe meafured Teparately, and added together, give
the furface of the pyramid required.
PROPOSITION. XXXVIII.
To meafure the fuperficies of any regular body.—
Thefe bodies are called regular, which are bounded by
equilateral and equiangular figures. The fuperficies of
the tetraedon confifts of four equal and equiangular
triangles; the fuperficies of the hexaedron, or cube,
of fix, equal fquares; an odedron, of eight equal equi¬
lateral triangles ; a dodecaedron, of twelve equal and
ordinate pentagons ; and the fuperficies of an icofre-
dron of twenty equal and equilateral triangles. There¬
fore it will be eafy to meafure thefe furfaces from
what has been already Ihown.
In the fame manner we may meafure the fuperficies
of a folid contained by any planes.
PROPOSITION XXXIX.
Fig. 19. To meafure the fuperficies of a cylinder.—
Becaufe a cylinder differs very little from a prifm,
whole oppofite planes (or bafes) are ordinate figures
of an infinite number of Tides, it appears that the fu¬
perficies of a cylinder, without the bafes, is equal to
an infinite number of parallelograms; the common al¬
titude of all which is the fame with the height of the
cylinder, and the bafes of them all differ very little
from the periphery of the circle which is the bafe of
the cylinder. Therefore this periphery multiplied
into the common height, gives the fuperficies of the
cylinder, excluding the bafes; which are to be mea¬
fured feparately by the 33d propofition.
This propofition concerning the meafure of the fur¬
face of the cylinder (excluding its bafis) is evident
from this, that when it is conceived to be fpread out,
it becomes a parallelogram, whole bafe is the peri¬
phery of the circle of the bafe of the cylinder ftretch-
ed into a right line, and whofe height is the fame
with the height of the cylinder.
PROPOSITION XL.
Fig. 20. To meafure the furface of a right cone.—
The furface of a right cone is very little different from
the furface of a right pyramid, having an ordinate po¬
lygon for its bafe of an infinite number of Tides ; the
furface of which (excluding the bafe) is equal to the
film of the triangles. The fum of the bafes of thefe
triangles is equal to the periphery of the circle of the
E T R Y. [21
bafe, and the common height of the triangles is the
fide of the cone AB ; wherefore the fum of thefe tri¬
angles is equal to the prodndt of the fum of the bafes
(/. e. the periphery of the bafe of the cone) multiplied
into the half of the common height, or it is equal to
the product of the periphery of the bafe.
If the area of the bafe is likewife wanted, it is to
be found feparately by the 33d prop. If the furface
of a cone is fiippofed to be fpread out on a plane, it
will become a feiftor of a circle, whofe radius is the
fide of the cone ; and the arc terminating, the feflor
is made from the periphery of the bafe. Whence,
by enrol. 33d prop, of this, its dimenfion may be found.
COROLLARY.
Hence it will be eafy to meafure the furface of a
frufiam of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the bafe.
PROPOSITION XLI.
Fig. 21. To meafure the furface of a given fphere.
—Let there be a fphere, whole centre is A, and let
the area of its convex furface be required. Archi¬
medes demonftrates (37th prop. 1.book of the fphere
and cylinder) that its furface is equal to the area of
four great circles of the fphere ; that is, let the area
of the great circle be multiplied by 4, and the product
Will give the area of the fphere ; or, (by the 20th 6.
and 2d 12. of Eucl.) the area of the fphere given is
equal to the area of a circle whofe radius is the right
line BC, the diameter of the fphere. Therefore ha¬
ving meafured (by 33d prop.) the circle deferibed with
the radius BC, this will give the furface of the fphere.
PROPOSITION XL1I.
Fig. 22. To meajure the furface of a figment of a
fphere.—Let there be a fegment cut off by the plane
ED. Archimedes demonftrates (49, and 50. 1. De
fphtera') that the furface of this fegment, excluding
the circular bafe, is equal to the area of a circle whofe
radius is the right line BE drawn from the vertex B
of the fegment to the periphery of the circle DE.
Therefore, (by the 33d prop.) it is eafily meafured.
COROLLARY r.
Hence that part of the furface of a fphere that lieth
between two parallel planes is eafily meafured, by
fubtratfting the furface of the lefler fegment from the
furface of the greater fegment.
COROLLARY 2.
Hence likewife it follows, that the furface of a cy¬
linder, deferibed about a fphere (excluding the bafis) is
equal to the furface of the fphere, and the parts of the
one to the parts of the other, intercepted between
planes parallel to the bafis of the cylinder.
Of folid Figures and their Menfuralion, comprehending
likewife the Principles of Gauging Vejfels of all
Figures.
As in the former part of this treatife we took an
inch for the fmalleft meafure in length, and an inch
fquare for the fmalleft fuperficial meafure ; fo now,
in treating of the menfuration of folids, we take a cu¬
bical inch for the fmalleft folid meafure. Of thefe
109 make a Scots pint; other liquid meafures depend
on this, as is generally known.
In dry meafures, the firlot, by ftatute, contains Ipf
pints ; and on this depend the other dry meafures.:
therefore, if the content of any folid be given in cu¬
bical
I 22 ] G E O M
bical inches, it will be eafy to reduce the fame to the
common liquid or dry meafures, and converfely to re¬
duce thefe to folicl inches. The liquid and dry mea¬
fures, in ufe among other nations, are known from
their writers.
“ As to the Englilh liquid meafures, by aft of par-
liament 1706, any round velfel commonly called a
*e cylinder, having an even bottom, being feven inches
in diameter throughout, and fix. inches deep from
“ the top of the infide to tlie bottom, (which veffel
ti will be found by computation to contain 230 T95°o7o
<f cubical inches,) or any velfel containing 231 cubical
“ inches, and no more, is deemed to be a lawful wine-
gallon. An Englilh pint therefore contains 28| cu-
“ bical inches ; 2 pints make a quart; 4 quarts a gal-
“ Ion ; 18 gallons'a roundlet; 3 roundlets and an
“ half, or 63 gallons, make a hoglliead ; the half of a
fi hoglhead is a barrel ; 1 hogfliead and a third, or 84
“ gallons, make a puncheon ; 1 puncheon and a half,
*i or 2 hogfheads, or 126 gallons, make a pipe or butt;
t( the third part of a pipe, or 42 gallons, make a tierce;
ti 2 pipes, or 3 puncheons, or 4 hoglheads, make a
tl ton of wine. Though the Englifh wine gallon is
fi now fixed at 231 cubical inches, the ftandard kept
“ in Guildhall being meafured, before many perfons
t( of diftinftion. May 25. 1688, it was found to con-
“ tain only 224 fuch inches.
tl In the Englilh beer-meafure, a gallon contains 282
t( cubical inches ; confequently 35 j cubical inches make
<{ a pint, 2 pints make a quart, 4 quarts make a gal-
t: Ion, 9 gallons a firkin, 4 firkins a barrel. In ale,
“ 8 gallons make a firkin, and 32 gallons make a bar-
“ rel. By an aft of the firft of William and Mary,
“34 gallons is the barrel, both for beer and ale, in all
places, except within the weekly bills of mortality.
<£ In Scotland it is known that 4 gills make a mutch-
<x km, 2 mutchkins make a chopin ; a pint is two cho-
<l pins; a quart is two pints ; and a gallon is four
“ quarts, or eight pints. The accounts of the cubical
“ inches contained in the Scots pint vary confiderably
“ from each other. According to our author, it con-
“ tains 109 cubical inches. But the ftandard-jugs kept
“ by the dean of guild of Edinburgh (one of which has
“ the year IJJJ, with the arms of Scotland, and the
“ town of Edinburgh, marked upon it) having been
l( carefully meafured feveral times, and by different
“ perfons, the Scots pint, according to thofe rtandards,
“ was found to contain about 103 /5 cubic inches.
il The pewterers jugs (by which the velfels in com-
mon ufe are made) are faid to contain fometimes
“ betwixt ioj and 106 cubic inches. A calk that was
“ meafured by the brewers of Edinburgh, before the
“ commiffioners of excife in 1707, was found to con-
il tain 46^ Scots pints ; the fame veffel contained
Englilh ale-gallons. Suppofing this menfura-
“ ting to be juft, the Scots pint will be to the Englilh
“ ale-gallon as 289 to 750; and if the Englilh ale-
“ gallon be fuppofed to contain 282 cubical inches, the
“ Scots pint w ill contain 108.664 cubical inches. But
<e it is fufpefted, on feveral grounds, that the expe-
tc riment was not made with fufficient care and exaft-
“ nefs.
“ The commiflioners appointed by authority of par-
(l liament to fettle the meafures and weights, in their
E T R Y.
“ aft of Feb. 19. i'6i8, relate, That having caufed fill
t( the Linlithgow firlot with water, they found that it
<e contained 211 pints of the juft Stirling jug and mea-
“ fure. They likewife ordain that this lhall be the
“ juft and only firlot; and add. That the widenefs and
“ breadnefs of the which firlot, wider and above even
“ over within the buirds, Jhall contain nineteen inchei
“ and the fixth part of an inch, and the deepnefs feveti
“ inches and a third part of an inch. According to
“ this aft (fuppofing their experiment and computa-
“ tion to have been accurate) the pint contained only
“ 99.56 cubical inches; for the content of fuch a vef-
“ fel as is defcribed in the aft, is 2115.85, and this di-
“ vided by 211 gives 99.56. But, by the weight of
“ water faid to fill this firlot in the fame aft, the mea-
“ fure of the pint agrees nearly with the Edinburgh
“ ftandard above mentioned.
“ As for the Englilh meafures of corn, the Winche-
“ fter gallon contains 272^ cubical inches ; 2 gallons
“ make a peck ; 4 pecks, or 8 gallons (that is, 2178
“ cubical inches) make a bulhel ; and a quarter is 8
“ bulhels.
“ Our author fays, that ipf Scots pints make a fir-
“ lot. But this does not appear to be agreeable to the
“ ftatute above-mentioned, nor to the ftandard-jugs. It
“ may be conjeftured that the proportion afligned by
“ him has been deduced from fome experiment of how
“ many pints, according to common ufe, were con-
“ tained in the firlot. For if we fuppofe thofe pints to
“ have been each of 108.664 cubical inches, according
“ to the experiment made in the 1707 before the
“ commiflioners of excife, defcribed above ; then 19!
“ fuch pints will amount to 2118.94, cubical inches;
“ which agrees nearly with 2115.85, the meafure of
“ the firlot by ftatute above-mentioned. But it is pro-
“ bable, that in this he followed the aft 1587, where
“ it is ordained, That the wheat-firlot lhall contain 19
“ pints and two joucattes. A wheat-firlot marked
“ with the Linlithgow ftamps being meafured, was
“ found to contain about 2211 cubical inches. By the
“ ftatute of 1618 the barley-firlot was to contain 31
“ pints of the juft Stirling-jug.
“ A Paris pint is 48 cubical Paris inches, and is
“ nearly equal to an Enlilh wine-quart. The Boijfean
“ contains 644.68099 Paris cubical inches, or 780.36
“ Englilh cubical inches.
“ The Roman amphora was a cubical Roman foot,
“ the congius was the eighth part of the amphora, the
“ fextarius was one lixth of the congius. They di-
vided the fextarius like the as or libra. Of dry
“ meafures, the medimnus was equal to two amphoras,
“ that is, about I77 Englilh legal bulhels; and the mo~
“ dius was the third part of the amphora."
PROPOSITION XLIII.
To find the folid content of a given prifm.—-By the
29 th prop, let the area of the bafe of the prifm be
meafured, and be multiplied by the height of the prifra,
the produft will give the folid content of the prifm.
PROPOSITION XLIV.
To find the folid content of a given pyramid.—The
area of the bafe being found, (by the 30th prop.) let
it be multiplied by the third part of the height of the
pyramid, or the third part of the bafe by the height, the
produft will give the folid content, by I7tk 12. Eucl.
COR'
Part Ilf
:i 'art II. G E O M
COROLLARY.
If the folid content of nfruflum of a pyramid is re¬
quired, firft let the folid content of the entire pyramid
be found; from which fubtradf the folid content of the
part that is wanting, and the folid content of the bro¬
ken pyramid will remain.
PROPOSITION XLV.
To find the content of a given cylinder.—The area
of the bafe being found by prop. 33. if it be a circle,
and by prop. 3$. if it be an ellipfe, (for in both cafes
it is a cylinder), multiply it by the height of the cylin¬
der, and the folid content of the cylinder will be pro¬
duced.
COROLLARY.
Fig. 23. And in this manner may be meafured the
folid content of veffels and calks not much different
from a cylinder, as ABCD. If towards the middle
EF it be fomewhat groffer, the area of the circle of
the bafe being found (by 33d prop.) and added to the
area of the middle circle EF, and the half of their fum
(that is, an arithmetical mean between the area of the
bafe and the area of the middle circle) taken for the
bafe of the veffel, and multiplied into its height, the
folid content of the given veffel will be produced.
Note, That the length of the veffel, as well as the
diameters of the bafe, and of the circle EF, ought to
be taken within the Haves; for it is the folid content
within the Haves that is fought.
PROPOSITION XL VI.
To find the folid content of a given cone.—Let the
area of the bafe (found by prop. 33.) be multiplied
into i of the height, the produiH will give the folid
content of the cone; for by the 10th 12. Eucl. a cone
Is the third part of a cylinder that has the fame bafe and
height.
PROPOSITION XLVII.
Fig. 24. 25. To find the folid content of a fruHum
of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the plane of the
bafe—Firlt, let the height of the entire cone be
found, and thence (by the preceding prop.) its folid
content; from which fubtradl the folid content of the
cone cut off at the top, there will remain the folid con¬
tent of the frujhim of the cone.
How the content of the entire cone may be found,
appears thus: Let ABCD be the jrujluin of the cone
(either right or fealenous, as in the figures 2. and 3.)
let the cone ECD be fuppofed to be completed ; let
AG be drawn parallel to DE, and let AH and EF be
perpendicular on CD ; it will be (by 2d 6. Eucl.) as
as CG : CA :: CD : CE; but (by art. 72. of Part. I.)
as CA : AH :: CE : EF; confequently (by 22d j. Eucl.)
as CG : AH :: CD : EF ; that is, as the excefs of the
diameter of the leffer bafe is to the height of the fruf-
Unn, fo is the diameter of the greater bafe to the
height of the entire cone.
CO R 0 L L A R Y.
Fig. 26. Some calks whofe Haves are remarkably
bended about the middle, and Hrait towards the ends,
may be taken for two portions of cones, without any
confiderable error. Thus ABEF is a frnfium of a right
cone, to whofe bafe EF, on the other fide, there is a-
nother fimilar fruflum of a cone joined, EDCF. The
vertices of thefe eones, if they be fuppofed to be com¬
pleted, will be found at G and H. Whence, (by the
E T R Y. [ 23 ]
preceding propofition) the folid content of fuch velfels
may be found.
PROPOSITION XLVIII.
Fig. 27. A cylinder circumfcribed about a fphere,
that is, having its bafe equal to a great circle of the
fphere, and its height equal to the diameter of the
fphere, is to the fphere as 3 to 2.
Let ABEC be the quadrant of a circle, and ABDC
the circumfcribed fquare ; and likewife the triangle
ADC ; by the revolution of the figure about the right
line AC, as axis, a hemifphere will be generated by
the quadrant, a cylinder of the fame bale and height
by the Iquare, and a cone by the triangle. Let thefe
three be cut any how by the plane HF, parallel to the
bafe AB ; the feftion in the cylinder will be a circle
whofe radius is FH, in the hemifphere a circle of the
radius EF, and in the cone a circle of the radius GF.
By (art. 69. of Parti.) EA^, orHF^rrEF^ and FA^
taken together, (but M'q=.YGq, becaufe AC=CD) ;
therefore the circle of the radius FH is equal to a circle
of the radius EF, together with a circle of the radius
GF; and fince this is true every where, all the circles
together deferibed by the refpe£Uve radii HF (that is,
the cylinder) are equal to all the circles deferibed by
the refpecHive radii EF and FG (that is, to the hemi¬
fphere and the cone taken together;) but, (by the 10th
12. Eucl.) the cone generated by the triangle DAC is
one third part of the cylinder generated by the fquare
BC. Whence it follows, that the hemifphere gene¬
rated by the rotation of the quadrant ABEC is equal
to the remaining two third parts of the cylinder, and
that the whole fphere is | of the double cylinder cir¬
cumfcribed about it.
This is that celebrated 39th prop. 1. book of Archi¬
medes of the fphere and cylinder; in which he deter¬
mines the proportion of the cylinder to the fphere in-
feribed to be that of 3 to 2.
COROLLARY.
Hence it follows, that the fphere is equal to a cone
whofe height is equal to the femidiameter of the
fphere, having for its bafe a circle equal to the fu-
perficies of the fphere, or to four great circles of the
fphere, or to a circle whofe radius is equal to the dia¬
meter of the fphere, (by prop. 41. of this.) And in¬
deed a fphere differs very little from the fum of an in¬
finite number of cones that have their bafes in the fur-
face of the fphere, and their common vertex in the
centre of the fphere ; fo that the fuperficies of the
fphere, (of whofe dimenfion fee prop. 41. of this)
multiplied into the third part of the femidiameter, gives
the folid content of the fphere.
PROPOSITION XLIX.
Fig. 28. To find the folid content of a fefior of the-
fphere.—A fpherical fedtor ABC (as appears by the
corollary of the preceding prop.) is very little different
from an infinite number of cones, having their bales
in the fuperficies of the fphere BEC, and their com¬
mon vertex in the centre. Wherefore the fpherical
fuperficies BEC being found, (by prop. 42. of this,)
and multiplied into the third part of AB the radius of
the fphere, the product will give the folid content of
the fe&or ABC.
COROLLARY.
It is evident how to find the folidity of a fpherical
fegment
[ 24 ] G E O M
fegment lefs than a h«mifphere, by fubtradling the
cone ABC from the fed:or already found. But if the
fpherical fegment be greater than a hemifphere, the
cone correiponding muit be added to the iedor, to
make the fegment.
PROPOSITION L.
Fig. 29. To find the folidity of the fpheroid, and of
its fegnicnts cut by planes perpendicular to the axis.—
In prop, 44. of this, it is lliewn, that every where
EH : EG :: CF : CD ; but circles are as the fquares
defcribed upon their rays, that is, the circle of the
radius EH is to the circle of the radius EG, as CFy to
CD^. And iince it is fo every where, all the circles
defcribed with the respective rays EH, (that is, the
fpheroid made by the rotation of the femi-ellipfis AFB
around the axis AB,) will be to all the circles defcri¬
bed by the refpedive radii EG, (that is, the fphere
defcribed by the rotation of the femicircle ADB on the
axis AB,) as FC^ to CD^ ; that is, as the fpheroid to
the fphere on the fame axis, fo is the fquare of the
other axis of the generating ellipfe to the fquare of
the axis of the fphere.
And this holds, whether the fpheroid be found by a
revolution around the greater or leffer axis.
COROLLARY 1.
Hence it appears, 'that the half of the fpheroid,
formed by the rotation of the fpace AHFC around the
axis AC, is double of the cone generated by the triangle
AFC about the fame axis ; which is the 3a3 prop, of
Archimedes of conoids and fpheroids.
COROLLARY 2.
Hence, like wife, is evident the meafure of feg-
ments of the fpheroid cut by planes perpendicular to
the axis. For the fegment of the fpheroid made by
the rotation of the fpace ANHE, round the axis AE,
is to the fegment of the fphere having the- fame axis
AC, and made by the rotation of the fegment of the
circle AMGE, as CF^ to CD^.
But if the meafure of this folid be wanted with lefs
labour, by the 34th prop, of Archimedes of conoids
and fpheroids, it will be as BE to AC+EB ; fo is the
cone generated by the rotation of the triapgle A HE
round the axis AE, to the fegment of the fphere
made by the rotation of the fpace ANHE round the
fame axis AE ; which could eafily be demonilrated by
the method of indivifibles.
COROLLARY 3.
Hence it is eafy to find the folid content of the feg-
jnent of a Iphere or fpheroid intercepted between two
parallel planes, perpendicular to the axis. This agrees
as well to the oblate as to the oblong fpheroid; as is
obvious,
COROLLARY 4.
Fig. 30. If a calk is to be valued as the middle piece
of an oblong fpheroid, cut by the two planes DC and
FG, at right angles to the axis: firll, let the folid
content of the half fperoid ABCED be meafured by
the preceding prop, from which let the folidity of the
fegment DEC be fubtrafted, and there will remain
the fegment ABCD; and this doubled will give the
capacity of the caik required.
The following method is generally made ufe of for
finding the folid content of (uch veifels. The double
area of the greatell circle, that is, of that which is de-
E T. R Y. Partli
feribed by the diameter AB at the middle of the calk, |
is added to the area of the circle at the end, that is, |
of the circle DC or FG (for they are ufually equal),
and the third part of this fum is taken for a mean bale
of the calk; which therefore multiplied into the length
of the calk OP, gives the content of the velfel re¬
quired.
Sometimes velfels have other figures, different from
thofe we have mentioned; the eafy methods of mea-
furing which may be learned from thofe who praHife
this art. What hath already been delivered, is fuffi-
cient for our purpofe.
PROPOSITION LI.
Fig. 31. and 32. To find hovs much is contained in
a veffel that is in part emptyt vshoje axis is parallel to
the horizon.—Let AGBH be the great circle in the
middle of the calk, whofe fegment GBH is filled with
liquor, the fegment GAH being empty ; the fegment
GBH is known, if the depth EB be known, and EH a
mean proportional between the fegments of the dia¬
meter AB and EB ; which are found by a rod or ruler
put into the veffel at the orifice. Let the bafis of
the calk, at a medium, be found, which fuppofe to be
the circle CKDL; and let the fegment KCL be fimi-
lar to the fegment GAH (which is either found by
the rule of three, becaufe as the circle AGBH is to
the circle CKDL, fo is the fegment GAH to the feg¬
ment KCL; or is found from the tables of fegments
made by authors); and the product of this fegment
multiplied by the length of the calk will give the liquid
content remaining in the calk.
PROPOSITION LII.
To find the folid content of a regular and ordinate bo¬
dy.—A tetraedon being a pyramid, the folid content
is found by the 44th prop. The hexaedron, or cube,
being a kind of prifm, it is meafured by the 43d prop.
An oflaedron confifts of two pyramids of the fame
fquare bafe and of equal heights; confequently its
meafure is found by the 44th prop. A dodecaedron
confilts of 12 pyramids having equal equilateral and
equiangular pentagonal bafes ; and lb one of thefe be-?
ing meafured (by the 44th prop, of this) and multi¬
plied by 12, the produ£l will be equal to the folid con¬
tent of the dodecaedron. The icoliaedron confifts of
20 equal pyramids having triangular bafes; the folid
content of one of which being found (by the 44th
prop.) and multiplied by 20, gives the whole folid.
The bafes and heights of tbefe pyramids, if you want
to proceed more exactly, may be found by trigonome¬
try. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION LIII.
To find the folid content of a body however irregular.
—Let the given body be immerfed into a veffel of
water, having the figure of a paralelopipedon or
prifm, and let it be noted how much the water is raif-
ed upon the imrnerfion of the body. For it is plain,
that the fpace which the water fills, after the immer-
lion of the body, exceeds the fpace filled before its
immeriion, by a fpace equal to the folid content of the
body, however irregular. But when this excefs is of
the figure of a parallclopipedon or prifm, it is eafily
meafiired by the 43d prop, of this, viz. by multiplying
the area Of the bale, or mouth of the veffel, into the
difference of the elevations of the water before and
after
G E O M
after immerfion: Whence !« found the folid content of
the body given.
In the fame way the folid content of a part of a
body may be found, by immerfing that part only in
water.
There is no neceffity to infifl: here on diminifhing or
enlarging folid bodies in a given proportion. It will
be eafy to deduce thefe things from the f ith and 12th
books of Euclid.
“ The following rules are fubjoined for the ready
“ computation of the contents of veffels, and of any
“ folids in the meafures in ufe in Great Britain.
“ I. To find the content of a cylindric veffel in Eng-
“ glifir wine gallons, the diameter of the bafe and alti-
“ tude of the vefifel being given in inches and decimals
“ of an inch.
“ Square the number of inches in the diameter of
“ the veflel; multiply this fquare by the number of
“ inches in the height: then multiply the produft by
“ the decimal fradtion .0034 ; and this lad produdt
“ ihall give the content in wine-gallons and decimals
“ of fuch a gallon. To exprefs the rule arithmetical-
“ ly ; let D reprefent the number of inches and deci-
“ malsof an inch in the diameter of the veffel, and H
“ the inches and decimals of an inch in the height of
“ the vefiel; then the content in wine-gallons (hall, be
“ DDHX-n^W, or DDHx.0034. Ex. Let the dia-
“ meter Daryi.z inches, the height H=62.3 inches,
“ then the content (hall be 51.2 X 51.2 X 62.3 X
“ .0034 = 555.27.332 wine-gallons. This rule fol-
“ lows from prop. 33. and 45. For, by the former,
“ the area of the bafe of the veffcl is in fquare inches
“ DDX.7854; and by the latter, the content of the
“ veflel in folid inches is DDHX.7854 ; which di-
vided by 231 (the number of cubical inches in a
“ wine-gallon) gives DDHX.0034, the content in
“ wine-gallons. But though the charges in the ex-
“ cife are made (by ftatute) on the fuppofition that the
“ wine-gallon contains 231 cubical inches; yet it is
“ faid, that in fale, 224 cubical inches, the content of
“ the ftandard meafured at Guildhall (as was mention-
“ ed above), are allowed to be a wine-gallon.
“ II. Suppofing the Englifh ale-gallon to contain
“ 282 cubical inches, the content of a cylindric veflel
*l is computed in fuch gallons, by multiplying the
“ fquare of the diameter of a veflel by its height as
“ formerly, and their produft by the decimal fradtion
“ .0,027,851: that is, the folid content in ale-galloqs
“ is DDHx.0,027,851.
“ III. Suppofing the Scots pint to contain about
103.4 cubical inches, (which is the meafure given
“ by the ftandards at Edinburgh, according to expe-
“ riments mentioned above), the content of a cylin-
“ dric veflel is computed in Scots pints, by multiply-
“ ing the fquare of the diameter of the vtflel bydts
“ height, and the produft of thefe by the decimal
“ fraction .0076. Or the content of fuch a veflcl in
“ Scots pints is DDHX.0076.
“ Suppofing the Winchefter bu(hel to contain 2187
“ cubical inches, the content of a cylindric veflel is
“ computed in thofe bufliels by multiplying the fquare
“ of the diameter of the veflel by the height, and the
“ produft by the decimal fradtion .0,003,606. But
“ the (tandard bufliel having been meafured byMrE-
“ verard and others in 1696, it was found to contain
Vol. V.
E T R Y.
“ only 2145.6 folid inches ; and therefore it was enac-
“ ted in the adt for laying a duty upon malt, That
“ every round btijhel, ’with a plain and even bottom,
“ being 18^- inches diameter throughout, and 8 inches
“ deep, Jhould be ejleemed a legal Winchefter bujbel.
“ According to this adt (ratified in the firft year of
“ queen Anne) the legal Winchefter bufliel contains
“ only 2150 42 folid inches. And the content of a
“ cylindric veflcl is computed in fuch bufliels, by mul-
“ tiplying the fquare of the diameter by the height,
“ and their produdt by thedecimal fradtion.0,003,625.
“ Or the content of the veflel in thofe bufliels is
“ DDHX.o,003,625.
“ V. Suppofing the Scots wheat-firlot to contain
“ 2ix Scots pints, (as is appointed by the ftatute
“ 1618), and the pint to be conform to the Edin-
“ burgh ftandards above mentioned, the content of a
*• cylindric veflel in fuch firlots is computed by multi-
“ plying the fquare of the diameter by the height, and
“ their produdt by the decimal fradlion .00,358. This
“ firlot, in 1426, is appointed to contain 17 pints; in
“ 1457, it was appointed to contain 18 pints; in
“ 1587, it is 19!; pints; in 1628, it is 21^ pints:
“ and though this laft ftatute appears to have been
“ founded on wrong computations in feveral refpefts,
“ yet this part of the adt that relates to the number
“ of pints in the firlot feems to be the lead exception-
“ able ; and therefore we fuppofethe firlct to contain
“ 21^ pints of the Edinburgh ftandard, or about 2197
“ cubical inches ; which a little exceeds the Winche-
“ fter bufliel, from which it may have been originally
“ copied.
“ VI. Suppofing the bear-firlot to contain 31 Scots
“ pints, (according to the ftatute 1618), and the pint
“ conform to the Edinburgh ftandards, the content of
“ a cylindric veflel in fuch firlots is found by multiply-
“ ing the fquare of the diameter by the height, and
“ this produdl by .000245.
« When the fe&ion of the veflel is not a circle, but
“ an.ellipfis, the produdl of the greateft diameter by
“ the lead, is to be fubftituted in thofe rules for the
“ fquare of the diameter.
“ VII. To compute the content of a veflel that may
“ be confidered as a frujlum of a cone in any of thofe
“ meafures.
“ Let A reprefent the number of inches in the
“ diameter of the greater bafe, B the number of
“ inches in the diameter of the lefler bafe. Com-
“ pute the fquare of A, the produdi of A mul-
“ tiplied by B, and the fquare of B, and colleft
“ thefe into a fum. Then find the third part of this
“ fum, and fubftitute it in the preceding rules in the
“ place of the fquare of the diameter ; and proceed
“ in all other refpedts as before, Thus, for example,
“ the content in wine-gallons in AA X AB X BB
“ X4 X H x.0034.
“ Or, to the fquare of half the fum of the diame-
“ ters A and B, add one third part of the fquare of
“ half their difference, and fubftitute this fum in the
“ preceding rules for the fquare of the diameter of
“ the veflel; for the fquare of 4- A X t B added to
“ y of the fquare of i A—4 B, gives y- AA X -f
“ AB X4 BB.
“ VIII. When a veffel is a frujlum of a parabolic
“ conoid, meafure the diameter of the fedion at the
18 T “ middle
3269
7°
G E O M
“ middle of the height of the frujium; and the con-
“ tent will be precifely the fame as of a cylinder of
“ this diameter, of the fame height with the veffel.
“ IX. When a vefiel is a fruftum of a fphere, if
“ you meafure the diameter of the feftion at the
“ middle of the height of the frujium, then compute
“ the content of a cylinder of this diameter of the
“ fame height with the veffel, and from this fubftraft
“ y of the content of a cylinder of the fame height,
“ on a bafe whofe diameter is equal to its height;
“ the remainder will give the content of the veflel.
“ That is, if D reprefent the diameter of the middle
“ feftion, and H the height of the frujium, you are
“ to fubilitute DD—y HH for the fquare of the di-
“ ameter of the cylindric veflel in the firft fix rules.
“ X. When the veflel is a fruftum of a fpheroid,
“ if the bafes are equal, the content is readily found
“ by the rule in p. (24.) In other cafes, let the axis
“ of the folid be to the conjugate axis as v to 1 ;
“ let D be the diameter of the middle fe&ion of the
“ frujium, H the height or length of the frujium;
“ and fubftitute in the firft fix rules DD Ii!i for
“ the fquare of the diameter of the veffel.
“ XL When the veflel is an hyperbolic conoid,
“ let the axis of the folid be to the conjugate axis as
" z? to 1, D the diameter of the feftionat the middle
“ of the frujlum, H the height or length : compute
“ DD X-d-. X HH, and fubftitute this fum for the
“ fquare of the diameter of the cylindric veflel in the
“ firft fix rules.
“ XII. In general, it is ufual to meafure any
“ round veflel, by diftinguifliing it into feveral fruj-
“ turns, and taking the diameter of the fedlion at
“ the middle of each frujium', thence to compute
“ the content of each, as if it was a cylinder of
“ that mean diameter; and to give their fum as
“ the content of the veflel. From the total con-
“ tent, computed in this manner, they fubftraiftfuc-
“ ceffively the numbers which exprefs the circular
“ areas that correfpond to thofe mean diameters, each
“ as often as there are inches in the altitude of the
“ frujium to which it belongs, beginning with the
“ uppermoft ; and in this manner calculate a table for
“ the veflel, by which it readily appears how much
“ liquor is at any time contained in it, by taking
“ either the dry or wet inches; having regard to the
“ inclination or drip of the veflel, when it has any.
“ This method of computing the content of a
“ frujium from the diameter of the fe&ion at the
“ middle of its height, is exact in that cafe only
“ when it is a portion of a parabolic conoid; but in
“ fuch veflels as are in common ufe, the error is not
“ confiderable. When the veflel is a portion of a
“ cone or hyperbolic conoid, the content by this me-
“ thod is found lefs than the truth ; but when it is a
“ portion of a fphere or fpheroid, the content com-
“ puted in this manner exceeds the truth. The dif-
“ ference or error is always the fame, in the different
“ parts of the fame or of fimilar veffels, when the
“ altitude of the fruftum is given.. And when the
“ -altitudes are different, the error is in the triplicate
“ ratio of the altitude. If exadlnefs be required,
“ the error in meafuring the;/?-«/?M?// of a conical vef-
“ fd, in this manner, is ^ of the content of a cone
E T R Y.
“ fimilar to the veffel, of an altitude equal to the
“ height of the frujium. In a fphere, it is y of a
“ cylinder of a diameter and height equal to the
“ frujium. In the fpheroid and hyperbolic conoid,
“ it is the fame as in a cone generated by the right-
“ angled triangle, contained by the two femiaxes of
“ the figure, revolving about that fide which is the
“ femiaxis of the frujium.
‘•In the ufual method of computing a table for a
“ veflel, by fubdu&ing from the whole content the
“ number that expreffes the uppermoft area, as often
“ as there are inches in the uppermoft frujium, and
“ afterwards the numbers for the other areas fuccef-
“ fively; it is obvious, that the contents afligned by
“ the table, when a few of the uppermoft inches are
“ dry, are Rated a little too high, if the veffel Hands
“ on its leffer bafe, but too low when it ftands on its
“ greater bafe ; becaufe, when one inch is dry, for
“ example, it is not the area at the middle of the up-
“ permoft frujium, but rather the area at the middle
“ of the uppermoft inch, that ought to be fubdudted
“ from the total content, in order to find the content
“ in this cafe.
“ XIII. To meafure round timber*: Let the mean
“ circumference be found in feet and decimals of a
“ foot ; fquare it; multiply this fquare by the deci-
“ mal .079,577, and the produft by the length.
“ Ex. Let the mean circumference of a tree be jo 3
“ feet, and the length 24 feet. Then 10 3 X 10 3
“ X 079,577 X 24=202.615, is the number of cubi-
“ cal feet in the tree. The foundation of this rule
“ is, that when the cirumference of a circle is I, the
“ area is .0,795,774,7 ty, and that the areas of circles
“ are as the fquares of their circumferences,
“ But the common way ufed by artificers for mea-
“ furing round timber, differs much from this rule.
“ They call one fourth part of the circumference the
“ girt, which is by them reckoned the fide of a
*• fquare, whofe area is equal to the area of the fec-
“ tion of the tree ; therefore they fquare the girt, and
“ then multiply by the length of the tree. Ac-
“ cording to their method, the tree of the laft ex-
“ ample would be computed at X59-13 cubical feet
“ only.
“ How fquare timber is meafured, will be eafily
“ underftood from the preceding propofitions. Fifty
“ folid feet of hewn timber, and forty of rough tins-
“ ber, make a load.
“ XIV. To find the burden of a (hip, or the num-
“ ber of tons it will carry, the following rule is com-
“ monly given. Multiply the length of the keel
“ taken within board, by the breadth of the fhi'p
“ within board, taken from the mfdfhip beam from
“ plank to plank, and the product by the depth of
“ the hold, taken from the plank below the keelfon
“ to the under part of the upper deck plank, and di-
“ vide the produft by 94, the quotient is the content
“ of the tonnage required. This rule however can-
“ not be accurate ; nor can one rule be fuppofed to
“ ferve for the meafuring exactly the burden of fhips
“ of all forts. Of this the reader will find more fa
“ the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences
“ at Paris, for the year 1721.
“ Our author having faid nothing of weights, it
“ may be of ufe to add briefly, that the English
Ttoy-
327I
G E O M
“ Troy-pound contains 12 ounces, the ounce 20 pen-
“ ny-weight, and the penny-weight 24 grains ; that
“ the Averdupois pound contains 16 ounces, the ounce
“ 16 drams, and that 112 pounds is ufually called the
“ hundred weight. It is commonly fuppofed, that
“ 14. pounds Averdupois are equal to 17 pounds
“ Troy. According to Mr Everard’s experiments,
“ 1 pound Averdupois is equal to 14 ounces 12 pen-
“ ny-weight and 16 grains Troy, that is, to 7000
“ grains; and an Averdupois ounce is 437t grains.
“ The Scots Troy-pound (which, by the ftatute
“ 171 was to be the fame with the French) is com-
“ monly fuppofed equal to 15^ ounces EnglHh Troy,
“ or 7560 grains. By a mean of ftandards kept by
“ the dean of guild at Edinburgh, it is 7599^ or
“ 7600 grains. They who have meafured the weights
E T R Y.
“ which were fent from London, after the union of
“ of the kingdoms, to be the ftandards by which the
“ weights in Scotland fhould be made, have found
the Englifh Averdupois pound (from a medium of
“ the feveral weights) to weigh 7000 grains, the fame
“ as Mr Everard ; according to which, the Scots, Pa-
“ ris, or Amfterdam pound, will be to the pound
“ Averdupois as 38 to 35. The Scots Troy-ftone
“ contains 16 pounds, the pound 2 marks or 16
“ ounces, an ounce 16 drops, a drop 36 grains.
“ Twenty Scots ounces make a Tron-pound ; but be-
“ caufe it is ufual to allow one to the fcore, the Tron-
“ pound is commonly 21 ounces. Sir John Skene,
“ however, makes the Tron-ftone to contain only
“ 19-J pounds.”
George. GEO
GEORGE I. II. and III. kings of Great Britain.
—George I. the foil of Ernell Auguftus, duke of
Brunfwick Lunenburgh, and eledlor of Hanover;
fucceeded to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, in
virtue of an adl of parliament, palled in the latter part
of the reign of king William III. limiting the fuccef-
fion of the crown, after the demife of that monarch,
and queen Anne (without iffne), to the princefs Sophia
of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being Prote-
ftants.—George II. the only fon of the former, fuc¬
ceeded him in 1727, and enjoyed a long rein of glo¬
ry ; dying amidft the moft rapid aiid extenfive con-
quefts in the 77th year of his age. He was fucceeded
by his grandfon George III. our prefent fovereign.
For particulars, fee Britain, n° 369,—458.
George, or Knights of St George, has been the de¬
nomination of feveral military orders, whereof that of
the garter is one of the moft illuftrious. See Garter.
King George’/ If ands, are two iflands in the South
Sea, lying, in W. Long. 144. 56. S. Lat. 14. 28.
They were firft difcovered by commodore Byron in
1765, and have fince been vifited by Captain Cook in
1774. Commodore Byron’s people had an encounter
with the inhabitants, which proved fatal to fome of
the natives; but Captain Cook was more.fortunate. A
lieutenan t and two boats well armed were feht on (hore by
Captain Cook; andlanded without oppofition. Asfoon
as the gentlemen landed, the iflanders embraced them
by touching nofes, a mode of-civilily ufed in New Zea¬
land, which is.900 leagues diftant, and the only, place
befides this where the cuftom has been obferved to pre¬
vail. Notwithftanding this ceremony, however, very
little real friendlhip feemed to take place'on the part
of the illanders. They crowded about the boats as the
people were ftepping into them, and feemed in doubt
whether they Ihould detain them or let them go;, at laft,
however, not thinking themfelves fufficiently ftrong,
they feemed contented with their departure, and aflilled
them in pufhing off their boats; but fome of the moft
turbulent threw (tones into the water which fell very
near them, and all feemed to glory that they had as it
were driven them off. The Britifh, however, brouglit
off five dogs of a white colour with fine long hair, with
which the ifland feemed to be plentifully fupplied.
Thefe they purchafed with fmall nails, and fome ripe
bananas which had been brought from the Marquefas.
GEO
On this ifland Mr Forefter found a kind of fcurvy-
grafs, which the natives informed him they were wont
to bruife and mix with (hell-fifh ; after which, they
threw it into the fea whenever they perceived a fhoalof
fifli. This preparation intoxicates them for fome time ;
and thus they are caught on the furface of the water
without any other trouble than that of taking them
out. The name of this plant among the natives is e
now. . The largeft ifland, which they call Tiookea, is
fomething of an oval (hape, and about ten leagues in
circuit; the other ifland, which lies two leagues to the
weftward of Tiookea, is four leagues long from north-
eaft to fouthweft, and from five to three miles long.
The foil of both is extremely fcanty ; the foundation
confifts of coral, very little elevated above the furface
of the water.
St George del Mina, the capital of the Dutch
fettlements, on the gold-coafts of Guinea, fituatedfe-
venor eight miles weft of Cape-coaft caftle, the capi¬
tal of the Britifh fettlements there. W. Long. 5' and
N. Lat. 50.
George, a fort and town of Afia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coro¬
mandel, belonging totheEngliih ; it is otherwife call¬
ed Madrafs, and by the natives Chili-patam. It fronts
the fea, and has a fait-water river on its back fide, which
hinders the frefti-water fprings from coming near the
town, fo that they have no good water within a mile
of them. In the rainy feafons it is incommoded by in¬
undations; and from April to September it is fo fcorch-
ing hot, that if the fea-breezes did not cool the air,
there would be no living there. There are two towns,
one of which is called the White, Town, which is walled
round, and has feveral bulwarks and baftions to defend
it: it is 400 paces long and 150 broad, and is divided
into regular ftreets. Here are two churches, one for
the Proteftants, and the other for the Papifts ; as alfo
a good hofpital, a town-hall, and a prifon for debtors.
They are a corporation, and have a mayor;and aider-
men, with other proper officers. The Black Town is
Inhabited by Gentoos, Mahometans, and. Portuguefe
and Armenian CKriftians, and each religion have their
temples and churches. This, as well as the White
Town, is ruled by the Englifh governor and his coun¬
cil. The diamond-mines are but a week’s journey
from this place, which renders them pretty plentiful,
18 T 2 but
Georgia..
GEO [32
but there are no large ones fmce that great diamond was
procured by governor Pitt. This colony produces very
little of its own growth or manufa&ure for foreign
markets, and the trade is in the hands of the Arme¬
nians and Gentoos. The chief things the Britilh
deal in, befides diamonds, are calicoes, chintz, muf-
lins, and the like. This colony may confift of 80,000
inhabitants in the towns and villages, and there are
generally 400 or 500 Europeans. Their rice is brought
by fea to Gangam and Orixa, their wheat from Su¬
rat and Bengal, and their fire-wood from the iflands
of Diu : fo that an enemy, with a fuperior force
at fea, may eafily diftrefs them. The houfes of the
White Town are built with brick, and have lofty
rooms and flat roofs ; but the Black Town confilts
chiefly of thatched cottages. The military power is
lodged in the governor and council, who are alfo the
laft refort in civil caufes. The company have two chap¬
lains, who officiate by turns, and have each too l, a-
year, befides the advantages of trade. They never at¬
tempt to make profelytes, but leave that to the Popifh
miffionaries. The falaries of the company’s writers
are very fmall : but, if they have any fortune of their
own, they may make it up by trade; which muft ge¬
nerally be the cafe, for they commonly grow rich. It
was taken by the French in 1746, who reftored it at
the peace of Aix la Cbapelle.
St George’s, the largeft of the Bermuda or Sum¬
mer iflands. W. Long. 65. 10. N. Lat. 32. 30.
Crofs of St George, a red one in a field argent,
which makes part of the Britifh ftandard.
GEORGIA, a country of Afia, fubjeft to the
Turks. It is bounded on the north by Circafiia, on
the eaft by Dagheftan and Shirvan, on the fouth by
Armenia, and on the weft by the Euxine or Black Sea;
comprehending the greateft part of the ancient Col¬
chis, Iberia, and Albania. About the etymon of the
name of this country, authors are not agreed. The
luoft probable opinion is, that it is a corruption
foftening of Kurgia, from the river Kurj whence alfo
it is fuppofed that the inhabitants are called by the
Perfians indifferently Georgi, Gurgi, and Kurgi ; and
the country Kurgiftan and Gurgijlan : It is divided by
a ridge of mountains into caftan and wefUrn ; the for¬
mer of which is again fubdivided into the kingdoms of
Caket, Carduel or Carthuel, and Goguetia; and the
latter into the provinces of Abcalfia, Mireta, or Ima-
retta, and Guriel. Another divifion is into Georgia
Proper, Abcalfia, and Mingrelia.
“ Georgia (fays Sir John Chardin) is as fertile a
country as can be feen ; the bread is as good here as
in any part of the world ; the fruit of an exquifite fla¬
vour, and of different forts ; no place in Europe yields
better pears and apples, and no place in Afia better
pomegranates. The country abounds with cattle, ve-
nifon, and wild-fowl, of all forts ; the river Kuris is well
flocked with fifli; and the wine is fo rich, that the king
of Perfia has always fome of it for his own table. The
inhabitants are robuft, valiant, and of a jovial temper;
great lovers of wine, and efteemed very trufty and
faithful ; endowed with good natural parts, but, for
want of education, very vicious. The women are ge¬
nerally fo fair and comely, that the wives and concu¬
bines of the king of Perfia and his court are for the
moft part Georgian women. Nature has adorned them
72 ] GEO
with graces no where elfe to be met with; it is im- Georgia,
pofiible to fee them without loving them ; they are of - ——*
a good fize, clean-limbed, and well-fhaped.” Another
traveller, however, of no mean charadter, thus exprcfies
himfelf with refpedl to the women : “ As to the Geor¬
gian women, they did not at all furprize us ; for we
expe&ed to find them perfedt beauties. They are, in¬
deed, no way difagreeable ; and may be counted beau¬
ties, if compared with the Curdes. They have an air
of health that is pleafing enough ; but, after all, they
are neither fo handfome nor fo well ftiaped as is
reported. Thofe who live in the towns have no¬
thing extraordinary, more than the others; fo that I
may, I think, venture to contradidl the accounts that
have been given of them by mod travellers.”
Georgia abounds with woods and mountains, inter¬
mixed with a great number of beautiful plains.
The only rivers of note in this country are the Cy¬
rus, Cyrnus, Corns, or Kur, and the Aragus. The
firft fprings from the Mofchian mountains, which fepa-
rate Colchis from Armenia, waters the country now
called Mokan, and, after receiving into its channel the
Aragus and Araxes, falls by one mouth into the Caf-
pian fea. This river is. navigable the greateft part of
its courfe. The Aragus fprings from the mountains
that feparate Iberia from Colchis, and falls into the
Cyrus.
Iberia, or Georgia, is tributary or fubjedl either to
the Porte or the king of Perfia, and known to the
Perfians by the name of Gurgiftan, that is, “the land
of the Georgians for ta//is an ancient Celtic word,
fignifying a country, and ftill in ufe among the eaftern
nations, as appears from the modern names of Curde-
ftan, Indoftan, &c. that is, the country of the Cur¬
des, of the Indians, &c.
The whole country of Georgia is but thinly inha¬
bited, and has but very few cities in proportion to its
extent and fertility ; which is doubtlefs in a great mea-
fure owing to the barbarous and unnatural traffic car¬
ried on here in boys and girls, parents felling their chil¬
dren, mafters their fervants, and lords their vaflals and
tenants. Every one, in ffiort, trades in the males and
females he is mafter of, and difpofes of them to the
Turks and Perfians, who employ them in their armies
and feraglios, as flaves, mutes, eunuchs, foldiers,
ftatefmen, and concubines, according to their capaci¬
ties, and the favour they have obtained with their ma¬
fters.
This country formerly abounded with great cities, as
appears not only from its hiftory, but from the ruins of
many of them ftill vilible, which ftiew that they muft
have been very large, opulent, and magnificienely
built. Thefe were all deftroyed by the inundations of
northern barbarians from mount Caucafus, as the A-
lans, Huns, Suevi, and fome others, fo much noted
in hiftory for their ftrength, courage, and conqtiefts.
The air of Georgia is ferene, dry, and healthful;
but very cold in winter, and hot in fummer.
The fine weather commonly begins about May, and
lafts till November. But the lands want a good-deal of
watering-to make them produce a plentiful crop; when
they yield all forts of grain, fruit, and pulfe, in abun¬
dance, which fell at fo cheap a rate that the people
want for nothing. The cattle, both fmall and great,
are fat and good, and in great numbtis ; but the com¬
mon
Georgia.
GEO [ ^
mon people live moflly on fwine’s flefli, which is every
where excellent, and, by their own account, whole-
fome and of eafy digeftion. The river Kur, as well
as the Cafpian fea, which lies eaft of Georgia, fup-
plies it with plenty and variety of fifli.
The mountains of Caucafus, that lie partly in this
Country, are known at prefent to the inhabitants by
the names of Cochas and Cochias, which are, without
doubt, a corruption of the ancient. The Arabs call
them the Mountains of Raf.
The inhabitants are civil enough to Grangers, allow¬
ing them to live and trade as they pleafe, and to pro-
fefs what religion they have a mind : hence people of
various nations are feen here, as Turks, Armenians,
Perfians, Jews, Greeks, Indians, Tartars, Ruffians,
and other Europeans. But the Armenians are the moft
numerous ; and, by carrying on the greateft part of
the trade, are alfo the richelt; for which reafon the
Georgians hate and defpife them, regarding them in
much the fame light as the Europeans do the Jews.
The Georgians wear four caps on their heads, and a
kind of long veft, open before, but which may be but¬
toned at pleafure ; their breeches and under-garments.
are likethofeof the Perfians, as is the entire drefs of
the women.
Their houfes, efpecially thofe of the better fort, are
alfo after the model of thofe of Perfia, as well as all
their public buildings : and they may afford .to have
them built after the beft manner, having not only
flone, wood, plafter, lime, and all other materials, in
the greateft plenty and cheapnefs; but alfo can have
the moft laborious work done by their own vaffals, o-
ver whom they have fuch an abfolute power, that they
can keep them employed whole months together, with¬
out allowing them either wages or food.
Iberia, or Georgia, according to Jofephus, was firft
peopled by Tubal, the brother of Corner and Magog.
His opinion is confirmed by the Septuagint; for Me-
ffiech and Tubal are by thefe interpreters rendered
Mofchi and Iberians. We know little of the hiftory
of the country till the reign of Mithridates, when their
king, named Artocis, Tiding with that prince againft
Lucullus, and afterwards againft Pompey, was defeat¬
ed by the latter, with great {laughter ; but afterwards
obtained a peace, upon delivering up his fons as hoila-
ges. Little notice is taken of the fucceeding kings by
the ancient hiftorians. They were probably tributary
to the Romans till that empire was overturned, when
this, with the other countries in Afia bordering on it,
fell fucceffively under the power of the Saracens and
Turks. A certain prince of Georgia, named Hera-
clius, has lately made a great noife, and a confiderable
progrefs in his endeavours to fhake off the Turkilh
yoke, having, according to advices from the eaft, fe-
veral times defeated the Ottoman troops: but it feems
either his former good fortune forfook him, or an ac¬
commodation took place ; for all the intelligence from
that part of the world, for fome time paft, hath been
entirely filent with regard to him.
The capital of the country is Teflis ; for an ac¬
count of which, fee that article.
Georgia, one of the provinces of the Britifti em¬
pire in America, lying betweeen South Carolina and
Florida. It extends 120 miles upon the fea-coaft,
and 300 miles from thence to the Apakchian moun-
73 ] GEO
tains, and its boundaries to the north and fouth Georgs
are the rivers Savannah and Alatamaha. The Britilh "
miniftry had been long defirous of ere&ing a colony on
this trad of country, that was confidered as dependent
upon Carolina. One of thofe inftances of benevolence,
which liberty, the fource of every patriotic virtue,
renders more frequent in Britain than in any other
other country, ferved to determine the views of go¬
vernment with regard to this place. A rich and hu¬
mane citizen, at his death, left the whole of his eftate
to fet at liberty fuch infolvent debtors as were detained
in prifon by their creditors. Prudential reafons of po¬
licy concurred in the performance of this will didated
by humanity ; and the government gave orders, that
fuch unhappy prifoners as were releafed, fhould be
tranfplanted into that defert country, which was now
intended to be peopled. It was named Georgia^ in
honour of the reigning fovereign.
The parliament added 9,843 1. 15 s. to the eftate
left by the will of a citizen ; and a voluntary fubfcrip-
tion produced a much more confiderable fum. Gene¬
ral Oglethorpe was fixed upon to direct thefe public
finances, and to carry into execution fo excellent a
projeft. He chofe to conduct, himfelf, the firft: colo-
nifts that were fent to Georgia; where he arrived in
January 1733, and fixed his people on afpot ten miles
dittant from the fea, in an agreeable and fertile plain
on the banks of the Savannah. This rifing fettlement
was called Savannah, from the name of the river ; and
inconfiderable as it was in its infant ftate, was, how-
ever, to become the capital of a flourifhing colony. '
It confifted at firft of no more than 100 perfons;
but before the end of the year the number was in-
creafed to 618, of whom 127 had emigrated at their
own expence. Three hundred men, and 113 women,
102 lads, and 83 girls, formed the beginning of this
new population, and the hopes of a numerous pofte-
rity.
This fettlement was increafed in 1735 by the arrival
of fome Scotch Highlanders. Their national courage
induced them to accept an eftablilhment offered them
upon the borders of the Alatamaha, to defend the
colony, if neceffary, againft the attacks of the neigh¬
bouring Spaniards. Here they built the towns of Da¬
rien and Frederica, and feveral of their countrymen
came over to fettle among them.
In the fame year, a great number of Proteftants
driven out of Saltzburg by a fanatical prieft, embarked
for Georgia to enjoy peace and liberty of confidence.
At firft they fettled on a fpot juft above that of the
infant colony; but they afterwards chofe to be at a
greater d: Gance, and to go as far down as the month
of the Savannah, where they built a town called
Ebenezer.
Some Switzers followed the example of thefe wife
Saltzburghers, though they had not, like them, been
perfecuted. They alfo fettled on the banks of the
Savannah ; but at the diftance of 34 miles from the
Germans. Their colony confifting of 100 habitations,
was named Purijburgh, from Pury their founder; who
having been at the expence of their fettlement, was
defervedly ehofen their chief, in teftimony of their
gratitude to him.
In thefe four or five colonies, fome men were found
more inclined to trade than agriculture. Thefe, there¬
fore^
GEO [ 3274 ] G E R
Georgia. fore> feparated from the reft in order to build the city
Augufta, 236 miles diftant from the ocean. The
goodnefs of the foil, though excellent in itfelf, was
not the motive of their fixing upon this fituaiion ;
but they were induced to it by the facility it afforded
them of carrying on the peltry trade with the favages.
Their projeft was fo fuccefsful, that, as early as the
year 1739, 600 people were employed in this com¬
merce. The fale of thefe /kins was carried on with
the greater facility from the circumftance of the Sa¬
vannah admitting the largeft (hips to fail upon it as
far as the walls of Augufta.
The mother-country ought, one would imagine, to
have formed great expeftations from a colony, where
Ihe had fent near 5000 men, and laid out 64,968 1.
exclufive of the voluntary contributions that had
been raifed by zealous patriots. But to her great
furprife (he received information in 1741, that there
remained fcarce a fixth part of that numerous colony
fent to Georgia ; who being now totally difcouraged,
feemed only defirous to fix in a more favourable fitua-
tion. The reafons of thefe calamities were inquired
into and difcovered.
This colony, even in its infancy, brought with it
the feeds of its decay. The government, together
with the property of Georgia had been ceded to in¬
dividuals. The firft ufe that the proprietors of Geor¬
gia made of the unlimited power they were invefted
with was to eftablifh a fyftem of legifiation, that made
them entirely mafters not only of the police, juftice,
and finances, of the country, but even of the lives and
eftates of its inhabitants. Every fpecies of right was
withdrawn from the people, who are the original pof-
feffors of them all. Obedience was required of the
people, though contrary to their interelt and know¬
ledge ; and it was confidered here, as in other coun¬
tries, as their duty and their fate.
As great inconveniences had been found to arife in
other colonies from large poffeffions, it was thought
proper in Georgia to allow each family only 50 acres
of land ; which they were not permitted to mortgage,
or even to difpofe of by will to their female iffue.
This laft regulation of making only the male iffue ca¬
pable of inheritance, was foon aboliftied but there
(till remained too many obftacles to excite a fpirit of
emulation. It feldom happens, that a man refolves
to leave his country but upon the profped of fome
great advantage that works ftrongly upon his imagi¬
nation. All limits, therefore, prefcribed to his in-
duftry, are fo many checks which prevent him from
engaging in any project. The boundaries afiigned to
every plantation muft neceffarily have produced this
bad effect. Several other errors ftill affe&ed the ori¬
ginal plan of this country, and prevented its increafe.
The taxes itnpofed upon the moft fertile of the Bri-
ti(h colonies, are very inconfiderable; and even thefe
.are not levied till the fettlements have acquired fome
degree, pf vigour and profperity. From its infant ftate,
Georgia had been fubjedted to the fines of a feudal
government, with which it had been as it were fet¬
tered. The revenues raifed by this kind of fervice in-
creafed prodigioudy, in proportion as the colony ex¬
tended itfelf. The founders of it, blinded by a fpirit
of avidity, did not perceive that the fmalleft duty im-
pofed upon the trade of a populous and flouridling
rovince, would much fooner enrich them than the Georgia;
trgeft fines laid upon a barren and uncultivated II i
ountry. Geranium]
To this fpecies of oppreffion was added another,
which, however incredible it may appear, might arife
from a fpirit of benevolence. The planters in Geor¬
gia were not allowed the ufe of (laves. Carolina and
fome other colonies having been eftablidied without
their afliftance, it was thought that a country deftined
to be the bulwark of thofe Amrican poffefiions ought
not to be peopled by a fet of (laves, who could not be
in the lead intetefted in the defence of their oppref-
fors. But it was not at the fame time forefeen, that
colonifts, who were lefs favoured than their neigh¬
bours by the mother-country, who were fituated in a
country lefs fufceptible of tillage, and in a hotter cli¬
mate, would want ftrength and fpirit to undertake a
cultivation that required greater encouragement.
The indolence which fo many obftacks gave rife
to, found a further exeufe in another prohibition that
had been impofed. The difturbances produced by |
the ufe of fpirituous liquors over all the continent of
North America, induced the founders of Georgia to
forbid the importation of rum. This prohibition,
though well intended, deprived the colonifts of the
only liquor that could correft the bad qualities of the
waters of the country, which were generally unwhole-
fome; and of the only means they had to reftore the
wafte of ftrength and fpirits that muft be the confe*
quence of inceffant labour. Befides this, it prevented
their commerce with the Antilles; as they could not
go thither to barter their wood, corn, and cattle, that
ought to have been their moft valuable commoditiest
in return for the rum of thofe iflands.
The mother-country at length perceived how
much thefe defers in the political regulations and in-
(litutions had prevented the increafe of the colony,
and freed them from the reftraints they had before
been clogged with. The government in Georgia was
fettled upon the fame plan as that which had rendered
Carolina fo flourifliing; and, inftead of being depen¬
dent on a few individuals, became one of the national
poffeffions.
Georgia Southern. See America, n° 20.
GEOR.GIC, a poetical compofition upon the fub-
je£t of hulbandry, containing rules therein, put into a
pleafing drefs, and fet off with all the beauties and em-
bellifhments of poetry. The word is borrowed from
the Latin georgicus, and that of the Greek ytapyixof,
of yv, terra, “ earth,” and ipyu^o,uai, opero, “ I work,
or labour,”, of e/^ov) opus, “ work.’’
Hefiod and Virgil are the two greateft mafters in
this kind of poetry.
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind,
except Rapin’s book of Gardening ; and the celebra¬
ted poem entitled Cyder, by Mr Philips, who, if he
had enjoyed the advantage of Virgil’s language, would
have been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree. ;
GERANITES, in natural hiftory, an appellation
given to fuch of the femipellucid gems as are marked
with a fpot refembling a crane’s eye.
GERANIUM, crane’s bill; a genus of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants. There are 57 fpecies; the molt remarkable
of which are, 1. The Pratenefe, with a crowfoot leaf,
and
G E R [ 3275 ] G . E R
Gerard and large blue flowers, a native of many parts of Bri¬
ll. tain, growing in moift meadows, but is often planted
Ger lcr‘ in gardens on account of the beauty of its flowers.
Of this there are two varieties, with white, and va¬
riegated flowers. 2. The fanguincum, a native of
Germany and Switzerland, with deep-red or purple
flowers from the fide of the branches, one upon each
foot-ftalk. Of this there are feveral varieties, differ¬
ing from one another chiefly in the figure of the ftalks
and leaves. 3. The phsenm, a native of the Alps and
Helvetian mountains, with blackifh purple flowers,
two upon each footftalk. 4. The nodofum, a native
ofFrance, with pale purple flowers, two upon each
footftalk. 5. The macnorrhizum, or fweet-fmelling
cranium, a native of Germany and Switzerland, with
eautiful purple flowers. 6. The ftriatum, with white
flowers, beautifully variegated with purple. 7. The
zonale, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, with an
hairy lady’s-mantle leaf, red flowers, and a fhrubby
ftalk branching fix or eight feet high.
The firft fix fpecies are hardy plants, with fibrous
perennial roots, and annual ftalks which rife from the
root in fpring. The flowers come out in May, June,
and July ; and are extremely numerous, each confiding
of five fmall fpreading petals. Thefe are fucceeded by
plenty of feed in Auguft and September ; which, if
permitted to fcatter, will raife an abundant crop of
young plants. They may alfo be propagated by part¬
ing the roots. The laft fort is thatmoft commonly cul¬
tivated in gardens; but being a native of a warm cli¬
mate, will not bear the open air here in the winter-time.
There is a variety of this fpecies, which is particularly
valued on account of its finely variegated leaves.
GERARD (John), a learned Lutheran divine, was
profeffor of divinity, and re6lor of the academy of Je¬
na, the place of his birth. He wrote, 1. The harmo¬
ny of the Eaftern languages; 2. A treatife on the
Coptic church ; and other works which are efteemed.
He died in 1668.
GERARDE (John), a furgeon in London, and
the greateft botanift of his time, was many years chief
gardener to Lord Burleigh ; who was himfelf a great
lover of plants, and had the beft colledlion of any no¬
bleman in the kingdom, among which were a great
number of exotics introduced by Gerarde. In 1597
he publifhed his Herbal, which was printed at the ex¬
pence of J. Norton, who procured the figures from
Francfort. In 1663, Thomas Johnfon, an apotheca¬
ry, publifhed an improved edition of Gerarde’s book ;
which met w'ith fuch approbation by the Univerfity of
Oxford, that they conferred on him the degree of doc¬
tor of phyfic; and it is ftill much efteemed. The defcrip-
tions in the herbal are plain and familiar; and both
thefe authors have laboured more to make their readers
underftand the characters of the plants, than to in¬
form them that they themfelves underftood Greek and
Latin.
GERBIER, (Sir Balthazar), a painter of Ant¬
werp, born in the year 1592, diftinguifhed himfelf by
painting fmall figures in diftemper. King Charles I.
was fo pleafed wuth his performances, that he invited
him to his court, where he obtained the efteem of the
Duke of Buckingham, and grew into great favour.
He was not only knighted, but fent to Bruffels, where
he long refided as agent for the king of Great Britain.
GERM, among gardeners'. See Gemma. Germ
GERMAN, in genealogy, denotes entire or nubolee Germ^n
thus, a brother-german is one both by the father’s and £rn':1’1^'-
mpther’s fide; and coufini-german are the children of
brothers or fifters.
German, or Germanic, alfo denotes any thing be¬
longing to Germany ; as the German empire, German
flute, &c.
GERMANDER, in botany. Seethe article Teu-
CRIUM.
GERMANICUS C^SAR, the fon of Drufus, and
paternal nephew to the emperor Tiberius, who adopt¬
ed him ; a renowned general, but ftill more illuftrious
for his virtues. He took the title of Germanicus from
his conquefts in that country; and though he had the
moderation to refufe the empire offered to him by his
army, Tiberius, jealous of his fuccefs, andoftheuni-
verfal efteem he acquired, caufed him to be poifoned,
A. D. 29, aged 34. He was a prote&or of learning ;
and compofed fome Greek comedies and Latin poems,
fome of which are ftill extant.
GERMANY, a very extenfive empire of Europe,
but which, in different ages of the world, hath had
very different limits. Its name, according to the mod
probable conjedture, is derived from the Celtic words
Ghar man, fignifying a warlike man, to which their
other name, Allman, or Aleman, likewife alludes.
The ancient hiftory of the Germans is altogether wrap¬
ped up in obfcurity ; nor do we, for many ages, know
any thing more of them, than what may be learned
from the hiftory of their wars with the Romans. The
firft time we find them mentioned by the Roman hifto-
rians, is about the year 211 B. C. at which time
Marcellos fubdued Infubria and Liguria, and defeated
the Gsefatae, a German nation, fituated on the banks
of the Rhine. From this time hiftory is filent with
regard to any of thefe northern nations, till the erup¬
tion of the Cimbri and Teutones, who inhabited the
moft northerly parts of Germany. The event of their
enterprife is related under the articles Ambrones,
Cimbri, and Teutones. We muft not, however,
imagine, becaufe thefe people happened to invade Italy
at the fame time, that therefore their countries were
contiguous to one another. The Cimbri and Teutones
only, dwelt beyond the Rhine; while the Ambrones
inhabited the country between Switzerland and Pro¬
vence. It is indeed very difficult to fix the limits of
the country called Germany by the Romans. The j im*s of
fouthern Germans were intermixed with the Gauls, ancient
and the northern ones with the Scythians; and thus Germany,
the ancient hiftory of the Germans includes that of
the Dacians, Huns, Goths, &c. till the deftrudion of
the weftern Roman empire by them. Ancient Ger¬
many, therefore, we may reckon to have included the
northern part of France, the Netherlands, Holland,
Gerrnam fo called at prefent, Denmark, Pruffia, Po¬
land, Hungary, part of Turky in Europe, and Muf-
covy.
The Romans divided Germany into two regions;
Belgic or Lower Germany, wffiich lay to the fouth-
ward of the Rhine; and Germany Proper, or High
Germany. The firft lay between the rivers Seine and Nati*n .
the Rhine ; and in this we find a number of different
nations, the moft remarkable of which vrere the fol-Lower Ger-
lowing. many.
i. The
Germany.
■Nations in
'habiting
High Ger-
GER f 3r
I. The Ubtt, vvhofe territory lay between the Rhine
and the Mofa or Maefe, and whofe capital was the city
of Cologne. 2. Next to them were theTungri, fup-
pofed to be the fame whom Ca:far calls Eburones and
Condrujl; and whofe metropolis, then called Attuatica,
has fince been named Tongres. 3. Higher up from
them, and on the other fide of the Mofelle, were the
Treviri, whofe capital was Augufta Trevirorum, now
‘friers. 4. Next to them were theTribocci, Nemetes,
and Vangiones. The former dwelt in Alface, and had
Argentoratum, now Strq/burg, for their capital : the
others inhabited the cities of Worms, Spire, and Mentz.
5. The Mediomatrici were fituated along the Mofelle^
about the city of Metz in Lorrain; and above them
were fituated another German nation, named Raurici,
Rcturaci, or Rauriacii and who inhabited that part of
Helvetia, or Switzerland, about Bafil. To the weft-
ward and fouthward of thefe were the Nervii, Sueflbnes,
Silvanedftes, Leuci, Rhemi, Lingones, &c. who inha¬
bited Belgic Gaul.
Between the heads of the Rhine and Danube were
feated the ancient kingdom of Vindelicia, whofe, ca¬
pital was called Augujia Vindelicorum, now Augfburg.
Below it on the fejffiks of the Danube were the king¬
doms of Noricum and Pannonia. The firft of thefe
was divided into Noricum Ripenfe and Mediterraneum.
It contained a great part of the provinces of Auftria,
Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and fome others of
lefs note. The latter contained the kingdom of Hun¬
gary, divided into Upper and Lower; and extending
from Ulyricum to the Danube, and the mountains
Caetii in the neighbourhood of Vhidebona, now
Vienna.
- Upper or High Germany lay beyond the Rhine
and the Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe
were the following nations. 1. The Chauci, Upper
and Lower; who were divided from each other by the
river Vifurges, now the IVefer. Their country contained
■what is now called Bremen, Lunenburg, Friezland,
and Groninghen. The upper Chauci had the Che-
rufci, and the lower the Chamavi on the fouth-eaft,
and the German Ocean on the north-weft. 2. The
Frifii, upper and lower, were divided from the lower
Chauci by the river Amifia, now the Ems; and from
one another by an arm of the Rhine. Their country
ftil! retains the name of Friefland, and is divided into
eaft and weft ; but the latter is now difmembered from
Germany, and become one of tfie Seven United Pro¬
vinces. 3. Beyond the Ifela, now the Ifel, which
bounded the country of the Frifii, were fituated the
Bru&eri, who inhabited that tra6t now called Broek-
morland; and the Marfi, about the river Luppe. On
the other fide of that river were the Uftpii or U/ipites;
but thefe were famed for often changing their territo¬
ries, and therefore found in other places. 4. Next to
thefe were the Juones, or inhabitants of Juliers, be¬
tween the Maefe and the Rhine. 5. The Catti, ano¬
ther ancient and warlike nation, inhabited Heffe and
Thuringia, from the Hartzian mountains to the Rhine
and Wefer; among whom were comprehended the
Mattiaci, whofe capital is by fome thought to be Mar-
purg, by others Baden. 6. Next to thefe were the
Seducii, bordering upon Suabia; Narifci, or the an¬
cient inhabitants of Northgow, whofe capital was Nu¬
remberg ; and the Marcomanni, whofe country an-
6 ] GER
ciently reached from the Rhine to the head of the Germany..
Danube, and to the Neckar. The Marcomanni after- '
wards went and fettled in Bohemia and Moravia, under
their general or king Maroboduus ; and fome of them
in Gaul, whence they drove the Boii, who had feated
themfelves there, 7. On the other fide of the Da¬
nube, and between the Rhine and it, were the Her-
munduri, who poireffed the country now called Mifnia
in Upper Saxony ; though fome make their territories
to have extended much farther, and to have reached
quite to, or even beyond, the kingdom of Bohemia,
once the feat of the Boii, whence its name. 8. Be- ’
yond them, on the north of the Danube, was another
feat of the Marcomanni along the river Albis, or Elbe.
9. Next to Bohemia were fituated the Quadi, whofe
territories extended from the Danube to Moravia, and
the northern part of Auftria. Thefe are comprehended
under the ancient name of Suevi; part of whom at
length forced their way into Spain, and fettled a king¬
dom there. 10. Eaftward of the Quad! were fituated
the Baftarnae, and parted from them by the Granna,
now Gran; a river that falls into the Danube, and by
the Carpathian mountains, from them called Alpes Ba-
Jiarnicee. The country of the Baftarnae indeed made
part of the European Sarmatia, and fo was without
the limits of Germany properly fo called; but we find
thefe people fo often in league with the German na¬
tions, and joining them for the deftru&ion of the Ro¬
mans, that we cannot but account them as one
people.
Between thofe nations already taken notice of,
feated along the other fide of the Danube and the
Hercynian foreft, were feveral others whofe exadl fitu-
ation is uncertain, viz. the Martingi, Burii, Borades,
Lygii, or Logiones, and fome others, who are placed
by our geographers along the foreft above-mentioned,
between the Danube and the Viftula.
On this fide the Hercynian foreft, were the famed
Rhastii, now Grifons, feated among the Alps. Their
country, which was alfo called Weftern lllyricum, was
divided into Rhaetia Prima or Propria, and Secunda ;
and was then of much larger extent, fpreading itfelf
towards Suabia, Bavaria, and Auftria.
On the other fide of the Hercynian foreft, were,
1. The Suevi, who fpread themfelves from the Viftula
to the river Elbe. 2. The Longobardi, fo called,
according to fome, on account of their wearing long
beards ; but, according to others, on account of their
confifting of two nations, viz. the Bardi and Lin¬
gones. Thefe dwelt along the river Elbe, and bordered
fouthward on the Chauci above-mentioned. 3. The
Burgundi, of whofe original feat we are uncertain.
4. The Semnones; who, about the time of Tiberius,
were feated on the river Elbe. 5. The Angles, Sax¬
ons, and Goths ; were probably the defcendants of the
Cimbri; and inhabited the countries of Denmark,
along the Baltic fea, and the peninfula of Scandina¬
via, containing Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Fin-
mark. 6. The Vandals were a Gothic nation, who,
proceeding from Scandinavia, fettled in the countries
now called Mecklenburgh and Brandenburgh. 7. Of
the fame race were the Dacians, who fettled them¬
felves in the neighbourhood of Palus Masotis, and ex¬
tended their territories along the banks of the Da¬
nube.
Thefe
O £ R l 3y
ii Gefmany. Thefe were the names of the German nations who
performed the moft remarkable exploits in their wars
4 with the Romans. Befides thefe, however, we find
Wars of the mention made of the Scordifci, a Thracian nation,
Scordifei who afterwards fettled on the banks of the Danube.
J^-^out t^e year 113 B. C. they ravaged Maccdon,
oaians. anj 0Ht 0fj- a w},0]e Roman army fent againit them ;
the general, M. Porcius Cato, grandfon to Cato the
cenfor, being the only perfon who had the good for¬
tune to make his efcape. After this, they ravaged
all Theflaly ; and advanced to the coafts of the Adri¬
atic, into which, becaufe it ftopped their farther pro-
grefs, they difcharged a flrower of darts. By another
Roman general, however, they were driven back in¬
to their own country with grfeat daughter ; and, foon
after, Metellus fo weakened them by repeated defeats,
that they were incapable, for fome time, of making
any more attempts on the Roman provinces. At laft,
in the confulfhip of M. Livius Drufus and L. Cal-
purnius Pifo, the former prevailed on them to pafs the
Danube, which thenceforth became the boundary be¬
tween the Romans and them. Notwithftanding this,
in the time of the Jugurthine war, the Scordifci re¬
paired the Danube on the ice, every winter, and being
joined by the Triballi a people of Lower Masfia, and
the Daci of Upper Msefia, penetrated as far as Mace-
don, committing every where dreadful ravages. So
early did thefe northern nations begin to be formida¬
ble to the Romans, even when they were moft re¬
nowned for warlike exploits.
Ex edition Till the time of Julius Csefar, however, we hear
of Julius nothing more concerning the Germans. About 58
Cxfar into years B. C. he undertook his expedition into Gaul;
Germany, during which, his afliftance was implored by the
^Edui, againft Arioviftus, a German prince who op-
prefledthem. Caefar, pleafed with this opportunity of
increafing bis power, invited Arioviftus to an inter¬
view ; but this being declined, he next fent deputies
deliring him to reftore the hoftages he had taken from
the iEdui, and to bring no more troops over the
Rhine into Gaul. To this a haughty anfwer was re¬
turned; and a battle foon after enfued, in which Ari¬
oviftus was entirely defeated, and with great difficulty
made his efcape.
In 55 B. C. Cfefar having fubdued the Sueflbnes,
Bellovaci, Ambiani, Nervii, and other nations of
Belgic Gaul, haftened to oppofe the Ufipetes and
Ten&eri. Thefe nations having been driven cut of
their own country by the Suevi, had crofted the Rhine
with a defign to fettle in Gaul. As foon as he appeared,
the Germans fent him a deputation, offering to join
him provided he would affign them lands. Ctefar re¬
lied, that there was no room in Gaul for them ; but
e would defire the Ubii to give them leave to fettle
among them. Upon this, they defired time to treat
with the Ubii; but in the mean time fell upon fome
Roman fquadrons: which fo provoked Caefar, that he
immediately marched againft them, and, coming unex¬
pectedly upon them, defeated them with great flaugh-
ter. They fled in the utmoft confufion ; but the Ro¬
mans purfued them to the conflux of the Rhine and
the Maefe, where the flaughter was renewed with
fuch fury, that almoft 400,000 of the Germans pe-
riftied. After this, Caefar being refoived to fpread
the terror of the Roman name through Germany,
Vol. V.
77 ] G E R
built a bridge over the Rhine, and entered that conn- Germany,
try. In this expedition, however, which was his
laft in Germany, he performed no remarkable ex¬
ploit. A little before his death, indeed, he had
projeAed the conqueft of that as well as of a great
many other countries; but his affaffination prevent-
ted the execution of his defigns. Nor is there any
thing recorded of the Germans till about 17 B. C.
when the TenCteri made an irruption into Gaul, and
defeated M. Lollius, proconful of that province. At
laft, however, they were repulfed, and forced to re¬
tire with great lofs beyond the Rhine. ^
Soon after this the Rhaeti invaded Italy, where they Rfisti :B_
committed the greateft devaftations, putting all the Vade Italy-
males they met to the fword, without diftinClion of fex
or age : nay, we are told, that when they happened to
take women with child, they confulted their augurs
to know whether the child was a male or female ; and
if they pronounced it a male, the mother was imme¬
diately maffacred. Againft thefe barbarians was fent
Drufus, the fecond fon of Livia, a youth of extraor¬
dinary valour and great accompliftiments. He found
means to bring them to a battle; in which the Ro¬
mans proved victorious, and cut in pieces great num¬
bers of their enemies, with very little lofs on their
own fide. Thofe who efcaped the general flaughter,
being joined by the Vindelici, took their route to¬
wards Gaul, with a defign to invade that province.
But Auguftus, upon the firft notice of their march,
difpatched againft them Tiberius with feveral chofen
legions. He was no lefs fuccefsful than Drufus had
been ; for, having tranfported his troops over the
lake Brigantium, now Conftance, he fell unexpected¬
ly on the enemy, gave them a total overthrow, took
moft of their ftrong-holds, and obliged the whole na¬
tion to fubmit to fuch terms as he cbofe to impofe up- ?
on them. Thus were the Vindelici, the Rhseti, and They are
Norici, three of the moft barbarous nations in Ger- fubdued,
many, fubdued. Tiberius, to keep the conquered
countries in awe, planted two colonies in Vindelicia, Vindelici
and opened from thence a road into Rhstia and No-and Norici,
ricum. One of the cities which he built for the de¬
fence of his colonies, he called, from his father Dru¬
fus, Drufomagus; the other by the name of Auguftus,
Augujla Vinddicorum; which cities are now known
by the names of Mimminghen and Augjburg. He
next encountered the Pannonians, who had been fub¬
dued by Agrippa, but revolted on hearing the news
of that great commander’s death, which happened 11
years B. C. Tiberius, however, with the afliftajnce of
their neighbours the Scordifci, foon forced them tofub* 8
mit. They delivered up their arms, gave hoftages,
and put the Romans in poffeffion of all their towns ans>
and ftrong-holds. Tiberius fpared their lives ; but
laid wafte their fields, plundered their cities, and fent
the beft part of their youth into other countries.
In the mean time, Drufus having prevented the Gauls
from revolting, which they were ready to do, prepa¬
red to oppofe the Germans who dwelt beyond the
Rhine. They had collected the moft numerous and
formidable army that had ever been feen in thofe parts;
with which they were advancing towards the Rhine,
in order to invade Gaul. Drufus defeated them as
they attempted to crofs that river ; and, purfuing the
advantage he had gained, entered the country of the
18 U Ufipetes,
G E R f 3278 ] G E R
Germany. Ufipetes, now Rtlinchufen, and from thence advanced
againft the Sfcambri, in the neighbourhood of the
9 Lyppe and Ifltl. Them he overthrew in a great bat-
Drnfiis'^iri^^e* wa^e their country, burnt moft of their cities,
Germany. and> following the courfe of the Rhine, approached
the German ocean, reducing the Frifii and the Chauci
between the Ems and the Elbe. In thefe marches the
troops fuffered extremely for want of proviiions ; and
Drufus himfelf was often in great danger of being
drowned, as the Romans who attended him were at
that time quite unacquainted with the flux and reflux
of the ocean.
The Roman forces went into call Friefland for their
winter-quarters; and next year (10 13. C.) Drufus
marched againft the Ten&eri, whom he eafily fubdued.
Afterwards, palling the Lupias, now the Lyppe, he
reduced the Catti and Cherufci, extending his conquefts
to the banks of the Vifurgis or Wefer; which he
would have pafled, had he not been in want of provi-
fsons, the enemy haing laid wafte the country to a
confiderable dillance. As he was retiring, the Ger¬
mans unexpedledly fell upon him in a narrow palfage;
and having furrounded the Roman army, cut a great
many of them in pieces. But Drufus having anima¬
ted his men by his example, after a bloody conflift,
which lafted the whole day, the Germans were de¬
feated with fuch flaughter, that the ground was ftrew-
ed for feveral miles with dead bodies. Drufus found
in their camp a great quantity of iron-chains which
they had brought forthc Romans ; and fo great was their
confidence, that they had agreed before-hand about
the diviiion of the booty. The Tendleri were to have
the horfe, the Cherufci and Sicambri the baggage, and
the Ufipetes and Catti the captives. After this vic¬
tory, Drufus built two forts to keep the conquered
countries in awe ; the one at the confluence of the
Lyppe and the Alme, the other in the country of the
Catti on the Rhine. On this occalion alfo he made a
famous canal, long after called in honour of him Fof-
fa Drufiana, to convey the waters of the Rhine into
the Sala or Sale. It extended eight miles; and was
very convenient for conveying the Roman troops by
water to the countries of the Frifii and Chauci, which
was the defign of the undertaking.
The following year, (9 B. C.), Auguftus, bent
on fubduing the whole of Germany, advanced to the
banks of the Rhine, attended by his two fons-in-law
Tiberius and Drufus. Tire former he fent againft the
Daci, who lived on the fouth fide of the Danube ; and
the latter to complete the conquefts he had fo fuccefs-
fully begun in the weftern parts of Germany. The
former eafily overcame the Daci, and tranfplanted
40,000 of.them into Gaul. The latter, having pafled
the Rhine, fubdued all the nations from that river to
the Elbe ; but having attempted in vain to crofs this
laffi, he fet out for Rome : an end, however, was put
to his conquefts and his life by a violent fever, with
which he was feized on his return.
After the death of Drufus, Tiberius again over-ran
all thofe countries in which Drufus had fpent the pre¬
ceding fummer; and ftruck fome of the northern na¬
tions with fucb terror, that they fent deputies to. fue
for peace. This, however, they could not obtain up¬
on any terms; the emperor declaring that he would
act conclude a peace with one, unlefa they all defired
it. But the Catti, or according to fome the Sicambri, Germnny.
could not by any means be prevailed upon to fubmit; —-
fo that the war was ftil! carried on, though in a lan¬
guid manner, for about 18 years. During this period,
fome of the German nations had quitted their forefts,
and begun to live in a civilized manner under the pro¬
tection of the Romans; but one Quintilius Varus be¬
ing fent to command the Roman forces in that coun¬
try, fo provoked the inhabitants by his extortions, that
not only thofe who ftill held out refufed to fubmit, but
even the nations that had fubmitted w’ere feized with
an eager defire of throwing off the yoke. Among
them was a young nobleman of extraordinary parts
and valour, named Arminius. He was the fon of Si- 10
gimtr, one of the moil powerful lords among the .
Catti, had ferved with great reputation in the Ro- o'er man j2*-
man armies, and been honoured by Auguftus with tbe'gainft the i
privileges of a Roman citizen and the title of knight. Romans. :
But the love of his country prevailing over his grati¬
tude, he refolved to improve the general difeontent
which reigned among his countrymen, to deliver them
from the bondage of a foreign dominion. With this
view he engaged, underhand, the leading men of all
the nations betw'een the Rhine and the Elbe, in a con-
fpiracy againft the Romans. In order to put Varus
off bis guard, he at the fame time advifed him to ftiew
himfelf to the inhabitants of the more diftant provin¬
ces, adminifterjuftice among them, and accuftom them,
by his example, to live after the Roman manner, which
he faid would more effe&ually fubdue them than the
Roman fword. As Varus was a man of a peaceable
temper, and averfe from military toils; he readily con-
fented to this inlidious propofal; and, leaving the neigh¬
bourhood of the Rhine, marched into the country of
the Cherufci. Having there fpent fome time in hear¬
ing caufes and deciding civil controverfies, Arminius
perfuaded him to weaken his army, by fending out
detachments to clear the country of robbers. When
this was done, fome diftant nations of Germany rofe
up in arms by Arminius’s directions ; while thofe
through which Varus was to pafs in marching againft
them, pretended to be in a ftate of profound tran¬
quillity, and ready to join the Romans againft their
enemies.
On the firft news of the revolt, Varus marched a-
gainft the enemy with three legions and fix cohorts;
but being attacked by the Germans as he paffed through Cuts off
a wood, his army was almoft totally cut ofly while he Varus wills ;
himfelf and moft of his officers fell by their own hands. his army- ,
Such a terrible overthrow, though it raifed a general
confternation in Rome, did not, however, dilhearten
Auguftus, or caufe him to abandon his enterprife. A-
bout two years after, (A. D. 12), Tiberius and Ger-
manicus were appointed to command in Germany..
The death of Auguftus, however, which happened
foon after, prevented Tiberius from going on his ex¬
pedition ; and Germanicus was for fome time hindered
from proceeding in his, by a revolt of the legions, firft
in Pannonia, and then in Germany. About the
year 15, Germanicus having brought over the fol-
diers to their ditty, laid a bridge. acrofs the Rhine,
over which he marched 12,000 legionaries, 26 cohorts
of the allies, and eight a/ar (fquadrons of 300 each}
of horfe. With thefe he firft traverfed the Ccefian fc~
reft, (part of the Hercynian, and thought to lie part.-
G E R [32
Germany, ly in the duchy of Cleves, and partly in Weftpha-
r lia), and fome other woods. On his march he
Ex bus ofwas '1’^orrne<^ l^at t^ie Marfi were celebrating a fe-
Germani-0 ftiyal great mirth and jollity. Upon this he
cus. advanced with fuch expedition, that he furprifed them
in the midft of their debauch ; and giving his army full
liberty to make what havock they pleafed, a terrible
maffacre enfued, and the country was deftroyed with
fire and fword for 50 miles round, wnthout the lofs of
a fingle man on the part of the Romans.-—This gene¬
ral maffacre roufed the Bru&eri, the Tubantes, and
the Ufipetes ; who, befetting the paffes through which
the Roman army was to return, fell upon their rear,
and put them into fome diforder; but the Romans
foon recovered themfelves, and defeated the Germans
with confiderable lofs.
The following year, (A. D. 16), Germanicus ta¬
king advantage of fome inteftine broils wlp’ch hap¬
pened among the Catti, entered their country,
where he put great numbers to the fword. Moll
of their youth, however, efcaped by fwiming over
the Adrana, now the Eder, and attempted to pre¬
vent the Romans froth laying a bridge over that ri¬
ver : but being difappointed in this, fome of them
fubmitted to Germanicus, while the greater part, aban¬
doning their villages, took refuge in the woods; fo that
the Romans, without oppofition, fet fire to all their
villages, towns, &c. and having laid their capital in
alhes, began their march back to the Rhine.
Germanicus had fcarce reached his camp, when he
received a meflage from Segeftes, a German prince,
in the intereft of the Romans, acquainting him that
he was befieged in his camp by Arminius. On this
advice, he inllantly marched againft the befiegers; en¬
tirely defeated them; and took a great number of
prifoners, among whom was Thufneldis, the wife
of Arminius, and daughter of Segeftes, whom the
former had carried off, and married againft her father’s
will. Arminius then, more enraged than ever, for
the lofs of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, ftirred
up all the neighbouring nations againft the Romans.
Germanicus, however, without being difmayed by
fuch a formidable confederacy, prepared himfelf to op-
pofe the enemy with vigour : but, that he might not
be obliged to engage fuch numerous forces at once,
he detached his Lieutenant Caecina, at the head of 40
cohorts, into the territories of the Brufteri; while his
cavalry, under the command of Pedo, entered the
country of the Frifii. As for Germanicus himfelf, he
embarked the remainder of his army, confifting of
four legions, on a neighbouring lake; and tranfported
them by rivers and canals to the place appointed on
the river Ems, where the three bodies met. In their
march they found the faid remains of the legions con¬
duced by Varus, which they buried with all the cere¬
mony their circumftances could admit. After this
they advanced againft Arminius, whoretired and poll¬
ed himfelf advantageoufly clofe to a wood. The Ro¬
man general followed him; and coming up with him,
ordered his cavalry to advance and attack the enemy.
Arminius, at their firlt approach, pretended to fly ;
but fuddenly wheeled about, and giving the fignal to a
body of troops, whom he had concealed in the wood,
torufhout, obliged the cavalry to give grointd. The
cohorts then advanced to'their relief; but they too were
79 ] G E R
put into diforder, and would have been puflied into a Gntnany.
morafs, had not Germanicus himlelf advanced with '
the reft of the cavalry to their relief. Arminius did
not think it prudent to engage thefe frelh troops, but
retired in good order; upon which Germanicus alfo
retired towards the Ems. Here he embarked with
four legions, ordered Caecina to recondu£t the other
four by land, and fent the cavalry to the fea-fide, with
orders to march along the Ihore to the Rhine. Though
Caecina was to return by roads well known, yet Ger¬
manicus advifed him to pafs, with all poflible fpeed, a
caufeway, called the hng bridges, which led acrofs vail
marlhes, furrounded on all iides with woods and hills
that gently rofe from the plain.
Arminius, however, having got notice of Caecina’s
march, arrived at the long bridges before Caecina, and
filled the woods with his men, who, on the approach
of the Romans, ruftied but, and attacked them with
great fury. The legions, not able to manage their
arms in the deep waters and flippery ground, were ob¬
liged to yield; and would in all probability have been
entirely defeated, had not night put an end to the
combat. The Germans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, inftead of refrefhing themfelves with fleep, fpent
the whole night fn diverting the courfesof the fpriiig*
which rofe in the neighbouring mountains ; fo that,
before day, the camp which the Romans had begun
was laid under water, and their works were overturned.
Caecina was for fome time at a lofs what to do ; but
at laft refolved to attack the enemy by day break, and,
having driven them to their woods, to keep them
there in a manner befieged, till the baggage and wound¬
ed men fhould pafs the caufeway, and get put of the
enemy’s reach. But when his army was drawn up, the
legions potted on the wings, feized with a fudden pa¬
nic, deferted their ftations, and occupied a field beyond
the marfhes. Caecina thought it advifable to follow
them ; but the baggage ftuck in the mire, as he at¬
tempted to crofs the marthes, which greatly embaraf-
fed the foldiers. Arminius perceiving this, laid hold
of the opportunity to begin the attack ; and crying
out, “ This is a fecond Varus, the fame fate attends
him and his legions,” fell on the Romans with inex-
prefiible fury. As he had ordered his men to aim
chiefly at the horfes, great numbers of them were
killed ; and the ground becoming' flippery with their
blood and the flfme of the marfh, the reft either fell
or threw their riders, ’and, galloping through the ranks,
put them in diforder. Caecina diftinguiftied himfelf
in a very eminent manner; but his horfe being killed,
he would have been taken prifoner, had not the fin'l
legion refeued him. The greedinefs of the enemy,
however, faved the Romans from utter deftrudion;
for juft as the legions were quite fpent, and on the
point of yielding, the barbarians on a fudden abandoned
them in order to feize their baggage. During this re-
fpite, the Romans ftruggled out of the marfti, and ha¬
ving gained the dry fields, formed a camp with all pof-
fible fpeed, and fortified it in the beft manner they could.
The Germans having loft the opporhrmty of de-
ftroying the Romans, contrary to-the’cfdvide of'Ar-
minius, attacked their camp next morning, but were
repulfed with great flaughter ; after which tHey gave
Caecina no move moleftation till he reached the banks
of the Rhine,- Germanicus, in the mean' time,“having
18 U 2 conveyed
G E R [ 32
Germary. conveyed the legions he had with him down the river
Ems into the ocean, in order to return by fea to the
river Rhine, and finding that his veffels were overloads
ed, delivered the fecond and fourteenth legions to Pu¬
blius Vitellius, defiring him to conduft them by land*
But this march proved fatal to great numbers of them ;
who were either buried in the quickfands, or ('wallow¬
ed up by the. overflowing of the tide, to which they
were as yet utter ftrangers. Thofe who efcaped, loll
their arms, utenfils, and provilions ; and pafled a me¬
lancholy night upon an eminence, which they had
gained by wading up to the chin. The next morning
the land returned with the tide of ebb; when Vitel¬
lius, by an hafty march, reached the river Ulingis,
by fome thought to be the Hoerenfter, on which the
city of Groningen ftands. There Germanicus, who had
reached that river with his fleet, took the legions a-
gain on board, and conveyed them to the mouth of
the Rhine, whence they all returned to Cologne, at a
time when it was reported they were totally loft.
This expedition, however, coft the Romans very
dear, and procured very few advantages. Great num¬
bers of men had perifhed ;. and by far the greateft part
of thofe who had efcaped fo many dangers returned
t ? without arms, utenfils, horfes, &c. half naked, lamed,
His lecond and unfit for fervice. The next year, however, Ger-
txpedition. manicus, bent on the entire reduftion of Germany,
made vaft preparations for another expedition. Ha¬
ving confidered the various accidents that had befallen
him during the war, he found that the Germans were
chiefly indebted for their fafety to their woods and
marihes, their Ihort fummers and long winters; and
that his troops fuffered more from their long and te¬
dious marches than from the enemy. For this reafon
he refolved to enter the country by fea, hoping b)r
that means to begin the campaign earlier, andfurprife
the enemy. Having, therefore built with great dif-
patch, during the winter^. 1000 veflels of different forts,
he ordered them early in the fpring (A. D. 16) to
fall down the Rhine, and appointed the ifland of the
Batavians for the general rendezvous of his forces.
When the fleet was failing, he detached Silius one of
his lieutenants, with orders to make a fudden irrup¬
tion into the country of the Catti; and, in the mean
time, he himfelf, upon receiving intelligence that a
Rotpan fort on the Luppias was befieged,. haflened
with fix legions to its relief. Silius was prevented, by
fudden rains, from doing more than taking fome fmall
booty, with the wife and daughter of Arpen king
of the Catti ; neither did thofe who befieged the fort
wait the arrival of Germanicus. In the mean time,
the fleet arriving at the ifland of the Batavians, the
provifions and warlike engines were put on board and
lent forward f (hips were afligned to the legions and
allies; and the whole army being embarked, the fleet
entered, the canal formerly cut by Drufus, and from
his name called Foffa Drujiana. Hence ^e failed pro-
fperoufly to the mouth of the Ems; where, having
landed his troops, he marched direftly to the Wefer,
where he, found Arminius encamped on the oppofite
bank, and- determined to difpute his paflage. The
next, day Arminius, drew out his troops in order of
battle : but Gertpanicus, not thinking it adv.ifable to.
attack them, ordered the horfe to ford over under the
command of. his lieutenants Stertinius and Emilius
So ] G E R
who, to divide the enemy’s forces, crofled the river ur Germany,
two different places. At the fame time Cariovalda,
the leader of the Batavian auxiliaries, croffed the river
where it was moil rapid : but, being drawn into an
ambufeade, he was.killed, together with moft of the
Batavian nobility; and the reft would have been totally-
cut off, had not Stertinius and Emilius haftened to
their afliftance. Germanicus in the mean time paffed
the river without moleftation. A battle foon after
enfued ; in which the Germans were defeated with fo
great a flaughter that the ground was covered witlr.
arms and dead bodies for more than ten miles round ;
and among the fpoils taken on this occaiion, were,
found, as formerly, the chains with which the Ger¬
mans had hoped to bind their captives.
In memory of this fignal viftory Germanicus raifed
a mount, upon which he placed as trophies the arms of
the enemy, and inferibed underneath the names of the
conquered nations. This fo provoked the Germans,
though already vanquiftied and determined to abandon
their country, that they attacked the Roman army
unexpectedly on its march, and put them into fome
diforder. Being repulfed, they encamped between a
river and a large foreft furrounded by a marlh except
on one fide, where it was iuclofed by a broad rampart
formerly raifed by the Angrivarii as a barrier between
them and the Cherufci. Here another battle enfued;
in which the Germans behaved with great bravery,,
but in the end were defeated with great flaughter.
After this fecond defeat, the Angrivarii fubmitted,
and were taken under the prote&ion of the Romans,,
and Germanicus put an end to the campaign. Some
of the legions he fent to their winter-quarters by land,
while he himfelf embarked with the reft on the river
Ems, in order to return by fea. The ocean proved j^js
at fir ft very, calm, and the wind favourable : but all of difperfrdby
a fudden a ftorm arifing, the fleet, confiding of iooaaft°rin*
veffels, was difperfed : fome of them, were fwallowed up
by the waves j others were dafhed in pieces againft the
rocks, or driven upon remote and unhofpitable iflands,,
where the men either periftied by famine, or lived up¬
on the flefli of the dead horfes with which the (horea
foon appeared ftrewed ; for, in order to lighten their
veffels, and difengage them from the (hoals, they had
been obliged to throw overboard their horfes and
beads of burden, nay, even their arms and baggage.
Moft of the men, however, were faved, and even great
part of the fleet recovered. Some of them were dri¬
ven upon the coaft of Britain ; but the petty kings who
reigned there, generoufly fent them back.
On the news of this misfortune, the Catti, taking
new courage, ran to arms ; but Caius Silius being de¬
tached againft them with 30,000 foot and 3000 horfe,.
kept them in awe. Germanicus himfelf, at the head
of a numerous, body, made a.fudden irruption into the
territories of the Marfi, where he recovered one of
Varus’s eagles, and having laid wade the country, he
returned to the frontiers of Germany, and put his troops
into winter-quarters.; whence he was foon recalled by
Tiberius, and never fuffered to,return into Germany
again.
After the departure of Germanicus, the more nor¬
thern nations of Germany were no more molefted by
the Romans. Arminius carried on a long and fuc-
cefsful war with Maroboduus king of the Marcom-
manni.
G E R. { 32S1 ]
Bji Cennary. tnamvi, whom he at laft expelled, and £brced' to apply
to the Romans for affittance ; but, excepting Ger-
manicus, it feems they had at this time no other ge¬
neral capable of oppoling Arminius, fo that Marobo-
{ ij duus was never refiored. After the final departure of
I Death of the Romans, however, Arminius having attempted to
i Armimus. en{]ave h;3 country, fell by the treachery of his own
kindred. The Germans held his memory in great
veneration ; and Tacitus informs us, that in his time
they dill celebrated him in their fongs.
Nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Ger¬
many from this time till the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius. A war indeed is faid to have been carried on
by Lucius Domitius, father to the emperor Nero;
But of his exploits we know nothing more than that
he penetrated beyond the river Elbe, and led his array
farther into the country than any of the Romans had
ever done. In the reign of Claudius, however, the
German territories were invaded by Cn. Domitius
Corbulo, one of the greateft generals of his age. But
when he was on the point of forcing them to fubmit
to the Roman yoke, he was recalled by Claudius,
who was jealous of the reputation he had acquired.
In the reign of Vefpafian, a terrible revolt happened
among the Batavians and thofe German nations who
had fubmitted to the Romans, a particular account of
which is given under the article Rome. Therevolters
were with difficulty fubdued; but, in the reign of
The Dad- Domitian, the Dacians invaded the empire, and proved
theRoirfi a inore terr'^e enemy than any of the other German
empire!ran nati°ns been. After feveral defeats, the emperor
was at lad obliged to confent to pay an annual tri¬
bute to Decebalus. king of the Dacians;, which con¬
tinued to the time of Trajan. But this warlike prince
refufed to pay tribute; alleging, when it was de¬
manded of him, that “ he had never been-conquered
by Decebalus.’’ Upon this the Dacians pafled the
Danube, and began tn commit hofiilities in the Ro¬
man territories. Trajan, glad of this opportunity to
humble an enemy whom he began to fear, drew toge¬
ther a mighty army, and marched with the utmoft
expedition to the banks of the Danube. As Dece¬
balus was not apprifed of bis arrival, the emperor
palfed the river without oppofition, and entering Da¬
cia, laid waite the country with fire and fwwd. At
laft he was met by Decebalus with a numerous army-
A bloody engagement- enfued, in which the Dacians
were defeated ; tho? the vi&ory coft the Romans dear 1
the wounded were fo numerous, that they wanted
linen to bind up their wounds ; and to fupply the
defeat, the emperor generoufly devoted his own ward¬
robe. After the viftory, he purfoed Decebalus from
place to place, and at laft obliged him to coafent to. a
peace on the following, terms, u That he fhould.
furrender the territories which he had unjuftly taken
from the neighbouring nations. 2. That he Ihould
deliver up his arms, his warlike engines, with the ar¬
tificers: who made them, and all the Roman deferters.
3. That, for the future, he fhould entertain no de¬
ferters, nor take into his ferviee the natives of any
country fubjeft ^ to Rome. 4. That he fhould dif-
roantle all his fortrefles, caftles, and ftrong-holds ;
and laftly, that he fhould have the fame friends and
foes with the people of Rome.
With, thefe hard terms Deccbalua was obliged to
G E R
comply, though fore againft his will ^ and being iir- Germany,
troduced to Trajan, threw himfelf on the ground be- '' '
fore him, acknowledging bimfelf his vaftal: after
which the latter, having commanded him to fend de¬
puties to the fenate for the ratification of the peace,
returned to Rome.
This peace was of no long duration. Four years
after, (A. D. 105), Decebalus, unable to live in fer-
vitude as he called it, began, contrary to the late
treaty, to raife men, provide arms, entertain deferters,
fortify his caftles, and invite the neighbouring nations
to join him againft the Romans as a common enemy.
The Scythians hearkened to his felicitations; but the
Jazyges, a neighbouring nation, refufing to bear arms
againft Rome, Decebalus invaded their country. Here¬
upon Trajan marched againft him ; but the Dacian,
finding, himfelf unable to withftand him by open force,
had recourfe to treachery, and attempted to get the
emperor murdered. His defign, however, proved
abortive, and Trajan purfued his march into Dacia.
That his troops might the more readily pafs and re-
pafs the Danube, he built, a bridge over that river ;
which by the ancients is ftiled the moft magnificent and
wonderful of all his works*. To guard the bridge, * See
be ordered two cattles to be built; one on this fide c^e^u^e*
the Danube, and the other on the oppofite fide ; and 11 13 *
all this was accomplifhed in the fpace of one fummer.
Trajan, however, as the feafon was now far advanced,
did not think it advifable to enter Dacia this year,
but contented himfelf with making the neceffary pre¬
parations.
In the year 106, early in the fpring, Trajan fet']'jlc.y7are
out for Dacia ; and having paffed the Danube on thefubdued by
bridge he bad built, reduced the whole country, and Trajan,
would have taken Decebalus himfelf had he not put
an end to his own life, in order to avoid falling into
the hands of his enemies. After his death the king¬
dom of Dacia was reduced to- a Roman province ; and
feveral cattles were built in it, and garrifons placed inf
them, to keep the country in awe.
After the death of Trajan, the Roman empire be¬
gan to decline, and the northern nations to be daily
more and more formidable. The province of Dacia
indeed was held by the Romans till the reign of Gal-
licnus;. but Adrian, who fucceeded Trajan, caufed the
arches of the bridge over the Danube to be broken
down, left, the barbarians fhould make themfelves ma¬
tters of it, and invade the Roman territories. In the
time of Marcus Aurelius, the Mareommanni and Qua- 18
di invaded the empire, and gave the emperor a terrible-mamr'Tnd
overthrow. He continued the war, however, with qnadi tor-
better fuccefs afterwards, and invaded' their country in midable to
his turn. It was during the courfe of this war thatthc empire,
the Roman army is fair! to have been faved from de-
ftruftion by that miraculous event related under the ar¬
ticle Christians, in Vol. III. p. 1935. par. ult.
In the end, the Marcommanni and Quadi were, by
repeated defeats, brought to the verge of deftru&ion;
ibfomuch that their country would probably have been
reduced to a Roman province, had not Marcus Aure¬
lius been diverted from purfuing his conquefts by the
revolt of one of his generals. After the death of
Marcus Aurelius, the Germanic nations became every
day more and more formidable to the Romans. Far
from being able to invade and attempt the conqueft of
thde
G E R [ 3282 ] G E R
Germany, thefe northern countries, the Romans had the greateft
difficulty to reprefs the incurfions of their inhabitants.
But for a particular account of their various invafions
of the Roman empire, and its total deftru&ion by them
at laft, fee the article Rome.
Roman em- The immediate deftroyers of the Roman empire
pire de- were the Heruli; who, under their leader Odoacer, de-
ftroyed by throned Auguftulus the lad Roman emperor, and pro*
t e Heruli. c]ajmecj Odoacer king of Italy. The Heruli were
foon expelled by the Oftrogoths ; and thefe in their
turn were fubdued by Juftir.ian, who re*annexed Italy to
the eaftern empire. But the Popes found means to
obtain the temporal as well as fpiritual jurifdi&ion
over a confiderable part of the country, while the
.Lombards fubdued the reft. Thefe laft proved very
troublefome to the Popes, and at length befieged
Adrian I. in his capital. In this diftrefs he applied
to Charles the Great, king of France; who conquered
both Italy and Germany, and was crowned emperor of
ao the weft in 800. See France, n° 24,
Hiftory of The pofterity of Charlemagne inherited the empire
Germany 0f Germany until the year 880; at which time thedif-
time of ferent princes affumed their original independence, re-
Charle- jetted the Carlovinian line, and placed Arnulph king
magne, of Bohemia on the throne. Since this time, Germany
has ever been confidered as an elective monarchy.
Princes of different families, according to the preva¬
lence of their intereft and arms, have mounted the
throne. Of thefe the moft corifiderable, until the Au-
ftrian line acquired the imperial power, were the hou-
fes of Saxony, Franconia, and Swabia. The reigns
of thefe emperors contain nothing more remarkable
than the contefts between them and the popes ; for an
account of which, fee the article Italy. From hence,
in the beginning of the 13th century, arofe the fac¬
tions of the Guelphs and Gibelines, of which the for¬
mer was attached to the popes, and the latter to the
emperor ; and both, by their virulence and inveteracy,
tended to difquiet the empire for feveral ages. The
emperors too were often at war with the Infidels; and
fometimes, as happens in all ele&ive kingdoms, with
bne another, about the fuccefiion.
But what moredeferves our attention is theprogrefs
of government in Germany, which was in fome mea-
fure oppofite to that of the other kingdoms of Europe.
When the empire, raifed by Charlemagne, fell afun-
der, all the different independent princes affumed the
right of eleftion ; and thofe now diftinguifhed by the
name of elettors had no peculiar or legal influence in
appointing a fucceffor to the imperial throne; they
were only the officers of the king’s houfehold, his fe-
cretary, his fteward, chaplain, marfhal, or mafter of
his horfe, &c. By degrees, however, as they lived
near the king’s perfon, arid had, like all other princes,
independent territories belonging to them, they in-
creafed their influence and authority 5 and in the reign
of Otho III. 984, acquired the foie right of elefting
the emperor. Thus, while in the other kingdoms of
Europe, the dignity of the great lords, who were all
originally allodial or independent barons, was dimi-
nifhed by the power of the king, as in France, and by
the influence of the people, as in Great Britain; in
Germany, on the other hand, the power of the elec¬
tors was raifed upon the ruins of the emperor’s fupre-
Biacy, and of the people’s jurifdidion. In 1440, Fre¬
deric III. duke of Auftria, was ele&ed emperor, and Germany. ^
the imperial dignity continued .in the male line of that ~
family for 300 years. His fucceffor Maximilian mar¬
ried the heirefs of Charles duke of Burgundy ; where¬
by Burgundy, and the 17 provinces of the Nether¬
lands, were annexed to the houfe of Auftria. Charles V.
grandfon of Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of
Spain, was ele&ed emperor in the year 1519. Under
him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spa¬
niards ; and in his reign happened the Reformation
in feveral parts of Germany, which, however, was not
confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by
the treaty of Weftphalia, and in the reign of Ferdi* •
nand III. The reign of Charles V. was continually
dillurbed by his wars with the German princes and the
French king Francis I. Though fuccefsful in the be¬
ginning of his reign, his good fortune, towards the
conclufion of it, began to forfake him ; which, with
other reafonsj occafioned his abdication of the crown *.* See ’
His brother Ferdinand 1. who in 1558 fucceedfcd j|
to the throne, proved a moderate prince with regard
to religion. He had the addrefs to get his fon Maxi¬
milian declared king of the Romans in his own life¬
time, and died in 1564. By his laft will he ordered,
that if either his own male iffue, or that of his brother
Charles, fhould fail, his Auftrian eftates fhould revert
to his fecond daughter Anne, wife to the elector of
Bavaria, and her iffue. We mention this dellination,
as it gave rife to the late oppofition made by the houfe
of Bavaria to the pragmatic fan&ion, in favour of the
emprefs queen of Hungary, on the death of her father
Charles VI. The reign of Maximilian II. was difturb-
ed with internal commotions, and an invafion from the
Turks; but he died in peace, in 1576. He was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Rodolph ; who was involved in wars
with the Hungarians, and in differences with his bro¬
ther Matthias, to whom he ceded Hungary and Au¬
ftria in his lifetime. He was fucceeded in the empire
by Matthias ; under whom the reformers, who went
under the names of Lutherans and Calvinijls, were fo
much divided among themfelves, as to threaten the
empire with a civil war. The ambition of Matthias
at laft tended to reconcile them 5 but the Bohemians
revolted, and threw the imperial commiffaries out of
a window at Prague. This gave rife to a ruinous
war, which lafted 30 years. Matthias thought to have
exterminated both parties ; but they formed a confede¬
racy, called the Evangelic League, which was coun¬
terbalanced by a Catholic league.
Matthias dying in 1618, was fucceeded by his cou-
fin Ferdinand II.; but the Bohemians offered their
crown to Frederic the eleftor Palatine, the moft pow¬
erful Proteftant prince in Germany, and fon-in-law to
his Britannic majefty James I. That prince was in¬
cautious enough to accept of the crown: but he loft it,
by being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and
the imperial generals at the battle of Prague ; and he
was even deprived of his eledlorate, the beft part of
which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The Prote¬
ftant princes of Germany, however, had among them
at this tim6 many able commanders, who were at the
head of armies, and continued the war with wonderful
obftinacy : among them were the margrave of Baden
Durlach, Chriftian duke of Brunfwic, and count
Mansfield; the laft was.one of the beft generals of the
age.
G E R
[ 3283 ]
G E R
lermany, age. Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark declared /or
them ; and Richlieu, the French miniller, was not
fond of feeing the houfe of Auitria aggrandized. The
emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals ;
and Chriltiern, having put himfelf at the head of the
evangelic league, was defeated by Tilly, an imperia-
lift of great reputation in war. Ferdinand made fo
moderate a ufe of his advantages obtained over the Pro-
tellants, that they formed a frefh confederacy atLeip-
fic, of which the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus king
of Sweden was the head. An’account of his glori¬
ous vi£lories is given under the article Sweden. At
lad he was killed at the battle of Lutzen, in 1632.
But the Proteftant caufe did not die with him. He
had brought up a fet of heroes, fuch as the duke of
Saxe Weimar, Torftenfon, Banier, and others, who
fhook the Aultrian power; till, under the mediation of
Sweden, a general peace was concluded among all
the belligerant powers, at Munfter, in the year 1648 ;
which forms the bafts of the prefent political fyftem of
Europe.
Ferdinand II. was fucceeded by his fon Ferdi¬
nand III. This prince died in 1657 ; and was fucceeded
the emperor Leopold, a fevere, unamiable, and not
very fortunate prince. He had two great powers to
contend with, France on the one fide, and the Turks
on the other; and was a lofer in his war with both.
France took from him Alface, and many other fron¬
tier places of the empire ; and the Turks would have
taken Vienna, had not the fiege been raifed by John
Sobieiki king of Poland. Prince Eugene of Savoy
was a young adventurer in arms about the year 1697;
and being one of the imperial generals, gave the Turks
the firft checks they received in Hungary. The em¬
pire, however, could not have withftood the power of
France ; who purfued her conquefts with fuch rapidi¬
ty, that the other parts of Europe were alarmed, and
a great confederacy, confiding of the Empire, Great
Britain, the Dutch under William Prince of Orange,
and the northern powers, was formed to check the
progrefs of the French, and render abortive the am¬
bitious plan contrived by Lewis XIV. for founding
an univerfal monarchy. At lad, however, a peace
was concluded at Ryfwick, in 1697 ; and two years
after, the Turks confented to a peace, which was
figned at'Carlowitz in 1699. The Hungarians, fecret-
ly encouraged by the French, and exafperated by the
unfeeling tyranny of Leopold, were dill in arms, un¬
der the protedlion of the Porte, when that prince died
in 1705.
He was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who put the
eleftors of Cologne and Bavaria to the ban of the em¬
pire ; but being ill ferved by prince Lewis of Baden,
general of the empire, the French partly recovered
their affairs, notwithdanding their repeated defeats.
The duke of Marlborough had not all the fuccefs he
expefted or deferved. Jofeph himfelf was fufpe&ed of
a defign to fubvert the Germanic liberties ; and it was
plain by his conduct, that he expe£Ied England (hould
take the labouring oar in the war, which was to be en¬
tirely carried on for his benefit. The Englilh were
difguded at his flownefs and felfifhnefs : but he died in
1711, before he had reduced the, Hungarians; and
leaving no male iffue, he was fucceeded in the em¬
pire by his brother Charles VI. whom the allies
were endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in
oppofition to Philip, duke of Anjou, grandfon to
Lewis XIV.
When the peace of Utrecht took place in 1713,
Charles at fird made a drew as if he would continue the
war; but found himfelf unable, now that he was for-
faken by the Englifh. He therefore was obliged to
conclude a peace with France at Baden in i714j that
he might attend the progrefs of the Turks in Hun¬
gary ; where they received a total defeat from prince
Eugene, at the battle of Peterwaradin. They recei¬
ved another of equal importance from the fame gene¬
ral in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands
of the imperialids ; and next year the peace of Paffaro-
vvitz, between them and the Turks, was concluded.
Charles employed every minute of his leifure in ma¬
king arrangements for increafing and preferving his he¬
reditary dominions in Italy and the Mediterranean.
Happily for him, the crown of Britain devolved to the
houfe of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very de-
.cifive weight in Europe, by the connexions between
George L and II. and the empire. Charles was fen-
fible of this; and carried matters with fohigh a hand,
that, about the years 1724 and 1725,3 breach enfued
between him and George I. and fo unfteady was the
fyftem of affairs all over Europe at that time, that the
capital powers often changed their old alliances, and
concluded new ones contradiXory to their intereft.
Without entering into particulars, it is fufficient to
obferve, that the fafety of Hanover, and its aggran¬
dizement, was the main objeXof the Britilh court; as
that of the emperor was the eftablifhment of the prag¬
matic fanXion, in favour of his daughter, the prefent
emprefs-queen, he having no male iffue. Mutual con-
ceffions upon thofe great points reftored a good under-
fianding between George II. and the emperor Charles;
and the eleXor of Saxony, flattered with the view of
gaining the throne of Poland, relinquifhed the great
claims he had upon the Auftrian fucceflion.
The emperor, after this, had very bad fuccefs in a
war he entered into with the Turks, which he had un¬
dertaken chiefly to indemnify himfelf for the great fa-
crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the houfe
of Bourbon. Prince Eugene was then dead, and he
had no general to fupply his place. The fyftem of
France, however, under cardinal Fleury, happened at
that time to be pacific; and (lie obtained for him, from
the Turks, a better peace than he had reafon to ex-
peX. Charles, to keep the German and other powers
eafy, had, before his death, given his eldeft daughter,
the prefent emprefs queen, in marriage to the duke of
Lorrain, a prince who could bring no acceflion of pow¬
er to the Auftrian family.
Charles died in 1740; and was no fooner in the
grave, than all he had fo long laboured for muft have
been overthrown, had it not been for the firmnefs of
George II. The young king of Pruffia entered and
conquered Silefia, which he faid had been wrongfully
diimembered from his family. The king of Spain and
the eleXor of Bavaria fet up claims direXly incompa¬
tible with the pragmatic fanXion, and in this they were
joined by France; though all thofe powers had fiplemn-
]y guaranteed it. The imperial throne, after a conii-
derable vacancy, was filled up by the eleXor of Bava¬
ria, who took the title of Charles VII. in January
174^
Germany.
[ 3384 ] G E R
G E R
Germany. 1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia,
where they took Prague ; and the queen of Hungary,
to take off the weight of Pruffia, was forced to cede to
that prince the moll valuable part of the duchy of Si>
lefia by a formal treaty.
Her youth, her beauty, and fufferings, and the
noble fortitude with which the bore them, touched
the hearts of the Hungarians, into whofe arms (he
threw herfelf and her little fon ; and though they had
been always remarkable for their difaffeclion to the
houfe of Aultria, they declared unanimoufiy in her
favour. Her generals drove the French out of Bo¬
hemia ; and George II. at the head of an Englifhand
Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in
1743. Charles VII. was at this time miferable on
the imperial throne, and would have given the queen
of Hungary almoft her own terms ; but file haughtily
and impolitically rejefted all accommodation, though
advifed to it by his Britannic majefty, her belt and
indeed only friend. This obftinacy gave a colour for
the king of Pruffia to invade Bohemia, under pretence
of fupporting the imperial dignity : but though he
took Prague, and fubdued the greateft part of the
kingdom, he was not fupported by the French ; upon
which he abandoned all his conquefts, and retired into
Silefia. This event confirmed the obftinacy of the
queen of Hungary ; who came to an accommodation
with the emperor, that (he might recover Silefia.
Soon after, his imperial majefty, in the beginning of
the year 1745, died; and the duke of Lorrain, then
grand duke of Tufcany, confort to the queen of Hun¬
gary, after furmounting fome difficulties, was chofen
emperor.
The bad fuccefs of the allies againft the French and
Bavarians in the Low Countries, and the lofs of the
battle of Fontenoy, retarded the operations of the
emprefs-qtieen againft his Pruffian majefty. The lat¬
ter beat the emperor’s brother, prince Charles of Lor¬
rain, who had before driven the Pruffians out of Bo¬
hemia : and the condudl of the emprefs queen was
fuch, that his Britannic majefty thought proper to
guarantee to him the pofieffion of Silefia, as ceded by
treaty. Soon after, his Pruffian majefty pretended
that he had difeovered a fecret convention which had
been entered into between the emprefs-queen, the em¬
prefs of Ruffia, and the king of. Poland as eleftor of
Saxony, to ftrip him of his dominions, and to divide
them among themfelves. Upon this his Pruffian
xnajefty, very fuddenly, drove the king of Poland out
of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took pofTeffion
of Drefden; which he held till a treaty was made un¬
der the mediation of his Britannic majefty, by which
the king of Pruffia acknowledged the duke of Lor¬
rain, great duke of Tufcany, for emperor. The
war, however, continued in the Low Countries, not
only to the diadvantage, but to the diferedit, of the
Auftrians and Dutch, till it was finifhed by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in April 1748. By that treaty
Silefia was once more guaranteed to the king of Pruffia.
It was not long before that monarch’s jealoufies were
renewed and verified; and the emprefs of Ruffia’s
views falling in with thofe of the emprefs-queen and
the king of Poland, who were unnaturally fupported
by Fiance in their new fchemes, a freffi war was
kindled in the empire. The king of Pruffia declared
againft the admiffion of the Ruffians into Germany, Germany,
and his Britannic majefty againft that of the French. ~ !j<
Upon thofe two principles all former differences be¬
tween thefe monarchs were forgotten, and the Britifh
parliament agreed to pay an annual fubfidy of 670,000!.
to his Pruffian majefty during the continuance of the |
war.
The flames of war now broke out in Germany with
greater fury and more deftru&ive violence than ever.
The armies of his Pruffian majefty, like an irrefiftable
torrent, burft in Saxony; totally defeated the imperial
general Brown at the battle of Lowofitz ; forced the
Saxons to lay down their arms, though almoft iin-
pregnably fortified at Pima; and the eleftor of Saxo¬
ny fled to his regal dominions in Poland. After this,
his Pruffian majefty was put to the ban of the empire ;
and the French poured, By one quarter, their armies,
as the Ruffians did by another, into the empire. The
condudl of his Pruffian majefty on this occafion is the
moft amazing that is to be met with in hiftory; for a
particular account of which, fee the article Prussia.
At laft, however, the taking of Colberg by the
Ruffians, and of Schweidnitz by the Auftrians, was
on the point of completing his ruin, when his moft
formidable enemy, the emprefs of Ruffia, died, Ja¬
nuary 5. 1762; George II. his only ally, had died
on the 25th of Oftober, 1760.
The deaths of thofe illuttrious perfonages were fol¬
lowed by great confequences. The Britifh miniftry
of George III. fought to finifh the war with honour,
and the new emperor of Ruffia recalled his armies.
His Pruffian majefty was, notwithftanding, fo very
much reduced by his Ioffes, that the emprefs-queen,
probably, would have completed his deftrudtion, had
it not been for the wife backwardnefs of other Ger¬
man princes, not to annihilate the houfe of Branden¬
burg. At firft the emprefs-queen rejefted all terms
propofed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added
to her armies. The vifible backwardnefs of her ge¬
nerals to execute her orders, and new fucceffes ob¬
tained by his Pruffian majefty, at laft prevailed on her
to agree to an armiftice, which was foon followed by
the treaty of Hubertfburg, which fecured to his Pruf¬
fian majefty the poffeffion of Sileiia. Upon the death
of the emperor, her hufband, in 1765, her fon Jo-
feph, who had been crowned king of the Romans in
1764, fucceeded him in the empire.
At prefent, Germany is bounded on the north by
the Baltic Sea, Denmark, and the German Ocean;
on theeaft by Pruffia,Hungary, and Poland; and on the
weft by the Low Countries, Lorraine, and Franche
Compte : fo that it now comprehends the Palatinates of
Cologn, Triers, and Liege, which formerly belonged
to the Gauls; and is difmembered of Friefland, Gro¬
ningen, and Overyflel, which are now incorporated
with the Low Countries. Jf
Since the time of Charles the Great, this country situation,
has been divided into High and Low Germany. The extent, &c.
firft comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine, Fran-of Germa-
conia, Suabia, Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, Auftria, n^‘
Carinthia, Carniola, Stiria, the Swifs, and the Grifons.
The provinces of Low Germany are, the Low Coun¬
try of the Rhine, Triers, Cologne, Mentz, Weftphalia,
Heffe, Brunfwic, Mifnia, Lufatia, High Saxony upon
the Elbe, Loto Saxony upon the Elbe, Mecklenburg,
Lu-
G E R
1Z
In Conftitu-
u lion of th
q. empire.
i:>j Germany. Lunenbufg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. For
pf particular defcription of all thefe, fee the articles as
they occur in the order of the alphabet.
The empire, as we have already obferved, is ele&ive;
„ and the laws require no other qualifications in a can¬
didate, but that he be jujius, bonus, et utilis, without
any limitation in regard to religion, nation, ftate, or
age. But as the Popifii eledors are more in number
than the Proteflant, a Roman-eatholic prince is always
chofen. The ele&ion is at Franckfort on the Maine,
within three months after the former emperor’s death.
The eledors appear either in perfon or by their en¬
voys; and if an eledor abfent himfelf, the eledion,
notwithftanding, is valid. Before the day of eledion,
all foreigners are ordered to depart the town. Who¬
ever has more than half the voices of the college for
him, is eleded; and an eledor may even give his
vote for himfelf. When the eledion is over, the per¬
fon eleded, or his plenipotentiary, muft immediately
fubfcribe and fwear to the capitulation of eledion:
but if the perfon eleded is not prefent in perfon, he
muft fwear to it himfelf before he is crowned, and be¬
fore he can take upon him the government; which,
till then, belongs to the vicars of the empire. His
coronation, for which he appoints a day himfelf, is
always performed in the place where he was eleded ;
though both eledion and coronation ought to be in
the city of Aix-la-Chapelle. He then takes a general
oath of a ruler, and, among other things, promifes all
due veneration to the Pope and church. The emperors
ufed formerly to be crowned by the Popes, till the
reign of Charles V. but from that time the papal co-
yonation has been difpenfed with. However, immedi¬
ately upon his entering upon the government, he tefti-
fies his veneration for the Pope by an embaffy. The
title of the emperor runs thus : “N. by the grace of
God, eleded Roman emperor (imperator), at all
times augmenter of the empire (femper Jugujius),
in or of Germany king.” Then follow the titles of
the hereditary imperial dominions. The ftates of the
empire give the emperor the title of “ Moft illuftrious,
moil powerful, and moft invincible Roman emperor;”
the laft of which is omitted by the eledors. The
^mperor is looked upon by all other crowned heads
and Hayes in Europe as the firft European potentate,
and as fuch precedence is given him and his ambafla-
dors. He is the fupreme head of the German em¬
pire ; but his power in the adminiftration thereof is
very limited. With refped to ecclefiaftical matters,
his prerogative confifts principally in the right of the
firft. petition (jus primari arum precurn); by virtue of
which, in all foundations and cloifters of the empire,
he may, once during his adminiftration, confer a be¬
nefice on any perfon qualified - for it by the ftatutes;
and in that of a panis brief to each foundation or
closer in the empire, by virtue of which, fuch foun.-.
dation is obliged to admit into it the perfon who has
obtained the emperor’s brief, and there provide him,
during life, with meat, drink, cloaths, and other ne-
ceflaries. With refpedt to temporal matters, he can
create princes, dukes, marquiffes, counts, barons,
knights, &c. raife countries and territories to a higher
rank; bellow arms, and grant letters of refpite and
protedlion, fecuring a debtor againft his creditor;
eftablifh univerfiti;s, fairs, and markets; empower any
Vol. V.
[ 3=85 ]
G E R
perfon to adopt another, and to affume a title from Germany,
his eftate; eredl any place into a fanftuary; confer ~
majority on minors ; legitimate children born out of
wedlock; confirm the contrails and ftipulations of
the empire ;*remit oaths extorted from them; inveft
fuch as polfefs fiefs of the empire, and decide in feudal
matters relative thereto, &c. but he cannot grant to
any perfon privileges detrimental to the rights of the
immediate fovereign of that perfon. He can alfo
grant exclufive privileges for printing particular books,
and for new-invented machines, &c. He appoints
moft of the officers, civil and military, of the empire,
except fuch as are hereditary; as the great chancellor,
treafurer, See. but thefe are only honorary. In an¬
cient times the emperor had confiderable domains and
incomes in the empire; but almoft all thefe have been
fucceffively mortgaged and alienated, fo that at pre¬
fent the certain revenues of the emperor are very in-
confiderable: but then, as he has the difpofal of moft
offices, the creation of princes and noblemen, is en¬
titled to all confifcations and forfeitures, and invefts
the feveral princes in their eftates, befides thofe that
hold fiefs of the empire in Italy, the profit of thefe
articles may amount to a large fum. He has alfo
fome offerings from the Jews, and the free gifts of the
order of knights of the empire. A fucceffor in the
empire is frequently chofen by the eledlors during the
life of the emperor, who is ftyled A/ng of the Romans.
He is defied and crowned in the fame manner as the
emperor; has the title of majejiy; takes precedence of
all other kings in Chriftendom; and fucceeds of courfe
at the emperor’s death.
The arms of the empire are a black eagle with two
heads, hovering with expanded wings in a field of Arms of the
gold; and over the heads of the eagle is feen the im- empire,
perial crown.
The diet of the empire confifts of the emperor, the 2.i
nine eleflors, the ecclefiaftical and fecular princes, and The diet,
the deputies of imperial cities.. The eleflors are di¬
vided into fpiritual and temporal. The fpiritual elec¬
tors are, the archbifliops of Mentz, Triers, and Co¬
logne ; and the fecular, thofe of Bohemia, Palatine,.
Brandenburgh, Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover. The
fpiritual eleflors are fuch of courfe as foon as they are
chofen to their fees by their refpefkive chapters. In
the reign of Henry IV. the right of eleftion is faid to
have been introduced. Till the peace of Weftphalia
there were only feven, eleflors, when an eighth was
added; and, in 1692, a ninth, in favour of the illu¬
ftrious houfe of Brunfwic Lunenburg, now in poffef-
fion of a much higher and infinitely more valuable dig¬
nity, viz. the crown of Great Britain. The fpiritual
are ftyled by the emperor, highly worthy nephews; the
temporal, mojl illujlrious uncles. By the other mem¬
bers of the empire, the fpiritual, who were not born
princes, are ftyled, your elcftoral grace; but fuch as
were, and alfo the temporal eleflors, have the appel¬
lation of, your eteftoral ferenity. Foreign kings llyle.
the temporal eleflors, and thofe of the fpiritual who
wrere princes born, brothers. The fpiritual are alfo
ftiled, highly and mojl worthy; and the temporal, mojl
illujlrious.
The eleflor of Mentz is arch-chancellor of the holy
Roman empire in Germany, and direflor of the elec- Powers of
toral college. This prince notifies the death of an die ekflcrs.
18 X emperor
G E R [ 3286 ] G E R
fjermany. emperor to his co*elt£tors, appoints the diet of elec-
tion, admiuiiters the oath to the eleitors or their en¬
voys, Golle£ts their voices, proclaims the ele&ion,
anoints the eleited emperor, and either he or the
eleftor of Cologne crowns him. He hears all grie¬
vances, and other matters, before the different colleges
of the empire. He names a vice-chancellor of the
empire, who takes an oath to him, as well as to the
emperor. He appoints all officers for the chancery of
the empire; has fupreme jurifdiftion over them ; as alfo
the infpe&ion of the archives of the empire, and the
protedtion of the poll-office, in confequence of which
his counfellors pay no poftage.
The elector of Treves is the arch-chancellor of the
holy Roman empire in Gaul and the kingdom of
Arles; but this at prefent is only a bare title. At an
election of the king of the Romans, he has the firft
-Voice; and, before the elediion, takes the oath of the
eledfor of Mentz.
The eledtor of Cologne is arch-chancellor of the
holy Roman empire in Italy. At an eledb’on of a
king of the Romans, he has the fecond voice; and he
crowns the emperor, when the coronation is at Aix-
la-Chapelle, and in the archbifhopric of Cologne.
The king and eledtor of Bohemia is arch-cupbearer
of the holy Roman empire, precedes all the temporal
eledtors what foe ver, and has the third voice in the elec¬
toral college.
The eledtor of Bavaria is arch-fewer of the holy
Roman empire. At the coronation he carries the
jmonde before the emperor, ranks next to Bohemia,
places four iilver diffies, weighing twelve marks, on the
imperial table, and ferves up the firft courfe.
The eledtor of Saxony is arch-marfhal of the holy
Roman empire. He alfo, when there is no emperor,
is one of the vicars of the empire. At the diets, and
on other folemn occafious, he carries the fword of date
before the emperor; and, at the coronation, he rides
into aheap of oats, and fills a filver meafure with that
grain.. During the holding of the diets, he has jnrif-
didtion -over all electoral and other officers of the dates
of the empire, as alfo. in criminal matters. When the
fee of Mentz is vacant, he holds the diredtory of the
diet, and the right of protedtion over the imperial city
of Mullbaufen, and all trumpeters throughout the Ro¬
man empire.
The eledtor of Brandenburgh is arch-chamberlain
of the holy Roman empire; carries the feeptre before
the emperor, which he bears alfo in his coat of arms ;
prefeats the emperor with water in a filver hafon in
order to wafh himfelf; may proceed with refpedt to
his fiefs, principalities, and lands, as with allodial
•edates; and, at his owh pleafure, impofe new tolls,
and eredt mills on all rivers.
The eledtor Palatine was formerly arch-fewer, but
fmee the treaty of Wedphalia arch-treafurer. This
houfe has the right of protedtion over all the braziers
of a large didridt, and throughout all Germany is pro-
tedtor of the order of St. John ; can raife nobles and
gentlemen to the degree of counts; and has the right
of venery, by virtue of which, all illegitimate perfons,
and others of foreign countries, who within a year and
a day have no fucceeding lord, may be made bondf-
men in foch places as are fubjedt to his jnrifdidiion ; fo
that -they rcuit't bind themfdves to the duties of the
eledtorate, and to the payment of a certain tribute and Germany,
mortuaries.
When the eledfor of Bavaria was put under the ban
of the empire in 1706, the Palatine recovered the office
of arch-fewer, and the eledlor of Brunfwic Lunenburg
obtained the office of arch-treafurer, by which he ftill
ftiles himfelf, till another fuitable arch-office he con¬
ferred on him. He enjoys the alternate fucceffion in
the bifhopric of Ofnaburgh, together with fome other
rights and privileges.
Without the privity of thefe eledtors, the emperor
can do nothing with regard to leagues and wars of
the empire, alienations and mortgages of lands be-
longing to it, 8cc. At their inveftiture they pay no
fees, and a new-eledted emperor mud immediately
confirm their privileges and dignities. The diets are
held by the emperor, with the confent of the eledlors;
and, at their defire, each eledlor enjoys a right of ap¬
pointing two chamber-court affiflors, and their elec¬
torates have an unlimited privilege c/e non appeHando.
They may meet together, and hold what are called
clettoral diets. A fubjedt may be guilty of treafon
againft them ; and their whole electorates defeend to
their firlt-born. By the imperial capitulation, their
envoys are to take place of princes in perfon.
Next to the eledtors are the princes of the empire,
who are alfo partly fpiritual, and partly temporal.
The fpiritual are archbiffiops, biihops, abbots, pro-
vofts, abbeffes, the mafters of the Teutonic order, and
of St John ; but of thefe, fome have each a voice, and
others vote by colleges. The temporal princes are
dukes, marquiifes, counts, vifeounts, and barons ; of
which, as among the fpiritual, the higher have lingle
voices, but the lower vote by colleges.
Not only all thofe princes who have feat and voice
in the diet, but many others, are veiled with fovereign
power in their refpedtive territories, or at leaft are
under very few reftraiats. They are, indeed, more
free and abfolute than fome crowned heads; but (till
they are fubjedt to the general laws of the empire,
and fworn not to engage in any wars or alliances to
the prejudice of the emperor and empire. But here
it is to be obferved, that many have titles of nobility
though they are no fovefeigns, nor have any feat in
the diets: fome, however, have a feat, that do not
hold immediately of the emperor ; or, which is the
fame, are immediately fubjedt to fome other prince,
and only mediately to the emperor. Tiie Franks, in
imitation of the Romans, reduced all Germany into
provinces, over which they placed governors with dif¬
ferent titles. .They were generally of noble families;
and, if there was np material objedtion againft it,
their fons were appointed to fucceed them: from,
whence thefe governors came at length to infift on a
right of fucceeding their anceftors, and refufed to pay
homage to the German emperors, every one taking
upon him to exercife regal power in his province;
from whence have fprung up fo many petty ibvereigns
in the empire. Thefe officers were either hsrtogcn or
dukes, to whom were committed the government of
the larger diftridls ; grajfett, or earls, who had the-
care of fmaller parts ; pfaitz-graven, palfgraves, or
• connts-palatine, who adminiltered juitice when in the
verge of the court ; landgraves, who were fet over
provincesor marqniiTes, who wire charged
G E R [ 3287 ] G E R
Germany, with the care cf the marches or borders; and hitr*
- ' ~ graves, who were governors of the royal caftles and
forts. The third college of the diet is that of the
free or imperial cities, i. e. fuch as are governed by ma-
giftrates of their own, and (land immediately under
the emperor and empire. Some of thefe are wholly
Catholic, others entirely Lutheran, and others again
mixed. Within their territory they exercife fupreme
power; and are divided into two benches,, the Rhenifh
and Suabian. As the princes of the empire took ad¬
vantage of the necefiities or indulgence of the German
emperors, to ere£l the governments they held in capa-,
city of viceroys or governors, into independent prin¬
cipalities and ftates, fo did the cities now called free
and imperial. The emperors, frequently wanting fup-
plies of money to carry on wars, or for other occa-
jions, borrowed large fums of the wealthy trading
towns, and paid them again in munificent grants and
privileges, making them free flates, and independent
of the governors of the provinces where they hood :
accordingly, thefe cities, like the princes, exercife all
kinds of fovereign power that are cohfiilent with the
general laws of the empire; they make laws, confli-
tute courts of juth'ce, coin money, raife forces, and
enter into alliances and confederacies ; only acknow¬
ledging the emperor for their fupreme lord, and con¬
tributing their fhare towards the common defence of
the empire.
The diet meets at Ratifbon on the emperor's
Powers of fnmmons, and. any of the princes may fend their
«he diet. deputies thither in their (lead. The diet makes
laws, raifes taxes, determines differences between the
feveral princes and flates, and can relieve fubjedls from
the oppreffions of their fovereign : and there are two
fupreme councils, called the aulie council, and the
chamber of IVitzlar, to which any of the princes and
ftates, or their fubje&s, may appeal, when they ap¬
prehend themfelves aggrieved. The empire was an¬
ciently divided into ten circles; which divifion was con¬
firmed by the emperor Charles V. who fettled the
portion which every circle, and every prince and mem¬
ber of each circle, fhould contribute towards the ordi¬
nary and extraordinary taxes of th£ empire. This
was entered in a regitter, called a matriculation-book,
which is kept by the ele&or of Mentz. The taxes
are either ordinary or extraordinary. The former is
what is flyled the chamber-terms, or the money which
each (late of the empire is to contribute annually for
maintaining the chamber-judicatory of the emperor
and empire. The latter are called Roman months,
which are a certain rate of money or troops fettled
by the flates of the empire, and granted fometimes to
the emperor; as for inflance, for the fupport of the
emperor, or of the army of the empire, or the forts
thereof, or for the war againft the Turks, the ex-
pences of an embaffy of the empire, Sec. By the ma-
tricula fettled by Charles V. twelve florins were to he
paid monthly in lieu of every horfeman, and four for
every foot foldier. Afterwards it was enaded, that
ftxty florins fhould be advanced in lieu of every trooper
wanting, and twelve for every footman ; and thefe
payments obtained the name of Roman months, be-
caufe the forces or money abovementioneel were at
,firft applied towards the forming a body of borfe
and foot for fix months, to condud the emperor in
his journey to Rome to receive the papal corona- Germany.
tion.
Befides the diet, there are yearly meetings of the i3
ftates of one, two, or three of the circles that lie
neareft to one another, called from thence correfpond- t|1£ 1iat\.s-
ing circles ; of which there are three clafles : firft, the
Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, and Weltphalia; fe-
condly, the Upper and Lower Saxony ; and, thirdly,
Franconia, Suabia, and Auflria. That of Upper
Saxony aflembles ufually at Leipfic ; that of Franco¬
nia at Nuremberg; and that of Suabia at Ulm. They
treat of the regulation of their coin, the public peace,
their treafure, magazines, fortifications, and commerce,
redifying the matricula, putting the decrees of the
empire in execution, and appointing judges of the
imperial chamber of Witzlar or Spire, and of the
aulie council at Vienna ; and have power of enading
laws which are not inconfiftent with the conllitution
of the empire. In every circle there are one or two
<!iredors, who fummon the ilates of the circle, and
have the command of the militia when embodied, re¬
gulating their march, quarters, &c. and putting tire
decrees of the empire in execution, when any prince
or member refufes to comply with their refolutions.
It is to be obferved here, that the Troteftaat eflates
of the empire, in the diets, are called the evangelic
body, and have a diredor, viz. the eledor of Saxony.
Befides the higher nobility, or high add of the em¬
pire, confifling of princes, counts, &c. there is the
lower add, or rank of knighthood, which is very tuv-
merous in Germany.
With regard to the charader of the ancient Ger- 19
mans, they are deferibed to us by the Greek and Ro- CharaCt.-r^
man writers, as refembling the Gauls* and differing °nt q™c'~
from other nations by the largenefs of their ft.ature, maBS.
ruddy complexion, blue eyes, and yellow buihy hair,
haughty and threatening looks, ftrong conftitutions,
and being proof againft hunger, cold, and all kinds of
hardfhip.
Their native difpofition difplayed itfelf chiefly in
their martial genius, and in their Angular fidelity.
The former of thefe they did indeed carry to fuch an
excefs, as came little fhort of downright ferocity :
but, as to the latter, they not only valued themfeives
highly upon it, but were greatly eileemed by other
nations for it; infomuch that Auguilus, and feveral
of his fuccefibrs, committed the guard of their per-
foos to them, and almoft all other nations either.court-
ed their friendibip and alliance, or hired them as aux¬
iliaries : though it muft be owned, at the fame time,
that their extreme love of liberty, and their hatred of
tyranny and oppreffion, have often hurried them to
treachery and murder, efpecially when they have
thought themfelves ill ufed by thofe who hired them ;
for, in all fuch cafes, they were eafily ftirred up, and
extremely vindiclive. In other cafes, Tacitus tells us,
they were noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, with¬
out ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or in¬
vading thofe from whom they received no injury ; ra¬
ther chopfing to employ their ftrength and valour
defenfively, than offenfively ; to preferve their own,
than to ravage their neighbours.
Their friendihip and intercourfe was rather a com¬
pound of honeft bluntnefs and hofpitality, than of
wit, humour, or gallantry. All ftrangers were fure
18X2 te
G E R [ 3288 ] G E R
Germany, to meet with a kind reception from them, to the ut-
~ moll of their ability: even thofe who were not in a
capacity to entertain them, made it a piece of duty
to introduce them to thofe who could ; and nothing
was looked upon as more fcandalous and deteftable,
than to refufe them either the one or the other. They
. do not feem, indeed, to have had a tafte for grand
and elegant entertainments; they affefted in every
thing, in their houfes, furniture, diet, See. rather
plainnefs and fimplicity, than fumptuoufnefs and lu¬
xury. If they learned the Romans and Gauls the ufe
of money, it was rather becaufe they found it more
convenient than their ancient way of bartering one
commodity for another ; and then they preferred thofe
ancient coins which had been (lamped during the times
of the Roman liberty, efpecially fuch as were either
milled or cut in the rims, bccaufe they could not be
fo eafily cheated in them, as in fome others, which
were frequently nothing but copper, or iron, plated
over with lilver. This lall metal they likewife pre¬
ferred before gold, not becaufe it made a greater fhew,
but becaufe it was more convenient for buying and
felling: And as they became, in time, more feared
by, or more ufeful to, the Romans ; fo they learned
how to draw enough of it from them to fupply their
whole country, belides what flowed to them from
other nations.
As they defpifed fup^rfluities in other cafes, fo
they did alfo in the connubial way: every man was
contented with one wife, except lome few of their
nobles, who allowed themfelves a plurality, more for
fhew than pleafure; and both were fo faithful to each
other, and chafle, true, and difinterefted, in their
conjugal affedlions, that Tacitus prefers their manners,
in this refpedl, to thofe of the Romans. The men
fought not dowries from their wives, but bellowed
them upon them. Their youth, in thofe cold climes,
did not begin fo foon to feel the warmth of love, as
they do in hotter ones: it was a common rule with
them, not to marry young ; and thofe were mod e-
fleemed who continued longed in celibacy, becaufe
they looked upon it as an effe&ual means to make
them grow tall and drong; and to marry, or be con¬
cerned with a woman, before they were full twenty-
years old, was accounted lhameful wantonnefs. The
women (hared with their hufbands not only the care
of their family, and the education of their children,
but even the hardfhips of war. They attended them
in the field, cooked their viftuals for them, drefled
their wounds, dirred them up to fight manfully againd
their enemies, and fometimes have by their courage
and bravery recovered a vidlory when it was upon
the point of being fnatched from them. In a word,
they looked upon fuch condant attendance on them,
not as a fervitude, like the Roman dames, but as a
duty and an honour. But what appears to have
been dill an harder fate upon the ancient German
dames was, that their great Odinus excluded all thofe
from his valhalla, or paradife, who did not, by fome
violent death, follow their deceafed huflbands thi¬
ther. Yet notwithdanding their having been ancient¬
ly in fuch high repute for their wifdom, and fuppofed
fpirit of prophecy, and their continuing fuch faithful
and tender helpmates to their hufbands, they funk,
jn time, fo low in- their edeem, that,, according to the
old Saxon law, he that hurt or killed a woman, was Germany, j
to pay but half the fine that he Ihould have done if ~ ]
he had hurt or killed a man.
There is fcarcely any one thing in which the Ger-
mans, though fo nearly allied in mod of their other rajs>‘
cudoms to the Gauls, were yet more oppofite to them j
than in their funerals. Thofe of the latter were per¬
formed with great pomp and profufion ; thofe of the
former were done with the fame plainnefs and fimplicity
which they obferved in all other things: the only gran¬
deur they affe&ed in them was, to burn the bodies of
their great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood; but
then the funeral pile was neither adorned with thecloaths
and other fine furniture of the deceafed, nor perfumed
with fragant herbs and gums : each man’s armour,
that is, his fword, (hield, and fpear, were flung into
it, and fometimes his riding-horfe. The Danes, in¬
deed, flung into the funeral-pile of a prince, gold,
filver, and other precious things, which the chief
mourners, who walked, in a gloomy guife, round the
fire, exhorted the byftanders to fling liberally into it
in honour of the deceafed. They afterwards depo-
fited their alhes in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and
other nations ; as it plainly appears, from the vail
numbers which have been dug up all over the coun¬
try, as well as from the fundry differtations which
have been written upon them, by feveral learned mo¬
derns of that nation. One thing we may obferve,
in general, that, whatever facrifices they offer¬
ed for their dead, whatever prefents they made to
them at their funerals, and whatever other fuperfti-
tious rites they might perform at them, all was done
in confequence of thofe excellent notions which their
ancient religion had taught them, the immortality of
the foul, and the blifs or mifery of a future life.
It is impoffible, indeed, as they did not commit 31
any thing to writing till very lately, and as none of Their belief
the ancient writers have given us any account of it, futuiei
to guefs how foon the belief of their great Odin, and
his paradife, was received among them. It may, for
aught we know, have been older than the times of Ta¬
citus, and he have known nothing of it, by reafon of
their fcrupulous care in concealing their religion from
llrangers : but as they conveyed their do&rines to
pollerity by fongs and poems, and mod of the north¬
ern poets tell us that they have drawn their intelli¬
gence from thofe very poems which were dill preferred
among them ; we may rightly enough fuppofe, that
whatever do&rines are contained in them, were for¬
merly profeffed by the generality of the nation, efpe¬
cially lince we find their ancient praftice fo exadly
conformable to it. Thus, fince the fured road to this
paradife was, to excel in martial deeds, and to die
intrepidly in the field of battle; and fince none were
excluded from it but bafe cowards, and betrayers of
their country ; it is natural to think, that the fignal
and exceffive bravery of the Germans flowed from this
ancient belief of theirs: and, if their females were fo
brave and faithful, as not only to (hare with their
hufbands all the dangers and fatigues of war, but, at
length, to follow them, by a voluntary death, into the
other world ; it canhardly be attributed toanythingelfe
but a drong perfuafion of their being admitted to live
with them in that place of blifs. This belief, there¬
fore, whether received originally from the old Cedes,
or
G E R [ 3289 ] G E R
H Germany, or afterwards taught them by the fince deified Odin,
 feems, from their general pradice, to have been uni-
verfally received by all the Germans, though they
might differ one from another in their notions of that
future life.
The notion of a future happinefs obtained by mar¬
tial exploits, efpecially by dying fword in hand, made
them bewail the fate of thofe who lived to an old age,
as difhonourable here, and hopelefs hereafter: upon
which account, they had a barbarous way of fending
them into the other world, willing or not willing.
And this cuftom lafled feveral ages after their recei¬
ving Chriftianity, efpecially among the Prufiians and
Venidi; the former of whom, it feems, difpatched,
by a quick death, not only their children, the fick,
fervants, &c. but even their parents, and fometimes
themfelves : and among the latter we have inftances of
this horrid parricide being pradifed even in the be¬
ginning of the 14th century. All that need be added
is, that, if thofe perfons, thus fuppofed to have lived
long enough, either defired to be put to death, or,
at leaft, feemed chearfully to fubmit to what they
knew they could not avoid, their exit was commonly
preceded with a faft, and their funeral with a feaft ;
but if they endeavoured to fhun it, as it fometimes
happened, both ceremonies were performed with the
deeped mourning. In the former, they rejoiced at
their deliverance, and being admitted into blifs ; in
the latter, they bewailed their cowardly excluding
themfelves from it. Much the fame thing was done
tov/ards thofe wives, who betrayed a backwardnefs to
follow their dead huibands.
- 31 We mud likewife obferve, that, in thefe funerals,
* Remark- as well as in all their other feads, they were famed for
drinking to excefs ; and one may fay of them, above
e*cefs'.n£ t0 t^ie otber defcendents of the ancient Celtes, that their
hofpitality, banquets, &c. confided much more in the
quantity of drong liquors, than in the elegance of
eating. Beer and drong mead, which were their na¬
tural drink, were looked upon as the chief promoters
of health, drength, fertility, and bravery ; upon
which account, they made no fcruple to indulge them¬
felves to the utmod in them, not only in their feads,
and efpecially before an engagement, but even in their
common meals.
33 The modern Germans in their perfons are tall, fair,
CharaGer and drong built. The ladies have generally fine com-
! ‘jerlf Ger-' plexions ; and fome of them, efpecially in Saxony,
mans. ^ave t^ie delicacy of features and fhape that are fo
bewitching in a certain illand of Europe.
Both men and women affeft rich drefles, which in
fafiuon are the fame as in France and England ; but
the better fort of men are exceffively fond of gold and
filver lace, efpecially if they are in the army. The
ladies at the principal courts differ not much in their
drefs from the French and Englilh, only they are not
fo excefiively fond of paint as the former. At fome
courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are
loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The
female part of the burghers families, in many German
towns, drefs in a very different manner, and fome of
them inconceivably fantadic, as may be feen in many
prints publifned in books of travels: but in this refpedl
they are gradually reforming, and many of them
make quite a different appearance in their drefs from
what they did thirty or forty years ago. As to the pea- Germany,
fantry and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of
Europe, according to their employments, convenien-
cy, and opulence. In Wedphalia, and mod other
parts of Germany, they deep between two feather¬
beds, or rather the upper one of down, with Iheets
ditched to them, which by ufe becomes a very com¬
fortable pra&ice. The mod unhappy part of the
Germans are the tenants of little needy princes, who
fqueeze them to keep up their own grandeur; but, in
general, the circumdances of the common people are
far preferable to thofe of the French.
The Germans are naturally a frank, honed, hofpi-
table people, free from artifice and difguife. The
higher orders are ridiculoufly proud of titles, anceftry,
and ihew. The Germans, in general, are thought to
want animation, as their perfons promife more vigour
and activity than they commonly exert, even in the
field of battle. But when commanded by able gene¬
rals, efpecially the Italians, fuch as Montecuculi and
prince Eugene, they have done great things, both
a^ainft the Turks and the French. The imperial arms
have feldom made any remarkable figure againd either
of thofe two nations, or againd the Swedes or Spani¬
ards, when commanded by German generals. This pof-
fibly might be owing to the arbitrary obdinacy of
the court of Vienna ; for in the two lad wars the
Andrians exhibited prodigies of military valour and ,
genius.
Induftry, application, and perfeverance, are the
great chara&eridics of the German nation, efpecially
the mechanical part of it. Their works of art would
be incredible were they not vifible, efpecially in watch
and clock making, jewellery, turnery, feulpture, draw¬
ing, painting, and certain kinds of architecture. The
Germans have been charged with intemperance in eating
and drinking ; and perhaps not unjudly, owing to the
vad plenty of their country in wine and provilions of
every kind. But thofe practices feem now to be wear¬
ing out. At the greated tables, though the gueds
drink pretty freely at dinner, yet the repad is com¬
monly finilhed by coffee, after three or four public
toads have been drank. But no people have morefead-
ing at marriages, funerals, and birth-days.
TheGeman nobility are generally men of fo much
honour, that a fhar-per in other countries, efpecially in
England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be
a German, than of any other nation.
The merchants and tradefmen are very civil and ob-
liging- All the fons of noblemen inherit their fa¬
thers titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds and
genealogids of that country. This perhaps is one of
the reafons why the German hufbands are not quite fo
complaifant as they ought otherwife to be to their la¬
dies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the
table ; nor indeed do-they feem to affedl it, being far
from either ambition or loquacity, though they are
faid to be fomewhat too fond of gaming. From what
has been premifed, it may eafily be conceived, that
many of the German nobility, having no other here¬
ditary edate than a high-founding title, eafily enter
into their armies, and thofe of other fovereigns. Their
fondnefs for title is attended with many other in-
conveniencies. Their princes think that the cultiva¬
tion of their lands, tho’ it may treble their revenue.
G E R [ 3290 ] G E R
Oermen, is below their attention; and that, as they area fpecies
Germinatio 0f beings fuperior to labourers of every kind, they
'would demean themfelves in being concerned in the
improvement of their grounds.
The domeftic diverfions of the Germans are the fame
as in England; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dan¬
cing, and the like. In fummer, people of falhion re¬
pair to places of public refort, and drink the waters.
As to their field-diverfions, befides their favourite one
of hunting, they have bull and bear-beating, and the
like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxurioufly, a
great part of their time being fpent in feafting and ca-
roufing ; and in winter, when the feveral branches of
the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered
with fnow, the ladies take their recreations in fledges
of different fliapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, fvvans,
fcollop-fhells, &c. Here the lady fits, drefled in vel¬
vet lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces and
jewels, having on her head a velvet cap ; and the fledge
is drawn by one horfe, flag, or other creatures let
off with plumes of feathers, ribbons, and bells. As
this diverfion is taken chiefly in the night-time, fer-
vants ride before the fledge with torches, and a gentle¬
man fitting on the fledge behind guides the horfe.
GERMEN, the feed-bud ; defined by Linnteus to
be the bafe of the piftillum, which contains the rudi¬
ments of the feed; and, in progrefs of vegetation,
dwells and becomes the feed-veffel.
In affimilating the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
Einnaeus denominatesthe feed-bud the ovarium wuterus
of plants ; and affirms its exiftence to be chiefly at the
time of the difperfion of the male-duff by the antherse ;
as, after its impregnation, it becomes a feed-veffel.
Germen, by Pliny and the ancient botaniffs, is
ufed to fignify a bud containing the rudiments of the
leaves. See Gemma.
GE RMINATIO, among botanifts, comprehends the
precife time which the feeds take to rife after they have
been committed to the foil.—The different fpecies of
feedsarelonger or fhorter in rifing, according to the de¬
gree of heat which is proper to each. Millet, wheat, and
feveral of the graffes, rife in one day ; blite, fpinach,
beans, muftard, kidney-beans, turneps, and rocket, in
three days; lettuce and dill, in four; cucumber, gourd,
melon, and crefs, in five; radilh and beet, in fix;
barley, in feven ; orach, in eight; purflane, in nine ;
-cabbage, in ten ; hyffop, in thirty ; parfley, in forty or
fifty days ; peach, almond, walnut, chefnut, pseony,
horned-poppy, hypecoum, and ranunculus falcatus, in
one year; rofe-bufh, cornel-tree, hawthorn, medlar,
and hazel-nut, in two. The feeds of fome fpecies of
orchis, and of fome liliaceous plants, never rife at all.
Of feeds, fome require to be fowed almoft as foon as
they are ripe, otherwife they will not fprout or ger¬
minate. Of this kind are the feeds of coffee and
fraxinella. Others, particularly thofe of the pea-
bloom flowers, preferve their germinating faculty for
a feries of years.—Mr Adanfon afferts, that the fen-
fitive plant retains that virtue for thirty or forty years.
Air and water are the agents of germination. The
humidity of the air alone makes feveral feeds to rife
that are expofed to it. Seeds too are obferved to rife
in water, without the intervention of earth : but wa¬
ter, without air, is infufficient.—Mr Homberg’s expe¬
riments on this head are decifive. He put feveral feeds
under the exhaufted-receiver of an air-pump, with a Gervaife
view to eftablifli fomething certain on the caufes of II
germination. Some of them did not rife at all; and Ger,ier-
the greateft part of thofe which did, made very weak
and feeble produdions.
Thus it is for want of air that feeds which are bu¬
ried at a very great depth in the earth, either thrive
but indifferently, or do not rife at all.
They frequently preferve, however, their germina¬
ting virtue for many years, within the bowels of the
earth ; and it is not unufual, upon a piece of ground
being newly dug to a coniiderable depth, to obferve it
foon after covered with feveral plants, which had not
been feen there in the memory of man.
Were this precaution frequently repeated, it would
doubtlefs be the means of recovering certain fpecies of
plants which are regarded as loll; or which perhaps,
never coming to the knowledge of botanifts, might
hence appear the refult of a new creation.
Some feeds require a greater quantity of air than
others. Thus purflane, which does not rife till after
lettuce in the free air, rifes before it ia, vacuo ; and
both profper but little, or perilli altogether, whillfc
creffcs vegetate as freely as in the open ait.
GERVAISE, (or Gervase), of Tilbury, a fa¬
mous Englilh writer of the 13th century ; thus named
from his being born at Tilbury on theThames. He was
nephew to Henry II. king of England; and was in
great credit with Otho IV. emperor of Germany, to
whom he dedicated a Defcription of the world, and a
Chronicle. He alfo compofed a hiftory of England,
that of the Holy Land, and other works.
GERUND, is grammar, a verbal noun of the neu¬
ter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle,
declinable only in the Angular uumber, through all
the cafes except the vocative; as nom. amandurny gen.
amandi, dat. amavdo, accuf. amandum, abl. amando.
The word is formed of the Latin geryndivus, and that
from the verb gerere, “ to bear.”
The gerund expreffes not only the time, but alfo the
viamier^, of an aftion ; as, “ he fell in running poft.”
— It differs from the participle, in that it expreffes the
time, which the participle does not; and from the
tenfe properly fo called, in that it expreffes the manner,
which the tenfe does not.
Grammarians are much embarraffed to fettle the na¬
ture and chara&er of \\\e gerunds. It is certain they
are not verbs, nor diftinft moods of verbs, in regard
they do not mark any judgment, or affirmation of the
mind, which is the effence of a verb. And, befide,
they have cafes ; which verbs have not. Some, therefore,
will have them to be adje&ives paffive, whofe fubftan-
tive is the infinitive of the verb : on this footing they
denominate them verbal nouns, or names formed of
verbs, and retaining the ordinary regimen thereof.
Thus, fay they, tern pus ejl legends libros, or librorum,
is as much as to fay, tempus eft ™ legere libros, v.el /;-
brorutn. But others Hand up againit this decilion.
GESNER (Conrad), a celebrated phyfician and
naturaliff, was born at Zurich in 1516. Having fi-
nifhed his ftudies in France, he travelled into Italy,
and taught medicine and philofophy in his own coun¬
try with extraordinary reputation. He was acquaint¬
ed with the languages; and excelled fo much in natu¬
ral hiffor,y, that he was furnatned the Pliny of Ger¬
many,
G E R [ 3291 j G E R
Geftation mar.y. He died in 156^, leaving many works be¬
ll hind him; the principal of which are, 1. A hi if cry of
Ghent. an;mals< plants, and foffils ; 2, Bibliotheca Univcrfa-
lit; 3. A Greek and Latin lexicon.
GESTATION, among phyficians. See Preg¬
nancy.
GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
Helfingia on the north, by the Bothnic gulph on the
eaft, by Upland on the fouth, and by Dalecarlia on
the weft.
GESTURE, in rhetoric, confifts chiefly in the pro¬
per a£fion of the hands and face. See Declama¬
tion, n° xii. and Oratory, n0 130, 131.
GETHIN (Lady Grace), an Engiifh lady of un¬
common parts, was the daughter of Sir George Nor¬
ton of Abbots-Leigh in Somerfetfliire, and born in
the year 1676. She had all the advantages of a libe¬
ral education ; and became the wife of Sir Richard
Gethin, of Get-bin-Grott in Ireland. She was mif-
trefs of great accomplifhments, natural and acquired,
but did not live long enough to difplay them to the
world ; for ftie died in the 2xft year of her age. She
was buried in Weftminfter-abbay, where a beautiful
monument with an infcription is eredfed over ; and, for
perpetuating her memory, provifion was made for a
iermon to be preached in Weftminfter-abhey, yearly,
on Afti-Wednefday for ever. She wrote, and left be¬
hind her, in loofe papers, a work, which, foon after
her death, was methodised, and publifhed under the
title of “ Re liquid Gcthiniana : or, Some remains of
“ the moft-ingenious and excellent lady, Grace lady
“ Gethin, lately deceafed. Being a colledfion of choice
“ difcourfes, pleafant apophthegms, and witty fen-
tences. Written by her, for the moft part, by way
“ of eflay, and at fpare hours.” Loud. 1700, 410 ;
.with Iter pidtore before it.
GEUM, Avens, or Herb-Bennet; a genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants. There are five fpecies, of which the moft re¬
markable are, j. The urbanum, with thick fibrous
roots of an aromatic tafte, rough, ferrated leaves, and
upright, round, hairy ftalks terminated by large yel¬
low flowers, fucceeded by globular fruit. 2. The ri-
vale, with a very thick, flefiiy, and fibrotw root, hairy
leaves, and upright ftalks, 10 or 12 inches high, ter¬
minated by purple flowers nodding on one fide. Of
this there are varieties with red and with yellow flow¬
ers.-—Both thefe are natives of Britain, and are eafily
propagated either by the root or feed. The roots of
the firft, gathered in the fpring before the ftem comes
"tip, and infufed in ale, give it a pleaCant flavour, and
prevent its growing four. Infufed in wine, they have
a ftomachic virtue. The tafte is mildly aufteve and aro¬
matic, efpeciaily when the plant grows in warm dry.
fituations; but in moift fhady places, it hath little vir¬
tue. Cows, goats, fheep, and fwine, eat the plant;
borfes are not fond of it.—The powdered root of the
fecond fpecies will cure tertian agues, and is daily'
ufed for that purpofe by the Canadians. Sheep and
goats eat the plant; cows, horfes, and fwine, are not
fond of it-
GHENT, a city of the Andrian Netherlands, ca¬
pital of the province of Flanders. It is Rated on four
navigable rivers, the Scheld, the Lys, the Lieve, and
the Moere, which run through it, and divide it into
canals. Thefe form 26 little ides, over which there Ghexir
are 300 bridges ; among which there is one remark- .11
able for a ftatue of brafs of a young man who was ob- .
liged to cut off his father’s head ; but as he was going
to ftrike, the blade flew into the air, and the hilt remain¬
ed in his hand, upon which they were both pardoned.
There is a pifture of the whole tranfadlion in the town-
houfe. Ghent is furrounded with walls and other for¬
tifications, and is tolerably ftrong for a place of its
circumference. But all the ground within the walls is
not built upon. The ftreets are large and well paved,
the market-places fpacious, and the houfes built with
brick. But the Friday’s market-place is the largeft,
and is remarkable for the ftatue of Charles V. which
ftands upon a pedeftal in the imperial habit. That of
Cortere is remarkable for a fine walk under feveral rows
of trees. In 1737 a fine opera-houfe was built here,
and a guard-houfe for the garrifon. Near the town is
a very high tower, with a handfeme clock and chimes.
The great bell w-eighs 1 l,CCO pounds.
This town is famous for the pacifications figned
here, in 1526, for fettling the tranquillity of the Se¬
venteen Provinces, which was. afterwards confirmed by
the king of Spain. It was taken by Lewis XIV. in
1678, who afterwards reftored it. The French took
pofieffion of it again after the death of Charles II. of
Spain. In 1706, it was taken by the duke of Marl¬
borough ; and by the French, in 1708 ; but it was re¬
taken the fame year. Laft of all, the French took it
by furprife after the battle of Fontenoy; but at the
peace of Aix la Chapelle, it w-as rendered back. Tins
is the birth-place of John of Gaunt. It is very w’cll
feated for trade, on account of its rivers and canals. It
carries on a great commerce in corn; and has linen,
woollen, and filk manufa&urcs. F. Long. 4. o. N.
Lat. 5 1. 24.
GIAGH, in chronology', a cycle of 12 years; in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft, that of a moufe ; the fecond, that of a
bullock ; the third, of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth,
of a hare ; the fifth, of a crocodile; the fixth, of a
ferpent; the feventh, of a horfe; the eighth, of a
ftieep ; the ninth, of a monkey ; the tenth, of a hen ;
the eleventh, of a dog ; and the twelfth, of a hog.
They alfo divide the day into 12 parts, which they
call giagks, and diftinguifh them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar*
ters in our hours.
GIALLOLINO, in natural hiftory, a fine yellow
pigment much ufed under the name of Naples Yel¬
low'.
GLYNT, a perfon of extraordinary bulk and fta-
ture.
The romances of all ages have furnifhed us with f(>
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiitence of fuch people is now
generally difbelieved. It iscommonly thought, that the
ftature of man hath been the fame in all ages; and fome
have: even pretended to dsmonjlrate the impoffibility of
the exiitence of giants mathematically. Of thefe our
countryman M‘Laurin hath been the moft explicit.
“ In general, (fays he), it will eafily appear, that the
efforts tending to deftroy the cohelion of beams ariling
from
©unt.
G I A [ 3292 ] G I A
from their own gravity only, increafe in the quadru¬
plicate ratio of their lengths; but that the oppofite
efforts tending to preferve their cohefion, increafe only
in the triplicate proportion of the fame lengths. From
which-it follows, that the greater beams muff be in
greater danger of breaking than the leffer fimilarones;
and that though a lefler beam may be firm and fecure,
yet a greater fimilar one may be made folong, that it
will neceffarily break by its own weight. Hence Ga¬
lileo jufily concludes, that what appears very firm, and1
fucceeds very well in models, may be very weak and
infirm, or even fall to pieces by its own weight, when
it comes to be executed in large dimenfions according
to the model.
“ From the fame principle he argues, that there are
neceffary limits in the operations of nature and art,
which they cannot furpafs in magnitude. Were trees
of a very enormous fize, their branches would fall by
their own weight- Large animals have not ftrength
in proportion to their fize ; and if there were any land-
animals much larger than thofe we know, they could
hardly move, and would be perpetually fubjeft to
the moft dangerous accidents. As to the animals
of the fea, indeed, the cafe is different; for the gra¬
vity of the water in a great meafure fuftains thofe a-
nimals ; and in fa£t, thefe are knowm fometimes to be
vaftly larger than thegreateft land-animals. Nor does
it avail againfl this dodlrine to tell us, that bones have
fometimes been found which were fuppofed to have
belonged to giants of immenfe fize ; fuch as the Ikele-
tons mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, the former of
which was 60 cubits high, and the latter 46 : for na-
turalifts have concluded on juft grounds, that in fome
cafes thefe bones had belonged to elephants ; and that
the larger ones were bones of whales, which had been
brought to the places where they were found by the
revolutions of nature that have happened in paft times.
Though itmuft be owned, that there appears no rea-
fon why there may not have been men who have ex¬
ceeded by fome feet in height the talleft we have
feen.”
It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
can never be conclufive ; becaufe, along with an in¬
creafe of ftature in any animal, we mnft always fup-
pofe a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts
of its body. Large works fometimes fail when con-
ftru&ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of
the materials whereof the model is made and of the
large work are the fame ; but a difference in this re-
fpeft will produce a very remarkable difference in the
ultimate refult. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be firm and ftrong enough ; but
a large work made alfo of fir, when executed accord¬
ing to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it
will fall to pieces with its own weight. If, however,
we make ufe of iron for the large work inftead of fir,
the whole will be fufficiently ftrong, even though made
exa&ly according to the plan of the model. The like
may be faid with regard tp large and fmall animals. If
we could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in hard-
nefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as much
as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a mon-
ftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In like
manner, if we fuppofe the flefii and bones of a giant to
be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength to the
bones of other men, the great fize of his body will be
no obje&ion at all to his ftrength. The whole of the
matter, therefore, concerning the exiftence of giants,
muft reft on the credibility of the accounts we have from
thofe who pretend to have feen them, and not on any
arguments drawn a priori.
In the feripture we are told of giants, who were
produced from the marriages of the fans of God with
the daughters of men. But of this paffage no fufficient
explanation hath yet been found: nor can we be fure
that the word tranflated giants does there imply any ex¬
traordinary ftature ; feeing in other places it is explain¬
ed by yi/Z/V/g-a-mry, revolting, or tranfgreffir.g. In o-
ther places of feripture, however, giants, with their
dimenfions, are mentioned in fuch a manner that we
cannot poffibly doubt; as in the cafe of Og king of Ba¬
lkan, and Goliath. In a memoir read before the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Rouen, M. Le Cat gives the fol¬
lowing account of giants that are faid to have exifted ia
different ages.
“ Profane hiftorians have given feven feet of height
to Hercules their firft hero ; and in our days we have
feen men eight feet high. The giant who was fitewn
in Rouen, in 1735, meafured eight feet fome inches.
The emperor Maximin was of that fize ; Skenkiusand
Platerus, phyficians of the laft century, faw feveral of
that ftature ; and Goropius faw a girl who was ten
feet high.—The body of Oreftes, according to the
Greeks, was eleven feet and a half; the giant Galba-
ra, brought from Arabia to Rome under Claudius
Ctefar, was near ten feet; and the bones of Secondil-
la and Piifio, keepers of the gardens of Salluft, were
but fix inches Ihorter. Funnam, a Scotfman, who li¬
ved in the time of Eugene II. king of Scotland, mea¬
fured eleven feet and a half: and Jacob le Maire, in
his voyage to the ftreights of Magellan, reports, that,
on the 17 th of December x6i 5, they found at Port De-
fire feveral graves covered with ftones; and having the
curiofity to remove the ftones, they difeovered human
fkeletons of ten and eleven feet long. The chevalier
Scory, in his voyage to the Pike of Teneriffe, fays,
that they found in one of the fepulchre caverns of tha^
mountain the head of a Guanche which l^d 80 teeth,
and that the body was not lefs than 15 feet long. The
giant Ferragus, flam by Orlando nephew of Charle¬
magne, was 18 feet high. Rioland, a celebrated ana-
tomift, who wrote in 1614, fays, that fome years be¬
fore there was to be feen in the fuburbs of St Germain
the tomb of the giant Iforet, who was 20 feet high.
In Rouen, in 1509, in digging in the ditches near
the Dominicans, they found a ftone-tomh containing
a Ikeleton whofe Ikull held a bufhel of corn, and whofe
fhin-bone reached up to the girdle of the talleft man
there, being about four feet long, and confequently
the body muft have been 17 or 18 feet high. Upon
the tomb was a plate of copper, whereon was engra¬
ved, “ In this tomb lies the noble and puiffant lord,
the chevalier Ricon de Vallemont, and his bones.”
Platerus, a famous phyfician, declares, that he faw at
Lucerne the true human bones of a fubjeft which
muft have been at leaft 19 feet high. Valence in Dau-
phine boafts of poffefling the bones of the giant Bu-
cart, tyrant of the Vivarais, who was flain by an ar¬
row by the count De Cabillon his vaffal. The Domini¬
cans had a part of the fhin-bone, with the articulation
near
Gianr.J!
Giaur.
G I A [ 3293 ] G I A
of the knee, and his figure painted in frefco, with
an infcription, fliewing that this giant was 22 feet and
a half high, and that his bones were found in 1705,
near the banks of the Morderi, a little river at the foot
of the mountain of Crufibl, upon which (tradition fays)
the giant dwelt.
“ January 11. 1613, fome mafons digging near the
ruins of a cattle in Dauphine, in a field which (by tra¬
dition) had long been called the giant's field, at the
depth of 18 feet difcovered a brick-tomb 30 feet long,
12 feet wide, and 8 feet high ; on which was a grey
fione, with the words T'heutobochus Rex cut thereon.
When the tomb was opened, they found a human ike-
leton entire, 25 feet and a half long, to feet wide a-
crofs the {boulders, and five feet deep from the breatt-
bone to the back. His teeth were about the fize each
of an ox’s foot, and his Ihin-bone meafured four feet.
— Near Mazarino, in Sicily, in 1516, was found a giant
30 feet high ; his head.was the fize of an hogfhead,
and each of his teeth weighed five ounces. Near
Palermo, in the valley of Mazara, in Sicily, a fkelaon
of a giant 30 feet long was found, in the year 1548 ;
and another of 33 feet high, in 1550 ; and many curi¬
ous perfons have preferved feveralof thefegigantic bones.
“ The Athenians found near their city two famous
fkeletons, one of 34 and the other of 36 feet high.
“ At Totu, in Bohemia, in 758, was found a Ikele-
ton, the head of which could fcarce be encompalfed by
the arms of two men together, and whofe legs, which
they ftill keep in the caftle of that city, were 26 feet
long. The Ikull of the giant found in Macedonia, Sep¬
tember 1691, held 210 pounds of corn.
“ The celebrated Sir Hans Sloane, who treated
this matter very learnedly, does not doubt thefe fafts;
but thinks the bones were thofe of elephants, whales,
or other enormous animals.
“ Elephants bones may be (hewn for thofe of giants;
but they can never impofe on connoiffeurs. Whales,
which, by their immenfe bulk, are more proper to be
fubftituted for the largeft giants, have neither arms
nor legs ; and the head of that animal hath not the leafl;
refernblance to that of a man. If it be true, there¬
fore, that a great number of the gigantic bones which
we have mentioned have been feen by anatomifts, and
by them have been reputed real human bones, the exift-
ence of giants is proved.”
With regard to the credibility of all, or any of
thefe accounts, it is difficult to determine any thing.
If, in any caftle of Bohemia, the bones of a man’s
leg 26 feet in length are preferved, we have indeed a
deciiive proof of the exillenceof a giant, in comparifon
of whom moft others would be but pigmies. Nor in¬
deed could thefe bones be fuppofed to belong to an
elephant; for an elephant itfelf would be but a dwarf
in comparifon of fuch an enormous monfier. But if
thefe bones were really kept in any part of Bohemia,,
it feems ftrauge that they have not been frequently
viiited, and particular descriptions of them given by
the learned who have travelled into that country.—It
is certain, however, that there have been nations of
men confiderably exceeding the common flature. Thus,
all the Roman hillorians inform us, that the Gauls and
Germans exceeded the Italians in fize, and it appears
that the Italians in thofe days were of much the fame
ftature with the people of the prefent age. Among
thefe northern nations, it is alfo probable, that tnere
would be as great differences in itature, as there are
among the prefent race of men. If that can be al¬
lowed, we may eahly believe that forae of thefe bar¬
barians might be called giants, without any great im¬
propriety. Of this fuperiority of fize, indeed, the
hiftorian Florus gives a notable inftance in Teutobo-
chus, abovementioned, king of the Teutones; who
being defeated and taken prifoner by Marius, was car¬
ried in triumph before him at Rome, when his head
reached above the trophies that were earned in the
fame proceffion.
But whether thefe accounts are credited or not, we
are very certain, that the fiature of the human body
is by no means abfolutely fixed. We are ourfelves a
kind of giants in comparifon of the Laplander; nor
are thefe the moft diminutive people to be found upon
the earth. The abbe la Chappe,, in his journey into
Siberia in order to obferve the laft tranfit of Venus,
pa {fed through a village inhabited by people called
Wotiacks, neither men nor women of whom were above
four feet high. Ti e accounts of the Patagonians alfo,
which cannot be entirely difertdited, render it very
probable, that fomewhere in South America there is
a race of people very confiderably exceeding the com¬
mon fize of mankind, and confequently that we can¬
not altogether diferedit the relations of giants handed
down to us by ancient authors; though what degree
of credit we ought to give them, is not eafy to be
determined.
GiANTS-G*«/eaory', a vaft colle&ion of Bafaltic pil¬
lars in the county of Antrim in Ireland. See the ar¬
ticle Basaltes.
The principal or grand caufeway, for there are
feveral lefs confiderable and fcattered fragments of ii-
rnilar workmanfliip, confifts of a moft irregular ar¬
rangement of many hundred thoufands of columns of a
black kind of rock, hard as marble : almoft all of
them are of a pentagonal figure, but fo clofely and
compa&ly fituated on their fides, though perfe&ly
diltindf from top to bottom, that fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. The columns are of an
unequal height and breadth ; fome of the higheft, vi-
fible above the furface of the ftrand, and at the foot
of tl^e impending angular precipice, may be abopt 20
feet ; they do not exceed this height, at leaft none of
the principal arrangement. How deep they are fixed
in the ftrand, was never yet difcovered. This grand
arrangement extends nearly 200 yards, vilible-at low-
water; how far beyond, is uncertain : from its declin¬
ing appearance, however, at low water, it is probable
it does not extend under water to a diftance any thing
equal to what is feen above. The breadth of the
principal caufeway, which runs out in one continued
range of columns, is, in general, from 20 to 30 feet;
at one place or two it may be nearly 40 for a few
yards. In this account are excluded the broken and
fcattered pieces of the fame kind of conftru&ion, that
are detached from the lides of the grand caufeway, as
they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the
principal arrangement, though they have frequently
been taken into the width; which has been the caufe
.of fuch wild and diffimilar reprefentations of this caufe¬
way, which different accounts have exhibited. The
higheft part of this caufeway is the narroweft at the
18 Y very
G I A [ 3294 ] G I A
Giant, very foot of the impending cliff, from whence the
whole projects, where, for four or five yards, it is not
above ten or fifteen feet wide. The columns of this
narrow part incline from a perpendicular a little to the
weftward, and form a flope on their tops, by the very
unequal height of the columns on the two fides, by
which an afcent is made at the foot of the cliff, from
the head of one column to the next above, gradatirn,
to the top of the great caufeway, which, at the di-
ftance of half a dozen yards from the cliff, obtains a
perpendicular pofition, and, lowering in its general
height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet,
and for 100 yards nearly is always above water. The
tops of the columns for this length being nearly of an
equal height, they form a grand and fingular parade,
that may be eafily walked on, rather inclining to the
water’s edge. But from high water-mark, as it is
perpetually wafhed by the beating furges on every
return of the tide, the platform lowers confiderably,
and becomes more and more uneven, fo as not to be
walked on but with the greateft care. At the diftance
of 150 yards from the cliff, it turn* a little to the eaft
for 20 or 30 yards, and then finks into the fea. The
figure of thefe columns is almoft unexceptionably pen¬
tagonal, or compofed of five fides; there are but very
few of any other figure introduced ; fome few there
are of three, four, and fix fides, but the generality of
them are five-fided, and the fpedlator muff look very
nicely to find any of a different conftruction : yet
what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious,
there are not two columns in ten thoufand to be found,
that either have their fides equal among themfelves,
or whofe figures are alike. Nor is the compofition of
thefe columns or pillars lefs deferving the attention of
the curious fpedlator. They are not of one folid (lone
in an upright pofition ; but compofed of feveral fhort
lengths, curioufly joined, not with flat furfaces, but
articulated into each other like ball and focket, or
like the joints in the vertebrae of fome of the larger
kind of fifh, the one end at the joint having a cavity,
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exadtly
fitted. This is not vifible, but by disjoining the two
{tones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is
generally about three or four inches. And what is
{till farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity, and
the correfpondent concavity, is not conformed to the
external angular figure of the column, but exadtly
round, and as large as the fize or diameter of the co¬
lumn will admit; and, confequently, as the angles of
thefe columns are, in general, extremely unequal, the
circular edges of the joint are feldom coincident with
more than two or three fides of the pentagonal, and
from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the
exterior fides and angles they are quite plain. It is
ftill farther very remarkable, likewife, that the arti¬
culations of thefe joints are frequently inverted; in
fome the concavity is upwards, in others the reverfe.
This occafions that variety and mixture of concavities
and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is
obfervable throughout the platform of this caufeway,
yet without any difcoverable defign or regularity with
refpecl to the number of either. The length, alfo,
of thefe particular ftones, from joint to joint, is va¬
rious : in general, they are from 18 to 24 inches long;
and, for the mod part, longer toward the bottom of
the columns than nearer the top, and the articulation Giant. .
of the joints fomething deeper. The fize, or diameter, T
likewife, of the columns is as different as their length
and figure ; in general, they are from 15 to 20 inches
in diameter. There are really no traces of uniformity
or defign difeovered throughout the whole combina¬
tion, except in the form of the joint, which is inva¬
riably by an articulation of the convex into the con¬
cave of the piece next above or below it ; nor are there
any traces of a finilhing in any part, either in height,
length, or breadth, of this curious caufeway. If there
is here and there a fmooth top to any of the columns
above water, there are others juft by, of equal height,
that are more or lefs convex or concave, which fhew
them to have been joined to pieces that have been
walked or by other means taken off. And undoubt¬
edly thofe parts that are always above water have,
from time to time, been made as even as might be ;
and the remaining furfaces of the joints muft naturally
have been worn fmoother by the conftant friftion of
weather and walking, than where the fea, at every
tide, is beating upon it and continually removing
fome of the upper ftones and expofing frefh joints.
And farther, as thefe columns preferve their diameters
from top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which
have two or three fides expofed to view, the fame may,
with reafon, be inferred of the interior columns, whofe
tops only are vifible. Yet what is very extraordinary, .
and equally curious, in this phenomenon, is, that not-
withftanding the univerfal diffimilitude of the columns,
both as to their figure and diameter, and though per-
fedlly diftindl from top to bottom, yet is the whole
arrangement fo clofely combined at all points, that
hardly a knife can be introduced between them either
on the fides or angles. And it is really a moft curious
piece of entertainment to examine the clofe contexture
and nice infertion of fuch an infinite variety of angular
figures as are exhibited on the furface of this grand
parade. From the infinite diffimilarity of the figure
of thefe columns, this will appear a moft furprifing
circumftance to the curious fpedlator; and would in¬
cline him to believe it a work of human art, were it
not, on the other hand, inconceivable that the wit *
or invention of man fhould conftrudl and combine fuch
an infinite number of columns, which ftiould have a
general apparent likenefs, and yet be fo univerfally
diffimilar in their figure, as that, from the minutelt
examination, not two in tenor twenty thoufand fhould
be found, whofe angles and fides are equal among
themfelves, or of the one column to thofe of the other.
That it is the work of nature, there can be no doubt
to an attentive fpedlator, who carefully furveys the
general form and fuuation, with the infinitely various
figuration of the feveral parts of this caufeway. There
are no traces of regularity or defign in the outlines of
this curious phenomenon; which, including the broken
and detached pieces of the fame kind of workmanlhip,
are extremely fcattered and confufed, and, whatever
they might originally, do not, at prefent, appear to
have any connedlion with the grand or principal
caufeway, as to any fuppofable defign or ufe in its
firft conftrudlion, and as little defign can be inferred
from the figure or fituation of the feveral conftituent
parts. The whole exhibition is, indeed, extremely
confufed, difuniform, and deftitute of every appear¬
ance
Giant,
Gibbous.
GIB [ 3205 ] GIB
ance of ufe or defign in its original confmiflion. But
what, beyond difpute, determines its original to have
been from nature, is, that the very cliffs,' at a great
diftance from the cauieway, efpecially in the bay to
the eaftward, exhibit, at many places, the fame kind
of columns, figured' and jointed in all refpe&s like
thofe of the grand caufeway : fome of them are feen
near to the top of the cliff, which in general, in thefe
bays to the eaft and weft of the caufeway, is near 300
feet in height; others again are feen about midway,
And at different elevations from the ftrand. A very
confiderable expofure of them is feen in the very bot¬
tom of thebay to the eaftward, near a hundred rods from
the caufeway, where the earth has evidently fallen
away from them upon the ftrand, and exhibits a moft
curious arrangement of many of thefe pentagonal co¬
lumns, in a perpendicular pofition, fupporting, in ap¬
pearance, a cliff of different ftrata of earth, clay, rock,
&c. to the height of 150 feet or more, above. Some
of thefe columns are between 30 and 40 feet high,
from the top of the floping bank below them ; and,
being longeft in the middle of the arrangement, ftiort-
ening on either hand in view, they have obtained the
appellation of organs-, from a rude likenefs, in this par¬
ticular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that inftru-
ment; and as there are few broken pieces on the
ftrand near it, it is probable that the outfide range of
columns that now appears, is really the original exte¬
rior line, to the feaward, of this colle&ion. But how
far they extend internally into the bowels of the in¬
cumbent cliff, is unknown. The very fubftance, in¬
deed, of that part of the cliff which projeftsto a point,
between the two bays on the eaft and weft of the
caufeway, feems compofed of this kind of materials;
for befides the many pieces that are feen on the fides
of the cliff that circulate to the bottom of the bays,
particularly theeaftern fide, there is, at the very point
of the cliff, and juft above the narrow and higheftpart
of the caufeway, a long colle&ion of them feen, whofe
heads or tops juft appearing.without the floping bank,
plainly {hew them to be in an oblique pofition, and a-
bout half-way between the perpendicular and horizon¬
tal. The heads of thefe, likewife, are of mixed fur-
faces, convex and concave, and the columns evidently
appear to have been removed from their original up¬
right, to their prefent inclining or oblique pofition,
by the finking or falling of the cliff.
GIBBOUS, a term in medicine, denoting any pro¬
tuberance or convexity of the body, as a perfon
haunched or hump-backed.
Infants are much more fubjeft to gibbofity than ad¬
ults, and it oftener proceeds from external than internal
caufes. A fall, blow, or the like, frequently thus
diftorts the tender bones of infants. When it proceeds
from an internal caufe, it is generally from a relaxa¬
tion of the ligaments that fuftain the fpine, or a caries
of its vertebras; though the fpine may be infle&ed fore¬
ward, and the vertebras thrown out by a too ftrong
and repeated a&ion of the abdominal mufcles. This,
if not timely redreffed, grows up and fixes as the bones
harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable: but
when the diforder is recent, and the perfon young,
there are hopes of a cure. The common method is
by a machine of pafteboard, wood, or fteel, which is
made to prefs principally on the gibbous part; and
this by long wearing may fet all right. The furgeons,
however, have a different inftrumtnt, which they call
a crofsi much more efficacious, though not quite fo.
convenient in the wearing. By the ufe of this, the
parts are always prevented from growing any worfe,
and are often cured. During the application of thefe
affiftances, the parts ftiould be at times rubbed with
hungary-water, fpirit of lavender, or the like, and
defended with a ftrengthening plafter.
Gibbous, in aftronomy, a term ufed in reference to
the enlightened parts of* the moon, whilft (he is mo¬
ving from the firft quarter to the full, and from the
full to the laft quarter: for all that time the dark part
appears horned, or falcated ; and the light one hunch¬
ed out, convex, or gibbous.
GIBELINS, or Gibellins, a famous fa&ion in Ita¬
ly, oppofite to another called the Guelphs.
Thefe two fa&ions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feriesof years; fo that the hiftory of that coun¬
try, for the fpace of two centuries, is no more than
a detail of their mutual violences and flaughters. The
Gibelins flood for the emperor againft the pope: but
concerning their origin and the reafon of their names,
we have but a very obfcure account. According to
the generality of authors, they rofe about the year
1240, upon the emperor Fredrick II.’s being excom¬
municated by the pope Gregory IX. Other writers
maintain, that the two factions arofe ten years before,
though ftill under the fame pope and emperor. But
the moft probable opinion is that of Maimbourg, who
fays, that the two faftions of Guelphs and Gibellins
arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and illuftri-
ous houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the
Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of A-
dorf. See (HiJIory of) Italy.
GIBET, a machine in manner of a gallows, where¬
on notoriouscriminals, after execution, are hung in irons
or chains, ’as fpe&acles in terrorem. See Gallows-
—The word in French, gibet, properly denotes what
we call gallows: it is fuppofed to come originally
from the Arabic gibel, “ mount, or elevation of
ground;” by reafon gibets are ufually placed on hills
or eminences.
GIBBET. See Gibet.
GIBRALTAR, a famous promontory, or rather
peninfula, of Spain, lying in N. Lat. 35° 50', W.
Long. 50 35/. To the ancients it was known by the
name of Calpe^nd was alfo called one of the Pillars of
Hercules; by the Arabians it is called Gelel Tarek, that
is, the Mount of Tarek, from Tarek, the name of the
Saracen general who conquered Spain in the beginning
of the eighth century. The whole is an immenfe rock,
riling perpendicularly about 440 yards, meafuring,
from north to fouth, about two Englilh miles, but
not above one in breadth from eaft to weft.—The town
lies along the bay on the wt^t fide of t he mountain on
a decline ; by which, generally fpeaking, the rains
pafs through it, and keep it clean. The old town was
confiderably larger than the new, which at prefent con-
fifts of between 4 and 500 houfes. Many of the ftreets
are narrow and irregular: the buildings are of dif¬
ferent materials ; fome of natural Hone out of the quar¬
ries, fome of a fa&itious or artificial (tone, and a few
of brick. The people are fupplied with frefh provi-
fions chiefly from the coaft of Barbary, with fruit,
18 Y 2 roots,
GlhHflus
1!
Gibraltar.
GIB [ 3296 ] GIB
Gibraltar, roots, and vegetablea, of.all forts from thence, or from
““ their own gardens. Befides what is properly called the
town, there are feveral fpacious and commodious pub¬
lic ediiices ere&ed ; fuch as barracks for the foldiers,
with apartments for their officers, magazines of dif¬
ferent kinds, ftorehoufes for provifions, &c. The in¬
habitants, exclufive of the Britifh fubje&s dependent
on the garrifon, or who refide there from other motives,
conliil of fome Spaniards, a few Portugucfe, a confi-
derable number of Genoefe, and about as many Jews ;
making in the whole, according to Dr Campbell, be¬
tween two and three thoufand, without reckoning the
gan ifon ; thougli fome make them much fewer. The
town may be faid to have two ports; the firll lying to
the north, and is proper only for fmall veffids ; the o-
ther is very commodious for large veflels, and has a
fine ftone quay. The bay is very beautiful and capa¬
cious, being in breadth about five miles, and in depth
eight or nine, with feveral fmall rivers running into
it. It is very advantageous to the place. There is no
ground to be found in the middle of it at an hundred
fathoms depth, fo that a fquadron may lie there in
great fafety ; the breezes from it are very refrelhing ;
and it contributes likewife to the fubfiftence of the in¬
habitants, by fupplying them with plenty of fifh.
The ftrait of Gibraltar, through which the ocean
paffes into the Mediterranean, thereby dividing Europe
from Africa, runs from weft to eaft about 13 leagues.
In this ftrait there are three remarkable promontories
or capes on the Spaniffi fide, and as many oppofite to
them on the Barbary fide. The firft of thefe, on the
fide of Spain, is cape Trefalgar, oppofite to which is
cape Spartel; and in the neighbourhood of this ftood
the fortrefs of Tangier, once in the poffeffion of the
Britiili. The next on the Spanilh fide is Tarifa; and
over againft it lies Malabata, near the town of Alcaf-
far, where the ftraits are about five leagues broad.
Lailly, Gibraltar, facing the mountain of Abyla,
near the fortrefs and town of Ceuta, which make the
eaftern entry of the ftraits.
The fortrefs of Gibraltar was formerly thought to
be impregnable; but, in 1704, it was propofed by
the two Engliffi Admirals Sir John Leake and Sir
George Rooke,and by Prince George of Hefle Darm-
ftadt, to attempt the reduction of it. The fleet en¬
tered the bay on the 21ft of July; the prince landed
a body of troops on the Ifthmus, between the bay and
the Mediterranean ; the fleet cannonaded the town
from the bay; and a detachment of Englilh feamen
having debarked at Europa point, with fome lofs, car¬
ried the outworks. This made fuch an impreffion on
the inhabitants and the garrifon, that the governor
(the Marquis de Salinas) capitulated ; and the Prince
of Hefle took pofleffion of the place on the 24th
of the fame month, with the lofs of lefs than 100
men. The Spaniards, extremely fenfible of the lofs
they had fuftained, immediately fent an army of 10,000
men, under the command of the Marquis le Vilkdari-
as, :o befiege it; and at the fame time the Count de
Thouloufe, who commanded the French fleet in the
Mediterranean, put to fea in order to co-operate with
the Spaniards. This produced the battle of Malaga,
Auguft 13th 1704, in which the French were defeated;
though Sir George Rooke was in no condition to pro-
fecute his vi&ory, on account of his want of ammuni¬
tion. The fiege, however, went on, andsthe place was Gibraltar, |
fo much prefled, that if Sir John Leake, who was G>1)fon*
fent to its relief, had arrived one day later, the place T
had been inevitably loft. Five hundred Spaniards had
bound tiiemfelves by an oath, either to become mailers
of Gibraltar, or to perifti in the attempt. They had
accordingly concealed themfelves in fome of the caves,
of which there are many in the fouthern part of the
promontory. The mountain had alfo at that- time
many trees upon it, by which the Spaniards afeended,
and which were on that account afterwards cut down
by the garrifon. The enterprize of the Spaniards,
however, did not fucceed; for, having attempted to
fcale the walls, they were all to a man deftroyed. Mar-
flial de Tefle then joined the Spanilh army, with a
confiderable body of French troops, and the fiege was
continued for fix months longer; when the French
fleet being defeated by Sir John Leake*, they were for- * gce
ced to turn the fiege into a blockade. The excellent
conduct, however, of Sir John Leake, and the Prince of
Hefle Darmftadt, obliged them at laft to abandon
the enterprize. On the conclufion of the war, the
fortrefs of Gibraltar was ceded to Britain, hut with¬
out any territory ; and ever fince the Spaniards have
fortified lines on the Ifthmus, to prevent any commu¬
nication between the garrifon and the country. They
have ever fince continued to behold it with a jealous
eye, and have meditated feveral attempts againft it.
In 1727 they again befieged it in form with a great
army : but having made very little progrefs during
four months, which they confumed before it, a ctfia-
tion of arms took place ; and no further attempt has
been made till the prefent year (1779.)
The pofleffion of Gibraltar is of very great confe-
quence to Britain. It not only gives us the command
of the Straits, and their navigation : but affords re-
frelhment and accommodation to our fleets in time of
war, and to our merchantmen at all times ; which, to
a maritime power, is of very great advantage. From
its fituation, it divides both the kingdoms of France
and Spain ; that is, it hinders a ready communica¬
tion by fea between the different parts of thefe king¬
doms. This, of courfe, hinders the conjunftion of
the fleets and fquadrons with each other, or at leaft
renders it fo difficult as to be a perpetual check upon
thefe ambitious powers. It awes alfo the piratical
ftates of Barbary, and in like manner the emperor of
Morocco ; infomuch, that our commerce is more fafe
than that of any other European power, which gives
us great advantages in point of freight. It is other-
wife highly favourable to our trade in the Mediterra¬
nean and Levant. It procures us the refped of the Ita¬
lian and other powers; who, though far diftant from
Britain, mull confider this as an inftance of her power
to hurt or affift them. It alfo faves us the expence ot
fquadrons and convoys, upon any difputes or diftur-
bances that may happen among thofe powers, and
which would otherwife be neceffary for the protedion
of our navigation.
GIBSON (Richard), an Englifh painter, com¬
monly called the Dwarf, was originally page to a la¬
dy at Mortlake; who, obferving that his genius led
him to painting, had the generolity to get him in-
ftruded in the rudiments of that art. He devoted
hiaifdf to Sir Lely’s manner, and copied his pi&ures
to
GIB [ 3297 ] GIL
- Gibfon. to admiration, efpeciaHy his portraits : his paintings
•  in water-colours were alfo eileemed. He was in great
favoVir with Charles I. W'ho made him his page of the
back-llairs; and he had the honoortainftru£t in drawing
queen Mary and queen Anne when they were princeffes.
He married one Mrs Anne Shepherd, who was alio a
dwarf; on which occalion king Charles I. honoured
their marriage with his prefence, and gave away the
bride. Mr Waller wrote a poem on this occafion,
intitled “ The Marriage of the Dwarfs in which are
thefe lines :
I “ Delign or chance makes others w ive,
“ But nature did this match contrive ;
“ Eve might as well have Adam fled,
“ As (he deny’d her little bed
“ To him, for whom heav’n teem’d to frame
“ And meafure out this only dame.”
Mr Fenton, in his notes on this poem, ohferves that
he had feen this couple painted by Sir Peter Lely ;
and that they were of an equal ftature, each being
three feet ten inches high. However, they had nine
children, five of which arrived at maturity ; thefe well
proportioned, and of the ufual ftandard of mankind.
But what nature denied this couple in ftature, fhegave
them in length of days : for Mr Gibfon died in the
75th year of his age; and his wife, having furvived him
almoft 20 years, died in 1709, aged 89.
Gibson (Dr Edmund), bilhop of London, was
born in Weftmoreland, in 1669. He applied himfelf
early and vigoroufly to learning, and difplayed his
knowledge in feveral writings and tranflations, which,
recommended him to the patronage of archbifhop
Tennifon. He was appointed domeftic chaplain to
his Grace ; and we foon after find him redtor of Lam¬
beth, and archdeacon of Surry. Becoming thus a
member of the convocation, he engaged in a contro-
verfy, which was carried on with great warmth by
the members of both houfes, and defended his pa¬
tron’s rights, as prefident, in eleven pamphlets ; he
then formed and completed his more eomprehenfive
fcbemc of the legal duties and rights of the Englilh
clergy, which was at length publifhed under the title
of Codex Juris Ecclejiajlici Anglicani, in folio. Arch¬
bifhop Tenifon dying in 1715, and Dr Wake bithop of
Lincoln being made archbifhop of Canterbury, Dr Gib¬
fon fucceeded the latter in the fee of Lincoln, and in
1720 was promoted to the biflioprick of London. He
now not only governed his diocefe with the mofl exaft
regularity, but by his greatcare promoted the fpiritual
affairs of the Church of England colonies in the Welt-
Indies. He was extremely jealous of the leaft of the
privileges belonging to the church ; and therefore,
though he approved of the toleration of the Proteftant
Diffemers, he continually guarded againft all the at¬
tempts made to procure a repeal of the corporation
and teft a6ts; in particular, his oppofition to thofe li¬
centious affemblies called mafquerades, gave great um¬
brage at court, and efftdually excluded him from all
further favours. He fpent the latter part of his life
in writing and printing paltoral letters, vifitation-
charges, occafional fermons, and tra£ls againft: the
prevailing immoralities of the age. His paftoral let¬
ters are juftly efteemed as the moft mafterly prodtidlions
againft infidelity and enthufiafm. His moft: celebrated
work, the Codex, has been already mentioned. His
other publications are, 1. An edition of Drummond’s
Polemo Middiana, and James V. of Scotland’s Can- Gibfon
iiU'fia Rufiica, with notes. 2. The Chronicon Saxoni- f
cum, with a Latin tranflation, and notes. 3. Reli- 1 e‘
(juice Spelmaiiniance, the pofthumous works of Sir
Henry Spelman, relating to the laws and antiquities
of England. 4. An edition of Quintilian de Arte
Oratoria, with notes. 5. An Englifh tranflation of
Camden’s Britannia, with additions, two volumes
folio: and, 5. A number of fmall pieces, that have
been colle&cd together and printed in three volumes
folio. — His intenfe application to ftudy impaired his
his health; nptwithftanding which, he attained the age
of 79. He expired in September 1748, after an epif-
copate of near 33 years.
With regard to bifhop Gibfon’s private life and
charadler, he was in every refped a perfedt oecono-
mift. His abilities were fo well adapted to difcharge
the duties of his facred fundlion, that, during the in¬
capacity of archbilhop Wake, the tranfa&ion of ec-
clefiaftical affairs was committed to the biftiop of Lon¬
don. He was a true friend to the eftablifhed church
and government, and as great an enemy to perfecu-
tion. He was ufually confulted by the moll learned
and exalted perfonages in church and flate, and the
greatefl deference was paid to his judgment. He
pofTeffed the focial virtues in an eminent degree ; his
Beneficence was very extenfive; and had fuch genero-
fity, that he freely gave two thoufand five hundred
pounds, left him by Dr Crow, who was once his
chaplain, to Crow’s own relations, who were very
poor.
GIFT, Donum, in law, is a conveyance which
pafleth either lands or goods ; and is of a larger ex¬
tent than a grant, being applied to things moveable
and immoveable ; yet as to things immoveable, when
taken ftriftly, it is applicable only to lands and te¬
nements given in tail -( but gift, and grant, are too
often confounded.
GIGG, Giga, orJiGG; a gay, brifk, andfpright-
ly compofition ; and yet in full meafure, as well as the
allemande, which is more ferious.—Menage takes the
word to arife from the Italian a mufical inftru-
ment mentioned by Dante.
GILAN, or Ghilan, a confiderable province of
Afia, in Perfia, lying on the fide of the Cafpian fea,
and to the S. W. of it. It is fuppofed to be the Hyr-
cania of the ancients. It is very agreeably fituated,
having the fea on one fide, and high mountains on
the other ; and there is no entering in but through
narrow paffcs, which may eafily be defended. The
Tides of the mountains are covered with many forts of
fruit-trees, and in the highefl parts of them there are
deer, bears, wolves, leopards, and tygers; which
laft the Perfians have a method of taming, and hunt
with them as we do with dogs. —Gilan is one of the
moft fruitful provinces of all Perfia; and produces
abundance of filk, oil, wine, rice, and tobacco, befides
excellent fruits. The inhabitants are brave, and of a
better complexion than the other Indians, and the wo¬
men are accounted extremely handfome. Refht is the
capital town.
GILBERT, or Gilberd, (William), a phyfician,
was born at Colchefter, in the year 1540, the eldeft
fon of the recorder of that borough. Having fpent
fome time in both univerfities, he went abroad ;
and
G I L
t 3298 ]
G I L
and at his return fettled in London, where he pra&i-
“ fed with confiderable reputation. He became a mem¬
ber of the college of phyficians, and phyfician in or¬
dinary to Queen Elizabeth, who, we are told, gave
him a penfion to encourage him in his ftudies. From
his epitaph it appears that he was alfo phyfician to
King James I. He died in the year 1603, aged 63;
and was buried in Trinity-church in Colchefter, where
a handfome monument was ere&ed to his memory. His
books, globes, inftruments, and fofiils, he bequeath¬
ed to the college of phyficians, and his pi&ure to the
^xfor’
fchool-gallery at Oxford. He wrote, 1. De magnets,
niagnetice-fque cor.poribus, et de magno magnets tellure,
pbyfiologia nova; London 1900, folio. 2. De mun~
do mjiro fublunari, philofophia nova; Amfterdam 1651,
4to. He was alfo the inventor of two mathematical in-
Itruments for finding the latitude at fea without the help
of fun, moon, or liars. A defcription of thefe inftru¬
ments was afterwards publilhed by Thomas Blondeville
in his Theoriques of the planets,
GILBERT (Sir Humphrey), a brave officer, and
fkilful navigator, was born about the year 1539, in
Devonfhire, of an ancient and honourable family.
Though a fecond fon, he inherited a confiderable for¬
tune from his father. He was educated at Eaton, and
afterwards at Oxford ; where probably he did not con¬
tinue long, as he hath efcaped the induftrious Antho¬
ny Wood. It feems he was intended to finilh his ftu¬
dies in the Temple; but, being introduced at court
by his aunt Mrs Catharine Alhley, then in the queen’s
fervice, he was diverted from the ftudy of the law,
and commenced foldier. Having diftinguilhed him-
•felf in feveral military expeditions, particularly that
to Newhaven in 1563, he was fent over to Ireland to
affift in fuppreffing a rebellion ; where, for his fignal
fervices, he was made commander in chief and gover¬
nor of Munfter, and knighted by the lord deputy. Sir
Henry Sidney, on the firft day of the year 1570.
He returned foon after to England, where he married
a rich heirefs. Neverthelefs, in 1572, he failed with
a fquadron of nine (hips, to reinforce Colonel Morgan,
who at that time meditated the recovery of Flulhing.
Probably on his return to England he refumed his
cofmographical ftudies, to which he was naturally in¬
clined: for, in the year 1576, he publifhed his book
on the North-weft paffage to the Eaft Indies; and as
Martin Frobilher failed the fame year, probably it was
in confequence of this treatife. In 1578, he obtained
from the queen a very ample patent, empowering him
to difcover and pofiefs in North America any lands then
unfettled. He failed to Newfoundland, but foon re¬
turned to England without fuccefs: neverthelefs, in
1583, he embarked a fecond time with five ftiips, the
largeft of which put back on account of a contagious
diftemper on board. Our general landed on New¬
foundland on the third of Auguft, and on the fifth
took poffefiion of the harbour of St John’s. By vir¬
tue of his patent, he granted leafes to feveral people ;
but, though none of them remained there at that time,
they fettled afterwards in confequence of thefe leafes:
fo that Sir Humphrey deferves to be remembered as
the real founder of our vaft American empire. On the
20th of Auguft, he put to fea again, on board a fmall
floop; which on the 29th foundered in a hard gale of
wind. Thus perilhed Sir Humphrey Gilbert; a man
of quick parts, a brave foldier, a good mathemati- GHbertinJ
cian, a fkilful navigator, and of a very enterprifing Gdriw'fth
genius. We learn alfo, that he was remarkable for
his eloquence, being much admired for his patriotic
fpeeches both in theEnglifh and Irifh parliaments. He
wrote “ A difcourfe to prove a paffage by the north-
weft to Cathaia and the Eaft Indies, printed Lond.
1576.” This treatife, which is a mafterly performance,
is preferred in Hakluyt’s colledlion of voyages, vol.
iii. p. 11. The ftyle is fuperior to moft, if not to all,
the writers of that age; and fhews the author to have
been a man of confiderable reading. He mentions,
at the clofe of this work, another treatife, on Naviga¬
tion, which he intended to publifh: it is probably loft.
GILBERTINES, a religious order founded in
England by St Gilbert, in the reign of Henry I.
The nuns followed the rule St Benedift, and the
monks that of Auguftin. There were many mona-
fteries of this order in different parts of England.
GILCFIRIST (Dr Ebenezer), an eminent Scots
phyfician, was born at Dumfries in 1707. He be¬
gan the ftudy of medicine at Edinburgh, which he
afterwards profecuted at London and Paris. He ob¬
tained the degree of do£tor of medicine from the uni-
verfity of Rheims; and in the year 1732, he returned
to the place of his nativity, where he afterwards con-
ftantly relided, and continued the pra&ice of medi¬
cine till his death.
It may with juftice be faid, that few phyficians of
the prefent century have exercifed their profeffion in
a manner more refpeftable or fuccefsful than Dr Gil-
chrift; and few have contributed more to the improve¬
ment of the healing art. Having engaged in bufi-
nefs in an early period of life, his attention was
wholly devoted to obfervation. Endowed by na¬
ture with a judgment acute and folid, with a genius
aftive and inventive, he foon diftinguilhed himfelf by
departing, in various important particulars, from efta-
blifhed but unfuccefsful modes of pra&ice. Several
of the improvements which he introduced have pro¬
cured him great and deferved reputation, both at home
and abroad.
His pra&ice, in ordinary cafes, was allowed to be
judicious, and placed him high in the confidence and
cfteem of the inhabitants of that part of the country
where he lived. But his ufefulnefs was not confined
to his own neighbourhood. On many occafions he
was confulted by letter from the moft diftant parts of
the country.
In different colleftions are to be found feveral of
his performances, which prove that he had fomething
new and ufeful to offer upon every fubjecl to which
be applied himfelf. But thofe writings which do him
the greateft honour, are two long differtations on Ner¬
vous Fevers, in the Medical Effays and Obfervations
publilhed by a Society in Edinburgh; and a treatife
on the ufe of Sea-voyages in medicine, which firft made
its appearance in the year 1757, and was afterwards
re-printed in 1771. By means of the former, the atten¬
tion of phyficians was firft turned to a fpecies of fever
which is now found to prevail univerfally in this coun¬
try ; and the liberal ufe of wine, which he was the firft
among the moderns to recommend, .has fince been
adopted in thefe fevers by the moft judicious phyfi¬
cians of the prefent age, and has probably contributed
not
GIL [ 3259 ] GIL
Gild not a little to the fuccefs of their pra&ice. His trea*
li. tife on Sea-voyages points out in a manner fo clear,
1<ing- and fo much on the fure footing of experience, their
utility in various diftempers, particularly in confump-
tions, that there is now a profpedt of our beingvab!e
to employ a remedy in this untradlable difeafe much
more efficacious than any hitherto in ufe. Dr Gil-
chrift died in 1774.
GILD, or Guild. See Guild.
GILD AS (furnamed the Wife), was born in
Wales, in the year 511. Where he was educated is
uncertain ; but it appears from his own writings that
he was a monk. Some writers fay that he went over
to Ireland; others, that he vifited Fiance and Italy.
They agree however in afferting, that after his return to
England, he became a celebrated and moft affiduous
preacher- of the gofpel. Du Pin fays he founded a
monaftery at Venetia in Britain. Gildas is the only
Britiffi author of the fixth century, whofe works are
printed ; they are therefore valuable on account of
their antiquity, and as containing the only informa¬
tion we have Concerning the times of which he wrote.
His Hifiory of Britain is, however, a very flimfy per¬
formance, and his ftyie obfcure and inelegant.
GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering
a thing over with gold, either in leaf or li¬
quid. The art of gilding was not unknown among
the ancients, though it never arrived among them at
, the perfeftion to which the moderns have carried it.
Gilding Pliny affures us, that the firft gilding feen at Rome,
when firft was after the deftru6tion of Carthage, under the cen-
»» Rome1 ^or^11P. Lucius Mummius, when they began to gild
the ceilings of their temples and palaces; the Capitol
being the firft place on which this enrichment was be¬
llowed. But he adds, that luxury advanced on them
fo haftily, that in a little time you might fee all, even
private and poor perfons, gild the very walls, vaults,.
&c. of their houfes.
We need not doubt but they had the fame method
with us, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves;
though it (hould feem they did not carry it to the
fame height, if it be true which Pliny relates, that
they only made 750 leaves of four fingers fquare out of
a whole ounce. Indeed he adds, that they could make
more ; that the thickeft were called brattea Praneflime,
by reafon of a ftatue of the goddefs Fortune at Prse-
nefte gilt with fuch leaves ; and that the thinner fort
were called brafte<e quejlorix.
The modern gilders do alfo make ufe of gold-leaves
of divers thickneffes ; but there are fome fo fine, that
a thoufand do not weigh above four or five, drachms.
The thickeft are ufed for gilding on iron, and other
metals; and tlu thinneft, on wood. But we have
a another advantage over the ancients, in the manner of
pVncient ulmg or applying the gold : the fecret of painting in
*ferior to °'1> difcovered of late ages, furnifhes us with means of
Hhe mo- giving works that ffiall endure all the injuries of time
dern. and weather, which to the ancients was impracticable.
They had no way to lay the gold on bodies that
would not endure the fire, but with whites of eggs,
or fize; neither of which will endure the water: fo
that they could only gild fuch places as were (heltered
from the moifture of the weather.
The Greeks called the compofition on which they
applied their gilding on wood, leucophxum or leucopko-
ruin; which is defcribed as a fort of glutinous, com¬
pound earth, ferving, in all probability, to make the
gold ftick, and bear poliffiing. But the particulars of
this earth, its colour, ingredients, &c. the antiquaries
and naturalifts are not agreed upon.
Theluftre and beauty of gold have occafioned feve*-
veral inquiries and difcoveries concerning the different
methods of applying it to different fubftances. Hence
the art of gilding is-very extenfive, and contains many
particular operations and various management.
A colour of gold is given by painting and by var-
nifhes, without employing gold ; but this is a falfe
kind of gilding. Thus a very fine golden colour is
given to brafs and to filver, by applying upon thefe
metals a gold-coloured varnifh, which, being tranf-
parent, (hews all the brilliancy of the metals be¬
neath. Many ornaments of brafs are varniffied in this
manner, which is calledlacquering, to diftinguiffi
them from thofe which are really gilt. Silver-leaves
thus varniflied are put upon leather, which is then call¬
ed /e<7/^?r. See Lacquer.
Amongft the falfe gilding may alfo be reckoned
thofe which are made with thin leaves of copper or brafs,
called Dutch-leaf. In this manner are made all the
kinds of w’hat is called gilt paper.
In the true gilding, gold is applied to the furface of
bodies. The gold intended for this purpofe ought in
general to be beat into thin leaves, or otherwife divided
into very fine parts.
As metals cannot adhere well merely by contadl to
any but to other metallic fubftances, w’hen gold is to
be applied to the furface of fome unmetallic body, that
furface muft be previoufly covered with fome gluey and
tenacious fubftance, by which the gold ffiall be made
to adhere. Thefe fubftances are in general calledfizes.
Some of thefe are made of vegetable and animal glues,
and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Up¬
on them the leaves of gold are applied, and preffed
down with a little cotton or a hare’s foot; and when
the whole is dry, the work is to be finiffied and poliffi-
ed with a hard inftrument, called a dogs-tooth, to give
luftre.
When the work is required to be capable of refill¬
ing rain or moifture, it ought to be previoufly covered
with a compofition of drying oil and yellow ochre
ground together ; otherwife a water-fize may be ufed,
which is prepared by boiling cuttings of parchment or
white leather in water, and by mixing with this fome
chalk or whiting: feveral layers of this fize muft be
laid upon the wood, and over thefe a layer of the fame
fize mixed with yellow ochre. Laftly, another mix¬
ture, called goldjize, is to be applied above thefe ; up¬
on which the gold-leaves are to be fixed. This gold
fize, the ufe of which is to make the gold-leaf capable
of being burniffied, is compofed of tobacco-pipe clay,
ground with fome ruddle or black lead, and tempered
with a little tallow or oil of olives. The edges of glaffes
may be gilt by applying, firft, a very thin coat of
varniffi, upon which the gold-leaf is to be fixed ; and
when the varnilh is hardened, may be burniffied. This
varniffi is prepared by boiling powdered amber with
linfeed oil in a brafs veffel to which a valve is fitted, and
by diluting the above folution with four or five times
its quantity of oil of turpentine ; and that it may dry
fooner, it may be giound with fome white lead.
The
Gilding.
Falfe3 gild¬
ing with la-
quer or
Dutch-leaf.
Gilding
with fize»
S
With oik-
GIL [ 3300 ] - GIL
Gilding. The method of applying gold upon metals is entirely
’ different. The furface of the metal to be gilt is firft
Of ^ildin t0 be<deaned> and then leaves are to be applied to ic,
metals.'1 2 which, by means of rubbing with a polilhed blood-
ftone, and a certain degree of heat, are made to ad¬
here perfedtly well. In this manner filver-leaf is fixed
and burnifiied upon brafs in the making of what is call¬
ed French plate, and fometimes alfo gold-leaf is bur¬
nifiied upon copper and upon iron.
Gold is applied to metals in feveral other man¬
ners. One of thefe is by previoufly forming the gold
into a palle or amalgam with mercury. In order to
obtain a fmall amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold
is firft to be reduced into thin plates or grains, which are
heated red-hot, and thrown into mercury previoufly
heated, till it begins to fmoke. Upon llirring the
mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally difappears.
The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as fix
or eight to one.
With this amalgam the furface of the metal to be
gilded is to be covered ; then a fufficient heat is to
be applied to evaporate the mercury ; and the gold is
laftly to be burnifhed with a blood-ftone.
This method of gilding by amalgamation is chiefly
ufed for gilding copper, or an allay of copper, with a
fmall portion of zinc, which more readily receives the
amalgam; and is alfo preferable for its colour, which
more refemblea that of gold than the colour of cop¬
per. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chafed, it
ought to beprevioufly covered with quickfilver, before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be eafier fpread :
but when the furface of the metal is plain, the amalgam
may be applied dire&ly to it. The quickfilver or amal¬
gam is made to adhere to the metal by means of a little
aquafortis, which is rubbed on the metallic furface at the
fame time, by which this furface is cleanfed from any
ruft or tarnifti which might prevent the union or adhe-
fion of the metals. But the ufe of the nitrous acid in
this operation is not, as is generally fiqrpofed, confined
merely to cleanfe the furface of the metal to be gilt
from any ruft or tarniflr it may have acquired ; but it
T alfo greatly facilitates the application of the amalgam
life of the to the furface of that metal, probably in the following
nitrous acid manner; It firft diflblves part of the mercury of the a-
111 gilding. ma]gam . anci vvhen this folution is applied to the cop¬
per, this latter metal having a ftronger difpofition to
unite with the nitrous acid than the mercury has, pre¬
cipitates the mercury upon its furface, in the fame man¬
ner as a poliftied piece of iron precipitates upon its fur¬
face copper, from a folution of blue vitriol. When
the metal to be gilt is thus covered over with a thin
precipitated coat of mercury, it readily receives the a-
malgam. In this folution and precipitation of mer¬
cury, the. principal ufe of the nitrous acid in the pro-
cefs of gilding appears to confift. The amalgam be¬
ing equally fpread over the furface of the metal to be
gilt, by means of a brufii, the mercury is then to be
evaporated by a heat juft fufficient for that purpofe ;
for if it be too great, part of the gold may alfo be ex¬
pelled, and part of it will run together, and leave fome
of the furface of the metal bare : while the mercury is
evoporating,. the piece is to be, from time to time,
taken from the fire, that it may be examined, that the
amalgam may be fpread more equally by means of a
brufh, that any defective parts of it may be again co¬
vered, and that the heat may not be too fuddenly ap- Gild!
plied to it : when the mercury is evaporated, which is  
known by the furface being entirely become of a dull
yellow colour, the metal muft then undergo other ope¬
rations, by which the fine gold-colour is given to
it. Firft, the gilded piece of metal is rubbed with a
fcratch-brufti (which is a brufh compofed of brafs wire)
till its furface is made fmooth ; then it is covered over
with a compofition caWed.gilding wax, and is again ex-
pofed to the fire till the wax be burnt off. This wax
is compoled of bees-wax, fometimes mixed with fome
of the following fubltances ; red ochre, verdegrife, cop-
per-fcales, alum, vitriols, borax ; but, according to Dr
Lewis, the faline fubftances alone are fufficient, with¬
out any wax. By this operation the colour of the gild¬
ing is heightened ; and this effect feems to be produ¬
ced by a perfect diffipation of fome mercury remaining
after the former operation. This diffipation is well ef-
fedted by this equable application of heat. The gilt
furface is then covered over with a faline compofition
confifting of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic fait, ground
together, and mixed up into a pafte with water or urine.
The piece of metal thus covered is expofed to a certain
degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this
method its colour is further improved, and brought
nearer to that of gold. This effedl feems to be produ¬
ced by the acid of nitre (which is difengaged by the
vitriolic acid of the alum or other vitriolic fait during
theexpofure to heat) acting upon any particles of cop¬
per which may happen to lie on the gilded furface.
Laftly; fome artifts think that they give an additional
luftre to their gilt-work by dipping it in a liquor
prepared by boiling fome yellow materials, as ful-
phur, orpiment, or turmeric. The only advantage
of this operation is, that a part of the yellow matter,
as the fulphur, or turmeric', remains in fome of the
hollows of the carved work, in which the gilding is apt
to be more imperfedi, and to which it gives a rich and
folid appearance.
Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs, as it is
faid, it be previoufly coated with copper by dipping in
a folution of blue vitriol. Iron may alfo receive a gol¬
den coat from a faturated folution of gold in aqua-
regia, mixed with fpirit of wine, the iron having a great¬
er affinity with the acid, from which it therefore pre¬
cipitates the gold. Whether any of thefe two methods
be applicable to ufe, is uncertain : but the method com¬
monly employed of fixing gold upon iron is that a-
bovementioned, of burnilhing gold-leaf upon this me¬
tal when heated fo as to become blue ; and the opera¬
tion will be more perfedf, if the furface has been pre¬
vioufly fcratched or graved.
Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding
upon metals, and alfo upon earthen ware, and upon
glafs ; which is, to fufe gold with regulus of antimo¬
ny, to pulverize the mafs which is fufficiently brittle
to admit that operation, to fpread this powder upon
the piece to be gilt, and expofe it to fuch a fire that
the regulus may be evaporated, while the gold're¬
mains fixed. The inconveniencies of this method, ac¬
cording to Dr Lewis, are, that the powder does no,t
adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally fpread;
that part of the gold is diffipated along with the regu¬
lus ; that glafs is fufible with the heat neceffary for the
evaporation of regulus of antimony ; and that copper
is
GIL [ 3301 ] GIL
Gilding, is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to have its
' " furface rendered uneven.
8 On the fubjed of gilding by amalgamation Dr Lewis
rnermby" has th-e following remarks. “ There are two principal
Dr Lewis, inconveniencies in this buiinefs : One, that the work¬
men are expofed to the fumes of the mercury, and gene¬
rally, fooner or later, have their health greatly impaired
Phil. Com. by them : the other, the lofs of the mercury ; for tho’
of Arts. part of it is faid to be detained in cavities made in the
chimney for that purpofe, yet the greateft part of it is
loft. From forae trials I have made, it appeared that
both thefe inconveniencies, particularly the firft and
moft confiderable one, might in good meafure be a-
voided, by means of a furnace of a due conftru&ion. If
the communication of a furnace with its chimney, in-
ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate,
the alh-pit door or other apertures beneath the grate
clofed, and the mouth of the furnace left open ; the
current of air, which otherwife would have entered be¬
neath, enters now at the top, and, pafiing down thro’
the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely
both the vapour of the fuel, and the fumes of Inch mat¬
ters as are placed upon it: the back part of the fur¬
nace ihould be raifed a little higher above the fire than
the fore part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air
may enter only at the front, where the workman ftands,
who will be thus effectually fecured from the fumes, and
from being incommoded by the heat, and at the fame
time have full liberty of introducing, infpefting, and
removing the work. If fuch a furnace is made of
•ftrong forged (not milled) iron plate, it will be fuffi-
cicntly durable : the upper end of the chimney may
reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of
the fire: over this is to be placed a larger tube, lea¬
ving an interval of an inch or more all round between
it and the chimney, and reaching to the -height of 10
or 12 feet, the higher the better. The external air,
palling up between the chimney and the outer pipe,
prevents the latter from being much heated,To that the
mercurial fumes will condenfe againft its fides into
running quickfilver, which, falling down to the bot¬
tom, is there catched in a hollow rim formed by
turning inwairds a portion of the lower part, and
conveyed, by a pipe at one fide, into a proper receiver.
jYjr “ Mr Hellot communicates, in the Memoirs of the
Fay’s me- French Academy for the year 1745, a method of ma-
rhod of rai- king raifed figures of gold on works of gold or filver,
fing gold found among the papers of Mr du Fay, and of which
“ “ Mr du Fay himfelf had feen feveral trials. Fine gold in
powder (fuch as refults from the parting of. gold and
illvcr by aquafortis, is dirededto belaid in a heap on
a levigating ftone, a cavity made in the middle of the
heap, and half its weight of pure mercury put into
the cavity : fome of the fetid fpirit, obtained from
garlick root by diftillation in a retort, is then to be ad¬
ded, and the whole immediately mingled and ground
with a muller, till the mixture is reduced into an uni¬
form grey powder. The powder is to be ground with
lemon juice to the confidence of paint, and applied on
the piece previoufly well cleaned and rubbed over with
the lame acid juice : the figures drawn with it may be
raifed to anydegree by repeating the application. The
piece is expofed to a gentle fire till the mercury is eva¬
porated fo as to leave the gold yellow, which is then to
be preffed down, and rubbbed with the finuer and a
Vol. V.
little fand, which makes it appear folid and brilliant: Gilding,
after this it may be cut and embellilhed. The author
obferves, that being of a fpongy texture, it is more ad-
vifeable to cut it with a chifel than to raife it with a
graver; that it has an imperfe&ion of being always
pale; and that it would be a defirable thing to find
means of giving it colour, as by this method ornaments
might be made of exquifite beauty and with great fa¬
cility. As the palenefs appears to proceed from a part
of the mercury retained by the gold, I apprehend it
might be remedied by the prudent application of a
little warm aquafortis, which, diflblving the mercury
from the exterior part, would give at leafta fuperficiat
high colour: if the piece is filver, it muft be defend¬
ed from the aquafortis by covering it with wax. In-
llr.uments or ornaments of gold, ftained by mercury,
where the gold is connedled with fubftances incapable of
hearing fire, may be refiored to their colour by the fame
means. IO
“ The foregoing procefs is given entirely on the Another
authority of the French writer. I have had no expe- method,
rience ofit myfelf, but have feen very elegant figures of
gold raifed upon filver, on the fame principle, by a
different procedure. Some cinnabar was ground, npt
with the diltilled fpirit, but with the expreffed juice of
garlick, a fluid remarkably tenacious. This mixture
was fpread all over the poliftied filver ; and when the
firft layer was dry, a fecond, and after this a third was
applied. Over thefe were fpread as .many layers of an¬
other mixture, compofed chiefly of afphaltum and lin-
feed oil boiled down to a due confidence. The whole
being dried, with a gentle heat, on a kind of wire-
grate, the figures were traced and cut down to the fil-
ver fo as to make its furface rough : the inciiions were
filled with an amalgam of gold, raifed to different
heights in different parts according to the nature of the
defign ; after which a gentle fire, at the fame time that
it evaporated the mercury, deftroyed the tenacity of
the gummy juice, fo that the coating, which ferved to
confine the amalgam, and as a guide in the application
of it, was now eafily got off. The gold was then
preffed down and embellilhed as in the former method ;
and had this advantage, that the furface of the filver
under it having been made rough, it adhered more
firmly, fo as not to be in danger of coming off, as M.
du Fay fays the gold applied in his way .fometimes did.
The artift, however, found the procefs fo troublefome,
that though he purchased the receipt for a confiderable
Aim, he has laid the pra&ice afide.”
Finally, fome metals, particularly filver, may be
gilt in the following manner : ,1
Let gold be diffolved in aqua-regia. In this folu-
tion pieces of linen are to be dipt, and burnt to black gilding fil-
afties. Thefe allies being rubbed on the furface of the ver.
filver by means of a wet linen rag, apply the particles
of gold which they contain, and which by this method
adhere very well- The remaining part of the allies ia
to be waftied off; and the furface of the filver, which
in this ftate does not feem to be gilt, is to be burnilh-
ed with a blood-ftone, till it acquire a fine colour of
gold. This method of gilding is very eafy, and con-
fumes a very fmall quantity of gold. Moft gilt orna¬
ments upon fans, fnuft-boxes, and other toys of much
Ihow and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in thi*
manner.
18 Z
Gold
GEL [ 3302 ] GEL
Gill Gold may alfo be applied to glafs, porcelain, and o-
il. ther vitrified matters. As the furface of thefe matters
1 pin* is very fmooth, and canfequently is capable of a very
perfect conta£lwith gold leaves, thefe leaves adhere to
Methods t^em fome force, although they are not of me-
of gilding tallic nature. This gilding is fo much more perfedf,
glafs. as the'gold is more exa&ly applied to the furface of
the glafs. The pieces are then to be expofed to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, and burnifhed flightly to give them
luftre.
A more fubftantial gilding is fixed upon glafs, ena¬
mel, and porcelain, by applying to thefe fubllances
powder of gold mixed with a folution of gum arabic,
or with fome eflential oil, and a fmall quantity of bo¬
rax ; after which a fufficient heat is to be applied to fof-
ten the glafs and the gold, which is then to be burnilh-
ed. With this mixture any figures may be drawn.
The powders for this purpofe may be made, 1. By
grinding gold-leaf with honey, which is afterwards
to be walhed away with water. 2. By diddling to
drynefs a folution of gold in aqua-regia. 3. By eva¬
porating the mercury from an amalgam of gold, taking
care to ftir well the mafs near the end of the procefs.
4. By precipitating gold from its folution in aqua-re¬
gia by applying to it a folution of green vitriol in wa¬
ter, or fome copper, and perhaps fome other metallic
fubftances.
GILL, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter
of an Englilh pint.
GILLS, in ichthyology. See Branchi/e.
GILOLO, a large ifland of the pacific ocean, ly¬
ing between i° S. Lat. and 2° N. Lat. and between
1250 and 128° E. Long. It belongs to the Dutch ;
but does not produce any of the fine fpices, tho’ it lies
in the neighbourhood of the fpice-iflands. The natives
are fierce and cruel favages.
GILPIN (Bernard), reftor of Houghton, diftin-
guifhed by his extraordinary piety and hofpitality, was
defcended from an ancient and honourable family in
Weftmoreland, and born in 1517. As he was bred
in the Catholic religion, fo he for fome time defended
it againft the reformers, and at Oxford held a deputa¬
tion with Hooper afterward bifhop of Worcefter and
martyr for the Proteftant faith ; but was daggered in
another difputation with Peter Martyr, and began fe-
rioufly to examine the contefted points by the bed au¬
thorities. Thus, being prefented to the vicarage of
Norton in the diocefe of Durham, he foon refigned it,
and went abroad to confult eminent profeffors on both
fides; and after three years abfence returned a little be¬
fore the death of queen Mary, fatisfied in the general
do&rines of the reformation. He was kindly received by
his uncle Dr Tondall, bifhop of Durham ; who foon
after gave him the archdeaconry of Durham, to which
the re&ory of Effington was annexed. When repairing
to his pa rifh, tho’ the perfecution was then at its height,
he boldly preached againd the vices, errors, and cor¬
ruptions of the times,efpecially in the clergy, on which
a charge confiding of 13 artfcles was drawn up againd
him, and prefented in form to the bifhop. But Dr
Tondall found a method of difmifiing the caufe in fuch
a manner as to proteft his nephew, without endanger¬
ing himfelf, and foon after prefented him to the rich
living of Houghton le Spring. He was a fecond.time
accufed to the bifhop, and again prote&ed ; when his
enemies, enraged at this fecond defeat, laid their com- Gilpin, j
plaint before Dr Bonner, bifhop of London ; who im- ^
mediately gave orders to apprehend him. Upon which
Mr Gilpin bravely prepared for martyrdom ; and or¬
dering his houfe-deward to provide him a long gar- |
ment, that he might make a decent appearance at the
dake, fet out for London. Luckily, however, he
broke his leg on the journey; which protrafted his ar¬
rival until the news of the queen’s death freed him from
all further apprehenfions. Being immediately fet at
liberty, he returned to Houghton, where he was re¬
ceived by his parifhioners with the fincered joy.
Upon the deprivation of the Popifh bifhops, he
was offered the fee of Carlifle, which he declined;
and confining his attention to his redory, difcharged
all the duties of his fundion in the mod exemplary
manner. To the greated humanity and courtefy, he
added an unwearied application to the indrudion of
thofe under his care. He was not fatisfied with the
advice he gave in public, but ufed to indrud in pri¬
vate ; and brought his parifhioners to come to him
with their doubts and difficulties. He had a mod en¬
gaging manner towards thofe whom he thought well-
difpofed: nay, his very reproof was fo conduded,
that it feldom gave offence; the becoming genllentfs
with which it was urged, made it always appear the
effed of friendfhip. Thus, with unceafing affiduity,
did he employ himfelf in admonifhing the vicious, and
encouraging the well-intentioned ; by which means,
in a few years, he made a greater change in his neigh¬
bourhood, than could well have been imagined. A
remarkable indance, what reformation a fingle man
may effed., when he hath it earnedly at heart!
But his hopes were not fo much in the prefent gene¬
ration, as in the fucceeding. It was an eafier talk,
he found, to prevent vice, than to corred it; to form
the young to virtue, than to amend the bad habits of
the old. He employed much of his time, therefore,
in endeavouring to improve the minds of the younger
part of his parifh ; fuffering none to grow up in an ig¬
norance of their duty 5 but prefiing it as the wifed part
to mix religion with their labour, and amidd the cares
of this life to have a condant eye upon the next. He
attended to every thing which might be of fervice to
his parifhioners. He was very afliduous in preventing
all law-fuits among them. His hall is faid to have
been often thronged with people, who came to him
about their differences. He was not indeed much
acquainted with law; but he could decide equitably, j
and that.fatisfied: nor could his fovereign’s commif-
fion have given him more weight, than his own cha-
rafter gave him.
His hofpitable manner of living was the admiration
of the whole country. He fpent in his family every
fortnight 40 bufhels of corn, 20 bufliels of malt, and
a whole ox; befides a proportionable quantity of other
kinds of provifion. Strangers and travellers found a
cheerful reception. AH were welcome that came;
and even their beads had fo much care taken of them,
that.it was humoroufly faid, “If a horfe was turned
“ loofe in any part of the country, it would immedi-
“ ately make its way to the reftor of Houghton’s.”
Every Sunday, from Michaelmas till Eader, was a
fort of public day with him. During this feafon he ^
expedled to fee all his parifhioners and their families.
/ .For ' 1
GIL [ 3303 ] GIL
For their reception, he had three tables well covered:
the firfl was for gentlemen, the fecond for hufbandmen
and farmers, and the third for day-labourers. This
piece of hofpitality he never omitted, even when Ioffes,
or a fcarcity of provifion, made its continuance rather
difficult to him. He thought it his duty, and that
was a deciding motive. Even when he was abfent
from home, no alteration was made in his family-ex-
pences: the poor were fed as ufual, and his neighbours
entertained.
But notwithftanding all this painful induffry, and
the large fcope it had in fo extended a pariffi, Mr
Gilpin thought the fphere of his benevolence yet too
confined. It grieved him extremely, to fee every
where in the parifhes around him, fq great a degree
of ignorance and fuperftition, occafioned by the firame-
ful negleft of the paftoral care in the clergy of thofe
parts. Thefe bad confequences induced him to fup-
ply, as far as he could, what was wanting in others.
For this purpofe, every year he ufed regularly to vifit
the mod neglefted pariffies in Northumberland, York-
ffiire, Chefhire, Wedmoreland, and Cumberland ; and
that his own pariffi in the mean time might not fuffer,
he was at the expence of a conftant affiftant. In each
place he ftayed two or three days ; and his method
was, to call the people about him, and lay before
them, in as plain a way as poffible, the danger of lead¬
ing wicked, or even carelefs lives ; explaining to them
the nature of true religion ; inftrufting them in the
duties they owed to God, their neighbour, and them-
felves; and fliewing them how greatly a moral and
religious conduft would contribute to their prefent as
well as future happinefs.
As Mr Gilpin had all the warmth of an enthufiaft,
though under the direftion of a very calm and fober
judgment, he never wanted an audience, even in the
wildeft parts ; where he roufed many to a fenfe of re¬
ligion, who had contrafted the moft inveterate habits
of inattention to every thing of a ferious nature. And
wherever *he came, he ufed to vifit all the gaols and
places of confinement; few in the kingdom having at
that time any appointed minifter. And by his la¬
bours, and affeftionate manner of behaving, he is
faid to have reformed many very abandoned perfons
in thofe places. He would employ his intereil like-
wife for fuch criminals whofe cafes he thought attended
with any hard circumftances, and often procured par¬
dons for them.
There is a tra£t of country upon the border of Nor¬
thumberland, called Readf-dale and Tine-dale, of all
barbarous places in the north, at that time the moft
barbarous. Before the Union, this place was called
the dehateable land, as fubjeft by turns to England
and Scotland, and the common theatre where the two
nations were continualiy afting their bloody fcenes.
It was inhabited by a kind of defperate banditti, ren¬
dered fierce and a&ive by conftant alarms: they lived
by theft, ufed to plunder on both fides of the barrier ;
and what they plundered on one, they expofed to fale
on the other; by that means efcaping juftice. And
in this dreadful country, where no man would even
travel that could help it, Mr Gilpin never failed to
fpend fome part of every year.
He generally chofe the Chriftmas holidays for his
journey, becaufe he found the people at that feafon
moft difengaged, and moft eafily afiembled. He had Gilpin
fet places for preaching, which were as regularly at---
tended as the affize-towns of a circuit. If he came
where there was a church, he made ufe of it: if not,
of barns, or any other large building; where great
crowds of people were fure tq attend him, fome for
his inftruftions, and others for his charity.—This was
a very difficultand laborious employment. The coun¬
try was fo poor, that what provifion he could get, ex¬
treme hunger only could make palatable. The in¬
clemency of the weather, and the badnefs of the roads
through a mountainous country, and at that feafon
covered with fnow, expofed him likewife often to great
hardftiips. Sometimes he was overtaken by the night,
the country being in many places defolate for feveral
miles together, and obliged to lodge out in the cold.
At fuch times, we are told, he would make his fervant
ride about with his horfes, whilft himfelf on foot ufed
as much exercife as his age and the fatigues of the
preceding day would permit. All this he cheerfully
underwent; efteeming fuch fervices well compenfated
by the advantages which he hoped might accrue from
them to his uninftrufted fellow-creatures.
The difinterefted pains he took among thefe barba¬
rous people, and the good offices he was always ready
to do them, drew from them the warmeft and fincerelt
expreffions of gratitude. Indeed, he was little lefs
than adored among them, and might have brought
the whole country almoft to what he pleafed. One
inftance that is related, ftiews how greatly he was re¬
vered. By the careleffnefs of his fervant, his horfes
were one day ftolen. The news was quickly propa¬
gated, and every one exprefled the higheft indignation
at the fa£t. The thief was rejoicing over his prize,
when, by the report of the country, he found whofe
horfes he had taken. Terrified at what he had done,
he inftantly came trembling back, confefled the fadt,
returned the horfes, and declared he believed the devil
would have feized him dire&ly, had he carried them
off, knowing them to have been Mr Gilpin’s.
We have already taken notice of Mr Gilpin’s un¬
commonly generous and hofpitable manner of living.
The value of his redtory was about 400I. a year: an
income, indeed, at that time very confiderable, but
yet in appearance very unproportionate to the gene¬
rous things he did : indeed, he could not have done
them, unlefs his frugality had been equal to his gene-
rofity. His friends, therefore, could not but wonder
to find him, amidft his many great and continual ex-
pences, entertain the defign of building and endowing
a grammar-fehool: a defign, however, which his exadl
ceconomy foon enabled him to accompliffi, though the
expence of it amounted to upwards of 500I. His
fchool was no fooner opened, than it began to flourifti;
and there was fo great a refort of young people to it,
that in a little time the town was not able to accom¬
modate them. He put himfelf, therefore, to the in¬
convenience of fitting up a part of his own houfe for
that purpofe, where he feldoth had fewer than twenty
or thirty children. Some of thefe were the fons of
perfons of diftindlion, whom he boarded at eafy rates:
but the greater part were poor children, whom he not
only educated, but cloathed and maintained : he was
at the expence likewife of boarding in the town many
other poor children. He ufed to bring feveral every
18 Z 2 yea
GIL [ 3304 ] GIL
Gilpin, year from the different parts where he preached, par-
“ ticularly Readf-dale and Tine-dale ; which places he
was at great pains in civilizing, and contributed not a
little towards rooting out that barbarifm which every
year prevailed lefs among them.
As to his fchool, he not only placed able mafters in
it, whom he procured from Oxford, but himfelf like-
wife conftantly infpedled it. And, that encourage¬
ment might quicken the application of his boys, he
always took particular notice of the mod forward: he
would call them his (nun fcholars, and would fend for
them often into his ttudy, and there inftrucl them
himfelf. One method ufed by him to fill his fchool,
was a little fingular. Whenever he met a poor boy
upon the road, he would make trial of his capacity by
a few queftions ; and if he found it fuch as pleafed
him, he would provide for his education. And be-
fides thofe whom he fent from his own fchool to the
iiniverfities, and there wholly maintained, he would
likewife give to others, who were in circumftances to
do foraething for themfelves, what farther affillance
they needed. By which means he induced many pa¬
rents to allow their children a liberal education, who
otherwife would not have done it. And Mr Gilpin
did not think it enough to afford the means only of an
academical education to thefe young people, but en¬
deavoured to make it as beneficial to them as he could.
He {fill confidered himfelf as their proper guardian ;
and feemed to think himfelf bound to the public for
their being made ufeful members of it, as far as it lay
in his power to make them fo. With this view he
held a pundtual correfpondence with their tutors; and
made the youths themfelves frequently write to him,
and give him an account of their ftudies. So felici¬
tous indeed was he about them, knowing the many
temptations to which their age and fituation expofed
them, that once every other year he generally made a
journey to the univerfities, to infpeft their behaviour.
And this uncommon care was not unrewarded; for
many of his fcholars became ornaments to the church,
and exemplary inftances of piety.
To the account that hath been already given of Mr
Gilpin’s hofpitality and benevolence, the following
particulars may be added. Every Thurfday through¬
out the year, a very large quantity of meat was dreffed
wholly for the poor; and every day they had what
quantity of broth they wanted. Twenty-four of the
pooreft were his conftant penfioners. Four times in the
year a dinner was provided for them ; when they re¬
ceived from his fteward a certain quantity of corn,
and a fum of money: and at Chriltmas they had al¬
ways an ox divided among them.
Wherever he heard of any in diftrefs, whether of
his own parifh, or any other, he was fure to relieve
them. In his walks abroad, he would frequently bring
home with him poor people, and fend them away
cloathed as well as fed. He took great pains to in¬
form himfelf of the circumftances of his neighbours,
that the modefty of the fufferer might not prevent his
relief. But the money beft laid out was, in his opi¬
nion, that which encouraged induftry. It was one of
his greateft pleafures to make up the Ioffes of his la¬
borious neighbours, and prevent their finking under
them. If a poor man had loft a beaft, he would fend
him another in his room; or if any farmer had had a
bad year, he would make him an abatement in his Gilpin
tythes. —Thus, as far as he was able, he took the mif- , |1 '
fortunes of his parifti upon himfelf; and, like a true Glllkg°‘'
fhepherd, expofed himfelf for his flock. But of all
kinds of induftrious poor, he was moft forward to afiill
thofe who had large families: fuch never failed to meet
with his bounty, when they wanted to fettle their chil¬
dren in the world.
In the diftant parifhes where he preached, as well
as in his own neighbourhood, his generolity and bene¬
volence were continually fliewing themfelves; particu¬
larly in the defolate parts of Northumberland. “ When
“ he began his journey,” fays an old manufcript life
of him, “ he would have ten pounds in his purfe; and,
“ at his coming home, he would be twenty nobles in
“ debt, which he would always pay within a fortnight
“ after.”—In the gaols he vifited, he was not only
careful to give the prifoners proper inftruftions, but
ufed to purchafe for them likewife what neceffariea
they wanted.
Even upon the public road, he never let flip an op¬
portunity of doing good. He has often been known
to take off his cloak, and give it to an half-naked tra¬
veller: and when he has had fcarce money enough in
his pocket to provide himfelf a dinner, yet would he
give away part of th.'it little, or the whole, if he found
any who feemed to ftand in need of it. — Of this bene¬
volent temper, the following inftance is preferved.
One day returning home, he faw in a field feveral peo¬
ple crowding together; and judging fomething more
than ordinary had happened, he rode up, and found
that one of the horfes in a team had fuddenly dropped
down, which they were endeavouring to raife; but in
vain, for the horfe was dead. The owner of it feemed
much dejetSed with his misfortune; and declaring how
grievous a lofs it would be to him, Mr Gilpin bade
him not be diftteartened: “ I’ll let you have, (fays
he) “ honeft man, that horfe of mine,” and pointed
to his fervant’s.—“Ah! mafter, (replied the country¬
man) my pocket will not reach fuch a beaft as that.”
“ Come, come, (faid Mr Gilpin) take him, take
“ him ; and when I demand my money, then thou
“ {halt pay me.”
This worthy and excellent divine, v/ho merited and
obtained the glorious titles of the Father of the /W,
and the dpoftle of the Northy died in 1583, in the 66th.
year of his age.
GILTHEAD, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
GIN. See Geneva.
Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles,
fitted with a windlafs and winches at each end, where
eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is
reeved that goes over the wheel at the top : one end
of this rope is feized to an iron-monkey, that hooks
to a beetle of different weights, according to the piles
they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hun¬
dred weight ; and when hove up to a crofs-piece, near
the wheel, it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle
fall on the upper end of the pile, and forces the fame into
the ground : then the monkey’s own weight overhauls
the windlafs, in order for its being hooked again to
the beetle.
GINKGO, the maiden-hair tree, is a native of
Japan, where it is alfo known by the names of Ginan
and Itfio. It rifts with a long, ereft, thick and
branched
G I O [ 3305 1 G I R
■Ginkgo branched ftena, to the fize of a walnut-tree. The
5 bark is afh-coloured, the wood brittle and fmooth,
i>iorgione, ^ pjtjj an(j fung0us> The leaves are large, ex¬
panded from a narrow bottom into the figure of a
maiden-hair leaf, unequally parted, ftreaked, with¬
out fibres or nerves ; both furfaces having the fame
appearance, and fupported upon footftalks, which are
comprefied upon the upper furface, and extended into the
fubilance of the leaf. From the uppermoft (hoots hang the
flowers in long catkins that are filled with the fertilizing
powder; and to which-fucceeds the fruit, adhering to a
thick flefhy pedicle, which proceeds from the bofom
of the leaves. This fruit is either exa&ly or nearly
round, and of the appearance and fize of a damafk
plum. The fubftance furrounding the fruit is flefhy,
juicy, white, very harfh, and adheres fo firmly to the
inclofed nut, as not to be feparated from it, except by
putrefa&ion. The nut, properly termed Gineau, re-
femblcs the piftachia nut, efpecially a Perfian fpecies
named bergjes pijlai; but is almoil double in fize,
and of the figure of an apricot ftone. The (hell is
fomewhat white, woody, and brittle ; and inclofes a
white loofe kernel, having the fweetnefs of an almond,
along with a degree of harlhnefs. Thefe kernels taken
after dinner are faid to promote digeftion, and to give
relief in furfeits ; whence they never fail to make part
of the defiert in great feafts and anniverfary entertain¬
ments.—Many of thefe plants have been reared by Mr
James Gordon at his nurfcry near Mile-end. They
feenrr to be very hardy, and thrive in this country in
the open air.
GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum. See
Amomum.
GINGIViE, the gums. See Gums.
GINGLYMUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n°
2, d.
GINSENG. See Panax.
GIOIA (Flavio,) of Amalfi, in the kingdom of
[Naples, the celebrated mathematican ; who, from his
knowledge of the magnetic powers, invented the ma¬
riner’s compafs, by which the navigation of the Eu¬
ropeans was extended to the moft diftant regions of
the globe : before this invention, navigation was con¬
fined to coafting. The king of Naples being a younger
branch of the royal family of France, he marked the
north point with a fleur de lis, in compliment to that
country. It is faid the Chinefe knew the compafs
long before ; be this as it may, the Europeans are in¬
debted to Gioia for this invaluable difcovery. He flou-
riftted A.D. 300.
GIRAFFE, in zoology. See Cervus.
GIRALD (Barry), or Giraldus Cambrenjis. See
Barry.
GIORGIONE, fo called from his comely afpe&,
was an illuftrious Venetian painter, born in 1478. He
received his firft inftru&ions from Giovanni Bellino;
but ftudying afterwards the works of Leonardo da
Vinci, he foon furpafled them both, being the firlt
among the Lombards who found out the admirable
effects of ftrong lights and fhadows. Titian became
his rival in this art; and was fo careful in copying the
life, that he excelled Giorgione in difcovering the de¬
licacies of nature, by tempering the boldnefs of his
colouring. The molt valuable piece of Giorgione in
oil is tlmt of Chrilt carrying his crofs, now in the
church of San Rovo in Venice ; where it is held in Giofeppiao
great veneration. He died of the plague young, in ^
GIOSEPPINO, an eminent painter, fo called by
way of contraction from Giofsppe d'Arpino, the town
of Naples, where he was born in 1560. Being car¬
ried to Rome very young, and employed by painters
then at work in the Vatican to grind their colours,
he foon made himfelf mailer of the elements of defign,
and by degrees grew very famous. His wit and hu¬
mour gained him the favour of popes and cardinals,
who found him bufinefs in plenty. Gregory XIII.
(hewed him great refpeft ; and Lewis XIII. of France
made him a knight of the order of St Michael. By
the force of a happy genius he acquired a light and
agreeable manner of defigning ; though it is remarked
by De Piles, that he degenerated into a ftyle which
neither partook of true nature, nor of the antique.
His battles in the capitol are the moft efteemed of all
his pieces. He died at Rome in 1640.
GlOTTO, an ingenious painter, fculptor, and ar¬
chitect of Florence, born in 1276. He was the dif-
ciple of Cimabue; but far fuperior to his mailer in the
air of his heads, the attitude of his figures, and in the
tone of his colouring ; but could not exprefs livelinefs
in the eyes, tendernefs in the flelh, or ftrength in the
mufcles of his naked figures. He was principally ad¬
mired for his works in mofaic; the belt of which is
over the grand entrance of St Peter’s church at Rome.
Theobfervation of Alberti on that piece is, that in the
(hip of Giotto, the expreffion of fright and amazement
of the difciples at feeing St Peter walk upon the water
is fo excellent, that each of them exhibits fome cha-
ra&eriltic fign of his terror. His death happened in
1336, and the city of Florence honoured his memory
with a ftacue of marble over his tomb.
GIRALDI (Lilio Gregorio), an ingenious critic,
and one of the moft learned men that modern Italy
has produced, was born at Ferrara in 1479. He was
at Rome when it was plundered by the emperor
Charles V.; and having thus loft all he had, and being
tormented by the gout, he ftruggled through life with
ill fortune and ill health. He wrote, neverthelefs, 17
performances, which were colle6ted and publilhed at
Bafil in 2 vols folio in 1580, and at Leyden in 1696.
Authors of the firft rank have bellowed the higheft
eulogies on Giraldus; particularly Cafaubon and
Thuanus.
Giraldi (John Baptill Cintio), an Italian poet of
the fame family with the foregoing Lilio, was born
in 1504. He was fecretary to the duke of Ferrara,
and afterwards became profeffor of rhetoric at Pavia.
He died in 1573. His works, which confill chiefly of
tragedies, were colle&edand publilhed atVenice by his
fon Celfo Giraldi, in 1583; and fome fcruple not
to rank him among the bell tragic writers Italy has
produced.
GIRARDON (Francis), a ‘celebrated French ar-
chiteft and fculptor, born at Troyes, in 1627. Lewis
XIV. being informed of his great talents, fent him to
Rome with a penfion of 1000 crowns. At his return
into France, he laboured for the royal palaces, and
the gardens of Verfailles and Trianon; where there are
many of his works executed in bronze and in marble,
from the defigns of Charles le Brun. Themaufoleum
G I, A [ 3306 ] G L A
• Giror.nc of cardinal de Richlieu, in the Sovbonne, and the
.11 equeftrian ftatue of Lewis XIV. at the Place de Ven-
Gladiators. jome> the ftatue and horfe are caft in one piece,
pafs for his moft excellent performances. Girardon
was profeflbr, reftor, and chancellor, of the Academy
of Painting and Sculpture ; and had the poft of infpec-
tor-eeneral of ail the works done in Iculpture. He
died .in 1715.
GIRONNE, or Gironny, in heraldry, a coat of
arms divided into girons, or triangular figures, meet¬
ing in the centre of the ihield, and alternately colour
and metal.
GITTITH, a Hebrew word occurring frequently
in the Pfalms, and generally tranflatedw/«e-y>r(?^’/. The
conje&ures of interpreters are various concerning this
word. Some think it fignifies a fort of mufical inftru-
ment; others, that the pfalms with this title were,
fung after the vintage ; laftly, others, that the hymns
of this kind were invented in the city of Gath. Cal-
met is rather of opinion, that it was given to the clafs
of young women or fongftrefles of Gath to be fung by
them; Pfal. viii. 1. Ixxxi. r. Ixxxiv. 1. Dr Ham¬
mond thinksthat the pfalms with this title were all fet
to the fame tune, and made on Goliah the Gittite.
GIULA, a ftrong town of Upper Hungary, on
the frontiers of Tranfilvania. It was taken by the
Turks in 1566, and retaken by the Imperialifts in
a 695. It is feated on the river Kerefblan, in E._Long.
21. 1. N. Lat. 46. 25.
GIUSTANDEL, a large and ftrong town of
Turkey in Europe, and in Macedonia, with a Greek
archbifliop’s fee. It is feated near the lake Ochrida,
in E. Long. 20. 50. N. Lat. 41. 10.
GLACIES marine. See Lapis Specuhris.
GLACIS, in building, an eafy infenfible flope or
declivity.
The defeent of the glacis is lefs fteep than that of
the talus. In gardening, a defeent fometimes begins
in talus, and ends in glacis.
The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
flope in the cymatium, to promote the defeent and
draining off the rain-water.
Glacis, in fortification, that mafs of earth which
ferves as a parapet to the covered way, floping ealily
towards the champaign or field.
GLADE, in gardening and agriculture, an open¬
ing and light paffage made through a wood, by lopping
off the branches of trees along that way.
GLADIATORS, inantiquity, perfons who fought,
generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment
of the people.
The gladiators were ufually flaves, and fought out
of neceflity ; though fometimes freemen made profef-
fion thereof, like our prize-fighters, for a livelihood.
The Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the
Afiatics ; and we find that even the high-priefts had
their htdi pontificales, and ludi facerdotales. As from
the earlieft ages of antiquity we read that it was euf-
tomary to facrifice prifoners of war to the manes of
the great men that fell in the engagement, in procefs
of time they came to facrifice flaves at the funerals of
all perfons of condition ; but as it would have appeared
barbarous to cut their throats like beafts, they were
appointed to fight with each other, and to do their
fceft to fave their own lives by killing their adverfary.
Hence arofe the mafters of arms called laniftce, and Gladiatori
men learned to fight. Thefe laniftsc bought flaves to
train up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards
fold to fuch as had occafion to exhibit fliews. Junius
Brutus, who expelled the kings, was the firft that ho¬
noured the funeral of his father with thefe inhuman
diverfions at the fepulchre of the deceafed : but after¬
wards they were removed to the circus and amphithea¬
tres ; and other perfons, befides flaves, would hire
themfelves to this infamous office.
They were all firft fworn that they would fight till
death; and if they failed, they were put to death,
either by fire, fwords, clubs, whips, &c. It was
ufual with the people, or emperor, to grant them life
when they {hewed no figns of fear. Auguftus decreed
that it ftiould always be granted them.
From flaves and freed-men, the wanton fport fpread
to perfons of rank, as we find in Nero’s time. And
Domitian exhibited combats of women in the night¬
time. We alfo read, that dwarfs encountered with one
another. Conftantine the Great firft prohibited thefe
combats in the Eaft; but the pradlice was not entirely
aboliftied in the Weft before Theodoric king of the
Oftrogoths in the year 500.
When any perfon defigned to entertain the people
with a fliow of gladiators, he fet up bills in the public
places, giving an account of the time, the number
and names of the combatants, and the circumftances
whereby they were to be diftinguiflied ; each having
his feveral badge, which generally was a peacock’s
feather: they alfo gave notice what time the fliow
would laft ; and fometimes gave reprefentations of thefe
things in painting, as is pra&ifed among us by thofe
who have any thing to fliow at fairs, &c.
Upon the day appointed for the fliow, in the firft
place the gladiators were brought out all together,
and obliged to take a circuit round the arena in a very
folemn and pompous manner. After this they pro¬
ceeded paria componere, to match them by pairs, in
which great care was taken to make the matches equal.
The firft fort of weapons they made ufe of were ftaves,
or wooden foils called ruda ; and the fecond were
effe&ive weapons, as fwords, poinards, &c.
The firft were called arma luforia, or exercitoria;
the fecond, decretoria, as being given by decree or
fentence of the praetor, or of him at whofe expence
the fpe&acle was exhibited.
They began to fence or Ikirmifh with the firft, which
was to be the prelude to the battle; and from thefe,
when well warmed, they advanced to the fecond, with
which they fought naked. The firft part of the en¬
gagement was called ventilare, preludare ; and the fe¬
cond dimicare ad certain, or verjis armis pugnare.
When any received a remarkable wound, either his
adverfary or the people ufed to cry out, Habet, or
Hoc habet. If the vanquiftied Surrendered his arms,
it was not in the viftor’s power to grant him life: it
was the people during the time of the republic, and
the prince or people during the time of the empire,
that were alone empowered to grant this boon. The
two figns of favour and diflike given by the people
were, premere pollicem, and vertere pollicem ; the for¬
mer of which M. Dacier takes to be a clenching of the
fingers of both hands between one another, and fo hold¬
ing the two thumbs upright clofe together, was a fign
of
G L A [ 3307 ] G L A
biadiolus of die people’s admiration of the courage fliewn by both
I li combatants'; and at the fame time for the conqueror
tG an ' to fpare his antagonift’s life : but the contrary motion,
or bending back of the thumbs, fignified the diffatif-
fa&ion of the fpe&ators, and authorifed the vi&or to
|, kill the other combatant downright for a coward. The
emperor faved whonl he liked, if he was prefeut at the
iolemnity, in the fame manner.
After the engagement, feveral marks of favour were
conferred on the vi&or, particularly a branch of palm-
tree ; and oftentimes a fum of money, perhaps gather¬
ed up among the fpe&ators : but the mofl common
rewards were the pileus and the rudis. The former
was given only to fuch gladiators as were Haves, for a
token of obtaining their freedom. But the rudis feems
to have been beftowed both on flaves and freemen ; with
this difference, that it procured the former no more
than a difcharge from any furtherperformahce in pub¬
lic, upon which they commonly turned lanifta : but
the rudis, when given to fuch perfons as, being free,
had hired themfelves out forthefe fhows, reftored them
to a full enjoyment of tl;eir liberty. See Pileus,
Rudis, and Lanista.
GLADIOLUS, Corn-flag ; a genus of the mo-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are ten fpecies, of which the moft re¬
markable is the communis, or common gladiolus.
This hath a round, compreffed, tuberous root; long
fword-fhaped leaves ; an ere& flower-ltalk, two or three
feet high ; the top garnifhed with feveral pretty large
flowers of a red or white colour, having each fix pe¬
tals. They appear in May and June, and are fuc-
ceeded by plenty of feed in Auguft. The plants are
very hardy, and will thrive in any foil or fituation.
They are propagated by offsets from the roots.
GLAMORGANSHIRE, by the Welfh called
Gnulad Morgannwg or Vorganwg, i. e. the county of
Morganwg', a county of South Wales, bounded on the
fouth by the Severn fea, on the north by Brecknock-
ffiire, on the eafl by Monmouthfhire, and on the weft
by Caermarthenfhire. It extends in length 48 miles,
in breadth 27 ; and in circumference about 116. On
the north fide, where there are mountains covered with
fnow a great part of the year, the air is fharp, and the
foil very indifferent; but, on the fouth fide, as the
country approaches nearer to a level, the foil grows
better, producing plenty both of corn and grofs. Its
commodities are black cattle, ftieep, coals, lead, fifti,
and butter. The chief rivers of this country are the
Rhymney or Remny, the Taff, the Ogmore, the A-
von, the Cledaugh, and the Tavye. This country
was formerly full of caftlts, moft of which are now
fallen to decay. It hath many fmall harbours on the
coaft for exporting coals and provifions. Of the for¬
mer it fends large quantities both to England and Ire¬
land ; but of the latter, to England almoft folely, efpe-
cially butter. It fends two members to parliament,
one for the fliire, and one for the borough of Cardiff
the capital.
GLAND, in anatomy, may be defined a circum-
fcribed apparatus of the foft parts, whofe office is to
fecern a certain juice, and throw it out of the imme-
j L drate circulation.
The glands are roundifh bodies, feated in the cellu¬
lar membrane, generally near the large veffels; their
fubftance is firm, and of various colours. Sylvius Glanders
was the firft who divided the glands into conglobate !l
and conglomerate. Malpighi added what he calls the G a'1Y1'
foiliculus or fimple gland ; inftances of which are the
fmall glands behind the ears, but the moft remarkable
are thofe in the fauces.
Dr Nicholls divides the glands into Gnuous, tubu¬
lar, and equal. What he means by ftnuons gland is,
when each little gland hath its own excretory dudt,
through which it tranfmits its liquor to a common ba-
fin, as the kidneys ; his tubular is the fame as the con¬
globate gland of Sylvius, of which the teftes are an
inftance. By an equal gland be means where the vef-'
fels are branched, as in the liver.
Ruyfch proves by fubtle injeftions, that the fub¬
ftance of the glands is vafcular, confining of a rame-
fying artery, partly terminating in a vein, and partly
in an excretory dudl.
Mr Hewfon fays, that the little corpora globofa,
which moft. modern anatomifts call cryptm and follicu-
lae, are nothing but convoluted arteries.
The glands are often difordered by becoming large
and indurated. When they are fwelled and hard, they
are faid to be indurated; if they grow harder, they
are faid to be feirrkous: if, when hard, they become
painful, they are incipient or ocult cancers; if their
hardnefs and pain continue long, they are called car¬
cinomata, or inveterate occult cancer's j and if the Ik in
breaks, they are called ulcerated cancers *. * See Suri
GLANDERS. See Farriery, $ xii. gcH'
GLANDORP (Matthias), a learned phyfician,
born in I595> at Cologn, in which town his father
was a furgeon. After receiving a do&or’s degree at
Padua, and vifiting the principal towns of Italy, he
fettled at Bremen in 1618, where he pra&ifed phyfic
and furgery with fo much fuccefs, that he was made
phyfician to the republic, and to the archbp. He pub-
liftied at Bremen, Speculum chirurgorum, Methodus me-
dendee paronychia, Traftatus de polypo narium affettu
gravijjimo, and Gazophylacium polypufmm fontivijjimo;
which four pieces were colledted and publiftied, with
his life prefixed, at London, in 410, 1729. Glan-
dorp died young ; and it muft fuggett a high opinion
of his abilities, that, notwithftanding the great im¬
provements in all branches of fcience, his works ftiould
be deemed worthy a republication 100 years after his
death.
GLANVIL (Jofeph), a learned, ingenious,, but
fanciful and credulous, writer in the 17th century, was
born at Plymouth in 1636, and bred at Oxford. He
became a great admirer of Mr Baxter, and a zealous
perfon for a commonwealth. After the reftoration, he
publiflied The vanity of dogmatizing ; was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society; and, taking orders in 1662,
was prefented to the vicarage of Frome-Selwood in
Somerfetfhire. This fame year he publiftied his Lux
. Orientalis ; in 1665, ^1S Scepfts:Scientific,a i and in
the year following, Some philofiphical. confidcrations
■ touching the being of oxiitches and 'witchcraft, and o-
ther pieces on the fame fubjeft. In 1.660^ he publifti¬
ed Plus ultra} or, The progrefs and advancement of
knowledge fince the days of Ariflotle. He- 1 ike wife
publiftied A feafonable recommendation and defence of
reafon ; and Philofophia Pia; or, A difeourfe of the
religious temper and tendencies of the experimental
phi-
G L A [ 3308 ] G L A
Claris phihfcphy. In 1678 be was made a prebendary of
II Worcefter, and died in 1680.
»afgow. CLARIS, one of the cantons of Swiflerland, is
bounded on the eaft, partly by the Grifons, and part¬
ly by the territory of Sargans; on the north, by the
bailiwick of Gaiter, and by the lake Wahleftatt;
on the tail, by the canton of Schwits; and on the
fouth, by part of the canton of Uri, and part of the
league of the Grifons. It is a mountainous country,
being entirely within the Alps. Near the village O-
ber-Urnen there is a famous mineral fpring, which is
fometimes hot and fometimes cold. The lake Wah-
lellatt is bounded by high rocks and mountains,
through one of which a road is cut. Towards the top
of one of thefe there is a large hole, through which
the iky may be feen.
Claris, a town of Swiflerland, capital of the can¬
ton of the fame name. It is feated in a plain, at the
foot of high craggy mountains. The ftreets are large,
and the houfes kept in good repair. It has fome pub¬
lic buildings ; among which are two churches, one in
the middle of the town, and the other without, upon
an eminence. On this eminence there is a cavern,
with grotefque figures formed by the water that drops
therein. The general affemblies of the country are
held here on the firft Sundays in May, wdiere all the
males above the age of fixteen are obliged to appear.
Both the Calvinifts and the Roman-Catholics are to¬
lerated in this town, and they have divine fervice by
turns in the fame church. It is feated on the river
Lint, E. Long. 90 13'. N. Lat. 470 6'.
GLASGOW, a large city of Lanerkfhire or Clydef-
dale in Scotland, fituated in W. Long. 40 30'. N.
Lat. 550 50'.
Concerning the foundation of this city we have no
authentic records. The word in the Gaelic language
fignifies a gray-fmith; from whence it may perhaps be
inferred, that fome fpot in the mod ancient part of the
city was originally the refidence of fome blackfmith,
who had become eminent in his proftffion, Co that the
, place went by his name.
Bithopric of In the year 560, a bifhopric is faid to have been
Glafgow, founded here by Saint Mungo, or Kentigern, flip-
funded P0^ec^ to be the fon of Thamatcs, daughter of Loth
oun e ‘ king of the Pitts ; but in what date the town at
that time was, is altogether uncertain. Molt pro¬
bably the priells and difciples who attended St Ken¬
tigern, would contribute confiderably towards its
advancement: the aged and infirm, who were unfit
for the purpofes of war, or fuch as were religioufiy in¬
clined, would come and fettle round the habitation of
the holy man, in order to have the benefit of his
prayers ; and as a number of miracles were faid to
have been wrought at his tomb, the fame caufes would
fiill contribute to the increafe or the town.
Hiftory has not informed us of the name of the
prince who founded and endowed the bilhopric of
Glafgow in favour of St Kentigern. But from an ab-
ftraft of the life of Kentigern (contained in Mr
Innes’s Critical Effay on the Ancient Inhabitants
of Scotland) which was written in the izth century,
we learn, that the faint being ill ufed by Marken
or Marcus, one of the kings of the Britons, re¬
tired into Wales. On the invitation of Roderic,
however, one of Marken’s fueceflors, he returned to
Glafgow, and enjoyed the fee till 601, when he died. Glafgovt;
He was buried in the church of Glafgow, where his I
monument is (till to be feen; and we find him marked
among the faints of the Roman calendar, January
13 th 578.
The immediate fucceflbrs of Kentingern were Bal-
drede and Conwal. The firll eftablilhed a religious
houfe at Inchinnan, the fecond went into Lothian to
preach to the Saxons; and both of them are ranked as I
faints in the Roman calendar, Baldrede on the 6th of
March 608, and Conwal on the 18th of May 612.
From this time, however, till the 1115 we have no
diftinft accounts concerning the city or bilhopric of R . *.
Glafgow. We find then, that David I. king of Scot- thepeop
land made an attempt to retrieve the people from a in the til
ftate of grofs barbarity into whith they were fallen, of Davi4
and reftored to the church thofe lands of which Ihe
had been robbed. The only account we have of the
tranfaftions with regard to Glafgow, during that pe¬
riod, is in the inquifition made by David concerning f
the church-lands of Glafgow, and is as follows.—
“ This church, by the divine appointment, admitted
St Kentigern into the bilhopric, who furnilhed large
draughts of knowledge to thofe thirlling after heaven¬
ly things, &c. But a fraudulent deftroyer, employ- ;
ing his common wiles, brought in, after a long feries
of time, unaccountable fcandals into the Cumbrian
church. For after St Kentigern and many of his
fucceflbrs were removed to heaven, various difturbances
every where arifing, not only deftroyed the church
and her polfelfions, but, wafting the whole country, 1
drove the inhabitants into exile. Thefe good men i
being deftroyed, various tribes of different nations
flocking in from feveral quarters, pofleffed the fore-
faid deferted country; but being of different origins,
and varying from each other in their language and cuf-
toms, and not eafily agreeing among themfelves, they
followed the manners of the Gentiles, rather than
thofe of the true faith. The inhabitants of which
unhappy and abandoned country, though living like
brutes, the Lord, who choofes that none Ihould perilh,
vouchfafed to vifit in mercy, &c.”
From the year 1116 to the reformation, the records
of the bilhopric are tolerably complete. The molt
remarkable particulars furnilhed by them are the fol¬
lowing.
In 1136, John Achaius, chofen bilhop of Glafgow j
by David I. built and adorned a part of the cathe¬
dral, which he folemnly confecrated on the yth of
July. The king was prefent at the ceremony ; and be¬
llowed on the church the lands of Perdeyc, now Pa¬
trick. This prelate alio divided the diocefe into the
two archdeanries of Glafgow and Teviotdale ; and
eftablilhed the offices of dean, fubdean, chancellor,
treafurer, facrift, chantor, and fucceffor; and fettled
a prebendary upon each of them, out of the dona¬
tives he received from the king.
In 1174, Joceline, abbot of Melrofe, was defied
bilhop, and confecrated by Elkilus, bilhop of Lun-
den in Denmark, the Pope’s legate for that king¬
dom, on the ill of June 1175. He rebuilt the ca¬
thedral, or rather made an addition to the church al¬
ready built by John Achaius. He alfo procured a Glafgow
charter from William, king of Scotland, erecting Glaf- erefted i’
gow into a royal borough, and likewife a charter for a royal \
a bur3h-
I? Glafgow
| ercfted int
| a regality,
I • mn. of
' Clafgoiv,
> P- 74-
i 5
j Which de-
j firoys the
i freedom of
t Population
I of Glafgow
increafed
' by the uni-
Verlity.
G L A [ 3309 ] G L A
a fair to be held there annually for eight days. pation : they were incorporated into a fociety; and in Ghfgow.
In 1335, John Lindfay, bilhop of Glafgow, was order that they might be at hand to profecute their i
killed in an engagement at fea with the Englifh, as bufinefs, they built a coniiderable part of the ftreet
he was returning home from Flanders. His fuccetfor, now called the Bridge-gate, but at that time Fijhers-
William Rae, built the (lone bridge over the Clyde, gate.
In the time of Matthew Glendoning, who was eledted Notwithftanding all this, however, the city of Glaf-
biihop i:i 1387, the great fpire of the church, which gow did not for a long time attain the rank among
had been built only of wood, was confumed by light- the other towns of Scotland, which it holds at prefent.
ning. The bifhop intended to have built another of In 1556, it held only the nth place among them.
Hone ; but was prevented by death, in 1408, from ac- as appears by queen Mary’s taxation. The iutroduc-
complifhing his purpofe. His fucceffor, William Lau- tion of the reformed religion proved for fome time
derv laid the foundation of the veftry of the cathe- prejudicial to the opulence of the city. The money
dral, and built the great tower of (tone, as far as which had formerly been expended among the citizens
the firft battlement. The great tower of the epifeo- by the bilhop and his clergy, was now diverted into
pal palace was founded about the year 1437, on which other channels: the advantages refulting from the uni-
bifhop Cameron expended a great deal of money. verfity were alfo for a time loft ; for as the reformers
In 1447* William Turnbull, a fon of the family generally defpifed human learning, the college was in
of Bedrule in Roxburgh-(hire, was choCen bifhop. a manner deferted.
, He obtained from king James II. in 1450, a charter In the time of the civil wars, Glafgow fuffered fe-
erefting the town and the patrimony of the biftiops verely. To the mifehiefs attending inteftine difeord, 7
■ into a regality. He alfo procured a bull from pope were added a peftilence and famine; and to complete Great part
Nicholas V. for ere&ing an univerfity within the city, their misfortunes, a violent tire broke out in June, of the town
which he endowed, and on which he alfo bellowed which deftroyed the greateft part of the Saltmarket, ^
many privileges. He died in 1454, leaving behind Trongate, and High-ftreet. The fronts of the houfes
him a moft excellent charafter. The eftablifhment at that time were mottly of wood, fo tiiat they be-
pf the college contributed more than any thing that came an eafy prey to the flames, The (ire continued
had been formerly done towards the enlargement of with great violence for the fpace of iS hours; by
the town. Before this time the town feems to have which, a great many of the inhabitants were ruined,
been inconfiderable. Mr Gibfon * is of opinion, that the habitations of almoft 1000 families being to-
the number of its inhabitants did not exceed 1500. tally deftroyed. On this account colleblions were
But though the eftabliftiment of the univerfity great- made through different parts of the country; and
ly increafed the number of inhabitants, it in fail de- to prevent fuch accidents for the future, the fronts
ftroyed the freedom of the town. Biftrop Turnbull were built with free (lone, which abounds in the neigh-
feems to’have made a point of it with king James II. bourhood.
that the city of Glafgow, with the biftiops foreft, By the charter given to biftiop Turnbull in 1450,
Ihould be erefted into a regality in his favour ; which the citizens had been deprived of the power of ele&ing
was accordingly done at the time above-mentioned; their own magiftrates, which was thenceforth exercifed
and this at once took away all power from the citi- by the bifliop ; which, however, was not done with-
zens, and transferred it to the biftiop. As the powers out fome refiftance on the part of the inhabitants,
of the biftiop, however, were reckoned by Turnbull After the reformation was introduced into Scotland,
infufheient to convey to the members of the unjver- we find this power exercifed by the citizens, the biftiop,
fity all that freedom which he wiftied to beftow upon the earl of Lennox, and others. The idea that the
them, he therefore obtained from the king a great town was a biftiop’s burgh, and not a royal free burgh,
many privileges for them ; and afterwards he himfelf, gave occafion to this unfettled manner of appointing
with the confent of his chapter, granted them many the magiftracy; and though, in 1633, they were de-
more. dared to be a royal free burgh by the parliament, yet
The good effe&s of the eftabliftiment of the col- their freedom of eleftion was afterwards difturbed
lege were very foon obvious in Glafgow. The num- by the privy-council, by Cromwell, and the duke of g
ber of inhabitants increafed exceedingly; the high York. But on the 4th of June 1690, the town was Glafgow
ftreet, from the cofivent of the black friars, to where declared free by a charter of William and Mary; and dedared
the crofs is now placed, was very foon filled up; the in confirmation of this charter it was inferted in the
ancient road which led to the common, being too far ad of parliament, dated June 14th the fame year, Marv
dillant for the conveniency of the new inhabitants, the that they ftiould have power to eled their own ma-
Gallows-gate was begun to be built. Soon after, the giftrates as fully and freely, in all refpeds, as the city
collegiate church of the bleffed Mary (now the Tron- of Edinburgh, or any other royal bnrgh within the
church) being founded by the citizens, occafioned the kingdom ; which freedom of eledion ftill continues.
Trongate ftreet to be carried to the weftward as far By the affeffment of the burghs in 1695, we
as the church. The reft of the city increafed gra- the city of Glafgow reckoned the fecond in Scotland
dually towards the bridge, by the building of the in point of wealth, which place it ftill continues to Greafin-
Salt-market ftreet. The burrough-roods, and the hold. To account for this great increafe of wealth, create of its
cattle that grazed on the commons, were now found we muft obferve, that for a long time, even before wfal,h*
infufficient to maintain the increafed number of inha- the reftoration of Charles II. the inhabitants of Glaf-
bitants ; for which reafon a greater degree of atten- gow had been in poffeflion of the fale both of raw and
tion than formerly was paid to the fiftring in the river, refined fugars for the greateft part of Scotland ; they
Many poor people fubfifted themfelves by this occu- had a privilege of diftilling fpirits from their molaffes,
Vol. V. 0 J9A. free*
G L A
GlafgOV
[ 331
free of all duty and excite ; the herring-Sfliery was
alfo carried on to what was at that time thought a ve¬
ry confiderable extent; they were the only people in
Scotland who made foap; and they fent annually
fome hides, linen, See. to Briftol, from whence they
brought back in exchange, a little tobacco, fugar, and
goods of the manufafture of England, with which
they fupplied a confiderable part of the kingdom.
From the year 1707, however, in which the union
between Scotland and England took place, we may
date the profperity of Glafgow. By the union, the
American trade was laid open to the inhabitants : and
fo fenfible were they of their advantageous fituation,
that they began almoft inftantly to profecute that
commerce ; an affiduous application to which, ever
fince, hath greatly contributed to raife the city to that
pitch of affluence and fplendor which it now enjoys.
The city was now greatly enlarged; and as the com¬
munity were fenfible of the inconvenience that attend¬
ed the want of a fufficiency of water in the river,
for carrying on their commerce, they refolved to have
a port of their own, nigher the mouth of the river.
At firft, they thought of making their harbour at
Dumbarton : but as this is a royal borough, the ma-
giftrates oppofed it; becaufe they thought that the in¬
flux of failors and others, occafioned by the harbour,
would be fo great, that a fcarcity of provifions would
be occafioned. The magiftrates and town-council of
Glafgow, therefore, purchafed fome lands on the fouth
fide of the river Clyde for this purpofe ; and fo expe-
] G L A
indulged with a pardon, and promoted in the fervice. Glafgnw.
Mr Campbell petitioned the Houfe of Commons for“ 4
an indemnification of his Ioffes: a bill was pafied in
his favour; and this, together with fome other expen-
ces incurred in the affair, coll the town 90001. fter.
During the time of the rebellion in 1745, the citi¬
zens of Glafgow gave proof of their attachment to
revolution principles, by railing two battalions, of 600
men each, for the fervice of government. This piece
of loyalty, however, had like to have coll them dear.
The rebels, in their journey fouth, took a refolution to
plunder and burn the city; which would probably have
been done, had not Mr Cameron of Lochiel threatened,
in that cafe, to withdraw his clan. A heavy contribu¬
tion, however, was laid on. The city was compelled to
pay 5000 1. in money, and 5001. in goods ; and on the
return of the rebels from England, they were obliged
to furnilh them with 12,000 linen Ihirts, 6000 cloth
coats, 6000 pairs of Ihoes, 6000 pairs of hofe, and 6000
bonnets. Thefe goods, with the money formerly paid
them, the expence of raifing and fubfifting thejtwo city-
battalions, and the charge of maintaining the rebel
army in free quarters for ten days, coll the commu¬
nity about 14,000 b llerling ; io,oool. of which they
recovered in 1749, by an application to parliament. it
About the year 1750, a very confiderable change c!iange
took place in the manner of hvino; among the inhabi- manntrs 1
. r .i • .*> ^ • . and method
tants ot daigovv. J ill this time, an attentive in-0f jjvjn„ i
Port^Glaf^ diti°us were they in making their harbour, and rear-
gow, ' ing their town, that in 1710 a baillie was appointed
for the government of Port-Glafgow. It is now a
very confiderable parilh, and lies 14 miles nigher the
mouth of Clyde than Glafgow.
In 1725, Mr Campbell, the member of parlia¬
ment for Glafgow, having given his vote for ha¬
ving the malt-tax extended over Scotland, a riot
enfued among the lower clafs of people. In this
difturbance, Mr Campbell’s furniture was ddlroy-
ed, and fome excifemen were maltreated for at¬
tempting to take an account of the malt. General
Wade, who commanded the forces in Scotland, had
fent two companies of foldiefs, under the command
Difturbance Captain Bulhell, to prevent any difturbance of
about the tf1'3 kind. Captain Bulhell drew up his men in the
excife-bill, ftreet, where the multitude pelted them with ftones.
Them he endeavoured to difperfe, by firing with pow¬
der only : but this expedient failing, he ordered his
men to load their pieces with ball; and, without the
fanflion of the civil authority, commanded them to
fire four different ways at once. By this difeharge
about 20 perfons were killed and wounded ; which en¬
raged the multitude to fuch a degree, that having pro¬
cured fome arms, they purfued Bulhel and his men to
the caftle of Dumbarton, about five miles diftant.
General Wade being informed of this tranfaftion,
affembled a body of forces, and being accompanied
by Duncan Forbes, lord advocate, took poffeffion of
the town : the magiftrates were apprehended, and car¬
ried prifoners to Edinburgh; but on an examination
before the lords, their innocence clearly appeared, up¬
on which they were immediately difmiffed. Bulhell
was tried for murder, convifted, and condemned;
but, inftead of fuffering the penalties of law, he was
duftry, and a frugality bordering upon parfimony.
had been their general charafteriftic; the feverity of
the ancient manners prevailed in its full vigour j
But now, when an extenfive commerce and increafed
manufactures had produced wealth, the ideas of the
people were enlarged, and fchemes of trade and im¬
provement were adopted, which people would formerly
have been denominated madmen if they had under¬
taken ; a new ftile was introduced in living, drefs,
building, and furniture ; wheel-carriages were fet up,
public places of entertainment were frequented,' and
an affembly-room, ball-room, and playhoufe, were
built by fubfeription; and from this time we may
date all the improvements that have taken place, not
only in Glafgow, but all over the weft of Scotland.
The beft method, however, of eftimating the grow¬
ing improvement of any town, is by the frequency
of their applications for affiftance to parliament; we
{hall therefore enumerate the ads of parliament which I3
have been paffed in favour of the city of Glafgow finee A£ts of
the year 1750. In 1753, anad paffed for repairing fe- parliaments
veral roads leading into the city of Glafgow.—In|"^a\0tur ^
1756, an aCl for ereding and fupporting a light- y"
honfe in theiflandof Little Cumray, at the mouth of
the Clyde, and for rendering the navigation of the frith
and river more fafe and commodious.—In 3 759, an ad
for improving the navigation of the river Clyde to the
city of Glafgow, and for building a bridge acrofs the
river from the city to the village of Gorbells.—In
1767, the people of Glafgow having propofed to
make a fmall cut or canal from the frith of Forth to
that of Clyde, for the conveniency of their trade to
the eaftern fide of the ifland, feveral gentlemen at
Edinburgh, and throughout different parts of the
kingdom, propofed that this canal (hould be executed
upon a much larger fcale than what had been origi¬
nally projeded. An ad was accordingly obtained,
and
G L A [ 33,1 ] G L A
) Glafgow. and the canal executed in the manner defcribed under
I *" the article Canal.—In 1770, another adl was obtained
for improving the navigation of the river, and for
building the bridge from the city to the village of
Gorbells, being an amendemntof the former aft for that
purpofe.—In 1771, an aft for making and widening
a paffage from the Salt-market to St Andrew’s church ;
for enlarging and completing the church-yard of that
church, and likewife for building a convenient ex¬
change or fquare in the city ; alfo for amending and
explaining the former aft relative to the navigation of
the Clyde.— An aft for making and maintaining a
navigable canal and waggon-way from the collieries
in the parilhes 'of Old and New Monkland, to the
city of Glafgow.
This lad canal, which was undertaken with a view
to reduce the price of coals, has not been attended
with the defired effeft. The other improvements have
been produftive of very great advantages: and it may
be confidently aflerted, that fince the year 1750 a to¬
tal change has been effefted in the city of Glafgow
and all round it; the manners of the people have un¬
dergone an alteration greatly for the better ; a fpirit
of induftry and aftivity has been raifed, and now
pervades every order of men; commerce has been in-
creafed; manufaftures carried on to a confiderable
extent, and ftill increafing ; every perfon is employed ;
not a beggar is to be feen in the ftreets; the very
}4 children are bufy.
Defcriptien Such is the prefent flourifhing flate 0/ the city of
of the city. Glafgow, which for its beauty and elegance ex¬
ceeds every other city in Scotland. The moll anci¬
ent part of it (lands on a riling ground. The foun¬
dation of the cathedral is 104 feet higher than the
bed of the river; and the defeent from the high
ground reaches to about too yards below the college.
The reft of the city is built upon a plain. The city
reaches from north to fouth, i. e. from the Stable-
green port, to the fouth end of the Gorbells, 2000
yards; from call to weft, i. e. from the Gallowgate
toll-bar to Grahameftown toll-bar, 3160 yards. The
ftreets are clean and well paved ; the medium breadth
of the principal ones is 52 feet ; and feveral of them
interfefting one another at right angles, produce a ve¬
ry fine effeft. The houfes, excepting a very few, are
built of free-ftone well hewed; few of them exceed
four floors in height; and many of them are in an ex¬
ceeding good talie, infomuch that Mr Pennant pro¬
nounces Glafgow to be the bell fecond-rate city he
had ever feen. The moll remarkable public build-
i ij ings are,
j '°f t!ie ca‘ i. The Cathedral, or High Church, is a magnificent
phedral. building, and its fituation greatly to its advantage, as
it Hands higher than any part of the city. It has been
intended to form a crofs, though the traverfe part has
never been finilhed. The great tower is founded upon
four large maffy pillars, each of them about 30 feet in
circumference. The tower itfelf is 25I- feet fquare
within ; and is furrounded by a ballullrade, within
which rifes an oftangular fpire terminated by a fane.
The tower upon the weft end is upon the fame level,
but appears not to have been finilhed, though it is co¬
vered over with lead. In this tower is a very large bell
11 feet 4 inches in diameter. The principal entry
was from the weft ; the gate 11 feet broad at the bafe,
and 17 feet in height. The weft end of the choir is GUlgow.
now appropriated for a place of divine worlhip ; and is ~
divided from the remaining part by a Hone-partition,
which is inclofed by another ftone-wall parting it from
the nave. It is impoffible to form an adequate idea of
the awful folemnity of the place occafioned by the lof-
tinefs of the roof and the range of pillars by which the
whole is fupported.
The nave of the church rifes four Heps higher than
the choir; and on the weft fide Hood the organ-loft,
formerly ornamented with a variety of figures, but
now defaced. The pillars here are done in a bet¬
ter tafte than thofe in the choir, and their capitals
are ornamented with fruits. The arched roof of the
altar is fupported by five pillars, over which was a
fine terrace walk, and above it a large window of cu¬
rious workmanlhip, but now (hut up. On the north
fide of the altar is the veftry, being a cube of 28 feet,
the roof arched and vaulted at top, and fupported by
one pillar in the centre of the houfe. Arched pillars
from every angle terminate in the grand pillar, which
is 19 feet high. The lower part of the fouth crofs is
made ufe of as a burying place for the clergy of the
city ; and is by much the fineft piece of workmanlhip
in the whole building. It is 55 feet long, 28 broad,
and 15 high ; arched and vaulted at top, and fupport-
ted by a middle range of pillars, with their capitals
highly ornamented; correfponding to which arc co¬
lumns adjoining to the walls, which as they rife, fpring
into femi-arches, and are every where met at acute
angles by their oppofites, and are ornamented with
carvings at the doling and crofting of the lines. At
the eall end of the choir you defeend by flights of Heps
upon each fide into paffages which, in former times,
were the principal entries to the burying vault which
is immediately under the nave. It is now made ufe of
as a parilh-church for the barony of Glafgow; and is
full of pillars, fome of them very maffy, which fup-
port the arched roof: but it is a very uncomfortable
place for devotion. The fpace under the altar and
veftry, though now made ufe of as a burying place by
the heritors of the barony, was formerly, according to
tradition, employed for keeping of the relics ; and in¬
deed, from the beautiful manner in which this place is
finilhed, one would imagine that it had not been de-
ftined for common ufe. Here is (hewn the monument
of St Mungo, or Kentigern, with his figure lying in a
cumbent pofture.
The whole length of the cathedral within the walls
is 284 feet, its breadth 65 ; the height of the choir,
from the floor to the canopy, 90 feet; the height
of the nave, 85 feet; the height of the middle tower,
220 feet. This fabric was begun by John Achaius in
1123, and confecrated in 1136; and continued by fuc-
ceeding bifhops till fuch time as it was finilhed in the
manner in which it Hands at prefent. The wealth of
the fee of Glafgow, however, was not fuflicient for fo
great an undertaking, fo that they were obliged to have
recourfe to all the churches of Scotland for afiiftance
in it. Near the cathedral is the ruin of the caftle or
bilhop’s palace. \6
2. St Andrews Church was begun by the commu- St- A'1"
nity in 1739, anc^ finilhed in 1756. It is the fineft
piece of modern architefture in the city; and is built
after the model of St Martins in the fields, London,
19 A 2 whofe
Glafgow.
The col-
lege.
t8
Town*
oufe, &c.
G L A [ 3312 ] ,G.L A
whofe archite£l was the famous Gibbs. The length of The great hall, which is the whole length and Glafgovir.
the church is 104 feet, and its breadth 66. It has a fine breadth of the building, is fo capacious, that it is better '
arched roof, well ornamented with figures in ftucco, and adapted for the reception of great and numerous affem-
fufiainedby ftone-columns of theCorinthianorder. Cor- blies than any other in the city. This houfe is adorned
refpondent to the model, it has a place for the altar on the with a very elegant fpire 200 feet high. 10
eaft, in which is a very ancient Venetian window ; but 6. The Town's Hofpital is a very neat building, con- T?w.n's ^°*j
the altar-place being feated makes this end appear to no fifting of two wings and a large front: the length 1>l a *
great advantage. The fronts of the galleries and the 156 feet, the breadth of the centre 30 feet, and the
pulpit are done in mahogany in a very elegant manner, depth of the wings 68 feet. Behind the building is an
The fpire by no means correfponds with the reft of the infirmary 127 feet long by 25 feet broad, the afcent to
building; and, intlead of being an ornament, difgraces which is by a flight of fteps. The lower part of this
this beautiful fabric. Its height is 170 feet. building is appointed for the reception of lunatics.
3. The College. The front of this building extends The area between the buildings is large, which, with
along the eaft tide of the high flreet, and is upwards the agreeable open fituation of the hofpital on the ri-
of 330 feet long. . The gate at the entrance is decora- ver, muft conduc.e to the health of the inhabitants. ir j
ted with ruftics, and over it are the king’s arms. The 7. The New Bridge h built in an elegant manner. Newbridge!
firft court is 88 feet long and44 broad. The weft fide It is 32 feet wide; with a commodious foot-way for
is elevated upon ftone pillars, on which are placed pila- paflengers, five feet broad on each fide, raifed above
fters fupportiiig the Doric entablature, and ornamented the road made for carriages, and paved with free ftone.
with arches forming a piazza. Above thefe is the pu- This bridge is about 500 feet in length; and confifts
blic hall; the afcent to which is by a double flight of of feven arches, the faces of which are wrought in m-
fteps inclofed by a handfome ftone balluftrade, upon ftic, with a ftrongblockcorniceabove. The arches fpring
the right of which is placed a lion, and on the left an but a little way above low-water mark ; which, tho’
unicorn, cut in free ftone. The fpire ftands on the it renders the bridge llronger than if they fprung from
eaft fide, is 135 feet high, and has a very good clock, taller piers, diminilhes its beauty. Between every
Under this is the gateway into the inner and largeft arch there is a fmall circular one : thefe break the force
court, which is 103 feet long and 79 broad. Over the of the water when the river rifes to a flood, and add to
entry, in a niche, is a ftatue of Mr Zacharias Boyd, who the ftrength of the whole. The parapet-wall or breaft-
was a benefadtor to the univerfity. On the eaft fide of the work is cut out in the Chinefe tafte; and the two ends
court is a narrow paffage leading into a handfome ter- are finilhed o!f with a fweep. u
race walk, gravelled, 1 22 feet long by 64 feet broad. 8. The Markets its King’s Street art )\\R)y a&m'we&yMzrkzis, •
This walk is inclofed to the eaft by an iron pallifade, in as being the completeft of their kind in Britain. They &c’
the centre of which is a gate leading into thegarden. This are placed on both fides of theftreet. That on the eatt
laft confifts of feven acres of ground, laid out in walks fide, appropriated entirely for butcher-meat, is 112
for the recreation of the ftudents. On the fouth fide feet iii length, and 67 in breadth. In the centre is a
of the walk ftands the library ; a very neat edifice, well fpacious gateway, decorated on each fide with coupled
conftru&ed for the purpofe intended, and containing a Ionic columns fet upon their pedeftals, and fupport-
very valuable colleftion of books. ing an angular pediment. At the north end is a very
5. The Town-Houfe and Ajjembly-Hall. This is a neat hall belonging to the incorporation of butchers, the
magnificent and extremely elegant building. The front front ornamented with ruftics and a pediment. The
is adorned with a range of Ionic pilafters ; the top of markets upon the weft fide of the ftreet confift of three
the building is ornamented with a balluftrade and hand- courts, fet apart for fifh, mutton,and cheefe. The whole
fome vafes ; the front is elevated on ftrong rufticated of the front is 173 feet, the breadth 46 feet; in the
pillars adorned with arches, forming a piazza for mer- centre of which, as on the oppofite fide, is a very fpa-
chants and others to flielter themfelves from the weather cious gateway of the Doric order, fupporting a pedi-
when met upon bufinefs. The aflembly-hall is a neat ment. This is the entry to the mutton-market. Each
room, and is finilhed in a good tafte, though too final! of the other two has a well-proportioned arch faced
for the city; its length is 47 feet, its breadth and with ruftics for their entrance. Ail thefe markets are
height 24. The town-hall is a very fpacious and lofty well paved with free ftone; have walks all round them j
apartment, 52 feet long by 27 broad, and 24 in and are covered over for Ihelter by roofs Handing up-
height. It is finilhed in a very grand manner; the on ftone piers, under which the different commodities
ceiling is divided into different compartments well or- are expofed to fale. They have likewife pump-wells,
namented. In it are full-length portraits of king within, for cleaning away all the filth; which render
James VI. and VII. Charles I. and If. William and the markets always fweet and agreeable.
Mary, queen Anne, king George I. II. and III. and 9. The Guard-Houfe is a very handfome building*
Archibald duke of Argyle in his jufticiary robes. The with a piazza formed by arches, and columns of the
two laft are by Ramfay. Oppofite to the front of this Ionic order fet upon their pedeftals. The entablature
building is the exchange, which is well paved with fupports at Attic courfe, in which are oval port-holes,
free ftone, and inclofed from the ftreet by ftone pil- ornamented with palm-branches,
lars. Upon it is an equeftrian ftatue of king Wil- 10. The Herb-Market, is neat and commodious;
liam III. placed upon a lofty pedeftal, and furround- in length 130, and in breadth 41 feet. The principal
ed with an iron rail. entry is decorated with coupled Ionic columns, flip-
5. The Guild-Hall, or Merchants Houfe. This porting an angular pediment. It is laid out in the
building is fituated upon the fouth fide of Bridge- fame manner with the markets in King’s-ftreet.
gateftreet; and is in length 82 feet, in breadth 31. The molt remarkable public charities in Glafgow are*
i- Muir-
G L A
[ 33!3 ]
G L A
I 61afgow.
Public cha
[rities.
Ucmbersof
he univer¬
ity.
1. Muirhead’s or St Nicholas's Hofpital. This was
originally appointed to fubfift 12 old men and a chap¬
lain : but its revenues have, from fome unknown
caufes, been loft ; fo that no more of them now remains
than the paltry fum of 139 I. 2 s. 5 d. Scots money,
128 1. of which is annually divided among four old
men annually, at the rate of 2 1. 13 s. 4 ft. each.
2. Hatchefon's Hofpital, was founded and endowed
in 1639 by George Hutchefon of Lamb-hill, notary-
public, and Mr Thomas Hutchefon his brother, wh->
was bred a preacher, for the maintenance of old men
and orphans. The funds of this hofpital were after¬
wards increafed by James Blair merchant in Glafgow,
in tyro; and by fubfequent donations, the managers
now have it in their power to give away above 9001.
Sterling in penlions, from 5 1. 10 s. to 10I. per pen-
fioner.
3. The Toosm's Hofpital was opened for the reception
of the poor on the jyth cf November 1733. The funds
from whence this hofpital is fubfifted are, the general
feffion, the town-council, the trades houfe and mer¬
chants houfe, the intereft of money belonging to
their funds, which are fums that have been mortified
for the ufe of the houfe. Thefe fupplies, however,
are found infufficient to defray the expences of the
houfe ; for which reafon an aflefiinent is annually made
upon the inhabitants in the following manner. The
magiftvates nominate 12, 14, or fometimes more gen¬
tlemen of known integrity and character, who have a
lift laid before them ot all the inhabitants in town. This
lift they divide into 16 or 18 columns. Each of thefe
columns contains the names of fuch inhabitants as car¬
ry on trade to a certain extent, or are fuppofed to be
well able to pay the fum affixed to the particular co¬
lumn in which their names are inferted. If it is necef-
fary to raife 5001. for inftance, then each name, in
every feparate column, is valued at as much as the for¬
tunes of the perfons in each particular column are fup¬
pofed to be. If 1000I. or more is to be raifed, it is
only continuing a proportional increafe through the
whole of the columns. The higheft fum that ever
•was thus raifed, was 12 s. 6d. upon every thoufand
pounds that each perfon was fuppofed to be worth.
The number of: people maintained in this hofpital are
about 620.
The univerfity of Glafgow owes its origin, as we
have already obferved, to bifhop Turnbull. The infti-
tution ccnfifted at firft of a refitof’, a dean of faculty,
a principal who taught theology, and three profeffors
of philofophy ; and, foon after this, the civil and ca¬
non laws were taught by fome clergymen. Prom the
time of its eftablilhment in 1450 to the reformation in
1560, the college was chiefly frequented by thofe who
were intended for the church ; its members were all
ecclefiaftics, and its principal fupport was derived, from
the church. The reformation brought the univerfity to
the verge of deftrudtion : mafters, ftudents, and fer-
vants, all forfook it. The magiftrates were fo fenfible
of the jofs which the community had fuftained by this
defertion, that they endeavoured to reftore it in 1572,
by beftowing upon it confiderable funds, and prefcri-
bing a fet of regulations for its management. Thefe,
however, proved infufficient; for which reafon king
James VI. ere&ed it anew', by a charter called the Nova
EretttO) in 1577, and bellowed upon it the feinds of the
parilh of Govan. The perfons who were to compofe
the new univerfity were, a principal, three profeffors of
philofophy, four ftudents burfars, one ceconomus, a
principal’s fervant, a janitor, and cook.
Since the year 1577, the funds of the univerfity
have been coniiderably increafed by the bounty of
kings and the donations of private perfons. The pro¬
feffors have therefore alfo been increafed ; fo that at
prefent the univerfity of Glafgow confifts of a chan¬
cellor, redtor, dean of faculty, principal, and 13 pro¬
feffors, together with burfars, &c. The archbilhop of
Glafgow was formerly chancellor of the univerfity ex
officio ; at prefent, the chancellor is chofen by the rec¬
tor, dean of faculty, principal, and mafters.
The chancellor, as being the head of the univerfity,
is the fountain of honour, and in his name are all aca¬
demical degrees beftowed. The office of redlor is to
exercife that academical jurifdidlion in difputes among
the ftudents themfelves, or between the ftudents and
citizens, which is beftowed upon the greater part of the
univerfities in Europe. He is chofen annually in the
comitia ; that is, in a meeting in which all the ftudents,
as well as the other members of the univerfity, have a
voice. Immediately after his admiffion, he has been in
ufe to choofe certain perfons as his affeffors and coun-
fellors in his capacity of judge : and, in former periods,
it was cuftomary to name the minifters of Glafgow, or
any other gentlemen who had no conne&ion with the
univerfity ; but, fora great while paft, the re&or has
conftantly named the dean of faculty, the principal,
and mafters for his affeffors; and he has always been,
and ftill is, in the daily pra&ice of judging in the
caufes belonging to him, with the advice of his affef¬
fors. Befides thefe powers as judge, the redlor fum-
mons and prefides in the meetings of the univerfity
for the elediion of his fucceffor; and he is likewife in
ufe to call meetings of the profeffors for drawing up ad-
dreffes to the king, eledling a member to the general
affembly, and other bufinefs of the like kind.
The dean of faculty has, for his province, the gi¬
ving diredtions with regard to the courfe of ftudies; the
judging, together with the redtor, principal, and pro¬
feffors, of the qualifications of thofe who defire to be
created mafters of arts, dodtors of divinity, &c.; and
he prefides in meetings which are called by him for thefe
purpofes. He is chofen annually by the redlor, prin¬
cipal, and mafters.
The principal and mafters, independent of the rec¬
tor and dean, compofe a meeting in which the princi¬
pal prefides; and, as they are the perfons for whofe
behoof chiefly the revenue of the college was eftablifh-
ed, the adminiftration of that revenue is therefore com¬
mitted to them.
The revenue arifes from the teinds of the parilh of
Govan, granted by king James VI. in 1557; from th®
tiends of the parilhes of Renfrew and Kilbride, grant¬
ed by the fame monarch in 1617, and confirmed by
king Charles I. on the 28th of June 16305 from the
tiends of the parilhes of Calder, Old and New Monk-
land, conveyed to them by a charter from Charles II.
in 1670; from a tack of the archbilhopric ; and from
feveral donations received from private perfons. .
The college of Glafgow, for a very confiderable
time after its ere&ion, followed the mode of public
teaching which is coaimou even to this day in Oxford
and
Glafgow.
G L A [33
G'afgow. and Cambridge, andinmany other univerfities through -
out Europe ; that Is, e?ch profeffor gave a few lec¬
tures every year, gratis^ upon the particular fcience
which he profefled: but, in place of this, the profef-
fors have, for a great while paft, adopted the mode of
private teaching; that is, they le&ure and examine
two hours every day during the feffion, viz. from the
joth of Oftober to the 10th of June ; a method which
•comes much cheaper to the ftudent, as he has it in his
power, if he is attentive, to acquire his education with¬
out being under the neceflity of employing a tutor.
They have alfo private clalfes, in which they teach
one hour per day. The fixed fee for a public clafs is
1 1. iis. 6d. per fefiion ; the fixed fee for a private
one is 1 1. is. per d°. The number of Undents who
have attended this college for feveral years paft, has
aS been upwards of 500 each feafon.
Hiftory of The trade of Glafgow is faid to have been firft pro-
GJafeow,6 °f mot;ec^ by one Mr William Elphinftone in 1420. This
* ‘ trade was moft probably the curing and exporting of
falmon ; but the firft authentic document concerning
Glafgow as a trading city is in 1546. Complaints
having been made by Henry VIII. king of England,
that leveral Engliih Ihips had been taken and robbed
by veffels belonging to Scotland, an order of council
was iffued, difcharging fuch captures for the future ;
and among other places made mention of in this order
is the city of Glafgow. The trade which at that
time they carried on could not be great. It probably
confifttd of a few fmall velfels to France loaded with
pickled falmon ; as this fiftiery was, even then, car¬
ried on to a confiderable extent, by Glafgow, Ren¬
frew, and Dumbarton. Between the year 1630 and
1660, a very great degree of attention feeras to have
been paid to inland commerce by the inhabitants of
Glafgow. Principal Baillie informs us, that the in-
creafe of Glafgow arifing from this commerce was ex¬
ceedingly great. The exportation of falmon and of
herrings was alfo continued and increafed. In the war
between Britain and Holland during the reign of
Charles II. a privateer was fitted out in Clyde to cniife
againft the Dutch. She was called the Lion of Glaf-
gow, Robert M'Allan commander; and carried five
pieces of cannon, and 60 hands.
A fpirit of commerce appears to have arifen
among the inhabitants of Glafgow between the year
1660 and 1707. The citizens who diftinguifhed them-
felves moft during this period were Walter Gibfon
and John Anderfon. Gibfon cured and packed in
one year 300 lafts of herrings, which he fent to St
Martins in France on board of a Dutch veffel, called
the St Jgate, of 450 tons burthen ; his returns were
brandy and fait. He was the firft who imported iron
from Stockholm into Clyde. Anderfon is faid to have
been the firft who imported white-wines.
Whatever their trade was at this time, it could
not be confiderable: the ports to which they were
obliged to trade lay all to the eaftward : the circum¬
navigation of the ifland would therefore prove an al-
moft unfurmountable bar to the commerce of Glafgow;
and of confequence the people on the eaft coaft would
be poflefled of almoft all the commerce of Scotland.
The union with England opened a field for commerce
for which the fituation of Glafgow was highly advan¬
tageous. Since that time the commerce qf the eaft
14 ] G L A
coaft has declined, and that of the weft increafed to Glafgow
an amazing degree. No fooner was the treaty of
union figned, than the inhabitants of Giafgow began
to profecute the trade to Virginia and Maryland ; they
chartered veffels from Whitehaven, fent out cargoes
of goods, and brought back tobacco in return. The
method in which they at firft proceeded in this trade, !
was certainly a very prudent one. A fupercargo went
out with every veflel. He bartered his goods for to¬
bacco, until fuch time as he had either fold all his
goods, or procured as much tobacco as was fufficient
to load his veffel. He then immediately fet out on
his return ; and if any of his goods remained unfold,
he brought them home with him. While they con¬
tinued to trade in this way, they were of great advan¬
tage to the country, by the quantity of manufadures
which.they exported ; their own wealth began to in-
creafe; they purchafed fhips of their own ; and, in
1718, the firft veffel of the property of Glafgow croffed
the Atlantic. Their imports of tobacco were now \
confiderable, and Glafgow began to be looked upon
as a confiderable port; the tobacco-trade at the ports
of Briftol, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, was obferved
to dwindle away ; the people of Glafgovv began to
fend tobacco to thefe places, and to underfell the Eng-
lifh even in their own ports. Thus the jealoufy of the
latter was foon excited, and they took every method
in their power to deftroy the trade of Glafgow. The
people of Briftol prefented remonftranccs to the com-
mifiioners of the cuftbms at London againft the trade
of Glafgow, in 1717. To thefe remonftrances the
merchants of Glafgow fent fuch anfwers to the com-
miflioners as convinced them that the complaints of
the Briftol merchants were without foundation. But in
1721, a moft formidable confederacy was entered into
by almoft all the tobacco-merchants in South Britain
againft the trade of Glafgow. Thofeof London, Li¬
verpool, and Whitehaven, prefented feverally to the
Lords of the Treafury, petitions, arraigning the Glaf¬
gow merchants of frauds in the tobacco trade. To thefe
petitions the Glafgow people gave in replies ; and the
lords of the treafury, after a full and impartial hear¬
ing, were pleafed to difmifs the caufe with the follow¬
ing fentence : “ That the complaints of the merchants
of London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, were grounds
lefs; and that they proceeded from a fpirit of envy,
and not from a regard to the intereft of trade, or of
the king’s revenue.”
But the malice of thefe gentlemen did not ftop here.
They brought their complaints into the houfe of com-
moirs. Commifiioners were fent to Glafgow in 1722,
who gave in their reports to the houfe in 1723. The
merchants fent up diftindt and explicit anfwers to thefe
reports; but fuch was the iutereft of their adverfaries,
that thefe anfwers were difregarded. New officers i
were appointed at the ports of Greenock and Port-
Glafgow, whofe private inftruftions feem to have
been, to ruin the trade if poffible, by putting all ima¬
ginable hardlhips upon it. In (hort, every fpecies of
perfecution, which malice affifted by wealth and in¬
tereft could invent, were put in pradtice to deftroy
the trade of Glafgow ; and they in part fucceeded.
It languilhed till the year 1735 ! ^ut a^ter t*iat ^e"
gan to revive, though even after its revival it was j
carried on but flowly for a confiderable fpace of time.
With
G L A [ 3315 ] G L A
With regard to the manufaflures of Glafgow, Mr
Gibfon is of opinion that the commerce to America firft
fuggefted the idea of introducing them, in any confi-
derabie degree at lead. The firit,attempts in this way
were about the year 1725, and their increafe for fome
time was very flow, nor did they begin to be contide-
rable till great encouragement was given by the legif-
lature to the linen manufa&ure in Scotland. The firit
caufes of the fuccefs of this manufadture were the a£t
of parliament in 1748, whereby the wearing of French
cambrics was prohibited under fevere penalties ; that of
1751* allowing weavers in flax or hemp to fettle and
exercife their trades any where in Scotland free from
all corporation-dues; and the bounty of three-halfpence
per yard on all linens exported at and under i8d. per
yard. Since that time a fpirit of manufadture has been
excited among the inhabitants of Glafgow ; and great
variety of goods, and in very great quantity, have been
manufadliired. Checks, linen, and linen and cotton,
are manufadlured to a great exte'nt. Printed linens and
cottons were begun to be manufadlured in 1738 ; but
they only made garments till 1754, when handkerchiefs
were firft printed. There is no manufadlure more up¬
on the increafe in Glafgow than this ; nor can any
branch be more beneficial to the country, as the cloths
on which they print are all made in Scotland; where¬
as at London, and through the greateft part of Eng¬
land, the cloths they print upon are all imported from
Germany.
A manufadlory of ribbons has been very lately intro¬
duced into Glafgow ; and though this branch of bufi-
nefs is yet in its infancy, they are made equal in qua¬
lity to thofe in England, and rather cheaper.
Incles were firft made here about the year 1732. The
engine-looms ufed at that time were fo inconvenient,
and took up fo much time in making the goods, that
the Dutch, who were the only people poffefied of the
large incle looms, were almoft folely in pofieffion of this
manufadlure. Mr Hervey, who began this branch in
Glafgow, was fo fenfible of the difadvantages under
which it laboured, that he went over to Holland; and,
in fpite of the care and attention which the Dutch took
to conceal their methods of manufadluring, he brought
over with him from Harlem two of their looms, and one
of their workmen. This Dutchman remained fome years
in Glafgow; but on fome difguft he went to Manche-
fter, and inftrudled the people there in the method of
carrying on the manufadlure.
In 1757, carpets were begun to be made, and are
now carried onto a confiderable extent. Hunters cloths,
Englifti blankets, and other goods of the fame kind, are
alfo made ; and, with proper attention, thefe manufac¬
tures certainly will fucceed.
Befides thefe, a great variety of articles are manu¬
fadlured at Qlafgow, of which our limits will not per¬
mit us to enter into a detail, fuch as foap, refining of
fugar, iron-mongery, brafs, jewellery, &c.—Types
for printing are made in this city by Dr Wilfon and
Sons, perhaps fuperior to any others in Europe. Print¬
ing of books was firft begun here by George Anderfon
about the year 1638. But there was no good printing
in Glafgow till the year 1735 ; when Robert Urie print¬
ed feveral books in a very elegant manner. The higheft
perfedlion, however, to which printing hath yet been
carried, in this place, or perhaps in any other, was by the
late Robert and Andrew Foulis, (who began in the year Glafgmv
1740 ;) as the many elegant and fplendid editions of Gbfs.
books printed by them in different languages fuf-
ficiently teftify. The fame gentlemen alfo eftablilh-
ed an academy of painting; but the wealth of Scot¬
land being unequal to the undertaking, it hath been
fince given up. 27
The government of the city of Glafgow is veiled in Govcr“-
a provoft and three baillies, a dean of guild, deacon-
convecner, and a treafurer, with a common council of the city.
13 merchants and 12 mechanics. The provoft and
two of the bailies mull, by the fet of the burgh, be
elefted from the merchant rank, and the other bailie
from the trades rank, /. e. the mechanics. The pro¬
voft is, from courtefy and cuftom, ftyled lord provoft.
He is properly lord of the police of the city, prefident
of the community, and is ex officio a juftice of the
peace for both the burgh and county.
The revenue of Glafgow amounts to about L. 6000
Sterling per annum. It arifes from a duty upon all
grain and meal brought into the city, (this tax is deno¬
minated the ladles') ; from the rents of lands and houfes
the property of the community; from an impoftoftwo
pennies Scots upon every Scots pint of ale or beer
brewed, inbrought, or fold, within the city; from
certain dues payable out of the markets ^ from the rents
of the feats in churches ; from the dues of cranage at
the quay, at the weigh-houfe, .tonnage on the river,.
pontage on the bridge, ftatute-work within the burgh,
&c. The number of inhabitants is computed to be
about 43,000.
GLASS, a tranfparent, brittle, fa&itious body, pro¬
duced from fand melted in a ftrong fire with fixed
alkaline falts, lead, flags, &c. till the whole becomes
perfedlly clear and fine. The word is formed of the
'Latin glaftum, a plant called by the Greeks ifatis,hy the
Romans vitrum, by the ancient Britons guadum, and
by the Englifh <woad. We find frequent mention of
this plant in ancient writers, particularly Casfar, Vi¬
truvius, Pliny, &c. who relate, that the ancient Bri¬
tons painted or dyed their bodies with glaftum, gua¬
dum, vitrum, &c. i. e. with the blue colour procured
from this plant. And hence, the failitious matter we
are fpeaking of came to be called glafts as having al¬
ways fomewhat of this bluilhnefs in it. r
At what time the art of glafs-making was firft; in- Hiftory of
vented, is altogether uncertain. Some imagine it to gUfs-make
have been invented before the flood : but of this we ing*
have no diredl proof, though there is no improbabili-
lity in the fuppofition ; for we know, that it is almoft
impofiible to excite a very violent fire, fuch as is necef-
fary in metallurgic operations, without vitrifying part
of the bricks or ftones wherewith the furnace is built.
This indeed might furnifti the firft hints of glafs-ma¬
king; tho’ it is alfo very probable, that inch imperfeft
vitrifications would be obferved a long time before peo¬
ple thought of making any ufe of them.
Neri traces the antiquity of glafs as far back as the
time of Job. That writer, fpeaking of the value of
wifdom, chap, xxviii. verfe 17. fays, that gold and
cryftalcannot equal it. But this word, which Neri will
have to fignify faflitious glafs, is capable of a great
many different interpretations, and properly fignifies
only whatever is beautiful or tranfparent. Dr Merret
will have the art to be as ancient as that of pottery or
Olafs.
* See An-
guinum
G L A t 33
the making or bricks, for the reafons already given, viz.
that by all vehement heats fome imperfedl vitrifications
are produced. Of this kind undoubtedly was the fof-
file glafs mentioned by Ferant. Imperator. to have been
found under-ground where great fires had been. But
it is evident, that fuch imperfect vitrifications might
have paHed unnoticed for ages ; and confequently we
have no reafon to conclude from thence, that the art
of glafs-making is of fuch high antiquity.
The Egyptians boaft, that this art was taught them
by their great Hermes. Ariftophanes, AriUotle, A-
lexander, Aphrodifeus, Lucretius, and St John the
divine, put it out of all doubt that glafs was ufed in
their days. Pliny relates, that it was firft difcovered
accidentally in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus,
by certain merchants driven thither by a llorm at fea ;
who being obliged to continue there, and drefs their
victuals by making a fire on the ground, where there
was great plenty of the herb kali ; that plant, burn¬
ing to afhes, its falts mixed and incorporated with the
fand, or ftones fit for vitrification, and thus produced
glafs; and that this accident, being known, the people
of Sidon, in that neighbourhood, effayed the work, and
brought glafs into ufe ; fince which time tile art has
been continually improving. Be this as it will, how¬
ever, the firll glafs houfes mentioned in hiltory were
eredled in the city of Tyre, and here was the only
ftaple of the manufadlory for many ages. The fand
which lay on the fhore for about half a mile round the
mouth of the river Belus was peculiarly adapted to the
making of glafs, as being neat and glittering; and the
wide range of the Tyrian commerce gave an ample
vent for the productions of the furnace. It appears,
however, that before the conqueft of Britain by the
Romans, glafs-houfes had been ereCted in this ifland,
as well as in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. Hence, in ma¬
ny parts of the country are to be found annulets of
glafs, having a narrow perforation and thick rim, de¬
nominated by the remaining Britons gleineu naidreedh,
or glafi adders, and which were probably in former
times ufed as amulets by the druids *. It can fcarcely
be queftioned that the Britons were fufficiently well
verfed in the manufa&ure of glafs, to form out of it
many more ufeful inftruments than the glafs-beads. Hi-
ftory indeed affures us, that they did manufacture a
confiderable quantity of glafs velfels. Thefe, like their
annulets, were mod probably green, blue, yellow, or
black, and many of them Quriqufly ftreaked with o-
ther colours. The procefs in the manufacture would
be nearly the fame with that of the Gauls or Spaniards.
The fand of their fhores being reduced to a fufficient
degree of finenefs by art, was mixed with three fourths
of its weight of their nitre (much the fame with our
kelp), and both were melted together. The metal was
then poured into other vefiels, where it was left to
harden into a mafs, and afterwards replaced in the fur¬
nace, where it became tranfparent in the boiling, and
was afterwards figured by blowing, or modelling in
the lath, into fuch veflels as they wanted.
It is not probable that the arrival of the Romans
would improve the glafs manufacture among the Bri¬
tons. The tafte of the Romans at that time was juft
the reverfe of that of the inhabitants of this ifland. The
former preferred filver and gold to glafs for the cotn-
pofition of their drinking veflels. They made indeed
16 ] G L A
great improvements in their own at Rome, during the GU/s. j
government of Nero. The. veflels then formed of this j
metal rivalled the bowls of porcelain in their dearnefs,
and equalled the cups.of cryftal in their tranfparency.
Bait thefe were by far too coltly for common ufe; and
therefore, in all probability, were never attempted in
Britain. The glafs commonly made ufe of by the Ro¬
mans was of a quality greatly inferior; and, from the
fragments which have been difcovered at the ftationsor
towns of either, appear to have confided of a thick,
fometimes white, but moftly blue-green, metal. %
With regard to the theory of vitrification, we are Theory o|
almoft totally in the dark. In general, it feems to be vitrificatiei
that ftate, in which folid bodies are, by the vehe- uncerUln-
ment aCtion of fire, fitted for being diffipated, or car¬
ried off in vapour. In all vitrifications, there is a
plentiful evaporation; and if any folid ijibftance is
carried off in vapour by the intenfe heat of a burning
fpeculum, a vitrification is always obferved previoufly
to take place. The difference, then, between the ftate
of fufion and vitrification of a folid body we may con¬
ceive to be, that in the former the element of fire aCts
upon the parts of the folid in fuch a manner as only
to disjoin them, and render the fubftance fluid ; but,
in vitrification, the fire not only disjoins the particles,
but combines with them in a latent flate, into a third
fubftance; which, having now as much fire as it can
contain, can receive no further change from that ele¬
ment, except being carried off in vapour.
But, though we are unable to effedl tin's change
upon folid bodies without a very violent heat, it is i
otherwife in the natural procefles. By what we call
cryjlalization, nature produces more perfect glaffes
than we can make with our furnaces. Thefe are
caWzi precious Jlones; but in all trials they difeover
the effential properties of glafs, and not of ftones.
The moft diftinguilhing property of glafs is its re¬
fitting the force of fire, fo that this element cannot
calcine or change it as it does other bodies, but
can only melt it, and then carry it off in vapours.
To this laft all the precious ftones are fubjeft.
The diamond (the hardeft and moll ponderous of
them all) is diflipable in a lefs degree of heat than
what would diflipate common glafs. Nor can it I
be any objection to this idea, that fome kinds of
glafs are capable of being converted into a kind of
porcelain by a long-continued cementation with cer¬
tain materials. Ihis change happens only to thofe
kinds of glafs which are made of alkaline fait and
fand; and Dr Lewis hath {hewn that this change is
produced by the diflipation of the faline principle,
which is the leaft fixed of the two. Glafs, there¬
fore, we may ilill confider as a fubftance upon which
the fire, has no other effetft than either to melt, or
diflipate it in vapour. ^
The other properties of glafs are very remarkable, Remark-)’
fome of which follow. aMe projj
x. It is one of the moft; elaftic bodies in nature. Ifp.e,'ICS0
the force with which glafs-balls ftrike each other be*
reckoned t6, that wherewith they recede by virtue of
their elafticity will be nearly 15.
2. When glafs is fuddenly cooled, it becomes ex¬
ceedingly brittle ; and this brittlenefs is fometimes
attended with very furprifing phenomena. Hollow
bells made of unnealed glafs, with a fmall hole in them,
filver
G L A [ 33
Glafs. will fly to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the
r" hole by which the internal and external air communi¬
cate be Hopped with a finger. Lately, however, fome
Surprffing Vfc,ffc's made of fuch unnealed glafs have been difco-
fragility of vered, which have the remarkable property of refuting
nnnealed very hard ftrokes given from without, though they
ghfs. fhiver to pieces by the (hocks received from the fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavi¬
ties. Thofe glafles may be made of any fhape ; all
that needs be obferved in making them is, that their
bottoms be thicker than their (ides. The thicker
the bottom is, the eafier do the glaffes break. One
whofe bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs,
flies with as much eafe at lead: as the thinned glafs.
Some of thefe veffels have been tried with llrokes of a
mallet fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably
hard, and have held good without breaking. They
have alfo refifted the (hock of feveral heavy bodies let
fall into their cavities, from the height of two or three
feet; as mufket-balls, pieces of iron, or other metal,
pyrites, jafper, wotfd, bone, See. But this is not fur-
priiing, as other glafies of the fame (hape and fize will
do the fame: but the wonder is, that taking a (hiver
of flint of the fize of a fmall pea, and letting it fall into
the glafs only from the height of three inches, in about
two feconds the glafs flies, and fometimes at the very
moment of the (hock; nay, a bit of flint no larger
than a grain, dropped into feveral glafies fucceffively,
though it did not immediately break them, yet when
fet by, they all flew in lefs than three quarters of an
hour. Some other bodies produce the fame effedl
with flint; as fapphire, diamond, porcelain, hard tem-
jered fteel; alfo marbles fuch as boys play with, and
ikewife pearls.
Thefe experiments were made before the Royal
Society; and fucceeded equally when the glafles were
held in the hand, when they were refted on a pillow,
put in water, or filled with water. It is alfo remark¬
able, that the glades broke upon having their bottoms
flightly rubbed with the finger, though fomc of them
did not fly till half an hour after the rubbing. If the
glades are every where extremely thin, they do not
f break in thefe circumftances.
Attempts Some have pretended to account for thefe pheno-
Bcconni mena> by fayjng, t}lat the bodies dropped into the
vedels caufe a concuffion which is ftronger than the
cohefive force of the glafs, and confequently that a
' < rupture mud; enfue. But why does not a ball of iron,
gold, filver, or copper, which are perhaps 2 thoufand
times heavier than the flint, produce the fame effedt?
Is it hecaufe they are not elaftic? But furtly iron is
more elaftic than the end of one’s finger.—Mr Euler
has endeavoured to account for thefe appearances from
his principles of percliffion. He thinks that this ex¬
periment entirely overthrows the opinion of thofe who
meafure the force of percuffion by the vis viva, or ab-
folute apparent (Length 6f the ftroke. According
to his principles, the great hardnefs and angular
figure of the flint, which makes the fpace of con¬
tact with the glafs extremely fmall, ought to caufe an
imprefiion on the glafs vaftly greater than lead, or any
other metal ; and this may account for the flint’s
breaking the vedel, though the bullet, even falling
from a confiderable height, does no damage.—Hollow
cups made of green bottle-glafs, fome of them three
Vol. V.
17 ] G L A
inches thick at the bottom, were inftantly broken by a Glafs.
fhiverof flint, weighing about two grains, though they ~ ‘
had refifted the (hock of a mulktt-ball from the height
of three feet.
That Mr Euler’s theory cannot be conclufive more
than the other, muft appear evident from a very flight
confideration. It is not by angular bodies alone th: t
the glaffes are broken. The marbles with which chil¬
dren play are round, and yet they have the fame effect
with*the angular flint. Befides, if it was the mere
force of percuflion which broke the glaffes, undoubt¬
edly the fradture would always take place at the very
inftant of the ftroke; but we have feen, that this did
not happen fometimes till a very confiderable fpace of
time had elapfed. It is evident, therefore, that this
effedt is occafioned by the putting in motion fomc
fubtile fluid with which the fubftance of the glafs is
filled ; and that the motions of this fluid, when once
excited in a particular part of%he glafs, foon propagate
themfelves through the whole or greateft part of it, by
which means the cohefive power becomes at laft U ;>
weak to refift them. There can be little doubt that
the fluid juft now mentioned is that of electricity. It
is known to exift in glafs, in very great quantity; and
it alfo is known to be capable of breaking glaffes, even
when annealed with the greateft care, if put into tou
violent a motion. Probably the cooling of. glafs haftily
may make it more eledtric than is confiftent with its-
cohefive power, fo that it is broken by the leaft in-
creafe of motion in the eledlric fluid by fridfion or
otherwife. This is evidently the cafe when it is bro¬
ken by rubbing with the finger; but why it fhould
alfo break by the mere contaft of flint and the other
bodies abovementioned, has not yet been fatisfadtorily
accounted for. ®
A moft remarkable phenomenon alfoispvoducedin glafs
tubes placed in certain circumftances. When thefe are laid before a
before a fire in an horizontal pofition, having their extre- fire,
mitles properly fupported, they acquire a rotatory motion
round their axis, and alfo a progreffive motion towards
the fire, even when their fupports are declining from
the fire, fo that the tubes will move a little way up¬
hill towards the fire. When the progrefiive motion
of the tubes towards the fire is flopped by any obftacle,
their rotation ftill continues. When the tubes are
placed in a nearly upright pofture, leaning to the right
hand, the motion will be from eaft to weft ; but if
they lean to the left hand, their motion will be from
weft to eaft; and the nearer they are placed to the
perfedfly upright pofture, the lefs will the motion be
either way.
If the tube is placed horizontally on a glafs plane,
the fragment, for inftance, of coach window-glafs, in-
ftead of moving towards the fire, it will move from it,
and about its axis in a contrary diredtion to what it
had done before; nay, it will recede from the fire, and
move a little up-hill when the plane inclines towards
the fire.—Thefe experiments are recorded in the phi-
lofophical tranfadfions f. They fucceeded bell with | N° 47®'
tubes about 2b or 22 inches long, which had in each3'
end a pretty flrong pin fixed in cork for an axis.
The reafon given for thefe phenomena, is the fwell-Atte^pts
ing- of the tubes towards the fire by the heat, which to account
is known to expand all bodies. For, fay the adopters for it.
of this hypothefis, granting the exiftence of fuch a
19 B fwelling.
G L A [33
Glafs. fvvclling, gravity muft pull the tube down when fup-
“ 7 ‘ ported near its extremities, and a frefh part being ex-
pofed to the lire, it muft alfo fwell out and fall down,
and fo on.—But, without going farther in the expla¬
nation of this hypothelis, it may be here remarked,
that the fundamental principle on which it proceeds is
falfe : for though fire indeed makes bodies expand,
it does not increafe them in weight; and therefore the
fidesof the tube, though one of them is expanded by
the fire, tnuft flill remain in equilibria; and hence we
inuit conclude, that the caufes of thefe phenomena re¬
main yet to be difcovered.
4. Glafs is lefs dilatable by heat than metalline
fubilances, and foil’d glafs-fticks are lefs dilatable than
tubes. This was firfl difcovered by Col. Roy, in
$bU. Tranf making experiments in order to reduce barometers to
vsl. Ixvii. a greater degree of exadtnefs than hath hitherto been
p. <563. found praflicable ; and fince his experiments were made,
one of the tubes 18 inches long, being compared with
a folid glafs-rod of the fame length, the former was
found by a pyrometer, to expand four times as much as
the other, in a heat approaching to that of boiling oil.
— On account of the general quality which glafs has
J/jl/. 0f expanding lefs than metal, M. de Luc recommends
P°474V111' 11 to 'n Penc^u^ums: a,,d ^ys R has alfo this
good quality, that its expanfions are always equable,
and proportioned to the degrees of heat ; a quality
which is not to be found in any other fubflance yet
known.
5. Glafs appears to be more fit for the condenfa-
tion of vapours than metallic fubftances. An open
glafs filled with water, in the fummer-time, will ga¬
ther drops of water on the outfide, juft as far as the
water in the infide reaches; and a perfon’s breath
blown on it, mamfeflly moiftens it. Glafs alfo be¬
comes moift with dew, when metals do not. See Dew.
6. A drinking-glafs partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs full;
and will make the liquor frilk and leap. See Har¬
monica.
7. Glafs is pofleffed of very great eleftrical virtues.
8 See Electricity,
Materials Materials for Making of Glass. The materials
lor g a s- whereof glafs is made, we have already mentioned to
be fait and fand or ftones. The fait here ufed, is
procured from a fort of allies, brought from the Le¬
vant, called poherine, or rochetta; which alhes are
*.See Sai- thofe of a fort of water-plant called kali *, cut down
in fummer, dried in the fun, and burnt in heaps,
either on the ground, or on iron gates; the alhes fal¬
ling into a pit, grow into a hard mafs, or ftone, fit
for ufe. It may alfo be procured from common kelp,
or the afhes of the fucus vejicuhfus. See Kelp, and
Focus in The APPENDIX.
To extraft the fait, thefe alhes, or polverine, are
powdered and fifted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one third of the water be confumed;
the whole being ftirred up from time to time, that
the alhes may incorporate with the fluid, and all its
falls be extradfed : then the velfel is filled up with
new water, and boiled over again, till one half be
confumed ; what remains is a fort of lee, ftrongly im¬
pregnated with fait. This lee, boiled over again in
frefit coppers, thickens ia about twenty-four hours,
18 ] G L A
and Ihoots its fait ; which is to be ladled out, as it Glafs.
Ihoots, into earthen pans, and thence into wooden vats "
to drain and dry. This done, it is grofly pounded,
and thus put in a fort of oven, called calcar, to dry.
It may be added, that there are other plants, befides
kali, and fucus, which yield a fait fit for glafs': fuch are
the common way-thiftle, bramble, hops, wormwood,
woad, tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe,
as peafe, beans, &c. In fome kinds of glafs, however,
litharge, common pearl-allies, and nitre, are ufed in
great quantity.
The fand or ftone, called by the artifts tarfo, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
the body and firmnefs. Thefe ftones, Agricola ob-
ferves, muft be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch
as are white and tranfparent are belt ; fo that cryftaF
challenges the precedency of all others.
At Venice they chiefly ufe a fort of pebble, found
in the river Tefino, refembh’ng white marble, and cal¬
led cuogolo. Indeed Ant. Ned affures us, that all
ftones which will tlrike fire with ft cel, are fit to vitri¬
fy : hut Dr Merret Ihews, that there are' fome excep¬
tions from this rule. Flints are admirable ; and when
calcined, powdered, and fearched, make a pure white
cryltalline metal: but the expence of preparing them
makes the mailers of our glafs-houfes fparing of their
ufe. Where proper ftones cannot be fo conveniently'
had, fand is ufed ; which Ihould be white, and final!,
and well walhed, before' it be applied: fuch is ufuaily
found in the mouths and fides of rivers. Our glafs-
houfes are furnilhed with a fine fand for cryftal, from
Maidltone; the fame with that ufed for fand-boxes,
and in fcouring ; and with a coarfer for green glafs,
from Woolwich. For cryftal glafs, to 200 lb of
tarfo, pounded fine, they put 130 lb of fait of pol¬
verine ; then mix them together, and put them into the
calcar, a fort of reverberatory furnace, being firft
well heated. Here they remain baking, frying, and
calcining, for five hours, during which the workman
keeps mixing them with a rake, to make them in¬
corporate : when taken out, the mixture is called frit,
or bollito.
It may be further obferved, that glafs might be
made by immediately melting the materials without
thus calcining and making them frit; but the opera¬
tion would be much more tedious. <>
A glafs much harder than any prepared in the com- Dr Shaw’s
mon way may be made by means of borax, in the fol- ^^'h'ardf
lowing manner. Take four ounces of borax, and an giafs>
ounce of fine white fand, reduced to powder, and melt
them together in a large clofe crucible fet in a wind-
furnace, keeping a ftrong fire for half an hour ; then
take out the crucible, and, when cold, break it; and
there will be found at the bottom, a hard, pure glafs,
capable of cutting common glafs almoft like a dia¬
mond. This experiment duly varied, fays Dr Shaw,
may lead to fome confiderable improvements in the
art of making glafs, enamels, and artificial gems. It
Ihews us an expeditious method of making glafs with¬
out the ufe of fixed falls, which has generally been
thought an eflential ingredient in glafs, and which is
the ingredient that gives common glafs its foftnefs ;
and it is not yet known, whether calcined cryftal, or
other fubftances being added to this fait, iiiftead of
fand, it might not make a glafs approaching to the
nature
ClaTs'. nature of a diamond.
Tj Kinds of G^kss. Of thefe materials we have ma-
Different ny forts of glafs made, which may principally be di-
kmds of ftinguifiled according to their beauty : as the cryftal
® ' flint-glafs, the cryftal vvhitc-glafs, the green-glafs,
and the bottle-glafs. Again, thefe feveral forts are
diftinguiftied by their feveral ufes : as plate or coach
glades, looking-glades, optic-glades, &c. which are
made of the fird fort. The fecond fort includes
crown-glafs, toys, phials, drinking glades, &c. The
third fort is well known by its colour, and the fecond
by its form.
Balas-coloured Glass is made thus : Put into a pot
cryftal frit, thrice waihed in water ; tinge this with
manganefe prepared into a clear purple : to this add
•lumen cativum lifted fine in fmall quantities, and at
feveral times; this will make the glafs grow yellowilh,
and a little reddidi, but not blackifti, and always dif-
lipates the manganefe. The lad time you add manga¬
nefe, give no more of the alumen cativum, unlefs the
colour be too full. 'Thus will the glafs be exactly of
the colour of the balas-ruby.
Red Glass. A blood-red glafs may be made in
the following manner : Put fix pounds of glafs of
lead, and ten pounds of common glafs, into a pot
glazed with white glafs: when the whole is boiled
and refined, add, by fmall quantities, and at fmall
diftances of time, copper calcined to a rednefs, as
much as, on repeated proofs, is found fufficient: then
add tartar in powder by fmall quantities at a time,
till the glafs is become as red as blood; and continue
adding one or other of the ingredients till the colour
11 , , is quite pcrfeft.
Dr Lewis s much finer red, however, may. be communicated
inents for *° ^7 means of gold, of which Dr Lewis gives
tinging the following account. “ The tinging of glafs and ena-
glafs red. niels by preparations of gold appears to have been
Thil. Com. firft attempted about the beginning of the laft centu-
ef Arts. ry. Libavius, whofe works compofe a valuable body
of the chemical knowledge of bis own time, conjec¬
tures, in one of his trafts entitled Alchymia, printed
in 1606, that the colour of the ruby proceeds from
gold, and that gold difiblved and brought to rednefs
might be made to communicate a like colour to fac¬
titious gems or glafss Neri, in his Art of Glafs dated
j6ii, gives a procefs on this principle, which he
fays was found to fucceed: he direfts the gold to be
difiblved in aqua regia, the tnenftruutn to be evapo¬
rated or drawn off by diftillation, more aqua regia
added, and the abftraftion repeated five or fix times:
the remaining matter is to be calcined till it becomes
purple, and then mixed with a proper quantity of the
fineft white or cryftal glafs. But though this procefi
may be fuppofed to have fometimes proved fuccefsful,
it doubtlefs very often mifcarried ; infomuch that the
introduction of this defirable colour into the glafs was
very little known for many years after.
“ Glauber, in the fecond part of his Pbilofophical
Furnaces publifhed in 1648, gives another method of
producing a red colour by gold in a matter which is
of the vitreous kind, though not perfect glafs. When
powdered flint or fand is well ground with four times
its weight of fixt alkaline fait, the mixture melts in
a moderately ftrong fire, and when cold looks like
glafs, but on .account of its over-proportion of alka-
G L A
line fait it runs into a liquid ftate on being expofed to Glafs.
the air : on adding this liquor to folution of gold in
aqua regia, the acid, which held the gold diffolved,
unites with the alkali which held the flint diffolved,
and the gold and flint precipitate together in form
of a yellow powder, which by calcination becomes
purple: this powder being mixed with three or four
times its weight of the alkaline folution of flint, the
mixture dried, and kept melted in a ftrong fire for an
hour, a mafs is obtained, of a tranfparent ruby co¬
lour, and of a vitreous appearance ; though ftill folu-
ble in water, or by the moifture of the air, on account
of the redundance of fait.
“ Boyle, in his treatife on the Porofity of Bodies,
and in the appendix to his Sceptical Cbemijl yubMOnzi
in 1680, mentions an experiment, in which a like co¬
lour was introduced into glafs without fufion. A
mixture of gold and mercury having been kept in di-
geftion for fome months, the fire was at laft immode¬
rately increafed, infomuch that the glafs burft with a
violent explofion : the lower part of the glafs was found
tinged throughout of a tranfparent red colour, which
feemed, he fays, to emulate that of a not common
ruby.
“ About the fame timeCaffiusdifcovered the precipi¬
tation of gold by tin, and that glafs might be tinged of
a ruby colour by melting it with this precipitate. I
can give no further account of his experiments, hav¬
ing never had the good fortune to meet with his trea-
tife.
“ The procefs was foon after brought to perfediion
by Kunckel, who fays he prepared the ruby glafs in
large quantity, and fold it for about forty (hillings an
ounce ; and that he made a chalice of it for the elec¬
tor of Cologn, weighing no lefs than 24 pounds, a
full inch thick, and of an uniform fine colour through¬
out. He has nowhere communicated the procefs he
followed, but fome ufeful obfervations relating to it
are difperfed through his writings : he fays, that one
part of the precipitate by tin is fufficient to give a
ruby colour to twelve hundred and eighty parts of
glafs, and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of nineteen
hundred parts: that the fuccefs is by no means con-
ftant, and that, after long practice, he ftill frequently
failed : that oftentimes the glafs comes out of the fire
colourlefs as cryftal, and receives its ruby colour on
being afterwards expofed to a fmoky flame, infomuch
that he imagines the difeovery of the ruby glafs did
not arife from Amply melting the gold precipitate with
glafs,* but from the fubfequent foftening and working
of the glafs in the flame of a lamp, in the ufe of which
Caffius was very converfant : that the addition of
nitre and fal ammoniac calls forth the colour, and that
the colour produced by fal ammoniac is more beautiful
than that by nitre, but quickly difappears on a conti¬
nuance of the fire.
“ Orfchal, in a treatife entitled foifmevejle, gives a
procefs, by which he fays he obtained a very fine
ruby. He dire&s the purple precipitate, made by
tin, to be ground with fix times its quantity of Ve¬
nice glafs in a very fine powder, and this compound to
be exquifitely mingled with the fritt or vitreous com-
pofition to be tinged : his fritt confifts of equal parts
of borax, nitre, and fixt alkaline fait, and four times
as much calcined flint as of each of the falls ; but in
19 B 2 what
G L A
t 3319 ]
Glafs.
G L A [ 3320 ] G L A
what proportion the gold precipitate is to be mixed
"with the fritt, and in w'f,rt manner the fufion is to be
performed, he does not mention. He reports that
he had found the muddy matter, obtained in p( lifting
jrold by a pumice done, to impart likewife a ruby co¬
lour to glafs.
“ Grummet, who had been operator to Kunckel in
making the red glafs, publifted a trad in oppolition
both to him and Orfchal, under the title of Sol non
fine vejle; in which he obferves, that the furnace ought
to be fo conllrufted, that the operator may have full
liberty of examining the glafs in the fire, and of re¬
moving it as foon as it appears to have acquired the
proper colour: he fays the enamellers obtain a ruby
colour, by melting, with a large proportion of Ve¬
nice glafs, the brownift powder precipitated from fo-
hition of gold in aqua regia by fixt alkaline falts.
But he imagines that the gold is nowife concerned in
the produ&ion of the colour. Venice glafs, and moft
of the finer colourlefs kinds of glafs, have an addi¬
tion of manganefe, without which it would be very
difficult to render them perfectly void of colour: the
manganefe communicates at firft a purplifthue, which
on continuing the fire difappears, and at the fame
time fupprefles or difcharges any other tinge that the
glafs may be impregnated with : the addition of a
little nitre revives the purplifh colour of the manga-
jiefe; and Grummet is of opinion that the colour with
which glafs becomes tinged, by the admixture of pre¬
parations of gold, is no other than that of the man¬
ganefe extricated by the nitrous fait which the gold
has retained in its precipitation. He affirms, that the
fame ptirplifh red colour will be obtained on melting
Venice glafs with an eighth part of nitre, without
any gold ; that in a hundred repetitions of this expe¬
riment, it fcarcely fails once ; and that neither nitre
nor the gold-precipitate were found to give any thing
of the admired colour to thofe kinds of glafs which
have no manganefe in their compofition.
“ The colours which manganefe imparts to glafs, it
belongs not to this place to examine: but that pre¬
cipitates of gold will communicate, in certain circum-
ftances, a purplift red colour, I have feveral times
experienced; having myfelf tinged of this colour
fritts compofed of calcined flint, nitre and borax,
without the addition of manganefe or of glafles con¬
taining ir. Though gold, diffolved in common aqua
regia, exhibits its own yellow colour ; yet, when the
menftruum is feparated by fire to a certain point, or
when the gold is precipitated by tin, or whe» it is
precipitated by alkaline falts and afterwards moderate¬
ly heated, or when gold is barely divided by mecha-
nical means into fubtile powder, and expofed for fome
time, in mixture with earthy bodies, to a flight heat,
it affumes, in different circumftances, a violet colour,
a purple, or a red verging to purple : in a ftrong fire,
thefe colours vanift, and the gold melts into a mafs of
its original appearance. All thefe colours I have in¬
troduced into glafs by preparations^ of gold ; and I
have found them to be nearly as periftable in the fire
when the coloured gold-powder was thus diffufed
through the glafs, as when expofed to the fire by it-
felf: when the fire was raifed to any great degree, and
the glafs made to flow thin, there was generally a
button of revived gold collefted at the bottom.
“ A folution of gold in aqua regia being infpiffated Glafs.
to drynefs in the bottom of a Florence flafk, and the 
heat further increafed till the gold refumed its proper
colour, the lower part of the glafs was by this.Ample
procefs tinged purplift: pieces of it being expo!- d
to the flame of a lamp, they became in fome parts
violet coloured, in fome of a bright purple, and in
others purplift red ; and the parts which in one po-
fition looked violet or purplift, in another appeared
red.
“ A colour nearly of the fame kind is imprefledon
glafs by gold-leaf in fome ele&rical experiments ; a
faft which we are obliged to Mr Franklin for the firtt
knowledge of. A narrow ftrip of gold-leaf being
placed between two flips of glafs, with both the ends
hanging out a little, and the glafs well tied round with
filk thread, a ftrong ele&rical explofion is made to
pafs through the gold-leaf. On examining the glafs,
the gold-leaf, he obferves, will be found miffing in
feveral places, and inrtead of it a reddifh (lain on both
the glafles, exaftly fimilar on both in the minuted
ftroke, though fometimes fpread a little wider than
the breadth of the leaf: the ftain appears to have
penetrated into the fubftance of the glafs, fo as to he
prote&ed by it from the a&ion of aqua regia. I have
had this experiment feveral times repeated with plate-
glafs ; and found it tinged, as above defcribed, in fome
parts violet, in fome purplift, and in fome reddift r
the colours could not be fcraped off, and refifted aqua
regia and fpirit of fait. If the el<?&ric explofion is
made very ftrong, the glafs commonly flies in pieces,
with fuch force, that it is neceffary for the operator
to have his face fkreened from them.
“ The preparation of gold which has been princi¬
pally recommended fortinging glafs isCaflius’s precipi¬
tate by lolutiofi of tin. To obtain this precipitate
of the due colour, a good deal of care is neceffary
both in diflblving the tin and in diluting the folutions.
A mixture of two parts of aqua fortis and one of fpirit
of fait, is fuppofed to be the beft menftruum for the
tin : into this mixture fome fine block-tin, granulated,
is to be let fall, grain by grain, waiting till one grain
is difiblved before another is dropt in, that the diffo-
lution may go on flowly, without any heat or difcharge
of fumes. The gold is difiblved in common aqua re¬
gia ; and a few drops of this folution being mixed
with fome ounces of pure yvater, as many drops of
the folution of tin are added. If the mixture changes
immediately to a clear bright purplift red colour, the
due degree of dilution has been hit; if the colour ap¬
pears dull, a greater quantity of water mull be added
for the reft of the folutions. After the mixture has
depofited its red matter, and become clear, a little
more of the tin-folution is to be dropt in, for difco-
vering, and precipitating, any gold that may ftill re¬
main in it t the liquor being then poured off, the pre¬
cipitate is wafted and dried.
“ Kunckel mentions another purple gold-powder,
made nearly like that of Neri already mentioned, by
infpiffating folution of gold to drynefs, abftradting
from it frefh aqua regia three or four times till the
matter looks almoft like oil, then precipitating with
ftrong alkaline ley, and wafting the precipitate with
water. By diffolving this powder in fpirit of fait,
and precipitating again, it becomes, he fays, extreme-
G L A [ 3321 ] G L A
; G'afs. ]y fair, and in this ftate he direfts it to be mixed with
f~ a due proportion of Venice glafs.
“ Hellot defcribes a preparation which in mixture
with Venice glafs was found to give a beautiful purple
! enamel. Equal parts of folution of gold, and of fo-
lution of zinc in aqua regia, are mixed together; and
a volatile fpirit, prepared from fal ammoniac by quick¬
lime, added to the mixture in fufficient quantity to
precipitate the two metals. The precipitate is to be
radually heated, till it acquires a violet colour: it
oes not fulminate, making only a flight dull decrepi¬
tation without any of its particles flying about.
“ Though a purple, or a red colour approaching to
that of the ruby, may by the foregoing means be
baked upon glafs or enamels, and introduced into the
mafs by fufion, the way of equally diffufing fuch a
colour through a quantity of fluid glafs is fltill a fe-
cret.
“ I was once, many years ago, forturiate enough to
fucceed, at a glafs-houfe, in a fmall pot of glafs, of
which a falver was blown of a fine ruby red : the tin¬
ging matter was the precipitate of gold by tin ; the
particulars of the procefs cannot now be recollefted.
I have fince tried the remainder of the fame prepara¬
tion, with common flint glafs, with green glafs, with
various fritts compofed of flint, borax, pure fixt al¬
kaline fait, nitre, fal ammoniac. When flint was
ufed, it was feveral. times made red-hot, and quench¬
ed in water, to render it more eafily pulverable : both
the flint and glafles were powdered in an iron mor¬
tar, and the powders well waflied with diluted oil of
vitriol, to ext raft fuch particles of iron as they might
have worn off in the trituration ; the gold precipitate
was ground with the other ingredients, in agate or
glafs mortars--; its proportion was varied from an
eighth part to an eight hundredth of the vitreous
materials; and the fire was continued, in a wind
I furnace, from fix to thirty hours. All the glafles
came out confiderably coloured; fome of a deep
dufky yellow ; fome of a fine pale tranfparent yellow ;
fotile of a brown colour, greatly refembling that
which the glafs mentioned below acquired under a
muffle; fome appeared yellowifh or brownirti when
looked down upon, and of a purple-violet or reddiflt
purple when held between the eye'and the light: fome
had fpecks and veins of a fine red ; no one was either
red or purple throughout. Several of thefe glaffes
were melted again and again, by themfelves, and with
the addition of more vitreous matter: fome were
worked in the flame of a lamp : fome were laid in a
mixture of powdered charcoal and foot, and made red-
hot in a clofe crucible ; and others being laid in the
fame manner, the fire was increafed till they melted.
The colours were by thefe means altered; but did not
become uniform, or more approaching to the ruby co¬
lour than before : fome pieces, which had at firft very
confiderable fpecks of a ruby luftre, loft them on a
repetition of the fufion.
“ At the fame time that thefe experiments were tried,
the fame kinds of vitreous compofitions, mixed with
different metallic preparations, were expofed to the
fire in different parts of the fame furnace, and were all
found to receive beautiful and uniform colours. To
what caufe the mifcarriage of thofe with gold was
*wing; whether the fuccefs, in regard to this metal,
is influenced by the‘quantity of the matter, by the Glafs.
unfteadinefs of the hfcat in a fmall furnace, by the fu- “
Ability of the vitreous compofition, by the metallic
matter being ground with the ingredients before their
expofure to the fire, or added to them in fufion, by
the continuance of the fire, by the fluid matter being
kept unmoved or ftirred with an iron rod, by the cru¬
cible being covered or open, or other like circum-
fiances; or whether the admixture of a little manga-
nefe, though gold will certainly give a ruby colour
without it, does not contribute to fecure the fuccefs;
I have not yet difcovered. The proportion of the
gold precipitate to the vitreous matter is perhaps of
principal importance. Solution of gold, as we have
feen already, produces no rednefs with tin unlefs di¬
luted with a very large quantity of water, in which
circumftance the whole mixture acquires that beauti¬
ful colour which we here want to transfer from the
watery fluid into fluid glafs. It ftiould feem, there¬
fore, that the quantity of gold precipitate, for com¬
municating the admired colour to a certain volume of
glafs, ought to be the fame with that which commu¬
nicated a like colour to an equal volume of water in
the precipitation : a quantity extremely minute, and
much lefs than that employed in any of my experi¬
ments.
“ I have lately been favoured with foree pieces of
glafs, in greateft part colourlefs, with one or two
large red fpots, feveral fmall ftreaks of violet, and
fome of a, light brownifti yellow. The perfon from
whom I received them informs me, “ that he had
“ found, that in a heat not very ftrong, under a
“ muffle, the glafs becomes of an opake brown, and,
“ if then polilhed, appears variegated like a fine
“ pebble.” I expofed a colourlefs piece to the
flame of a lamp, impelled by a blow-pipe; and on
working it about, fometimes in the fmoke, and fome-
times in the flame, found it change to a true ruby-
red, perfettly tranfparent, and free from veins of any
other colour. Another piece, kept for two hours
under a elofe muffle, in fuch a heat as made it juft foft
enough to bend and receive an impreflion, became
on the furface green, brown, and pale yellow in diffe¬
rent parts, greatly refembling the coat of fome peb¬
bles: in this ftate, looked through againft the fun, it
appeared of a beautiful ruby-colour, and on breaking
it, the internal part was found throughout of an uni¬
form dark-red when looked down upon, and of the
ruby-red when placed between the eye and the lights
A large piece being continued under the muffle for
four hours, its figure was found fcarcely altered>
the coat was much thicker, and beautifully veined
with various colours, which were all loft in a glo¬
rious red when the piece was viewed between the lights
“ All I have been able to learn in regard to the
preparation of this glafs is, that the quantity made at
once is about fix cwt.; that the tinging matter is
mixed with the vitreous materials before they are put
into the melting-pot,, the mixture being brought to.
the glafs-boufe in, tubs ;, that the matter is not ilirred
in fufion; and that it is kept no longer in the fire
than is neceffary for perfecting the glafs, which, 33
Coon as fine, is caft into a kind of bricks. Some ima¬
gine that this glafs has no, mixture of calx of lead,, of
which a large proportion is ufed in the compofition of
Glai's.
G L A [ 33'
the common flint-glafs, and that the principal vitrefy-
ing ingredient is nitre : others judge it to be compofed
of the fame materials as the common fort ; its weight
feeming to be a proof of its containing lead; for it is
found to be nearly of the lame fpecilic gravity with
flint-glafs, which is greater than that of the glafles
made without lead in the proportion of above fix to
five. This point we have determined in a more fatif-
fa6lory manner: 400 grains of the glafs, made red-
hot and quenched in water, were reduced into powder,
and mingled with about twice as much black flux and
a little alkaline fait : the mixture being melted in a cru¬
cible, and the vefiel fuffered to cool, a lump of metal
was found at the bottom, weighing 90 grains. The
metal appeared to be iomewhat differ than pure lead,
and experiments convinced me that it contained fome
tin and a little gold.”—The fame author, however, af¬
terwards informs us, that he has reafon to believe, that
ins experiments would have fueceeded better if the
fclution of gold, infttad of its precipitate, had been
mixed with the materials.
Yellow Glass. It is neceffary to remark in
glafs-making, that the cryftal glafs made with fait
that has an admixture of tartar will never receive the
true gold yellow, though it will all other colours : for
yellow glafs, therefore, a fait muff be prepared from
polverine, or pot-afhes alone, to make the glafs.
Furnace for the Making of In this manufac¬
ture, there are three forts of furnaces ; one, called cal-
car, is for the frit; the fecond is for working the
glafs ; the third ferves to anneal the glafs, and is call¬
ed the leer. See Plate CXL. fig. I.
The calcar refevnbles an oven ten feet long, feven
feet broad, and two deep; the fuel, which in Biitain
is fea-coal, is put into a trench on one fide of the fui-
nace ; and the flame reverberating from the roof upon
the frit calcines it. rV\\£glafs-furtiace, or working fur¬
nace, is round, of three yards diameter, and two high;
or thus proportioned. It is divided into three parts,
each of which is vaulted. The lower part is pro¬
perly called the ctown, and is made in that form.
Its ufe is to keep a brilk fire, which is never
put out. The mouth is called the bocca. There are
feveral holes in the arch of this crown, through which
the flame paffes into the fecond vault or partition, and
reverberates into the ports filled with the ingredients
above-mentioned. Round the infides are eight or more
pots placed, and piling pots on them. Phe number
of pots is always double that of the boccas or mouths,
or of the number of workmen, that each may have one
pot refined to work out of, and another for metal to
refine in while he works out of the other. T hro the
working holes the metal is taken out of the pots, and
the pots are put into the furnace; and thefe holes are
flopped with moveable covers made of lute and brick,
to fereen the workmens eyes from the fcorching flames.
On each fide of the bocca, or mouth, is a bocarella,
or little hole, out of which coloured glafs, or liner me¬
tal, is taken from the piling pot. Above this oven,
there is the third oven, or /etr, about five or fix yards
long, where the veflels, or glafs, are annealed, or cool¬
ed : this part confifts of a tower, befides the leer, into
which the flame afeends from the furnace. The tower
has two mouths, through which the glaffes are put in
with a fork, -and fet on the floor or bottom : but they
12 ] g L A
are drawn out on iron pans, called fraches, thro* the Glafs.
leer, to cool by degrees ; fo that they are quite cold ~ ~
by the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which
enters the farofel, or room where the glaffes are to be
flowed.
But the green glafs-furnace is fquare ; and at each
angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glafles.
The metal is wrought on two oppofite fides, and on
the other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes, for the fire to come from the fur¬
nace to bake the frit, and to difeharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, fo
that the whole procefs is done in one furnace.
Thefe furnaces muft not be of brick, but of hard
Tandy ftones. In France, they build the outfide of
brick; and the" inner part, to bear the fire, is madeof a
fort of fuller’s earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of which
earth they alfo make their melting-pots. In Britain
the pots are made of Sturbridge clay.
Mr Blanconrt obferves, that the word and roughed
work in this art, is the changing the pots, when they
are worn out or cracked. In this cafe, the great
working hole muft be uncovered ; the faulty pot muff
be taken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new
one muft be fpeedily put in its place, through the
flames, by the hands only. For this work, the man
guards himfelf with a gaiment made of flans, in the
fhape of a pantaloon, that covers .him all but his eyes,
and is made as wet as poffible: the eyes are defended
with a proper fort of glafs.
Infrumentsfor Making o/'Glass. The inftruments
made ufe of in this work, may be reduced to thefe
that follow. A blowing pipe, made of iron, about
two feet and a half long, with a wooden handle. An
iron rod to take up the glafs, after it is blown, and
to cut off the former. Sciffars to cut the glafs when
it comes off from the firft hollow iron. Shears to cut
and fhape great glaffes, &c. An iron ladle, with the
end of the handle cafed with wood, to take the metal
out of the refining pot, to put it into the workmens
pots. A fmall iron ladle, cafed in the fame manner,
to fleim the alkalic fait that fwims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel, to take up the great glaffes ; another,
like a fire-fliovel, to feed the furnace with coals. A
hooked iron fork, to ftir the matter in the pots. An
iron rake for the fame purpofe, and to ftir the frit.
An iron fork, to change or pull the pots out of the
furnace, See.
Working or Blowing Round Glass. The tools thus
provided, the workman dips his blowing pipe into the
melting-pot ; and by turning it about, the metal
flicks to the iron more firmly than turpentine. This
he repeats four times, at each time rolling the end of
his inffrument, with the hot metal thereon, on a piece
of plate-iron ; over which is a veffel of water which
helps to cool, and fo to confolidate and to difpofe
that matter to bind more firmly with what is to be
taken next out of the melting-pot. But after he has
dipt a fourth time, and the workman perceives there
is metal enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth im¬
mediately to the otherend of it, and blows gently thro’
the iron tube, till the metal lengthens like a bladder
about a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble ftone, a
little while, to polifti it; and blows a fecond time, by
which he brings it to the fhape of a globe of about 18
er
G L A [ 3323 ] G L A
GWs.' or 20 Inches diameter. Every time he blows into the
-—  pipe? he removes it quickly to his cheek ; otherwife
he would be in danger, by often blowing, of drawing
the flame into his mouth: and this globe maybe
flattened by returning it to the fire; and brought into
any form by ftamp-irons, which are always ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cut off at the col¬
let, or neck; which is the narrow part that ftuck to
the iron. The method of performing this is as fol¬
lows: the pipe is refted on an iron bar, clofe by the
collet; then a drop of cold water being laid on the col¬
let, it will crack about a quarter of an inch, which,
with a flight blow', or cut of the fliears, will immediate¬
ly feparate the Collet.
After this is done, the operator flips the iron rod
into the melting-pot, by which he extrads as much
metal as ferves to attrad the glafs he has made, to
which he nowr fixes this rod at the bottom of his work,
oppoflte to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofltion the glafs is carried to the great
bocca, or mouth of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed ; by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
date, that, by the help of an iron inftrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and widened without breaking.
But the vefl'el is not finilhed till it is returned to the
great bocca ; wdiere being again heated thoroughly,
and turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion.
If there remain any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the fliears ; for till the glafs is cool, it remains
in a foft, flexible (late. It is therefore taken from the
bocca, and carried to an earthen bench, covered with
brands, which are coals extinguifhed, keeping it turn¬
ing ; becaufe that motion prevents any fettling, and
preferves an evennefs in the face of the glafs, where,
as it cools, it comes to its confiftency; being firft
cleared from the iron rod by a flight ftroke by the
hand of the workman.
If the veffcl conceived in the workman’s mind, and
whofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a
handle, or any other member or decoration, he makes
them feparately ; and noweffays to join them with the
help of hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with
his iron rod : but the glafs is not brought to its true
hardnefs, till it has paffed the leer, or annealing oven,
deferibed before.
Working, or Blowing, of Windcnv or Table Glass. The
method oi working round glafs, orveffels of any fort,
is in every particular applicable to the working of win¬
dow or table glafs, till the blowing iron has been dipt
the fourth time. But then, initead of rounding it, the
workman blow's, and fo manages the metal upon the
iron plate, that it extends two or three feet in the form
of a cylinder. This cylinder is put again to the fire,
and blown a fecond time, and is thus repeated till it is
extended to the dimenfions required, the fide to which
the pipe is fixed diminifhing gradually till it ends in a
pyramidal form fo that, to bring both ends nearly
to the fame diameter, while the glafs is thus flexible,
he adds a little hot metal to the end oppofite the pipe,
and draws it out with a pair of iron pincers, and im¬
mediately cuts off the fame end with the help of a little
»old w'ater, as before.
The cylinder being nqw open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca; and there, by the help of cold wa- Glafs,
ter, it is cut about eight or ten inches from the iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place,
by which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then it
is heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it
opens in length ; while the workman, with an iron tool,
alternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the cy¬
linder; which at laft will open like a fheet of paper,
and fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves fur
ufe; in which it is preferred by heating it over again,
cooling it on a table of copper, and hardening it 24
hours in the annealing furnace, to which it is carried
upon forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of
glafs may lie at a time, without injury to each other,
by feparating them into tens, with an iron fliiver be¬
tween, which diminifhes the weight by dividing it,
and keeps the tables flat and even.
This was the method formerly made ufe of for blow¬
ing plate-glafs, looking-glaffcs, &c. ; but the work¬
men, by this method, could never exceed 50 inches in
length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what were
larger were always found to warp, which prevented
them from refledting the objects regularly, and wanted
fubrtance to bear the neceffary grinding. Tliefe im¬
perfections have been remedied by an invention of the
Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about the year
1688, of calling or running large plates of glafs in
the following manner.
O
Cafingor Running of I.args Looking-Gi, ass Plates*
The furnace (fig. 2.) is of a very large dimenfion,
environed with feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces,
calleel carquaf 'es, beiides others for making of frit and
calcining old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it
is fit to run glafs, colts 35001. It feldom lafts above
three years, and even in that time it mult be refitted
every fix months. It takes fix months to rebuild it ;
and three months to refit it. The melting pots are as
big as large hogfheads, and contain about 2000 weight
of metal. If one of them burfts in the furnace, the
lofs of the matter and time amounts to 250 1. The
heat of this furnace is fo intenfe, that a bar of iron
laid at the mouth thereof becomes red hot in lefs than
half a minute. The materials in thefe pots are the
fame as deferibed before. When the furnace is red-
hot, thefe materials are put in at three different times,
becaufe that helps the fufion ; and in twenty-four
hours they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for
calling. A is the bocca, or mouth of the furnace ;
B is the cillern that conveys the liquid glafs it receives
out of the melting-pots in the furnace to the calling
table. Thefe cillerns are filled in the furnace, and re¬
main therein fix hours after they are filled ; and then
are hooked out by the means of a large iron chain,
guided by a pully, placed upon a carriage with four
wheels marked C, by two men. This carriage has-
no middle piece; fo that when it has brought the cif-
tern to the calling-table D, they flip off the bottom
of the ciltern, and out ruflies a torrent of flaming
matter upon the table : this matter is confined to,
certain dimenfions by the iron rulers EE, which arc
moveable, retain the fluid matter, and determine the
width of the glafs while a man, with the roller F
refting on the edge of the iron rulers, reduceth it as>,
it cool, to an equal thicknefs, which is done in the
fpace of ft minute. This table is fupportedon awood.-
G L A [ 3324 ] G L A
Glaf*. en frame, with truftlea for the convenience of moving
to the annealing furnace ; into which, ftrewecl with
fand, the new plate is (hoved, where it will harden in
about ten days. After this, the glafs needs only to
be ground, polifhed, and foliated for ufe.
Grinding and Polijhingof Plate-GhA&s. Glafs is made
tranfparent by fire ; but it receives its luftre by the
fldll and labour of the grinder and polilher, the for¬
mer of whom takes it rough out *of the hands of the
maker.
In order to grind plate-glafs, they lay it horizon¬
tally upon a flat ftone table (fig. 3.) made of a very
fine-grained free-ftone : and for itsgreater fecurity they
plafter it down with lime or ftucco ; for otherwife
the force of the workmen, or the motion of the wheel
with which they grind it, would move it about.
This ftone table is fupported by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, ri¬
ling about twro inches higher than the glafs. Upon this
glafs to be ground, is laid another rough glafs not a-
bove half fo big, and fo loofe as to Aide upon it; but
cemented to a wooden plank, to guard it from the in¬
jury it muft otherwife receive from the fcraping of
the wheel to which this plank is faftened, and from
the weights laid upon it to promote the grinding or
triture of the glafles. The whole is covered with a
wheel, B, made of hard light wmod, about fix inches
in diameter ; by pulling of which backwards and for¬
wards alternately, and fometimes turning it round,
the workmen, who always ftandoppofite to each other,
produce a conftant attrition between the two glafles,
and bring them to what degree of fmoothnefs they
pleafe, by firft pouring in water and coarfe fand; af¬
ter that, a finer fort of fand, as the work advanceth,
till at laft they muft pour in the powder of fmalt. As
the upper or incumbent glafs poliflies and grows
fmoother, it muft be taken away, and another from
time to time put in its place.
This engine is called a mill by the artifts, and is
ufed only in the largeft-fized glafles; for in the grind¬
ing of the lefler glafles, they are content to work
without a wheel, and to have only four wooden
handles faftened to the four corners of the ftone
which loads the upper plank, by which they work it
about.
When the grinder has done his part, who finds it
very difficult to bring the glafs to an exaft plainnefs,
it is turned over to the polifher; who, with the fine
powder of tripoli-ftone, or emery, brings it to a per-
fedft evennefs and luftre. The inllrument made life of
in this branch is a board, c c, furnilhed with a felt,
and a fmall roller, which the workman moves by means
of a double handle, at both ends. The artift in work¬
ing this roller, is affifted with a wooden hoop or fpring,
to the end of which it is fixed : for the fpring, by
conftantly bringing the roller back to the fame points,
facilitates the a&ion of the workman’s arm.
Painting in Glass. The ancient manner of paint-
ing in glafs was very fimple: it confitted in the mere
arrangement of pieces of glafs of different colours in
fome fort of fymmetry, and conftituted what is now
■cdWeA Mofaicnuork. See Mosaic.
In procefs of time they came to attempt more re¬
gular defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened
with all their (hades; yet they proceeded no farther
than the contours of the- figures in black with water- Glafs.;
colours, and hatching the draperies after the fame '
manner on glaffes of the colour of the obje6l they de- j
figned to paint. For the carnation, they ufed glafs
of a bright red colour; and upon this they drew the ;
principal lineaments of the face, &c. with black.
But in time, the taftc for this fort of painting im¬
proving conliderably, and the art being found appli- j
cable to the adorning of churches, bafilics, &c. they j
found out means of incorporating the colours jn the ;
glafs itfelf, by heating them in the fire to a proper
degree ; having firft laid on the colours.
This art, however, has frequently met with much
interruption, and fometimes been almoft totally loft;
of which Mr Walpole gives us the following account,
in his Anecdotes of Painting in England.
“ The firft interruption given to it was by the refor¬
mation, which banifhed the art out of churches ; yet
it was in fome meafure kept up in the efcutcheons ofy
the nobility and gentry, in the windows of their feata: ■
Towards the end of queen Elizabeth’s reign it was o-
mittedeven there; yet thepra&ice did not entirelyceafe.
The chapel of our Lady at Warwick was ornamented
anew by Robert Dudley earl of Leicefter, and his j
countefs, and the cipher of the glafs-painter’s name 1
yet remains, with the date 1574: and in fome of the
chapels at Oxford the art again appears, dating itfelf
in 1622, by the hand of no contemptible mailer.
“ I could fupply even this gap of 48 years by many
dates on Flemilh glafs ; but nobody ever fuppofed that
the fecret was loft fo early as the reign of James I. I
and that it has notperiftied finee, will be evident from
the following feries reaching to the prefent hour.
“ The portraits in the windows of the library at All
Souls, Oxford. In the chapel at Queen’s college ;
there are twelve windows dated 1518. P. C. a ci¬
pher on the painted glafs in the chapel at Warwick,
1574. The windows at Wadham-college ; the draw¬
ing pretty good, and the colours fine, by Bernard
Van Linge, 1622. In the chapel at Lincoln’s-Inn,
a window, with the name of Bernard, 1623. This
was probably the preceding Van Linge. In the
church of St Leonard, Shoreditch, two windows by |
Baptifta Sutton? 1634. The windows in the chapel
at Univerfity-college, Hen. Giles1687. At
Chrift-church, Ifaac Oliver, aged 84, 1700. Win¬
dow in Merton-chapel, William Price, 1700. Win¬
dows at Queen’s New-college, and Maudlin, by Wil¬
liam Price, the fon, now living, whofe colours are fine, •
whofe drawing is good, and whofe tafte in ornaments i
and mofaic is far fuperior to any of his predeceffors;
is equal to the antique, to the good Italian mafters,
and only furpaffed by his own Angular modefty.
“ It may not be unwelcome to the curious reader to
fee fome anecdotes of the revival of tafte for painted 5
glafs in England. Price, as we have faid, was the only
painter in that ftyle for many years in England. Af¬
terwards one Rowell, a plumber at Reading, did fome
things, particularly for the late Henry earl of Pem¬
broke; but Rowel’s colours foon vaniftied. At laft
he found out a very durable and beautiful red; but he
died in a year or two, and the fecret with him. A man
at Birmingham began the fame art in 1756 or 17.57,
and fitted up a window for lord Lyttelton, in the
church ofHagleyj but foon broke. A little after
G L A [ 3325 ] G L A
Glafs. him, one Peckitt at York began the fame bufinefs, and
has made good proficiency. A few lovers of that art
collefted fome difperfed panes from ancient buildings,
particularly the late lord Cobham, who ere&ed a Go¬
thic temple at Stowe, and filled it with arms of the
old nobility, &c. About the year 1753, one Afciotti,
an Italian, who had married a Flemifh woman, brought
a parcel of painted glafs from Flanders, and fold it for
a few guineas to the honourable Mr Bateman, of Old
Windfor. Upon that I fent Afciotti again to Flan¬
ders, who brought me 450 pieces, for which, including
the expence of his journey, I paid him 36 guineas.
His wife made more journeys for the fame purpofe;
and fold her cargoes to one Palmer, a glazier in St
Martin’s-lane, who immediately railed the price to
one, two, or five guineas for a fingle piece, and'fitted
up entire windows with them,, and with mofaics of
plain glafs of different colours. In 1761, Paterfon,
an auftioneer at‘ Effex-houfe in the Strand, exhibited
the two firft auftions of painted glafs, imported in
like manner from Flanders. All this manufa&ure
confifted in rounds of fcripture-ftories, Itained in black
and yellow, or in fmall figures of black and white;
birds and flowers in colours, and Flemifli coats of
arms.”
The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs
are very different from thofe ufed in painting either in
water or oil colours.
For black, take fcaks of iron, one ounce ; fcales of
copper, one ounce; jet, half an ounce: reduce them
to powder, and mix them.* For blue, take powder
of blue, one pound ; fal nitre, half a pound; mix
them and grind them well together. For carnation,
take red chalk, eight ounces; iron fcales, and litharge
of filver, of each two ounces ; gum arable, half an
ounce; diffolve in water ; grind all together for half an
hour as ftiff as you can ; then put it in a glafs and
ftir it well, and let it ftand to fettle fourteen days.
For green, take red-lead, one pound ; fcales of cop¬
per, one pound ; and flint, five pounds: divide them
into three parts; and add to them as much fal nitre;
put them into a crucible, and melt them with a ftrong
fire; and when it is cold, powder it, and grind it on
a porphyry. For gold colour, take filver, an ounce;
antimony, half an ounce; melt them in a crucible;
then pound the mafs to powder; and grind it on
a copper plate; add to it yellow oker, or brick-duft
calcined again, fifteen ounces ; and grind them well
together with water. For purple, take minium, one
pound ; brown ftone, one pound ; white flint, five
pounds : divide them into three parts, and add to them
as much fal nitre as one of the parts; calcine, melt, and
grind it as you did the green. For red, take jet, four
ounces; litharge of filver, two ounces; red chalk,
one ounce; powder them fine, and mix them. For white,
take jet, two parts ; white flint, ground on a glafs
very fine, one part; mix them. For yellow, take
Spanifh brown, ten parts; leaf-filver, one part; anti¬
mony, half a part; put all into a crucible, and calcine
them well.
In the windows of ancient churches, See. there are
to be feen the molt beautiful and vivid colours imagin¬
able, which far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo¬
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours is entirely loft, as that the moderns will not
. Von. V.
go to the charge of them, nor be at the neceflary Glafs.
pains, by reafon that this fort of painting is not now  
fo much in efteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful
works which were made in‘ the glafs-houfes were of
two kinds.
In fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole
fubftance of the glafs. In others, which were the
more common, the colour was only on one fide, fcaroq
penetrating within the fubftance above one third of a
line ; though this was more or lefs according to the
nature of the colour, the yellow being always found
to enter the deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong
and beautiful as the former, were of more advantage
to the workmen, by reafon that on the fame glafs,
though already coloured, they could ftiew other kind
of colours where there was occafion to embroider dra¬
peries, enrich them with foliages, or reprefent other
ornaments of gold, filver, &c.
In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs, tilj fuch
time as they were got through the colour to the cleqv
glafs. This done, they applied the proper colours 011
the other fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new
colours were hindered from running and mixing with
the former, when they expofed the glaffes to the fire,
as will appear hereafter.
When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bared of its colour with emery,
without tinging the place with any colour at all; and
this was the manner by which they wrought their
lights, and heightnings, on all kinds of colour.
The firft thing to be done, in order to paint or (lain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even co¬
lour the whole fubjedt on paper. Then they choofe
fuch pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth,
and proper to receive the feveral parts; and proceed to
diftribute the defign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on,
into pieces fuitable to thofe of the glafs; always taking
care that the glaffes may join in the contours of the
figures and the folds of the draperies; that the carna¬
tions, and other finer parts, may not be impaired by
the lead with which the pieces are to be joined toge¬
ther. The diftribution being r^ade, they mark all the
glaffes as well as papers, that they may be known a-
gain; which done, applying every part of the defign
upon the glafs intended for it, they copy, or transfer,
the defign upon this glafs with the black colour diluted
in gum-water, by tracing and following all the-lines
and ftrokes as they appear through the glafs with the
point of a pencil.
When thefe ftrokes are well dried, which will hap¬
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they give a flight wafh over with urine*
gum arabic, and a little black ; and repeat it feveral
times, according as the fhades are defired to be heigh¬
tened ; with this precaution, never to apply a new waflt
till the former is fufficiently dried.
This done, the lights and rifings are given by rub¬
bing off the colour in the refpeftive places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil.
As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are
ufed with gum-water, much as in painting in miniature;
taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of effacing
the outlines of the defign; or even, for the greater fe-
curity, to apply them on the other fide; efpecially yeU
ig C tow*
G L A [ 3326 ] G L A
Olafs, low, which is very pernicious to the other colours, by
Glafton- blending therewith. And here too, as in pieces of
bury~ black and white, particular regard muft. always be had
not to lay colour on colour, or lay on a new lay, till
fuch time as the former are well dried.
It may be added, that the yellow is the only colour
that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire; the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the
furface, or at leaft entering very little. When the
painting of all the pieces is finifiied, they are carried to
the furnace, or oven, to anneal, or bake the colours.
The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick,
from 18 to 30 inches fquare. At fix inches from the
bottom is an aperture to put in the fuel, and main¬
tain the fire. Over this aperture is a grate, made of
three fquare bars of iron, which traverfc the furnace,
and divide it into two parts. Two inches above this
partition, is another little aperture, through which
they take out pieces to examine how the codtion goes
forward. On the grate is placed a fquare earthen
pan, fix or feven inches deep, and five or fix inches
lefs every way than the perimeter of the furnace.
On the one fide hereof is a little aperture, through
which to- make trials, placed diredtly oppofite to that
of the furnaces deftined for the fame end. In this pan
are the pieces of glafs to be placed, in the following
manner: Firft, the bottom of the pan is covered with
three ftrata, or layers, of quicklime pulverifed; thofe
ft rata being feparated by two others of old broken
glafs, the defign whereof is to fecure the painted glafs
from the too intenfe heat of the fire. This done, the
glaffes are laid horizontally on the laft or uppermoft
layer of lime.
The firft row of glafs they cover over with a layer
of the fame powder, an inch deep; and over this they
lay another range of glafles, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full; taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime-powder.
The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the
furnace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
clofely luted all round; only leaving five little aper¬
tures, one at each corner, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re¬
mains nothing but to give the fire to the w’ork. The
fire for the firft two hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increafed in proportion as the coftion advances,
for the fpace of ten or twelve hours; in which time
it is ufualiy compleated. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the
chimneys.
During the laft hours, they make efiays, from time
to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace and pan,
to fee whether the yellow be perfcdt, and the other
colours in good order. When the annealing is thought
fufficient, they proceed with great hafte to extinguifh
the fire, which otherwife would foon burn the colours,
and break the glafles.
Glass of Antimony. See Chemistry, n° 454.
Glass of Lead. See Glazing.
GLASTONBURY, a town of Somerfetfliire in
England; feated in W. Lon. 2.46. N. Lat. 51. 15.
— It is noted for a famous abbey, fome magnificent
ruins of which are ftill remaining ; but they are every Glafton-
day diminiihing for the fake of the ftones. However, b“ry
the curious ftrmfture called the Abbot's kitchen ,is fti11 Glaucoma.
pretty entire, and is of a very unufual contrivance.  —
The monks pretend that it was the refidence of Jofeph
of Arimathea, and of St Patrick; but for this afler-
tion they produce no good authority. The king of
the Weft Saxons erected a church here, which he and
the fucceeding kings enriched to fuch a degree, that
the abbot lived like a prince, had the title of lord, and
fat among the barons in parliament; and no perfon,
not even a bifhop or prince, durft fet foot on the ifle
of Avalon, in which the abbey ftands, without his
leave. The revenue of the abbey was above 40,000 1.
per ann. befides feven parks well ftocked with deer.
The laft abbot, (Richard Whiting,) who had loo
monks, and 300 domeftics, was hanged in his pontifi¬
cals, with two of his monks, on the Tor, a high hill
in the neighbourhood, for refufing to take the oath of
fupremacy to Henry VIII. and furrender his abbey
when req-ured. Edgar and many other Saxon kings
were buried here; and, as fome will have it, Arthur
the Britifti king. The ftory of the Glaftonbury
thorn,' and of its budding always upon Chriftmas-day,
is well known: however, that circumftance is falfe ;
though, if the winter is mild, it always buds about
the latter end of December, but later if. the weather is
fevere.
GLATZ, a handfome and ftrong town of Bohemia,
and capital of a county of the fame name. It is feated
on the river Neifle; and* has ftrong fortifications,
with a caftle built upon a mountain. The county
was ceded to the king of Pruffia by the queen of
Plungary in 1742; and is about 45 miles in length,
and 25 in breadth. It has mines of pit-coal, filver,
and iron ; good quarries, plenty of cattle, and fine
fprings of mineral water. The town is fituated in E.
Lon. 15. 16. N. Lat. 50. 25.
GLAUBER (John Rhodolphus), a celebrated
German chemift, who flouriflied about the year 1646.
He wrote a great number of different treatifes on
chemiftry, fome of which have been tranflated into
Latin and French. All his works have been collefled
into one volume, entitled, Glauberus conccntratus,
which has been tranflated into Englifti, and was
printed at London, in folio, in 1689.
Glauber’/ Salt. See Chemistry, n° 124.
GLAUCUS, a marine god, or dtity of the fea.
There are a great many fabulous account i of this di¬
vinity: but the poetical hiftory of him is, that, be¬
fore his deification, he was a filherman of the town of
Anthedon, who, having one day taken a confiderable
number of fifties, which he laid upon the bank, on a
fudden perceived, that thefe fifties, having touched a
kind of herb that grew on the ftiore, received new
ftrength, and leaped again into the fea: upon
the fight of which extraordinary accident, he was
tempted to tafte of the herb himfelf, and prefently
leaped into the fea after them, where he w-as meta-
morphofed into a Triton, and became one of the fea-
gods.
GLAUCOMA, or Glaucosis, from ^avxof, a
Jky-blue colour. Mr Sharp, in his Operations of
Surgery, p. 158—163, fays, that ihe glaucoma of the
ancient Greeks is the fujfujio of the Latins, and the
catarafl'
G L A [ 3327 ] G L E
Claucus cataratt of the prefent times. See (Index fubjoined to)
1 Medicine and Surgery. Mr St Yves fays, it is a c<z-
az‘"^' taratt accompanied with & gutta ferena; according to
which nothing need be added, except that, infuch a cafe,
the operation and all other means are ufelefs, except
to eafe pain, and to mend the figure of the eye.
GLAUCUS, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs.—
The principal part of a glazier’s bufinefs confifts in
fitting panes of glafs to_ the falhes and window-
frames of houfes, pi&ures, See. and in cleaning the
fame.
GLAZING, the crufting over earthen ware by a
vitreous fubftance, the bafis of which is lead.
For making a pure glafs of lead, the following re¬
ceipt will be found to anfwer: Put a large quantity
of lead into a potter’s kiln, and keep it in a date of
fufion with a moderate fire, till it is calcined to a
grey loofe powder; then fpread it in the kiln, and
give it a greater heat, continually dtirring it to keep
it from running into lumps. Continue this for feveral
hours, till the powder becomes of a fair yellow; then
take it out and lift it fine. This is called calcined
lead. — Take of this calcined lead, 15 pounds ; and
cryftalline or other fritt, 12 pounds: mix thefe as
well as pofiible together ; put them into a pot, and
fet them in a furnace for 10 hours; then call the
whole, which wnll now be perfeftly melted, into wa¬
ter ; feparate the loofe lead from it, and return the
metal into it; and after handing in fufion 1 2 hours
more, it will be fit for ufe.
The workers of common earthen ware, however,
are not at the trouble of thus previoufly making a
pure glafs of lead. Their ufual compofition for gla¬
zing their ware is formed of fand, wood-alhes, lead-
afhes, and fait. The ware, after being turned on the
wheel, and dried in the open air, is covered over with
this compofition by means of a brulh ; and when fet
in the furnace the violent heat foon reduces it to a
perfeft glafs, covering the whole internal and exter¬
nal furface of the veflel.
The various colours for glazing are the fame with
thofe for tinging glafs, which we have already de-
feribed. A black colour is given with manganefe or
iron. The proportions, however, are not exa&ly af-
certained, nor are there any receipts publilhed con¬
cerning thefe things on which we can much depend.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions we have the follpw-
ing receipt for a fine gold-coloured glazing, commu¬
nicated to the Royal Society by Mr Heinlius of Pe-
terfburg. Take of litharge three parts, of fand or
calcined flint one part ; mix thefe very well together,
then run them into a yellow glafs with a ftrong fire.
Pound this glafs, and moiften it when in fubtile powder
with a well faturated folution of filver, which make into
a pafte. Put this paite into a crucible, and cover it.
Give at firft a gentle degree of fire, then increafe and
continue it till you have a perfeft glafs which will be
green. Pound this glafs again, and reduce it to a
fine powder: moiften this powder with fome beer, fo
that by means of an hair-pencil you may apply it upon
the veflels. Thofe that are painted or covered over
with this glazing muft be firlt well heated, then put
under a muffle; and as foon as the glafs runs you muft
fmoke them* and take out the veffels. This prepa¬
ration owes its colour to the filver in it; the precipi- Glazing,
tales of which, fpread upon a glafs plate, have the Glcanll>^
property of ftaining it yellow by ignition, without
fufion. When ufed in glazing veffels, however, they
muft be held over the fmoke of burning vegetables,
in order to call forth the beautiful colour.
A red or green tinge may be given to glazings by
means of copper. The red colour appears firft ; but
by a continuation of the fire, it is changed into a
green. The fineft red colour, however, that can be
given to glazings, is that prepared from the folution
of gold in aejua regia, as mentioned under the article
Glass.—The fineft blue is always given by means of
zaffre or fmalt. A purplifti colour, as we^l as a brown
or black, may alfo be given by manganefe j but a mix¬
ture of the materials for red and blue will undoubtedly
produce the fineft colour. The colouring materials
for glazings, therefore, in fhort are the following.
Red—Gold or copper.
Yellow—Silver, iron. J
Green — Copper.
Blue—Zaffre or fmalt.
Black—Manganefe.
White—Calx of tin.
Each of thefe materials mixed up in a proper quanti¬
ty with any compofition that readily vitrifies, will form
a glazing of the defired colour upon any kind of ear¬
then ware. The proportions in which they are to be
ufed may eafily be determined by a few trials.—Stone
ware is glazed by another method, viz. the vitrifica¬
tion of a fmall part of the fubftance of the ware it ft If,
by the fumes of fait thrown into the furnace when the
veflels are interfely heated. See Stone Ware.—The
application of different colours to it, however, is equally
eafy with the former.
The Romans had a method of glazing their earthert
veffels, which in many refpedls appears to have been
fuperior to ours. The common brown glazing eafily
fcaies off, cracks, and in a ftiort time becomes dif-
agreeable to the eye. Befides, it is very eafily de-
ftroyed by acids ; nor can veffels glazed in this man¬
ner be even employed to hold water, without part of
it oozing through their pores. Lead is alfo very de-
ftru&ive to the human body ; and if acids are unwa¬
rily put into veffels glazed with lead, the liquors will
receive a very dangerous impregnation from the me¬
tal. The Roman glazing, which is yet to be feen
upon urns dug up in feveral places, appears to have
been made of fome kind of varniih ; and Pliny gives
us a hint that it was made of bitumen. He tells us
that it never loft its beauty, and that at length it be¬
came cuftomary to glaze over ftatucs in this manner.
As this varnifh funk deep into the fubftance of the
ware, it was not fubjeft to thofe cracks and flaws which
disfigure our veffels; and as it was not liable to be
corroded by acids, it could not be liable to any of
the accidents which may enfue from the ufe of veffels
glazed with lead.
GLEANING, the adt of gathering or picking up
the ears of corn left behind after the field has been
reaped and the crop carried home. By the cuftoms
of fome countries, particularly thofe of Melun and
Eftampes, all farmers and others are forbid, either by'
themfelves or fervants, to put any cattle into the fields,
or prevent the gleaning in any manner whatever for
19 C 2 the
G L I [ 3328 ] G L O
Glebe the fpace of 24 hours after the carrying off the corn,
Jl under penalty of confifcation.
. 1 on* GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth
in which is contained fome mineral ore.
Glebe, in law, the land belonging to a parilh-
church befides the tithes.
GLECHOMA, Ground-ivy; a genus of the an-
giofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafsof
plants. There are three fpecies; the moft remarkable
of which is the hederacea, or common ground-ivy,
which is fo well known that it requires no defcription.
Many virtues were formerly attributed to this plant,
which it is now found not to be pofl'efTed of. Some,
however, it has. The leaves are thrown into the vat
with ale to clarify it and give it a flavour. Ale thus
prepared is often drank as an antifcprbutic. The ex-
preflfed juice mixed with a little wine, and applied
morning and evening, deftroys the white fpecks upon
horfes eyes. The plants that grow near it do not
flourifli. It is faid to be hurtful to horfes if they eat
much of it. Sheep eat it, horfes are not fond of it;
cows, goats, and fwine, refufe it.
GLED1TSIA, triple-thorned Acacia ; a ge¬
nus of the dioecia order, belonging to the polygamia
clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, which rifes
with an upright trunk 30 or 40 feet high, branching
out regularly with many long triple thorns, andclofely
garniftied with doubly pinnated leaves, each leaf con-
lifting often of near 200 fmaller leaves or foliola. The
flowers are amentaceous, and of a greenifli colour pro¬
ceeding from the fides of the branches, and fucceeded
by broad feed-pods near a foot and an half long.—
This plant is a native of South America, but will
thrive in this country in any fituation. They are pro¬
pagated by feeds, which are annually procured from
America by the feedfmen.
GLEET, in medicine, the flux of a thin limpid
humour from the urethra. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
GLICAS, or Glycas, (Michael), a Greek hifto-
rian about the middle of the 15th century, lived in
Sicily, and wrote Annals of what palled from the crea¬
tion of the world to the death of Alexis Comnenus,
in 1 u 8. Leunclavius added to it a fifth part, which
carries it down to the taking" of Conftantinople. Gli-
cas was alfo the author of feveral ufeful and curious
letters.
GLENOIDES, the name of two cavities, or fmall
deprefiions, in the inferior part of the firft vertebra of
the neck.
GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus’s fourth order of
mammalia. See Zoology.
GLIS, in zoology. See Sciurus.
GLISSON (Francis), a learned Englilh phyfician
in the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
was made regius profefibr of that univerfity. In 1634,
he was admitted a fellow of the college of phyficians
in London. During the civil wars, he pradlifed phy-
fic at Colchefter, and afterwards fettled in London. He
greatly improved phyfic by his anatomical diffedlions
and obfervations, and made feveral new difcoveries of
lingular ufe towards eftablilhing a rational praftice.
He wrote, 1. De rachitide, &c. 2. De lymphaduttis
nufer repertis; with the Anatomicn prolegomena^ is
Anatomia hepatis. 3- De natura fubjlantia energe-
tica; feu de via vita: natura, ejufque tribus primis fa- Glitter,
cultatibus, &c. quarto. 4. Tract at us de ventriculo is Globe-
intefinis. See. The world is obliged to him for the
capfula communis, or vagina porta.
GLISTER, in furgery. See Clyster.
GLOBE, in geometry, a round or fpherical body,
more ufually called a fphere. See Sphere.
Globe, is more particularly ufed for an artificial
fphere of metal, plafter, paper, or other matter ; on
whofe convex furface is drawn a map, or reprefenta-
tion, either of the earth, or heavens, with the feveral
circles conceived thereon. See Geography.
Globes are of two kinds, terrejirial and celejlial;
each of very confiderable ufe, the one in aftronomy,
and the other in geography ; to perform many of the
operations thereof, in an eafy, fenfible manner, fo as
to be conceived without any knowledge of the mathe¬
matical grounds of thofe arts.
The fundamental parts, common to both globes,
are an axis, reprefenting that of the world; and a
fpherical ftiell, or .cover, which makes the body of
the globe, on whofe external furface the reprefentation
is drawn. See Axis, Pole, &c.
Globes, we have obferved, are made of divers ma¬
terials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, See. Thofe
commonly ufed, are of plafter, and paper : The con-
ftrudlion whereof is as follows:
Conjtruftion of Globes.—A wooden axis is pro¬
vided, fomewhat lefs than the intended diameter of the
globe ; and into the extremes hereof two iron wires
are driven, for poles: this axis is to be the beam, or
bafis of the whole ftrutture.
On the axis are applied two fpherical, or rather
hemifpherical caps, formed on a kind of wooden mould
or block.—Thefe caps confift of pafteboard, or paper,
laid one lay after another, on the mould, to the thick-
nefs of a crown-piece ; after which, having ftood to
dry and embody, making an incifion along the
middle, the two caps thus parted are flipped off the
mould.
They remain now to be applied on the poles of the
axis, as before they were on thofe of the mould : and
to fix them in their new place, the two edges are fewed
together with pack-thread, &c.
The rudiments of the globe thus laid, they proceed
to {Lengthen and make it fmooth and regular. In
order to this, the two poles are hafped in a metalline
femicircle, of the fize intended ; and a kind of plafter,
made of whiting, water, and glue, heated, melted, and
incorporated together, is daubed all over the paper-
furface. In proportion as the plafter is applied, the
ball is turned round in the femicircle, the edge where¬
of pares off whatever is fuperfluous and beyond the
due dimenfion, leaving the reft adhering in places
that are fliort of it. After fuch application of plafter,
the ball ftands to dry; which done, it is put again in
the femicircle, and frefti matter applied : thus they
continue alternately to spply the compofition, and
dry it, till fuch time as the ball every where accurate¬
ly touches the femicircle; in which ftate it is perfectly
fmooth, regular, firm, &c.
The ball thus finiftied, it remains to pafte the map
or defcription thereon : in order to this, the map is
projedled in feveral gores, or guffets ; all which join
accurately on the fpherical furface, and cover the
whole
G L O
lobularia whole ball. To direft the application of t.hefe gores,
, II lines are drawn by a femicircle on the furface of the
jLlocefter. dividing it into a number of equal parts corre-
fponding to thofe of the gores, and fubdividing thofe
again anfwerably to the lines and diviiions of the gores.
The papers thus palled on, there remains nothing
but to colour and illuminate the globe ; and to var-
nilh it, the better to refill dull, moifture, &c.—The
globe itfelf thus fin idled, they hang it in a brafs me¬
ridian, with an hour-circle, and a quadrant of alti¬
tude ; and thus fit it into a wooden horizon.
For the ufes, &c. of the globes, fee Geography,
n° 33. 35, &c. Astronomy, n° 168, 320. and Plate
XLVI'H. fig. 2.
GLOBULARIA, Globular blue daisy ; a ge¬
nus of the tnonogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria
clafs of plants. There are feveral fpecies ; but only one is
commonly to be met with in our gardens, viz. the
vulgaris, or common blue daify. It hath broad thick
tadical leaves, three parted at the ends, upright {talks
from about fix to ten or twelve inches high, garni died
with fpeared-diaped leaves, and the top crowned by a
globular head of fine blue dowers compofed of many
fiorets in one cup. It dowers in June, and makes a
good appearance; but thrives beft in a moill diady fi-
tuation. It is propagated by parting the roots in
September. •
GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently
ufed by phyficians in fpeaking of the red particles of
the blood. See Blood.
GLOCESTER, the capital of Glocefterdiire in
England. It is an ancient city, and by Antoninus is cal¬
led Clevujn, or G lev urn, which Cambden thinks was
formed from the Britifh Caer-GlonuS) fignifying a fair
city. It was built by the Romans to curb the Silures ;
and a colony was placed there, called Colonia Glevuni.
It (lands upon the bank of the Severn ; and, except on
the fide next the river, is furrounded by a wall. To¬
wards the fouth there was anciently a caftle built in the
time of William the Conqueror, the remains of which
is now the common gaol for debtors and felons. Ceau-
lin, king of the Weft Saxons, firft took it from the
Britons in 570 ; but it afterwards became fubjeft to
the Mercians. The prefent cathedral was erefled by
Aldred, archbidiop of York, and bifliop of Worcef-
ter, after the conqueft, but hath been greatly impro¬
ved and adorned fince. In the fouth ifle Edward II.
lies intered in an alabafter tomb; and not far from
him, in the middle of the choir, Robert Curt-hofe,
eldeft fon of William the Conqueror. This city fuf-
fered much in the barons wars, was plundered by Ed¬
ward the fon of Henry III. and not long after al-
moft entirely deftroyed by an accidental fire. King
John made it a borough ; and Henry III. who was
crowned here,Ha corporation. Richard 'III. made it a
county of itfelf, adding two hundreds to it, and gave
it his fword and cap of maintenance. It had once ele¬
ven parKh-churches ; but five of them were demolilhed
when it was befieged by Charles I. againft whom it had
(hut its gates. In the reign of Charles II. its walls
were pulled down, and two hundreds taken from its
county by a£l of parliament. It was eredled into an
epifcopal fee by Henry VIII. on the fuppreffion of the
abbey of St Peter, with a dean and fix prebends. A-
t 3329 ]
G L O
bcut the time of the conqueft, its chief bufinefs Lems Gl
to have been forging of iron; for in Doomfday book
it is faid, that the only tribute required of it was fo
many icres, or bars of iron. At prefent it has ten in¬
corporated companies, a ftone-bridge over the river,
with a key and wharf; but though it is well fitua-
ted for trade, yet its traffic is not confiderable, having
been much impaired by the neighbourhood of Brillbl.
One of its chief manufactures now is pin-making. Se¬
veral parliaments were anciently held here, particular¬
ly by Richard II. and III. ; and in the town are many
crofles and ftatues of the kings of England. By a
charter from Charles II. it is governed by a fteward,
mayor, recorder, twelve aldermen, a town-clerk, two
fheriffs chofen yearly out of twenty-fix common-coun¬
cil men, a fword bearer, and four ferjeants at mace.
Cambden fays, the lloman vvay, that extends from St
David’s in Wales to Southampton, paffes through
this city. It gives title of duke to the fecond brother
of his prefent majefty George III.
GLOCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
is bounded on the weft by Monmouthftiire and Here-
fordfhire, on the north by Worcefterfliire, on the eaft
by Oxfordfttire and Warwickfhire, and on the fouth
by Wiltfhire and part of Somerfetfhire. It is fixty
miles in length, twenty-fix in breadth, and one hun¬
dred and fixty in circumference ; containing eight hun¬
dred thoufand acres, twenty-nine hundreds, one city,
twenty-five market-towns ; and fends eight members
to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for the city
of Glocefter, two for Cirencefter, and two forTewkf-
bury. It lies in the diocefe that takes its name from
the capital, and in the Oxford circuit. The air of
the county is very wholefome, but the face of it is
very different in different parts :,for the eaftern part
is hilly, and is called Cottefwold; the weftern woody,
and called the Forejl of Dean ; and the reft is a fruit¬
ful valley, through which runs the river Severn. This
river is in fome places between two and three miles
broa'd; and its courfe through the country, including
its windings, is not lefs than feventy miles. The tide
of Hood, called the Boar, rifes very high, and is very
impetuous. It is remarkable, that the greateft tides
are one year at the full-moon, and the other at the
new ; one year the night-tides, and the next the day.
This river affords a noble conveyance for goods and
merchandife of all forts, to and from the county $
but it is watered by feveral others, as the Wye, the
Avon, the Ifis, the Leden, the Frame, the Strand,
and Windrufh, befides leffer dreams, all abounding
with fifli, the Severn in particular with falmon, con¬
ger-eels, and lampreys. The foil is in general very
fertile, though pretty much diverfified, yielding plen¬
ty of corn, pafture, fruit, and wood. In the hilly
part of the county, or Cottefwold, the air is {harper
than in the lowlands; and the foil, though not fo fit
for grain, produces excellent pafture for flicep ; fo that
of the four hundred thoufand that are computed to be
kept in the county, the greater part are fed here. Of
thefe fhcep the wool is exceeding fine ; and hence it is
that this {hire is fo eminent for its manufadlurc of
cloth, of which fifty thoufand pieces are faid to have
been made yearly, before the practice of clandeftinely
exporting Englifh wool became fo common. In the
vale*
G L O [ 3330 ] G L O
Glocifter- vale, or lower part of the county, through which the
Severn pafi'es, the air and foil are very different from
Gloriofa thofe of the Cottefwold: for the former is much warmer,
andthelatterricher,yieldingthemoftliixuriantpaftures;
in confequence of which, numerous herds of black cat¬
tle are kept, and great quantities of that excellent
cheefe, for which it is fo much celebrated, made in it.
The remaining part of the county, called the Forejl
ot'Dean, was formerly almoft entirely over-run with
wood, and extended twenty milts in length, and
ten in breadth. It was then a neft of robbers, efpe-
cially towards the Severn ; but now it contains many
towns and villages, confiding chiefly of miners, em¬
ployed in the coal-pits, or in digging for or forging
iron ore, with both which the fored abounds. Thefe
miners have their particular laws, cudoms, courts,
and judges; and the king, as in all royal foreds, has
a fwain-mote, for the prefervation of the vert andve-
nifon. This fored was anciently, and is dill noted
for its oaks, which thrive here furprifingly ; but as
there is a prodigious confumption of wood in the for¬
ges, it is continually dwindling way. There were fo
many religious houfes in the county before the refor¬
mation, that it gave occafion to the proverb, “ As
fure as God is in Glocederfhire.'>
GLOGAW, a drong and confiderable town of
Germaay, in Silefia, and capital of a duchy of the
fame name. It is not very large, but is well fortified
on the fide of Poland. It has a handfome cadle, with
a tower, in which feveral counfellors were condemned
by Duke John, in 1498, to perifh with hunger. Be-
fides the Papids, there are a large number of Prote-
flants and Jews. It was taken by aflault, by the king
of Prufiia, in J741, and the garrifon made prifoners.
After the peace in 1742, the king of Prufiia fettled
the fupreme court of judice here, it being, next to
Breflaw, the mod populous place in Silefia. It is
feated on the river Oder, in E. Lon. 15. 13. N. Lat.
51.40.
Glogaw the Lkss, a town of Silefia, in the du¬
chy of Opelen, now in poflefiion of the king of Pruf-
fia. It is two miles S. E. of Great Glogaw, and for¬
ty-five N. W. of Brefiaw. E. Lon. 16. 15. N. Lat.
51- 38-
-GLORIA patri, among ecclefiadical writers. See
Doxology.
GLORIOSA, superb lily ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants,
i here is but one fpecies, a native of Malabar. It
hath a thick, flefliy, tuberous root, fending forth
from its centre decimated round dalks growing eight
or ten feet long, and garniflied with very long narrow
leaves running out into a point, terminated by a long
tendril. From the upper part of the dalks proceed
large flame-coloured drooping flowers, confiding of
fix widely-fpreading reflexed petals. It flowers in
June and July, and is of admirable beauty whence ; its
name of Gloriofa, or Superb Lily.—This plant being a
native of a very warm climate, requires the prote&ion
of a hot-houfe in this country. The flower-fialks
flioot forth in March or April; which being long and
trailing, mud have tall dicks placed for their fupport.
The plants are propagated by offsets, which are pro¬
duced in tolerable plenty, and may be feparated any
time after the dalks decay, or in fpring before new
ones arife.
GLOSS, a comment on the text of any author, to
explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in
the fame language or any other. See the article
Commentary. The word, according to fome, comes
from the Greek “ tongue the'office of agloft
being to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to
difeover the mind.
Gloss is likewife ufed for a literal tranflation, or an
interpretation of an author in another language word
for word.
Gloss is alfo ufed in matters of commerce, &c. for
the ludre of a filk, duff, or the like.
GLOSSARY, a fort of di&ionary, explaining
the obfeure and antiquated terms in fome old au¬
thor ; fuch are Du Cange’s Latin and Greek Glof-
faries, Spelman’s Gloflary, and Kennel’s Gloffary
at the end of his Parochial Antiquities.
GI.OSSOPETRA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
extraneous foffils, fo called from their having been fup-
pofedthe tongues of ferpents turned into done ; though
they are really the teeth of fharks, and daily found in
the mouths of thofe fifhes, where-ever taken.
The feveral fixes of teeth of the fame fpecies, and
the feveral different fpecies of fharks, furnifh us with a
vaft variety of thefe foffil-teeth. Their ufual colours
are black, bluifh, yellowifh, or brown. In fliape they
are ufually fomewhat approaching to triangular; fome
are Ample, and others have a fmaller point on each
fide the large one. Many of them are quite draight ;
but they are frequently met with crooked and bent in
all the different direftions, fome inwards, fome out¬
wards, and fome fideways. They are alfo of various
fixes ; the larger ones being four or five inches long,
and the fmaller lefs than a quarter of an inch. They
are found with us in the flrata of blue clay, and are
very plentiful in the clay-pits of Richmond, and fome
other places ; but they are nowhere fo common as in
the ifland of Malta.
GLOTTIS, in anatomy, the narrow flit at the
upper part of the afpera arteria, which is covered by
the epiglottis when we hold our breath and when we
fwallow. The glottis, by its dilatation and contrac¬
tion, modulates the voice. See Anatomy, n° 380.
GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrid.
Gloves, with refpeft to commerce, are didinguifhed
into leathern-gloves, filk-gloves, thread-gloves, cotton-
gloves, worded-gloves, &c. Leathern-gloves are
made of chamois, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c.
To throw the glove, was a praftice or ceremony
very ufual among Our forefathers; being the challenge*
whereby another was defied to fingle combat. —It is
dill retained at the coronation of our kings ; when
the king’s champion cads his glove in Wedminder-
hall. See Champion.
Favyn fuppofes the cudom to have arofe from the
eadern nations, who in all their fales and deliveries of
lands, goods, &e. ufed to give the purchafer their
glove by way of livery or invediture. To this effeft
he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrjfe
calls glove, what the common verfion renders by Jhoe.
He adds, that the Rabbins interpret by glove, that
paffage in the cviiith Pfalm, In I dim a am extendam
CMlcsapientwn
G L O [ 3331 ] G L U
calc came fit urn meumy “ Over JMcw will I caft out my
flioe.”—Accordingly, among us, be who lookup the
glove, declared thereby his acceptance of the chal¬
lenge ; and as a part of the ceremony, continues Fa-
vyn, took the glove off his own right-hand, and cad
it upon the ground, to be taken up by the challenger.
This had the force of a mutual engagement on each
fide, to meet at the time and place which fhould be
appointed by the king, parliament, or judges.—The
fame author afferts, that the cuftom which Itill obtains
of blefiing gloves in the coronation of the kings of
France, is a remain of the eaftern pra&ice of giving
poffefiion with the glove, 1. xvi. p. 1017, &c.
Anciently it was prohibited the judges to wear
gloves on the bench. And at prefent in the ftables of
mod princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling
off the gloves.
GLOW-worm, a fmall infedf, remarkable for its
fhining in the dark. See Cicindela.
The male and female of this fpecies differ greatly
from each other. The male has wings, and is a fmall
fly : the female has no wings, but is a large crawling
worm.—The body of the male is oblong, and fome-
what flatted ; the wings are fhorter than the body ;
the head is broad, dun, and flat; the eyes are large
and black. This has no light iffuing from it, and is
not commonly fuppofed to be at all akin to the glow¬
worm. The female is what we exprefsly call by this
name. Thisisaveryflow-pacedanimal,fomewhatrefem-
bling a caterpillar : the head is fmall, flat, hard, blatk,
and fharp towards the mouth. It has fhort antennae,
and fix moderately long legs. The body is flat, and
is compofed of twelve rings, whereas the body of the
male confilts only of five. It is of a dufky colour,
with a ftreak of white down the back. It is often
feen in the day-time, but is not known till dark ; at
which time it is eafily diftinguifhed by the glowing
light, or lambent flame, that is feen near the tail, if-
i'uiqg from the under part of the body. It is com¬
monly met with under hedges; and if carefully taken
up may be kept alive many days upon frefh turfs of
grafs, all which time it will continue to fhine in the
dark.
The light of this little infeft is fo ftrong, that it
will fhew itfelf through feveral fubftances in which the
creature may be put up ; a thin pill-box eafily fhews
it through, and even though lined with paper the
light is not impeded by both. The creature is flug-
gifh, and appears dead in the day-time ; and its light
is not diltinguifhable even if carried into a darkened
ropm, unlefs the creature be turned upon its back and
diflurbed, fo as to be put in motion, and then it ii,
but very faint: after fun-fet the light returns, and
with it the life and motion of the creature. The mo¬
tion and light of this infedt indeed feem in feme mea-
fure to depend upon one another : it never fhines but
when its body is in fome fort of motion ; and when it
fhines moft, the body is extended to one third more
than its length in the day-time. In the time of bright-
eft fhining it will fometimes of a hidden turn its body
about, and the light will not be longer than the head
of a pin ; and, on being touched, flic will then imme¬
diately extend herfelf, and the light will become as
large and as bright as ever.
Flying Glow •Worm, (cicindda volans.) In the war¬
mer months of the year, this creature is fometimes
caught in our houfes flying to the flame of a candle ;
and examined in the dark is found to be luminous at
thefe times, tho’ perhaps lefs or not at all fo at others;
which may be a reafon of its not being known though
caught in the fields; and to this it may be owing,
that many who have deferibed this creature, have
thought it not a native of Britain. Without wings, it is
frequently enough found in form of the common glow¬
worm, and then always fliines. Aldrovandus informs
us, that it lays eggs which in a fhort time hatch fmall
worms ; and that thefe afterwards become flies, by
the fame fort of change which happens to butterflies
and other fpecies of winged infetls. Mouffet, and
Thomas Bartholine, give much the fame defeription
with Aldrovandus, but allow the male only to have
wings. Julius Scaliger, however, corUradi&s this,
and affirms that he has caught them both winged in
the aft of generation ; but this is not acknowledged
even by all thofe who have quoted the abovementioned
paffage from Scaliger. Mr Waller, in the philofophi-
cal tranfaftions, confirms Scaliger’s account, having
obfervtd them in the fame manner in the aft of copu¬
lation both winged ; only with this difference, that
the female was the larger of the two, which is the
cafe with many other inftfts. The male and female
in this winged ftate both fhine in hot weather, and
their light is fo vivid that it may eafily be feen even
when there is a candle in the room. The vibrations
of this light are irregular, and its colour greehifh.
The luminous parts are two fmall fpecks under the
tail at the end, and the light continues in thefe fome
time after the tail is cut off; but then gradually goes
out. The parts of infefts continue alive in fome de¬
gree for a confiderable time after they are feparated
from the reft; of the body ; and probably the light of
the tail of this animal continues juft as long as this
fort of life remains in it.
The ufe of this light feems to be to direft the ani¬
mal in its courfe, and in the taking of its prey ; and
to this purpofe it is admirably placed. The tail is
eafily bent under<he belly, and then throws the light
full upon any objeft about or under the head of the ani¬
mal ; and the eyes are placed, not on the upper part,
but on the under fide of the head; fo that they have
all the advantages of it, while the light in this part is
not offenfive to the eyes, as it naturally would have
been if carried before the head. Upon occafion the
infeft can cover this light, fo that its enemies cannot
take the advantage in order to purfue it.
The infeft is of the beetle kind, of a brown ©r
dufky colour. It has hard cafe or fhell wings, as the
other beetles have ; and, when thefe are expanded,
there appears a pair of very large membranaceous ones.
Its head is covered with a fort of fhield or broad-
brimmed bat; under this hat are placed the eyes,
which are black and large, and are. moveable, fo that
the creature can upon oecafibn thruft them forward to
the fules of the hat or covering of the head. It has
two hairy antennte ; and its legs are like thofe of the
common fly, hard, fhelly, and hairy. Its eyes afford
an elegant object for the microfcope, being compofed
of an infinite number of lenfes, like thofe of the libellae
and other infefts.
GLUKSTADT, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Germany,
G L U [ 3332 ] G L U
Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy
of HoUtein, with a Itrong caitle, and fubject to Den¬
mark. It is feated on the river Elbe, near is mouth ;
E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 52. 53.
GLUE, among artificers, a tenacious vifcid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or conned! things to¬
gether.
Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari¬
ous ufes they are defigned for, as the common glue,
glove-glue, and parchment-glue; whereof the two laft
are more properly called Jize.
The common or ftrong glue is chiefly nfed by car¬
penters, joiners, cabinet-makers, fac.
It is made of the fkins of animals, as oxen, cows,
calves, fheep, fee.; and the older the creature is,
the better is the glue made of its hide. Indeed whole
fkins are but rarely ufed for this purpofe, but only
the fhavings, parings, or feraps of them; or the feet-
finev.s, &c. That made of whole fkins, however, is
undoubtedly the bed ; as that made of linews is the
very worlt.
The Method of Making Glue. In making glue of
parings, they firft deep them two or three days in wa¬
ter : then, wafhing them well out, they boil them to
the confidence of a thick jelly ; which they pafs, while
hot, through ozier-baikets, to feparate the impurities
from it ; and then let it dand fome time, to purify it
further : when all the filth and ordures are fettled to
the bottom of the veflel, they melt and boil it a fe-
cond time. They next pour it into flat frames or
moulds ; whence it is taken out pretty hard and folid,
and cut into fquares pieces or cakes. They after¬
wards dry it in the wind, in a fort of coarfe net; and
at lad dring it, to finifh its drying.
The glue made of finews, feet, &c. is managed
after the fame manner; only with this difference, that
they bone and fcour- the feet, and do not lay them to
deep. %
Of this commodity there is a very great exporta¬
tion from England ; the Englifh glue being univer-
fally allowed to be the bed in Europe, partly from
the excellency of the materials, and partly from the
fkill of the manufadlurers. Next to this is the Flanders
glue. In both countries it is made by the tanners
from fragments of good fkins dried with much care.
In France it is a feparate trade: and the glue-makers
pick up their materials as they can, from the feveral
dealers in fkins, and boiling thefe with cow-heels make
their glue; which as they purchafe every thing, mud
render it dear, as well as of an inferior quality. The
duty on exportation is ten-pence, and on importation
three {hillings and ten-pence, on every hundred weight.
The bed glue is that which is made from the {kin
of the olded bead, efpecially if a bull’s hide is ufed.
Experience likewife fhews that glue is confiderably
improved in quality by keeping after it is made ; and
the fared way to try its goodnefs is to lay a piece to
deep three or four days, and if it fwell confiderably
without melting, and when taken out refumes its
former drinefs, it is excellent.
A glue that will hold againd fire or water, it is
faid, may be made thus : Mix a handful of quicklime
with four ounces of lintfeed oil; boil them to a good
thicknefs : then fpread it on tin-plates in the fhade,
and it will become exceeding hard, but may be eafily
diffolved over a fire, as glue, and will effedl the bu-
finefs to admiration.
Neumann obferves, that glue diffolved in a folution
of lapis calaminaris in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards
infpiffated, forms an extremely flippery tenacious mafs,
which might be of ufe for entangling flies, caterpil¬
lars, and other infedts, if it was not too expenlive.
Method of Preparing and Ufing Glue. Set a quart
of water on the fire, then put in about half a pound
of good glue, and boil them gently together till the
glue be entirely diffolved and of a due confidence.
When glue is.to be ufed, it mud be made thoroughly
hot ; after which, with a brufh dipped in it, befmear
the faces of the joints as quick as poflible : then clap¬
ping them together, Hide or rub them lengthwife one
upon another, two or three times, to fettle them clofe ;
and fo let them dand till they are dry and firm.—Mr
Boyle gives a receipt for preparing a fine drong glue
from ifinglafs in the following manner: Steep the ifin-
glafs for 24 hours in common brandy. When the
mendruum has opened and mollified the ifinglafs, they
mud be gently boiled together, and kept dirring till
they appear well mixed, and till a drop thereof, fuf-
fered to cool, turns into a drong jelly. Then drain
it, whild hot, through a clean linen-cloth, into a vef-
fel to be kept clofe flopped. A gentle heat fuffices
to diffolve this glue into a tranfparent and almoft co-
lourlefs fluid, but very ftrong ; fo that pieces of wood
glued together with it will feparate elfewhere rather
than in the place where they are joined. See Isin¬
glass.
GLUME, Ghana, among botanifts. See Bota¬
ny, p. 1293.
GLUTvEUS, in anatomy. See there, Table of
the mufcles.
GLYCINE, KNOBBED-ROOTED LIQUORICE-VETCH ;
a genus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadel-
phia clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies com¬
monly cultivated in our gardens, viz. the frutefeens,
Or iQarolina kidney-bean tree. This hath fhrubby
climbing dalks, twining round any fupport, 15 or 20.
feet high, adorned with pinnated leaves of three pair
of follicles terminated by an odd one, and from the
axillas cluders of large hluifh-purple flowers, fucceed-
ed by long pods like thofe of the elimbing kidney-
bean. It flowers in June and July, but the feeds do
not ripen in this country. It is eafily propagated, ei¬
ther by feeds imported from America, where it is na¬
tive, or by layers.—The ftalks and roots of the abrus*
another fpecies of glycine which grows in Egypt and
the Indies, are very fweet to the tafte. Herman af¬
firms that the juice obtained from them by deco&ion
is little inferior to liquorice ; whence its hame of <wild-
liquorice in thofe parts of America where it is native.
GLYCYRRHIZZA, Liuqorice ; a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies. 1. The glabra, or
common liquorice, hath a long, thick, creeping root,
ftriking feveral feet deep into the ground ; upright,
firm, herbaceous ftalks annually, three or four feet
high, garnifhed with winged leaves of four or five pair
of oval lobes, terminated by an odd one ; and from
the axillas eredl fpikes of pale blue flowers in July,
fucceeded by fhort fmooth pods.
The root of this is the ufeful part, which is replete
with
G L Y [ 3333 ] G N A
* Glycyr- with a fweet, balfamic, ptSoral juice, much ufed in
h'23- all compofitions for coughs and diforders of the fto-
mach. 2. The echinata, or prickly-poded liquorice, is
nearly like the common fort, only the feed-pods are
prickly.
Both thefe fpecies are very hardy perennials ;
but the firfb is the fort commonly cultivated for
ufe, its roots being fuller of juice and fweeter than
the other.
The roots are perennial; but the ftalks rife in fpring,
and decay in autumn.
They delight in a deep light foil, in which the
roots will run down three or four feet deep, and at-
H tain a large fize, if permitted to ftand three or four
years. From the main root fmaller ones run off
Horizontally ; and from thefe horizontal roots, that
I run near the furface, cuttings for fets or young plants
are taken for propagation, which are generally pro¬
cured at the time when the liquorice is taken up for
ufe, being fit in three years after planting.
Where large quantities are required for fale, they
may be cultivated in fields, as pradifed in many parts
of England; vail quantities are alfo raifed in the
kitchen-gardens about London, where, by the rich-
nefs and depth of the ground, the roots attain their
utmoft perfeftion in length and bulk.
The length and thicknefs of the roots is a princi¬
pal confideration to the planter, as they are always
fold by weight.
Propagation and culture. Their propagation is, as
above obferved, effefted by cuttings of the fmall roots
iffuing from the fides of the main ones, near the fur-
face of the earth, -dividing them into lengths of fix
or eight inches, each having one or more good buds
or .eyes ; and the proper feafon for procuring the fets
for planting is, any time, in open weather, from Oc¬
tober till March, though from the middle of Febru¬
ary till the middle of March is rather the moll fuc-
cefsful feafon for planting.
An open fituation is the moft fuitable for a planta¬
tion of thefe plants.
Particular regard Ihould alfo be had to the foil: it
ought to be of a light, loofe temperature, and three
or four feet deep if pofiible ; for the roots of the li¬
quorice will arrive at that depth and more, and the
longer the roots the more valuable they are for fale
by weight.
Having fixed on the ground, let it be trenched three
fpades deep, if the depth of proper foil will admit ;
then having your fets ready, proceed to plant them by
1 line and dibble, planting the fets a foot difiance in
each row ; putting them perpendicular into the ground,
with the tops about an inch under the furface; and let
the rows be a foot and a half afunder; though the
London gardeners feldom allow more than twelve
inches between row and row. Thefe gardeners alfo fow
a crop of onions on the fame ground the -firfi year;
which, as the onions root but (lender, and fpread but
little at top, may be done without any detriment to
the liquorice, nor that to the onions, as it does not
rife above ten or twelve inches high the firft fummer;
obferving to keep the ground clean from weeds during
that feafon by hoeing. If there is a crop of oni¬
ons, ufe the fmall hoe, cutting out the onions to four
or five inches dillance, clearing away fuch as grow
Vol. V.
immediately clofe to the liquorice plants; and when Gljcyr-
the onions are gathered, give the ground a thorough ^‘ZA
hoeing with a large hoe, to loofen the furface and de- G J
ftroy all weeds effe£tually ; and in autmn cut down the a"
decayed (talks of the liquorice, and nothing more is   
neceffary to be done till fpring ; when, in February
or March, give a (light digging between the rows;
during fpring and futnrner, keep down all weeds
by broad-hoeing ; and in autumn, when the ftalks are
in a decaying (late, cut them down to the furface of
the earth.
In three years after planting, the roots of the li¬
quorice will be fit to take up : and the proper feafon
for this is, any time from the beginning of November
till February ; for it (hould neither be taken up before
the ftalks are fully decayed, nor deferred till late in
fpring, otherwife the roots will be apt to fhrivel and
diminifti in weight.
In taking them up, the fmall fide-roots are trim¬
med oft, and the bed divided into lengths for freftr fets,
and the main roots are tied in bundles ready for fale. It
is of advantage to fell them as foon as pofiible after they
are taken up, before they loofe much of their weight.
They are fold to the druggifts, from about twenty to
thirty or forty (hillings per hundred weight, and 'an
acre of ground has produced three thoufand and up¬
wards, which has been fold for more than iixty pounds
but the price is commonly in proportion to the good-
nefs of the roots.
The common liquorice is cultivated in moft coun¬
tries of Europe for the fake of its root. That which
is cultivated in Britain is preferable to fuch as comes
from abroad ; this laft being generally mouldy, which
this root is very apt to become, unlefs kept in a dry
place. The powder of liquorice ufually fold is often
mingled with flour, and probably too often with fub-
ftances not quite fo wholefome ; the bed fort is of a
brownifti yellow colour (the fine pale yellow being ge¬
nerally fophifticated), and of a very rich fw'eet tafte,
much more agreeable than that of the frefh root. Li¬
quorice is almoft the only fweet that quenches third ;
whence it was called by the Greeks adipfon. Galen
takes notice, that it was employed in this intention in
hydropic cafes, to prevent the necefiity of drinking.
Mr Fuller, in his Medicina Gymnajlica, recommends
this root as a very ufeful pectoral ; and fays it excel¬
lently foftens acrimonious humours, at the fame time
that it proves gently detergent: and this account is
warranted by experience. An extraft is dire&ed to
be made from it in the (hops; but this preparation is
chiefly brought from abroad, though the foreign ex¬
tract is not equal to fuch as is made with proper care
among ourfelves.
GLYPH, in fculpture and archite&ure, denotes
any canal or cavity ufed as an ornament.
GNAPHALIUM, cudweed, goldy-locks, e-
ternal flower, &c. a genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. There are 41 fpecies; the moft remarkable
of which are, 1. The margaritaceum, or pearly
white eternal flower, hath creeping, very fpreading
roots, crowned with broad, fpear-lhaped, white, hoary
leaves ; heibaceous, thick, woplly ftalks, a foot and
an half high, branching 'outward, garuilhed with
long acute pointed white woolly leaves, and termina¬
ls D ted
G N A [ 33.
Unapha- ted by a corymbofe clutter of yellowifh flowers, which
iii’m, appear in June and July, and are very ornamental.
G"atl 2. The plantaginifolium, hath large woolly radical
leaves, decumbent running roots, and herbaceous
Ample ftalks, rifing fix or eight inches high, termina¬
ted by a corymbus of white flowers in June, July,'
&c. 3. The ftaschas hath a flirubby ftalk, dividing
into {lender branches three feet long, terminated by
corymbofe clutters of yellow flowers, appearing in
May and June. 4. The orientale, or oriental goldi¬
locks, hath three varieties, with yellow, gold-coloured,
and white filvery flowers. They have flmibby ftalks,
rifing two or three feet high. 5. The odoratiffimum,
or fweet-fcented eternal flower, hath flirubby winged
ftalks, branching irregularly a yard high, with corym¬
bofe clutters of bright yellow flowers, changing to a
dark yellow. 6. The arboreum, or tree gnaphalium,
hath a woody Item, branching four or five feet high,
narrow feflllc leaves, with revolute borders, fmooth
on their upper fide, and roundifli bunches of pale
yellow flowers.
The firft three forts are hardy, and will thrive in
any foil or fituation. The two firli increafe exceeding¬
ly by their roots; and the third is eafily propagated
by flips. The fourth, fifth, and fixth forts are fome-
what tender ; and therefore fhould be kept in pots, to
be ftieltered in a green-houfe or garden-frame in
winter. Others may be planted in the full ground,
in a dry and warm fituation, efpecially the oriental
kind and varieties, and likewife the fweet-fcented
kind; for thefe two fpecies will druggie tolerably
through an ordinary winter, and make a pretty ap¬
pearance during the fummer-months. All thefe are
propagated by flips, or cuttings of their fhoots.—The
flowers of all thefe fpecies are remarkable for retain¬
ing their beauty for years, if carefully gathered in a
dry day, foon after they are blown.
GNAT, in zoology. See Musca.
There is no fpecies of infefts fo particularly trouble-
fome to mankind as the gnats. Others give more
pain with their flings, but it is only by accident that
we are ftruck by them ; but the gnats thirft for our
Mood, and follow us about in whole companies for it.
There are many marfhy places in our country where
the legs and arms are all the fummer fwelled to an e-
normous fize by the bitings of thefe infefts, and in
many other countries they are yet more troubleiome
than with us.
All the naturalifts have of late years employed the
microfcope fo examine the parts of this little animal;
and Swammerdam, Hooke, Bonanni, Lewenhoek, &c.
have given very good accounts and very valuable
drawings of the creature.
The trunk of the gnat, or the inftrument with
■which it ftrikes the flefli and fucks the blood from ani¬
mal bodies, is of a very curious conftruefion. The
piercer, or, more properly, the piercers of this inftru-
ment are all entirely hid in the (heath of the inftru¬
ment which makes what we call the trunk, and is the
only part naturally offered to our view. This trunk
appears to be cylindric in the greateft part of its
length ; and is covered with fcales not unlike thofe
on the nerves of the creature’s wings, and refembling
fmall leaves. Near its end it has a little fwelling, where
there is an oblong button broader at its infertion than
14 ] G N A
at its point : the end of this button is furnifired with Gnat,
an aperture out of which the creature occafionaliy r *
thrufts a fine point. Many naturalifts have obferved
this point. Swammerdam confidered it as a fingle
pointed body formed to pierce the {kin ; but Lewen¬
hoek difcovered that it was made up of a vaft number
of pointed bodies. There is no occafion, however,
for all the accuracy of Swammerdam, nor all the power
of the magnifying-glaffes of Lewenhoek, to difcover
that this is a complex body ; a common fmall magni-
fying glafs and a little attention will at any time dif¬
cover it.
If a gnat is held by the corcelet between the
fingers, and a little fqueezed, the trunk will frequently
be feen to open lengthwife on each fide ; fometimes
only a little way, at others almoft its whole length ;
and a fine gloffy reddiflr filament {hews itfelf at the
opening of this cafe. This filament is bent and
turned inwards, and one very foon diftingniflies that
it is indeed a congeries of a great number of filaments:
thefe one may eafily feparate in fome meafure, from
one another by any pointed inftrument ; and very
often the filament of itfelf feparates into feveral in the
bending. It is plain, therefore, that the inftrument
deftined to pierce the (kin and fuck the blood is of a
complex ftruclure; that what we might naturally take
for this inftrument, is only its cafe or {heath; and that
this cafe or (heath, inftead of a plain cylindric body
is really a compofition of two femi-cylindric ones,
which the animal has the power of feparating from
one another on proper occafions.
The beft way to get a regular fight of the trunk
of this creature and of the manner of ufing it, is to
fuffer a gnat to fettle upon the -hand, and not to dif-
turb him in the operation; but, with a magnifying
glafs in the other hand, to obferve all his motions.
In this cafe, we may firft obferve a fmall and {lender
point thruft out of the cafe, and the animal try feveral
different parts of the (kin with this (harp inftrument.
When this is done, it choofes that part which is moil ea¬
fily pierced, and where there lies a veffel underneath ca¬
pable of furnifhing as much blood as it will have occa¬
fion to fuck. As foon as it has made its choice, the
wound is immediately given : and fince the point of the
compound piercer cannot be protruded fo far out of the
cafe as it is neceffary it (hould be to ftrike to a proper
depth, the ufe of the flit in this cafe is feen ; for
while the button at the end of this remains firmly ap¬
plied to the orifice of the wound, where the piercer
is introduced, and fupports that feeble and delicate
inftrument from bending, the cafe opens at the flit,
and its two fides bend to give room to the piercer to
penetrate ; and, at length, when the piercer is funk
to its utmoft depth, the two extremities of each piece
touch, and the two fides are brought clofe together.
The feveral fpecies of gnats have great variety in
their trunks. One of them deferves to be remarked,
is having no need of the button at the end of the cafe,
common to all the reft, to fupport it while it enters
the flefli. This has a cafe on which it refts itfelf as
on a feventh leg ; from which it darts a piercer,
which without any fupport is of fufncient ttrength
to penetrate the flefli, and do its office for the ani¬
mal. This fpecies of gnat has two very long beards
placed above its trunk, and terminated by an end co¬
vered
G N A [ 3335 ] G N A
Gnat.' vered with white fcales. What remains of thefe beards
"is covered with brown fcales, the body of the gnat
alfo is brown, and the corcelet reddith.
Though it is eafy to find that the trunk of a gnat
is compofed of feveral pieces, yet it is by no means fo
eafy to fay what the precife number of them is. The
beft microfcopes often (hew the whole a (ingle body,
its feveral parts being fo extremely well joined ; and
when they have been found to be more than one, it is
yet extremely difficult to fay how many they are.
Lewenhoeck believed them to be four in number; and
Swammerdam, who at firft believed the whole to be a
fingle filament, afterwards thought he difcovered fix
pieces going to its compofition.
After feparating the piercer of the gnat wholly from
its (heath, if it be cut tranfverfely near its bafe, or
infertion in the head, and the fe&ion laid upon the
plate of a microfcope, and there touched with an ex¬
tremely fine pointed inftrument, it may be divided
into four, and fometimes into five feparate pieces.
Two of thefe may be often feen to come out of a third
as out of a canal or tube. The feeming neceffity of a
tube in this inftruraent for fucking the blood, has made
many ready to perfuade themfelves that they have
a&ually feen one: but if we follow the analogy of
nature in her other works, we (hall find there is no ab-
folute neceffity for fuch an organization in this part;
fince, in the gad-fly, the feveral pieces of which the
piercer is compofed are of themfelves able to form a
tube for the conveying of the blood.
Out of the immenfe number of gnats that one fees
in fummer, few can have any chance, even once in
their lives, of fucking the Iblood of the larger ani¬
mals ; the reft> however, are by no means doomed
to perpetual famine : the herbs of the field afford them
a fufficient nourifliment; for the gnats, like many
other infefts, are partly carnivorous, and partly other-
wife, feeding equally on flefli and vegetables.
The wings of gnats are of a very curious ftruSure,
and worthy of an attentive obfervation. It is well
known, that, on touching the wings of butterflies, a
coloured powder is left upon the fingers; which, tho’
to the naked eye it appears a mere (hapelefs duft, yet
when examined by the microfcope is found to confift
of beautiful and very regularly figured bodies re-
fembling feathers and fcales. The generality of flies
have nothing of this kind ; but a clofe examination of
the wings of the gnat will (hew that they are not
wholly deftitute of them : they are beftowed much
more fparingly indeed upon the gnat than oh the but¬
terfly ; but they are arranged with great regularity.
The wings of the gnat, like thofe of moll other in¬
fers, are of a cartilaginous fubftance, friable, andtranf-
parent like a flake of talc; and the circumference and
many parts of the inner furface of the wing are ftrength-
ened by (lender but firm ribs, which are divaricated
into feveral ramifications. Thefe appear to us to be
mere (irait fibres ; but they are probably hollow, and
perform the office of veflels for the carrying of fluids
or air neceflary to the fupport of the wing, as well as
to ftrengthen it. In the wings of butterflies there are
fimilar ribs, but they are there all hid by the fcales:
but it is not fo in the gnat; for in its wings, as in
thofe of the other flies, thefe ribs feem naked. The
affifianee of the microfcope, however, (hews that they
are not abfolutely fo in the wings of gnats, but thefe Gnat,
nerves or ribs, with their feveral ramifications, Jbok
like as many (talks of a plant covered with fmall ob¬
long leaves. The feveral .fcales that are attached to
thefe ribs make acute angles with them, and are di-
refted towards the end of the wing. The number of
thefe fcales is very fmall in comparifon with thofe of
the butterfly-clafs ; but they make a (lighter and more
elegant ornament. There are fome fpecies which have
the intermediate fpaces of the wing alfo adorned with
thefe fcales ; but they are in thefe only thinly fent-
teted. The intermediate fpaces of' the wings, when
they have no fcales are finely wrought and pointed;
the inner edges of the wings are always bordered
with, a row of fcales in form of a fringe; which, in
fome fpecies, is compofed of fcales all of the fame fize,
and in others is made up of many various lengths : and
the exterior edge of the wing, which is furrounded by
a rib much thicker and ftronger than the interior, is
not fringed with a feries of fcales, but is befet at pro¬
per diftances with a kind of prickles.
The ordinary fliape of the wings of the gnats is that
of an oblong battledoor, one end of which is broader
and the other more pointed. The narrower end is
that from which goes the fialk by which it adheres to
the rib. The other end is fometimes more, fometimes
lef$ round, and is fometimes a little hollowed in the
middle. Some of thefe are much longer in proportion
to their breadth than others ; and fome of them have
their extremity formed into an open crefcent. All
have a number of fine lines running longitudinally
through the whole feale.
GnhT-JVorm, in natural hiftory, a fmall aquatic
infe& produced from the egg of a gnat, and which is
after its feveral changes again transformed into a gnat.
Thefe worms do not frequent rivers, but ditches,
ponds, and other ftagnant waters; where they are
found in vaft abundance f-om the middle of May
till towards the beginning of winter. This is tire rea-
fon why watery and marfliy places are found moft to
abound with gnats, and why the wet fummers are
found to produce the greateft numbers of them ; be-
caufe in dry feafons the ponds and ditches where they
are to pafs their worm-ftate are dried up, and the worms
killed. Thefe are creatures, however, that one need
not go far to feek ; fince one need only expofe a vef-
fel of water in a garden, or any open place, in the fum¬
mer time, and fooner or later it will not fail to pto-
duce plenty of them.
Before they arrive at their full growth, though
they are then but fraall, they are eafily found ; be-
caufe they are under a neceffity of coming often to
the top of the water by having oceafion for frequent
refpiration; and to do this, they are obliged to keep
the end of a fmall pipe they are furnifhed with from the
laft ring of their body above water. The end of this
pipe is hollow and indented, and forms a fort of fun¬
nel upon the furface of the water. It is of the length
of about three rings of the body, and is fomewhat
thicker at its infertion than at its extremity.
The worm is of the third clafs of thofe which are
transformed into two-winged flies: that is, it has no
legs, and has a head of a conftant and invariable
figure; and has no teeth or moveable jaws formed to
play againft one another. Their body is long, and their
19 D 2 head
G N O [ 3336 ] GOA
Gnat bead is foraewbat detached from the firfl ring, to
!! which it is fattened by a fort of neck. This firtt ring
Gnomon. ^ t|ie ]ongC{j- ancj ]argeft 0f a])} and feems a fort of
corcelet to the worm. The creature has eight rings
befides this. Thefe grow fmaller as they approach
the hinder extremity.
While the worm is young, the body is whitifh
or greenifh; but when it' is at its full growth, and
draws near the time of its change, it becomes greyith.
The great tranfparency of the body of this worm
gives a fine view of what pafies within it ; and it is at
any time eafy to fee the motion of the inteftines by
which the food is pufhed on towards the anus. The
two principal tracheae are alfo feen very diitindtly in
this creature. They are two white tubes placed in a
dire&ion parallel to one another, and run from the
firft ring to the tube of refpiration.
This worm feveral times changes its flun in
the courfe of its life. After three changes of this
kind,; which ufually happen in the fpace of three
weeks, it undergoes a fourth, in which the old {kin is
as eafily thrown off as before ; but the animal now
appears in a new form, viz. that of a nymph. It is
now fiiorter and rounder than before; and the body is
fo bent, that the tail is now applied to the under part
of the head: this, however, is only its form in a vo¬
luntary (late of reft, for it can yet move; and, when
it pleafes, extends its tail, and fwims as fwiftly as be¬
fore.
All the parts of the future gnat may be feen in this
nymph ; the (kin of it is extremely thin and tranfpa-
rent, yet fufficiently tough and firm for the ufe for
which it is intended. It is uncertain how long the
animal lives in this nymph ftate; but after the
time is accompliftied, its change into the gnat is very
quick, and attended with great danger to the animal,
fince multitudes of them are drowned in the aft of
getting out.
GNESNA, a large and ftrong town of Great Po¬
land, of which it is capital, and in the palatinate of
Califti, with an archbiftiop’s fee, whofe prelate is pri¬
mate of Poland, and viceroy during the vacancy of
the throne. It was the firft town built in the king¬
dom, and formerly more confiderable than at pre-
fent. E. Lon. 18.20. N. Lat. 52. 28.
GNOMES, gnomi, certain imaginary beings, who,
according to the cabbalifts, inhabit the inner parts of
the earth. They are fuppofed fmall in ftature, and
the guardians of quarries, mines, &c. See Fairy.
GNOMON, in dialling, the ftyle, pin, or cock of
a dial; which, by its ftiadow, (hews the hour of the
day. The gnomon of every dial reprefents the axis of
the world. See Dial and Dialling. The word is
Greek, which literally implies fomething
that makes a thing known ; by reafon that the ftyle
or pin indicates or makes the hour known.
Gnomon, in geometry. If, in a parallelogram
ABCD (PI. CXL. fig-8. n°i.) the diameter AC
be drawn; alfo two lines EE, HI, paraHel to the
fides of the parallelogram, and cutting the diameter in
one and the fame point G, fo that the parallelogram
is, by thefe parallels, divided into four parallelograms;
then are the two parallelograms DG, BG, through
which the diameter does not pafs, called complements;
thofe through which the diameters pafs,. EH, FI,
are called the parallelograms about the diameter; and a Gnomon i
gnomon confifts of the two complements, and either of ’)
the parallelograms about the diameter, viz. GD-i-HE j
-f-EI, or GD+FI+GB.
Gnomon, in aftronomy, a ftyle ere&ed perpendicu¬
lar to the horizan, in order to find the altitude of the
fun. Thus, in the right-angled triangle ABC are
given, AB the length of the ftyle, BC the length of
its ftiadbw, and the right angle AB C. Hence, ma¬
king CB the radius, we have this analogy for finding
the angle ACB, the fun’s altitude, viz. BC ; AB : :
radius: tangent of the angle C.
By means of a gnomon, the fun’s meridian altitude,
and confequently the latitude of the place, may be
found more exaftly than with the fmaller quadrants.
See Quadrant.
By the fame inftrument the height of any objeft
GH may be found: for as D F, the diftance of the
obferver’s eye from the gnomon, is to D E, the height
of the ftyb; fo is EH, the diftance of the obferver’s
eye from the objeft, to GH, its height.
Gnomon of a Globe; the index of the hour-circle-.
GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dial¬
ling,
GNOSTICS, (from the Greek ^vaentu, / know,)
in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics fo called; it being
a name which almoft all the ancient heretics affefted
to take, that they might exprefs the new knowledge
and extraordinary light to which they made preten-
fions.
St Epiphanius aferibes the origin of the Gnoftics
to Simon Magus; and fays, that they acknowledged
two principles, a good and a bad. They fuppofed
there were eight different heavens, each of which was
governed by its particular prince. The prince of
the feventh heaven, whom they named Sabaoth,
created the heavens and the earth, the fix heavens be¬
low him, and a great number of angels. In the eighth
heaven they placed their Barbelo or Barbero, whom
they fometimes called the father, and fometimes the
mother, of the univerfe. All the Gnoftics diftinguiftied
the creator of the univerfe from God who made him-
felf known to men by his fon, whom they acknow- • |
ledged to be the Chrift. They denied that the Word
was made fiefh; and aflerted that Jefus Chrift was not
born of the Virgin Mary; that he had a body only
in appearance, and that he did not fuffer in reality..
They neither believed a refurre&ion nor a judgment
to come; but imagined that thofe who had been in-
ftrudted In their maxims would return into the world,
and pafs into the bodies of hogs, and other like ani¬
mals. They had feveral apocryphal books, as the
Gofpel of St Philip; the Revelation of Adam; the
Gofpel of Perfetthn, &c.
GOA, a large and ftrong town of Afia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the Malabar
coaft. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1508, and
is the chief town of all the fettlements the Europeans
have in India. It Hands in an ifland about 12 mihs,
in length, and fix in breadth; and the city is built on
the north fide of it, having the convenieney of a fine
fak-water river, capable of receiving (hips of the
greateft burthen, where they lie within a mile of the
town. The banks of the river are beautified with a
great number of handfome ftruftures; fuch as churches*
caftleiy
GOD [ 3337 ] GOD
Goa caftles, and gentlemen’s houfes. The air within the
town is unwholefome, for which reafoh it is not fo well
' inhabited now as it was formerly. The ’viceroy’s palace
is a noble building ; and (lar ds at a fmall didance from
the. river, over one of the gates ofthe city, which leads
to a fpacious dreet, terminated by a beautiful church.
This city contains a great numberof handfome churches,
convents, and cloiders, with a dately large hofpital;
all well endowed, and kept in good repair. The
market-place takes up an acre of ground; and in the
drops about it may be had the produce of Europe,
China, Bengal, and other countries of lefs note. 'Every
church has a. fet of bells, fome of which are continu¬
ally ringing. Their religion is the Roman Catholic,
and they have a fevere inquitition. There are a great
many Indian converts ; but they generally retain
fome of jheir old cudoms, particularly they cannot be
brought to eat beef. However, there are many Gen-
toos in the city, who are tolerated, becaufe they are
more indtidrious than the Chridians, and better art ills.
The clergy are very numerous, and illiterate; but the
churches are finely embellifhed, and have great num¬
bers of images. The houfes are large, and make a
fine (hew; but within they are but poorly furnifhed.
The inhabitants are contented with greens, fruits, and
roots; which, with a little Bread, rice, and fi(h, is
their principal diet, though they Lave hogs and fowls
in plenty. However, they are very much addifled to
women; and are generally weak, lean, and feeble.
Captain HarrPilton ftood on a hill near the city, and
counted above 80 churches, convents, and monaileries;
and he was told, that there were about 30,000 prieds
and monks. The body of St Francis Xavier is buried
in St Paul’s church ; and, as they pretend, performs
a great many miracles. It is remarkable, that none
of the churches, except one, have glafs windows; for
they make ufe of clear oyder-fliells inftead of glafs,
and all their fine houfes have the fame. Goa itfelf
has few manufactures or productions ; their bed trade
being in arrack. The river’s mouth is defended
by feveral forts and batteries, well planted with large
cannon on both fides; and there are feveral other forts
in different places. It is 250 miles N. by W. of Co¬
chin. E. Lon. 74. o. N. Lat. 15. 31.
GOAL. See Gaol.
GOAT, in zoology. See Capra.
QoAT’s-Beatd, in botany. See Tragopogon.
Goat-Suckert in ornithology. See Caprimul-
gus.
GOBELIN (Giles), a famous French dyer, in the
reign of Francis I. difcovered a method of dying a
beautiful fcarlet, and his name has been given everfince
to the fined French fcarlets. His houfe, in the fuburb
of St Marcel at Paris, and the river he made ufe of,
are dill called the Gobelins. An academy for drawing,
and a manufactory of fine tapeftries, were ereCted in
this quarter in 1666; for which reafon the tapeftries
are called the. Gobelins.
GOBIUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of thoracici. They have two holes
between the eyes, four rays in the membrane of the
gills, and the belly-fins are united in an oval form.
There are eight fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by
the number of rays in their fins.
GOD, one of the many names of the Supreme
Being. See Christianity ; Metaphysics, n° 6. Goddard
222 - 230. ; and Moral Philosophy, n° 161, &r. iJ
GODDARD (Jonathan), an eminent phvfician Godtrgy-
and chemift, and one of the firft promoters of the
Royal Society, was born about the year 1617. He
was eleCled a fellow of the college of phyficians in
1646, and appointed reader of the anatomical leCture
in that college in 1647. As he took part againfl
Charles I. accepted the wardenfliip of Merton-college,
Oxford, from Oliver Cromwell when chancellor, and
fat foie reprefentative of that univerfity in Cromwell’s
parliament, he was removed from his wardenftiip in a
manner difgraceful to him by Charles II. He was
however then profeffor of phyfic at Grefliam college,
to which he retired, and continued to attend thofc
meetings that gave birth to the Royal Society ; upon
the firft eftablifhment of which, he was nominated one
of the council. Being fully perfuaded that the pre¬
paration of medicines was no lefs the phyfician’s duty
than.the prefcrihing them, he conftantly prepared his
own; and in 1668 publifhed a treatife recommending
his example to general praClice. He died of an apo-
pleCtic fit in 1674; and h*s memory was preferred by
the drops that bore his name, otherwife called Guttte
Anglican#, the fecret of which he fold to Charles II.
for 50001. and which Dr Lifter aflures us was
only the volatile fpirit of raw iilk reClified with oil of
cinnamon or fome other eftential oil. But he claims
more particular regard, if what bifiiop Seth Ward fays
be true, that he was the firft Englifhman who made
that noble aftronomical inftrument, the telefcope.
GODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex.
The ancients had almoft as many goddefles as gods:
fuch were, Juno the goddefs of air, Diana the goddefs
of woods, &c. and under this charafter were reprefented
the virtues, graces, and principal advantages of life;
truth, juftice, piety, liberty, fortune, vidlory, &e.
It was the peculiar privilege of the goddefles to be
reprefented naked on medals ; for it was fuppofed that
the imagination muft. be aw'ed and reftrained by the
confideration of the divine chara&er.
GODEAU (Anthony), biftiop of Grafle and Vence
in France, was born at Dreux in 1605. He was a
very voluminous writer, both in profe and verfe; but
his principal works are, 1. An ecclefiajiical hijiory,
3 vols. folio, containing the firft eight centuries only,
as he never finiftied more. 2. Tranflation of the Pfalms
into French verfe; which was fo well approved, that
even thofe of the reformed religion preferred it to that
of Marat. He died in 1671.
GODFATHERS and Godmothers, perfons
who, at the baptifm of infants, anfwer for their
future conduft, and folemnly promife that they will
renounce the devil and all his works, and follow a life
of piety and virtue; and by this means lay themfelvea
under an indifpenfable obligation to inftrudt them, and
watch over their condudl.
This cuftom is of great antiquity in the Chriftian
church; and was probably inftituted to prevent chil¬
dren being brought up in idolatry, in cafe their parents
died before they arrived at years of difcretion.
The number of godfathers and godmothers is re¬
duced to two, in the church of Rome; and three, in
the church of England; but formerly they had as
many as they pleafed.
GODFREY
GOD [ 3338 ] G O L
Godfrey GODFREY (of Bouillon), prince of Lorrain, a
f, I! ^ moft celebrated crufader, and vi&orious general. He
?ulto' was chofen general of the expedition which the Chri
ftians undertook for the recovery of the Holy Land
and fold his dukedom to prepare for the war. He
took Jerufalem from the Turks in 1099 ; but his
piety, as hiltorians relate, would not permit him to
wear a diadem of gold in the city where his Saviour
had been crowned with thorns. The fultan of Egypt
afterwards fent a terrible army againft him ; which he
defeated, with the daughter of above 100,000 of the
enemy. He died in 1160.
GODOLPHIN (John), an eminent Engliih civi¬
lian, was born in the ifland of Scilly in 1617, and
educated at Oxford. In 1642-3, he was created doc¬
tor of civil law; in 1653, he was appointed one of the
judges of the admiralty; and at the Reftoration, he
was made one of his majdty’s advocates. He was
efteemed as great a mafter of divinity, as of his own
faculty; and publilhed, r. The holy limbeck. 2. The
holy arbour. 3. A view oj the admiral's jurifdic-
tion. 4. The orphan's legacy. 5. Repertorium ca-
nonicum, <bc. He died in 1678.
GODWIN (Francis), fucceffively biihop of Lan-
daff and Hereford, was born in 1567. He was emi¬
nent for his learning and abilities; being a good mathe¬
matician, an excellent philofopher, a pure Latinift, and
an accurate hiftorian. He underftood the true theory of
the moon’s motion, a century before it was generally
known. Hefiril ftarted thofe hints afterwards purfued
by bilhop Wilkins, in his Secret and fwift mejfenger;
and publifhed A catalogue of the lives.of Englifh
lifoops. He has neverthelefs been accufed as a great
fimoniac, for omitting no opportunity of difpofing of
preferments in order to provide for his children. He
died in 1648.
GODWIN (Thomas), a learned Englifh writer
born in 1517, was mafter of the free-fchool at Abing¬
don in Berkfhire; where he educated a great many
youths, who became eminent both in church and date.
His works {hew him to have been a man of great
learning; fuch as, Hi/loria Roman* anthologia, Synop-
Jis antiquitatum Hebraicarum, Mofes & Aaron, Flo-
rilegium Phraficon, <bc. He died in 1642.
GODWIT, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
GOES, or Ter Goes, a ftrong and confiderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and capital
of the ifland of South-Beveland. It communicates
with the fea by a canal; and is 10 miles eaft of Mid-
dleburg, and 30 north of Ghent. E. Lon. 3. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 33.
GOGMAGOG-hills, are hills fo called, three
miles from Cambridge, remarkable for the intrench-
ments and other works caft up here: whence fome
fuppofe it was a Roman camp; and others, that it was
the work of the Danes.
GOITO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua,
taken by the Germans in 1701, and by the prince of
Hefle in 1706. It is feated on the river Mincio, be¬
tween the lake of Mantua and that of Garda, 10
miles north-weft of Mantua. E. Lon. u. o. N. Lat.
45. 16.
GOLCONDA, a kingdom of Afia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges. It is bounded on the
north by that of Orixa, on the weft by that of Ba-
lagate, on the fouth by Bifnagar, and bn the eaft Gofcotulaj
by the gulph of Bengal. It abounds in corn, rice, G°kl*
and cattle ; but that which renders it moft remark- : ’
able are the diamond-mines, they being the moft con¬
fiderable in the world: they are ufually purchafed of
the black merchants, who buy parcels of ground to
fearch for thefe precious ftones in. They fometimes
fail in meeting with any, and in others they find im-
menfe riches. They have alfo mines of fait, fine iron for
fword-blades, and curious callicoes and chintzes. It
is fubjeft to the Great Mogul; and has a town of the
fame 'name, feated at the foot of a mountain, being
one of the largeft in the Eaft-Indies. It is about fix
miles in circumference; and was formerly the reiidence
of the kings, till it was conquered by the Great Mo¬
gul. It is now much frequented by the European
merchants. E. Lon. 79. 10. N. Lat. 16. 30.
GOLD, the moft precious of all the metals.
For an accodnt of the places where gold is found
in greateft quantities ; the methods of extracting it
from the ore, and afterwards purifying it; with an ac¬
count of its difterent phenomena in combination with
other metals; fee the article Metallurgy. An ac¬
count of its chemical properties, folution in different
menftrua, &c. is given under Chemistry, n° 194,236,
348.—For its effedts on glafs, fee the article Glass
and Vitrification.
Gold is the moft fixed of all the metals; and it
hath been generally believed, till very lately, that it
was abfolutely fixed in every degree of fire which
could be excited by human art. Some chemifts in¬
deed pretended to have evaporated, calcined, and
even vitrified gold, by expofing it to the focus of a
good burning-glafs ; but as their experiments did not
appear to have all the authenticity that was necefl'ary,
the opinion fell into difcredit; and this the more rea¬
dily that gold is found to refift the moft violent fur¬
nace fires without any lofs. Mr Macquer, however,
in the laft additions to his Chemical Di&ionary, hath
found, that this metal, when expofed to the heat of
a good burning-glafs, lofes in weight confiderably,
and that even in a very Ihort time. He held fome
very fine gold in the focus of a large burning-glafs,
at feveral times, at half an hour each time, fome¬
times in a hollow piece of charcoal, or in veffels made
of earthen ware and procelain ; and whenever the air
was very clear, and the fun bright, a very fenfible
fmoke arofe to the height of three or four inches. To
know the nature of this fmoke, a cold filver-plate was
expofed to it; by which means, fome of the vapour
appeared on the filver like a tarnifh a little lefs white,
but not fenfibly yellow. But when this part of the
filver was rubbed with a burnifher, it appeared fo evi¬
dently to be gilded, that none could doubt the eva¬
poration of the metal. At this experiment feveral
members of the Academy of Sciences were prefent.
The experiments with regard to the calcination and
vitrification of gold were alfo tried by Mr Macquer,
in prefence of Meffrs Montigny, Cadet, Lavoilier, \
and Briflbn. The glafs employed wasthat ofTfchirn-
haufen, the fame which had formerly been employed
by Mr Homberg. Gold of 24 carats fine was expo-
fed to the focus of this glafs feveral times, by half
an hour at a time, on veffels made of a very refraftc-
ry porcelain earth.—When the gold was melted,
which
G O L [ 3339 ] G O L
GpW. which happened in the fpace of a few feconds, it took
  a (pherical form as nearly as its gravity would permit,
and had nearly the confiftence of quickfilver. The
melted mafs foonacquired a rotatory motion round its
axis, fometimes in one direftion, and fometimes in
another, according to the direction of the focus upon
the metal; (which, by-the-bye, is a very curious
appearance, and feems difficult to be accounted for).
A fmoke arofe as in the former experiments. On
the furface of the melted gold, 1'pots evidently
vitrified were formed, which feparated from the
metal. Thefe afterwards united into a dark violet-
coloured mafs, of a greater curvature than the melted
gold, in which they were found to be fet, as jewels in
a ring; and produced nearly the fame appearance that
the tranfparent cornea has on the globe of the eye ;
that is, as the fegment of a fmall fphere joined to the
furface of a large one. On a mafs of liquid gold, of
about half an inch diameter, he obtained, alter four
hours calcination, a button of this violet glafs, whofe
diameter exceeded two lines ; and this glafs was ob-
ferved gradually to increafe as the gold diminilhed.
Yet, though this very much refemblcs the vitrification
of the gold, Mr Macquer doth not take upon him to
afiert that it certainly is fo ; feeing it may arife from
the velfels on which the gold is fupported, and which
were coloured purple to a confiderable difiance, and
befides were fprinkled with many fmall particles of
gold undecompofed, eafily dittinguilhable by a micro-
fcope; and in the violet glafs alfo, many fimilar par¬
ticles were obfervable. To determine the matter ac¬
curately, the experiment ought to be continued till all
the particles of the metal be certainly either vitrified or e-
vaporated.—Though this experiment, however, is hi¬
therto equivocal w hen the heat of'burning-glaffes'is
made ufe of, it certainly fucceeds with a firong flafli
of eledtric fire. See Electricity, n° 113.
Method of Recovering Gold from Gilt Works. The
folubility of gold and the indifiblubility of filver in
aqua regia alfords a principle on which gold may be
feparated from the furface of filver ; and, on this foun¬
dation, diflerent procefles have been contrived, of which
the two following appear to be the heft—Some pow¬
dered fal ammoniac, moifiened with aqua fortis into
the confiftence of a pafte, is fpread upon the gilt fir-
ver, and the piece heated, till the matter fmokes, and
becomes nearly dry : being then thrown into water,
it is rubbjed with a fcratch brufti, compofed of fine
brafs-wire bound together, by which the gold eafily
comes off. The other way is, hy putting the gilt fil¬
ver into common aqua regia, kept fo hot as nearly to
boil, and turning the metal frequently till it becomes
.all over black : it is then to be vvaihed with a little
water, and rubbed with the feratch brufti, to get olf
what gold the aqua regia may have left. This laft
method appears preferable to the other; as the fame
aqua regia maybe made to ferve repeatedly till it be¬
comes faturated with the gold, after which the gold
may be recovered pure by precipitation with folution
of vitriol, as dire&ed under the article Metallurgy.
For feparating gold from gilt copper, fome direft
a folution of borax to be applied on the gilt parts,
but nowhere elfe, with a pencil, and a little powder¬
ed fulphur to be fprinkled on the places thus moiften-
cd ; the principal ufe of the folution of borax feems
to be to make the fulphur adhere ; the piece being Gold,
then made red hot, and quenched in water, the gold^ ”
is laid to be fo far loofened, as to be wiped off with
a brufti. Others mix the fulphur with nitre and tar¬
tar, and form the mixture with vinegar into a pafte,
which is fpread upon the gilt parts.
Schlutter recommends mechanical- means, as being
generally the leall expenlive, for feparating gold from
the furface both of filver and copper. If the gilt vef-
fel is round, the gold is conveniently got off by turn¬
ing it in a lathe, and applying a proper tool, a Ikin be¬
ing placed underneath for receiving the ffiavings: he
fays it is eafy to colled! into two ounces of ftiavings,
all the gold of a gilt veffel weighing thrice as many
pounds. Where the figure of the piece does not ad¬
mit of this method, it is to be properly fixed, and
ferapers applied, of difl'erent kinds, according to its
fize and figure ; fome large, and furniftied with two
handles, one at eacTT end; others fmall and narrow,
for penetrating into depreffed parts. If the gold can¬
not be got off by either of thefe ways, the file mull
be had recourfe to, which takes off more of the me¬
tal underneath than the turning tool or the feraper,
particularly than the former. The gold ferapings, or
filings, may be purified from the filver or copper they
contain, by the methods deferibed under the article
Metallurgy.
Tt.e editors of the Encydope die give a method of
recovering the gold from wood that has been gilt on a
water-fize : this account is extradled from a memoir
on the fame fubjeft, paefented to the Academy of
Sciences by M. de Montamy. The gilt wood is fteep-
ed for a quarter of an hour, in a quantity of water,
fufficient to cover it, made very hot: the fize being
thus foftened, the wood is taken out, and ferubbed,
piece by piece, in a little warm water, with fhort ftiff
brittle bnifhes of different fizes, fome fmall for pene¬
trating into the carvings, and others large for the
greater difpatch in flat pieces. The whole mixture of
water, fize, gold, &c. is to be boiled to drynefs, the
dry matter made red hot in a crucible to burn off the
fize, and the remainder ground with mercury, either
in a mortar, or, where the quantity is large, in a
mill.
GoLD-Cotf/?. See Guinea.
GohD-Wire, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperfi-
cially gilt or covered with gold at the fire, and after¬
wards drawn fucceflively through a great number of
little round holes, of a wire-drawing iron, each lefs
than the other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a
hair of the head. See WiRE-Z)r<7w/«^.
It may be obferved, that, before the wire be redu¬
ced to this exci|ffiye finenefs, it is drawn through a-
bove an hundrei) and forty different holes ; and that
each time they dyaw it, it is rubbed afrefh over with
new wax, both tb facilitate its paffage, and to prevent
the filver’s appearing through it.
Goi.n-Wire flatted, is the former wire flatted be¬
tween two rollers of polifhed fteel, to fit it to be fpun
on a ftick, or to be ufed flat, as it is, without fpin-
ning, in certain fluffs, laces, embroideries, &c. See
Stuff, &c.
GoLD-Thread, or Sptin-gold, is flatted gold, wrap¬
ped or laid over'a thread of filk, by twifting it with
wheel and iron-bobbins.
To
Gold.
G O L [ 3340 1 G O L
To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk, they pafs it
between two rollers of a little mil!: thefe rollers are
of nicely polilhed iteel, and about three inches in dia¬
meter. They are fet very clofe to each other, and
turned by means of a handle faftened to one of them,
which gives motion to the other. The gold wire in
paffing between the two, is rendered quite flat, but
without lofing any thing of its gilding; and is render¬
ed fo exceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily
fpun on filk-thread, by means of a hand-wheel, and
fo wound on a fpool or bobbin. See ikh-Drawing.
Gold-Leaf or Beaten Gold, is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceeding thin leaves, fo that it is com¬
puted, that an ounce may be beaten into fixteen hun¬
dred leaves, each three inches fquare, in which flate
it takes up more than 159,052 times its former furface.
See GW-Leaf.
It muft be obferved, however, that gold is beaten more
or lefs, according to the kind or quality of the work it is
intended for; that for the gold-wire drawers to gild
their ingots withal, is left much thicker than that
for gilding the frames of pictures, &c. See Gild¬
ing.
GoLD-Brocade: See Brocade.
Fulminating-Gotd. See Chemistry, n° 356.—
Since that article was printed, however, we are in¬
formed by Mr Macquer, that fulminating gold may
be made without any nitrous acid. Of confequence,
the conjecture there given concerning the caufe of its
explofion cannot be true in as far as the nitrous arn-
moniacal fait is concerned; though poffibly the fixed
air contained in the calx of gold may confiderably
contribute towards it.—Mr Bergman, whom Mr Mac¬
quer quotes, found that he could prepare fulminating
gold at any time, by applying volatile alkali to it
when in a greatly divided ftate. He doth not indeed
tell us whether the alcali ufed, was in a cauftic or mild
ftate, (/. e. whether it was deprived of its fixed air
or not) : but though the experiment fhould even be
found to fucceed with cauftic alkali, ftill the explofion
might depend on fixed air ; becaufe cauftic volatile al¬
kalies are found either to imbibe, or generate this kind
of air, even though excluded from the atmofphere in
the moft careful manner; and hence the complaint a-
mong druggifts, that alkaline fpirits, made with quick¬
lime, do not keep equally well with others. See Al¬
kaline Spirits.
Shell-GoLD, that ufed by the illuminers, and where¬
with we write gold-letters. It is made of the pa¬
rings of leaf-gold, and even of the leaves themfelves,
reduced into an impalpable powder, by grinding on a
marble with honey. After leaving it to infufe feme
time in aqua fortis, they put it in (hells, where it
fticks. To ufe it, they dilute it with gum-water, or
foap water.
Gold-Finch, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
Thefe are feed-birds of very curious colours, and
which, were they not fo common in this country, would
probably be very much efteemed.
They are ufually taken about Michaelmas, and foon
become tame ; but they differ very much in their fong.
—They frequently breed in the upper part of plum-
trees, making their nefts of the mofs that grows upon
apple-trees, and of wool ; quilting the infide with all
forts of hairs they find upon the ground. They breed
three times a-year ; and the young are to be taken with Golden.
the neft at about ten days old, and fed as follows :—  
Pound fome hemp-feed very fine in a mortar ; then fift
it through a fieve, and add to it as much wheat-bread
as hemp-feed ; andjikewrfe a little flower of canary-
feeds : then with a fmall (tick or quill, take up as
■much as the bignefs of a white-pea, and give them
feveral times a-day. This ought to be made frefti e-
very day: for if it is fuffered to four, it will fpoil
their ftomachs, caufing them to caft up their meat;
which if they do, it is very probable that they will
die.—Thefe young birds muft be carefully kept warm
till they can feed themfelves, for they are very ten¬
der. In feeding, be fure to make your bird clean his
bill and mouth. If any of the meat falls upon his
feathers, take it off, or elfe he will not thrive. Sucli
as eat hemp-feed, to purge them, fliould have the
feeds of melons, fuccory, and mercury ; or elfe let
them have lettuce and plantane for that purpofe. When
there is no need of purging, give them two or three
times a week a little fugar or loam in their meat, or
at the bottom of the cage ; for all feeds have an oili-
nefs, fo that if they have not fomething to abforb it,
in length of time it fouls their ftomachs, and brings
on them a flux, which is very dangerous.
GiOLD-FiJh. See Cyprinus.
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold,
or confifts of gold.
Golden Calf, was a figure of a calf, which the
Ifraelites caft in that metal, and fet up in the wilder-
nefs, to worfhip, during Mofes’s abfence into the
mount; and which that legiflator, at his return, burnt,
grinded to powder, and mixed with the water the peo¬
ple were to drink of ; as related in Exod. xxxii. The
commentators have been divided on this article: the
pulverizing of gold, and rendering it potable, is a
very difficult operation in chemiftry. Many, therefore,
fuppofe it done by a miracle: and the reft, wdio allow
of nothing fupernatural in it, advance nothing but
conjectures as to the manner of the procefs. Mofes
could not have done it by Ample calcination, nor a-
malgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination ; nor is
there one of thofe operations that quadrates with the
text.
M. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difficulty.
The method Mofes made ufe of, according to this
author, was by diffolving the metal with hepar ful-
phuris; only, inftead of the vegetable alkali, he made
ufe of the Egyptian natron, which is common enough
throughout the eaft. See Chemistry, n° 359.
Golden Feece, in the ancient mythology, was
the (kin, or fleece of the ram, upon which Phryxus
and Hella are fuppofed to have fwam over the fea to
Colchis; and which being facrificed to Jupiter, was
hung upon a tree in the grove of Mars, guarded by
two brazen-hoof’d bulls, and a monftrous dragon that
never dept; but wtis taken and carried off by Jafon
and the Argonauts.
Many authors have endeavoured to (hew that this
fable is an allegorical reprefentation of fome real hif-
tory, particularly of the philofopher’s done. Others
have explained it, by the profit of the wool-trade to
Colchis, or the gold which they commonly gathered
there with fleeces in the rivers.
Order of the Golden Fleece, is a military order
inftituted
G O L
j Golden, inftituted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in
iGoldingen. I^2g. It took its denomination from a reprefentation
of the golden fleece, borne by the knights on their
collars, which confided of flints, and fteels. The
king of Spain is now grand mafter of the order, in
quality of duke of Burgundy : the number of knights
is fixed to thirty-one.
It is ufually faid to have been inftituted on occafion
of an immnfe profit which that prince made by wool;
though others will have a chemical myftery couched
under it, as under that famous one of the ancients,
which the adepts contend to be no other than the
fecret of the elixir, wrote on the fleece of a Iheep.
Oliver de la Marche writes that he had fuggefted
to Philip I. archduke of Auftria, that the order was
inftituted by his grandfather Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy, with a view to that of Jafon ; and that
John Germain, bifliop of Chalons, chancellor of the
order, upon this occafion made him change his opi¬
nion, and aflured the young prince that the order had
• been inftituted with a view to the fleece of Gideon.
William bilhop of Tournay, chancellor likewife of the
order, pretends that the duke of Burgundy had in
view both the golden fleece of Jafon, and Jacob’s
fleece, i. e. the fpeckled ftieep belonging to this pa¬
triarch, according to agreement made with his father-
in-law Laban. Which fentiment gave birth to a
great work of this prelate, in two parts : in the firft,
under the fymbol of the fleece of Jafon, is reprefented
the virtue of magnanimity, which a knight ought to
poflefs; and under the fymbol of the fleece of Jacob,
he reprefents the virtue ofjuftice.
Paradin is of the fame mind, and tells us that the
duke defigned to infinuate that the fabulous conqueft
which Jafon is faid to have made of the golden fleece in
Colchis, was nothing elfe but the conqueft of virtue,
which gains a vi&ory over thofe horrible monfters
vice and our evil inclinations.
Golden Number, in chronology, a number fhew-
ing what year of the moon’s cycle any given year is.
See Astronomy, n° 304' 307.
GoLDEN-/?<ye. The pope annually confecrates a
golden-rofe on the fourth Sunday in Lent, which is
fent to princefles, or to fome church, as a mark of his
peculiar affe&ion.
Golden Ruk, in arithmetic, a rule or praxis, of
great ufe and extent in the art of numbers; where¬
by we find a fourth proportional to three quantities
given.
The golden rule is alfo called the Rule of Three,
and Rule of Proportion. See its nature and ufe under
the article Arithmetic, n° 13.
GOLDINGEN, a town of Poland in the duchy
of Courland, with a handfome caftle, feated on the
river Weia, in E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 56. 48.
Goldsmith, or, as fome choofe to exprefs it,
filverfmith, an artift who makes veffels, utenlils, and
ornaments, in gold and filver.
The goldfmith’s work is either performed in the
mould, or beat out with the hammer or other engine.
All works that have raifed figures, are call in a
mould, and afterwards polilhed and finiflied : plates,
or dirties, of filver or gold, are beat out from thin
flat plates ; and tankards, and other veflels of that
kind, are formed of plates foldered together, and
Vol. rv.
G O L
their mouldings are beat', not caft. The bufinefs of Goldfmkh'
the goldfmiths formerly required much more labour
than it does at prefent; for they were obliged to
hammer the metal from the ingot to the thinnefs they
wanted: but there are now invented flatting-mills,
which reduce metals to the thinnefs that is required,
at a very fmall expence. The goldfmith is to make
his own moulds; and for that reafon ought to be a
good defigner, and have a tafte in fculpture: he alfo
ought to know enough of metallurgy, to be able to
affay mixed metals, and to mix the alloy.
The goldfmiths in London employ feveral hands
under them for the various articles of their trade: fuch
are the jeweller, the fnuff-box and toy maker, the
filver-turner, the gilder, the burniflier, the chafer,
the refiner, and the gold-beater. See the articles
Jeweller, &c.
Goldfmiths are fuperior tradefraen : their wares
muft be affayed by the wardens of the company of
this name in London, and marked; and gold is to be
of a certain touch. No goldfmith may take above one
fhilling the ounce of gold, befides what, he has for the
faftiioning, more than the buyer may be allowed- for
it at the king’s exchange; and here any falfe metal
fhall be feized and forfeited to the king. The cities
of York, Exeter, Briftol, &c. are places appointed
for the allaying wrought-plate of goldfmiths; al¬
fo a duty is granted on filver-plate of fix-pence
an ounce, &c. Plate made by goldfmiths lhall be
of a particular finenefs, on pain ol forfeiting 10 1.;
and if any parcel of plate fent to the aflayers is dif-
covered to be of a coarfer alloy than the refpedlive
ftandards, it may be broken and defaced ; and the
fees for aflaying are particularly limited.
Goldsmith (Oliver), a celebrated Englifli writer,
was born at Rofcommon in Ireland, in the year 1731.
His father, who pofleffed a fmall eftate in that coun¬
ty, had nine fans, of which Oliver was the third. He
was originally intended for the church ; and with
that view, after being well inftruffed in the dailies,
was, with his brother the Rev. Henry Goldfmith,
placed in Trinity college, Dublin, about the latter
end of the year 1749. In this feminary of learning
he continued a few years, when he took a bachelor’s
degree but, his brother not being able to obtain any
preferment after he left the college, Oliver, by the
advice of Dean Goldfmith of Cork, turned his
thoughts to the ftudy of phyfic ; and, after attending
fome courfes of anatomy in Dublin, proceeded to
Edinburgh in the year 1751, where he lludied the fe¬
veral branches of medicine under the different pro-
fdlors in that univerfity. His beneficent difpofitioii
foon involved him in unexpefted difficulties ; and he
was obliged precipitately to leave Scotland, in confe-
quence of engaging himfelf to pay a cohfiderable fum
of money for a fellow-ftudent.
A few days after, about the beginning of the year
1754, he arrived at Sunderland, near Newcaftle,
where he was arrefted at the fuit of a.taylor in Edin¬
burgh, to whom he had given fecurity for his friend.
By the good offices of Laughlin Maclane, Efq; and
Dr. Sleigh, who were then in the college, he was
foon delivered out of the hands of the bailiff; and
took his paffage on board.a Dutch ftiip to Rotterdam,
where, after a fhort ftay, he proceeded to Brulfels:
19 E he
[ 3341 ]
G O L [ 3342 ] G O L
he then vifited great part of Flanders; and after
palling fome time at Stralbourg and Louvain, where
he obtained a degree of bachelor in phyfic, he accom¬
panied an Eaglifh gentleman to Berne and Geneva.
It is undoubtedly fa£t, that this ingenious, unfor¬
tunate man, travelled on foot mod; part of his tour.
He had left England with very little money ; and,
being of a philpfophical turn, and at that time pof-
fefling a body-capable of fullaining every fatigue, and
a heart not eafily terrified at danger, he became an
cnthufiaft to the defign he had formed of feeing the
manners of different countries. He had fome know¬
ledge of the French language, and of mufic, and he
played tolerably well on the German flute; which,
from an amufement, became at fome times the means
of fubfidence. His learning produced him a hofpi-
tabie reception at moft of the religious houfes ; and
his mufic made him welcome to the peafants of Flan¬
ders and other parts of Germany. “ Whenever I
approached,” he ufed to fay, “ a peafant’s houfe to¬
wards night-fall, I played one of my molt merry
tunes; and that procured me not only a lodging, but
fubliftence for the next day: but in truth, (his con-
Itant expreffion), I muft own, whenever I attempted
to entertain perfons of a higher rank, they always
thought my performance odious, and never made me
any return for my endeavours to pleafe them.”
On Mr Goldfmith’s arrival at Geneva, he was re¬
commended as a proper perfon for a travelling tutor
to a young man, who had been unexpectedly left a
eonfiderable fum of money by his uncle Mr S ,
formerly an eminent pawnbroker near Holborn. This
youth, who had been articled to an attorney, on re¬
ceipt of his fortune, determined to fee the world ;
and, on his engaging with his preceptor, made a
provifoy that he fhould be permitted to govern him-
felf; and Goldfmith foon found his pupil underttood
the art of directing in money-concerns extremely well,
as avarice was his prevailing paffion. His queftions
were ufually how money might be faved, and which
was the leaft expen five courfe of travel; whether any
thing could be bought that would turn to account
when difpofed of again in London ? Such curiofities
on the way as could be feen for nothing he was ready
enough to look at; but, if the fight of them w’as to
be paid for, he ufually aflerted, that he had been told
they were not worth feeing. He never paid a bill
that he would not obferve how amazingly expenfive
travelling was; and all this, though he was not yet
twenty-one. During Goldfmith’s continuance in Swit¬
zerland, he afiiduoufly cultivated his poetical talent,
of which he had giv.en fome ftrikings proofs while at
the college of Edinburgh. It was here he fent the
firft /ketch of his delightful poem, called the Travel¬
ler, to his brother the clergyman in Ireland, who,
giving up fame and fortune, had retired, with an
amiable wife, to happinefs and obfcurity, on an in¬
come of only 40 1. a year.
From Geneva Mr Goldfmith and his pupil vifited
the fouth of France ; where the young man, upon
fome difagreement with his preceptor, paid him the
/mall part of his falary which was due, and embarked
at Marfeilles for England. Our wanderer was left once
more upon the world at large, and- pa fled through a
variety of difficulties in traverfing the greatcft part of
France. At length his cnriofity being fatiated, be
bent his courfe towards England, and arrived at Do¬
ver, the beginning of the winter, in the year 1758.
When he came to London, his flock of ca(h did not
amount to two livres. An entire flranger in this me¬
tropolis, his mind was filled with the mod gloomy re-
fledtions on his embarraflfed fituation. With fome
difficulty he difcovered that part of the town in which
his old acquaintance Dr Sleigh refided. This gentle¬
man received him with the warmeft affedtion, and
liberally invited him to /hare his purfe till fome
eftablifhment could be procured for him. Goldfmith,
unwilling to be a burden to his friend, a fhort time
after eagerly embraced an offer which was made him
to affifl the late Rev. Dr Milner, in inftnidting the
young gentlemen at the academy at Peckham ; and
acquitted himfelf greatly to the dodlor’s fatisfad/ion
for a fliort time: but, having obtained fome reputa¬
tion by the criticifms he had written in the Monthly
Review, Mr Griffith, the proprietor, engaged him
in the compilation of it; and, refolding to purfue the
profeffion of writing, he returned to London, as the
mart where abilities of every kind were fore of meet¬
ing diftind/ion and reward. As his finances were by
no means in a good ftate, he determined to adopt
a plan of the ftrideft oeconomy, and took lodgings in
an Obfcure court in the Old Bailey, where he wrote
feveral ingenious little pieces. The late Mr Newberry,
who at that time gave great encouragement to men
of literary abilities, became a kind of patron to our
young author; and introduced him as one of the
writers in the Public Ledger, in which his Citizen of
the World originally appeared, under the title of
“ Chinefe Letters.”
Fortune now feemed to take fome notice of a man
/lie had long negledted. The fimplrcity of his cha-
radter, the integrity of his heart, and the merit of his
produdtions, made his company very acceptable to a
number of refpedtable families ; and he emerged from
his (habby apartments in the Old Bailey, to the poli¬
ter air of the Temple, where he took handfome cham¬
bers, and lived in a genteel ftyle. The publication of
his Traveller, and bis Vicar of Wakefield, was fol¬
lowed by the performance of his comedy of the Good-
natured Man at Covent-Garden theatre, and placed
him in the firft rank of the poets of the prefent age.
Among many other perfons of diftindiion who were
defirous to know him, was the duke of Northumber¬
land ; and the circumftance that attended his intro-
dudtion to that nobleman is worthy of being related,
in order to fhew a ftriking trait #f his character. “ I
was invited,” faid the Dodtor (as he was then univer-
fally called) “ by my friend Mr Pierey, to wait upon
the duke, in confequence of the fatisfadZion he had
received from the perufa! of one of my productions.
I dreffed myfelf in the beft manner I could; and,
after ftudying fome compliments I thought neceflary
on fuch an occafion, proceeded to Northumtierland-
houfe, and acquainted the fervants that I had parti¬
cular bufinefs with his Grace. They /hewed me into
an antichamber; where, after waiting fome time, a
gentleman, very elegantly dre/Ted, made his appear¬
ance. Taking him for the duke, I delivered all the
fine things I had compofed, in order to compliment:
him on the honour he had done me : when, to my
great
Guldfmith.
SOL [ 3343 ] G O L
oldfmith. great aftonifhra'ent, he told me, I had miftaken him
for his matter, who would fee me immediately. At
that inftant, the duke came into the apartment; and
I was fo confufed on the occafion, that I wanted
words, barely fufficient to exprefs the fenfe I enter¬
tained of the duke’s politenefs, and went away ex¬
ceedingly chagrined at the blunder I had committed.”
Another feature in his character we cannot help
laying before the reader. Previous to the publication
of his Deferted Village, the bookfeller had given him
a note for one hundred guineas for the copy, which
the doitor mentioned, a few hours after, to one of his
friends ; who obferved, it was a very great fum for fo
ttiort a performance. “ In truth,” replied Goldfmith,
“ I think fo too ; I have not been eafy fince I
received it ; there fore I will go back and return
him his note:” which he abfolutely did, and left it
entirely'to the bookfeller to pay him according to the
profits produced by the fale of the piece, which turn¬
ed out very confiderable."
During the laft rehearfal of his comedy, intitled.
She ftoops to Conquer, which Mr Coleman had no
opinion would fucceed, on the Do&or’s obje&ing to
the repetition of one of Tony Lumpkin’s fpeeches,
being apprehenfive it might injure the play, the ma¬
nager with great keennefs replied, “ Plha, my dear
Dodttor, do not be fearful of fquibs, when we have
been fitting almott thefe two hours upon a barrel of
gunpowder.” The piece, howrever, contrary to Mr
Coleman’s expeftation, was received with uncommon
applaufe by the audience ; and Goldfmith’s pride was
fo hurt by the feverity of the above obfervation, that
it entirely put an end to his friendttup for the gentle¬
man that made it.
Notwithftanding the great fuccefs of his pieces, by
fome of which it is afferted, upon good authority, he
cleared 1800I. in one year, his circumftances were
by no means in a profperous fituation ; which was
partly owing to the liberality of his difpofition, and
partly to an unfortunate habit he had contra&ed of
gaming, the arts of which he knew very little of, and
confequently became the prey of thofe who were un¬
principled enough to take advantage of his fimplicity.
Juft before his death he had formed a defign for ex¬
ecuting an Univerfal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,
the profpeCtus of which he actually pubiidred. In
this work feveral of his literary friends (particularly,
Sir Jofhua Reynolds, Dr Johnfon, Mr Beauclerc,
and Mr Garrick) had undertaken to furnilh him with
articles upon different fubje&s. He had entertained
the moft fanguine expectations from the fuccefs of it.
The undertaking, however, did not meet with that
encouragement from the bookfellers which he had
imagined it would undoubtedly receive; and he ufed
to lament this circumftance almott to the laft hour of
his exiftence. •
He had been for fome years attliCted, at different
times, with a violent ftrangury, which contributed
not a little to embitter the latter part of his life; and
which, united with the vexations which he fuffered
upon other occafions, brought on a kind of habitual
defpondency. In this unhappy condition he was at¬
tacked by a nervous fever, which, being improperly
treated, terminated in his diffolution on the 4th of
April 1774. His remains were privately depofited
in the Temple burial-ground. Go!<lfm
As to his character, it is ftrongly illuftrated by Mr  
Pope’s line,
In wit a man, fimplicity a child.
The learned leifure he loved to enjoy was too often
interrupted by diftreffcs which arofe from the liberality
of his temper, and which fometimes threw him into
loud fits of pafiion : but this impetuofity was correct¬
ed upon a moment’s reflection; and his fervants have
been known, upon thefe occafions, purpofely to
throw themfelves in his way, that they might profit
by it immediately after; for he who had the good
fortune to be reproved, was certain of being re¬
warded for it. The univerfal eiteem in which his
poems were held, and the repeated pleafure they give,
in the perufal, is a linking tell of their merit. He
was a ftudious and correCt obferver of nature ; happy
in the ieleCtion of his images, in the choice of hi*
fubjeCts, and in the harmony of his verfification ; and,
though his embarraffed fituation prevented him front
putting the laft hand to many of his productions. His
Hermit, his Traveller, and his Deferted Village, bid
fair to claim a place among the moil finifhed pieces in
the Englilh language.
Befides the works already mentiened, he wrote, 1.
Hiftory of the earth and animated nature, 6 vols
8vo. 2. Hiftory of England, 4 vols 8vo. 3. Hi¬
ftory of Rome, 2 vols. 4. Abridgements of the two
laft, for the ufe of fchools. 5. A view of experi¬
mental philofophy, 3 vols 8vo.; a pofthumous work,
not efteemed. 6. Mifcellanies, &c.
GOLIUS (James), a celebrated profeffor of Ara¬
bic and the mathematics at Leyden, was defcended
from a very honourable family, and bom at the Hague
in the year 1596. He was put to the univerfity of
Leyden, where he ftudied under Erpinius; and ha¬
ving made himfelf mafter of all the learned languages,
applied himfelf to the mathematics, phyfic, and divi¬
nity. He afterwards travelled into Africa and Afia ;
and became greatly efteemed by the king of Morocco,
and the fultan of the Turks. He at length returned
to Leyden, loaden with manufcripts; and in 11524, fuc-
ceeded Erpenius in the Arabic chair. As he had
been an eye-witnefs of the wretched ftate of Chriftia-
nity in the Mahometan countries, he was filled with
the compaffion of a fellow-chriftian ; and none ever fo-
licited for a place of honour and profit with greater
eagernefs, than he for procuring a new edition of the
New Teftament, in the original language, with a
tranflation into the vulgar Greek, by an Archiman¬
drite ; and as there are fome of thefe Chriftians, who
ufe the Arabic tongue in divine fervice, he alfo took
care to have difperfed among them an Arabic tranfla¬
tion of theConfeffion of the Proteilants, together with
the Catechifm and Liturgy. In 1626, he was alfo
chofen profeffor of mathematics; and difcharged the
functions of both profefforfhips, with the greateft ap-
platife, during 40 years. He was likewife appointed
interpreter in ordinary to the ftates for the Arabic,
Turkilh, Perfian, and other eaftern languages, for
which he had an annual penfion, and a prefent of a
gold chain, with a very beautiful medal, which he
woreas a badge of his office. He publiihed, 1. The life
of Tamerlane, written in Arabic. 2. The hiftory of
the Saracens, written by Elmacin. 3. Alferganus’s
19 E z elements
G O M [ 3344 ] G O M
Goltziiis elements of aftronomy, with a new verfion and
P learned commentaries. 4. An excellent Arabic lexicon.
Gnmlroon- ^ Peril an Didionary. fte died in 1667.
GOLTZIUS (Henry), a famous engraver and
painter, born in 1558, at Mulbreck, in the duchy of
Juliers. His ill health induced him to travel; and to
prevent his being known, he took the name of his
man-fervant, maintained by him for his Hull in paint¬
ing : by which llratagem he enjoyed the pleafure of
hearing what was faid of his works, without being
known. Travelling reftored his health for a while ;
but he relapfed, and died at Harlem in 1617. Mr
Evelyn has given a firong teilimony of his merit as an
Engraver. As his works are very numerous, his exe¬
cution muft have been remarkably ready.
GOLTZIUS (Hubert), a learned German, born
at Vt-nlo in the duchy of Gueldres in 1526. His fa¬
ther was a painter, and himfelf was bred to the art
under Lambert Lombard : but he did little at paint¬
ing, or at leaft his pi&ures are very fcarce ; for ha¬
ving a peculiar turn to antiquities, he devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of medals. He travelled through Ger¬
many, France, and Italy, to make colledlions, as
well as to draw from thence all the lights he could to¬
wards clearing up ancient hiftory : he was the author
of feveral excellent works, in which he was fo accurate
and nice, that he had them printed at his own houfe,
under his own corre&ion, and even engraved the plates
and medals with his own hand. His veneration for
Roman antiquities was fo great, that he gave all his
children Roman names: and married, for his fecond
wife, the widow of the antiquarian Martinus Smetius ;
probably more for the fake of Smetius’s medals and
infcriptions, than for his own fake; and was punithed
accordingly by her plaguing him all his life, if {he did
not Hrorten it. He died-in 1583.
GOMBAULD (John Ogier de), one of the beft
French poets in the 17th century, and one of the firft
members of the French academy, was born at St. Juft
de Luflac. He acquired the efteem of Mary de Me-
dicis, and of the wits of his time. He was a Protef-
tant, and died in a very advanced age. He wrote
many works in verfe and profe. His epigrams, and
fomc of his fonnets, are particularly efteemed.
GOMBROON, by the natives called Bander A-
lajfi, a city of Perfia, fituated in N. Lat. 27. 40. E.
Long. 55. 30. The name of Gombroon, or Comerong,
Captain Hamilton tells us, it had from the Portuguefe ;
becaufe it was remarkable for the number of prawns
and Hirimps caught on its coafts, by them called come¬
rong. This city owes its wealth and grandeur to the
demolition of Ormus, and the downfal of the Portu¬
guefe empire in the Eaft-Indics. It is now juftly ac¬
counted one of the greateft marts in the Eaft, was
built by the great (hah Abas, and from him, as fome
think, obtained the name of Bander-Abajfi, which
fignifies the court of Abas. It ftands on a bay about
nine leagues to the northward of the eaft end of the
ifland of Kifhmifh, and three leagues from the famous
Ormus. The Englifh began to fettle here about the
year 1631, when, in confideration of their fervices
againft the Portuguefe, {hah Abas granted them half
the cuftoms of that port. This was confirmed by a
phirmaund, and duly regarded, till the Englifti began
to negleft the fervices they had ftipulated. Whether
the company has any emolument from the cuftoms, at Gomhrooj
prefent, is what we cannot pretend to afeertain. The '
town is large, but its fituation bad ; wanting almbft
every thing that contributes to the happinefs, and even
fupport of life. Towards the land it is encompaffed
by a fort of wall; and towards the fea are feveral final!
forts, with a platform, and a caftle or citadel, mounted \
with cannon to fecure it and the road from the at¬
tempts of an enemy by fea. The houfes in moft of
the ftreets are fo out of repair, fome half down, others
in a heap of rubbifti, that a ftranger would imagine
the town had been facked and ravaged by a barbarous
people ; not a veftige of the wealth really contained
in the place appearing in view. The bazars and fhops
round them, are kept, for the moft part, by Banians,
whofe houfes are generally in good order. Moft of
the houfes are, built with earth and lime, but fome of
the beft with ftone. Many of them have a fort of
ventilators at top, which contribute greatly to the
health of the inhabitants in the hot feafons of the
year. The moft fickly months here are April, May,
September, and 0£lober. With fifh and mutton the
inhabitants are well fupplied. Rice is imported from
India; and wheat is fo plenty, that the poor fubfift
chiefly on bread and dates. The country hereabouts
abounds in the moft delicious fruits, as.apricots, peaches,
pomegranates, pears, mangoes, grapes, quavas, plumbs,
fweet quinces, and water-melons. The apricots, how¬
ever, are fmall, and extremely dangerous if eaten to
excefs.
Thofe conveniences are more than overbalanced by
the fcarcity of freflr water, with which the inhabitants
are fupplied from Afleen, a place feven miles diftant,
there not being a fpring or well in the town. Perfons
of condition keep a camel conftantly employed in
bringing fre{h and wholefome water. Captain Hamil¬
ton gives it as his opinion, that one caufe of the un-
wholefomenefs of this city is the refleftion of the rays
of light from a high mountain to the north of it.
He fays, that when the beams are reflefted from this-
mountain, they almoft fire the air, and, for two or
three months in the year, render the fnuation into¬
lerable. For this reafon the people of condition retire
into the country, to pafs the heats of June, July, and
Auguft. The very fea, during this feafon, is affefted,
infomuch that the ftench is no lefs difagreeable than
that of putrid carcafes; and this is encreafed by the
quantities of fhell-fifh left on the fhore, from which an
exhalation arifes that tarnifties gold and filver, and is
lefs tolerable than the bilge-water of a tight {hip. At
Afleen the Englifli fa&ory have a country-houfe and
gardens, to which they retire occafionally. Here they
have whole groves of Seville orange-trees, which,
though not natural to the country, thrive very well,
and are always verdant, bearing ripe and green fruit,
with bloffoms, all at the fame time. They have like-
wife tanks and ponds of fine frefh water, with every
thing elfe that can moderate the heat of the climate,
and render life agreeable and elegant. About ten
miles from Afleen is a place called Minoa, where are,
cold and hot natural baths, reckoned infallible in the
cure of all ferophujous diforders, rheumatifms, and
other difeafes, by bathing.
Gombroon is extremely populous, on account of
the commerce carried on by the Dutch and Englifh
fadlories.
G O M [ 3345 ] G O N
Gomera faftorics, as well as the natives. The Englifh fa£toi-y
II is clofe by the fea, at fume diftance from the Dutch,
t0IITO rK* 3 commodious and fine new building. A
, ‘ -great part of the company’s profit arifes from freights.
As the natives have not one good fhip of their own,
and are extremely ignorant of navigation, they freight
their goods for Surat, and other Indian marts, in
Englifh and Dutch bottoms, at an exorbitant rate.
The commodities of the Gombroon market are, fine
wines of different kinds, raifins, almonds, kifh-mifhes,
prunellas, dates, piftachio-nuts, ginger, filks, car¬
pets, leather, tutty, galbanum, ammoniac, afa-fae-
tida, tracaganth, with other gums, and a variety of
fhop medicines. Thefe are in a great meafure the
produce of Carmania, which they bring to Gombroon
in caravans. The Englifh company had once a fmall
faftory in the province of Carmania, chiefly for the
fake of a fine wool produced there, and ufed by the
hatters. The faid company had once a projedl of car¬
rying a breed of the Perfian goats to St Helena; but
whether it was executed, or what fuccefs it met v/ith,
we cannot fay. Although the company pay no cuf-
toms, yet they ufually make a prefent to the fhaban-
der, to avoid the trouble he has it in his power to give
them. All private traders with the company’s paffes,
enjoy the fame privileges, on paying two per cent, to
the company, one to the agent, and one to the bro¬
ker. All private trade, either by European or coun¬
try fhips, has long been engroffed by the company’s
fervants.
GOMERA, one of Canary iflands lying between
Ferro and Teneriffe. It has one good town of the
fame name, with an excellent harbour, where the Spa-
nifh fleet often take in refrefhments. They have corn
fufficient to fupply the inhabitants, with one fugar-
work, and great plenty of wine and fruits. It is fub-
jedt to the Spaniards, who conquered it in 1445. W.
Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 28. o.
GOMORRAH, (anc. geog.) one of the cities of
the plain or of the vale of Siddim in Judaea, deftroyed
together with Sodom by fire from heaven, on account
of the wickednefs of the people. To determine its
particular fituation at prefent, is impoflible.
GOMORRO iflands. SccGomora.
GOMPHOSIS, in anatomy, that kind of articula¬
tion by which the teeth are fixed in the jaw-bone.
See Anatomy, n° 2. e.
GOMPHRiENA, globe amaranth ; a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies; but only one of them
is commonly cultivated in our gardens, viz. the glo-
bofa. It hath an upright ftalk branching all round,
two or three feet high, garnifhed with oval, lanceolate,
and opfiofite leaves; and every branch and fide-fhoot
terminated by a clofe globular head of flowers, com-
pofed of numerous, very fmall ftarry florets clofely
covered with dry fcaly calices placed imbricati?n, per-
fiflent, and beautifully coloured purple, white, red,
or ftripped and variegated. The flowers themfelves
are fo fmall, and clofely covered with the fcaly calices,
that they fcarcely appear. The numerous clofely
placed fcaly coverings being of a dry, firm, confift-
ence, coloured and glittering, colledted into a com¬
pact round head, about the fize of an ordinary cherry,
make a fine appearance. They are annual plants,
natives of India; and require artifical heat to raifeand Gondi
forward them to a proper growth, fo that they may fi
flower in perfedtion, and produce ripe feed. They -Gon(lola-
flower from June to November; and if the flowers are
gathered when at full growth, and placed out of the
fun, they will retain their beauty feveral months.
GONDI (John Francis Paul), cardinal de Retz,
was the fon of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, count de
Joigny, lieutenant-general, &c. and was born in 1613.
From a dodfor of the Sorbonne, he firft became co¬
adjutor to his uncle John Francis de Gondi, whom he
fucceeded in 1654 as archbifliop of Paris; and was
finally made a cardinal. This extraordinary perfon
has drawn his own chara&er in his memoirs with im¬
partiality. He'was a man who, from the greateft
degree of debauchery, and ftill languifhing under its
confequences, made himfelf adored by the people as a
preacher. At the age of 23, he was at the head of
a confpiracy againft the life of cardinal Richelieu ; he
precipitated the parliament into cabals, and the people
into ('edition: he was, fays M. Voltaire, the firft bifhop
who carried on a civil war without the made of reli¬
gion. However, his intrigues and fchemes turned out;
fo ill, that he was obliged to quit France ; and he
lived the life of a vagrant • exile for five or fix years,
till the death of his great enemy cardinal Mazarin,
when he returned on certain ftipulated conditions.
After affifting in the conclave at Rome, which chofe
Clement IX. he retired from the world, and ended
his life like a philofopher in 1679; which made Vol¬
taire fayr, that in his youth he lived like Catiline, and
like Atticus in his old age. He wrote his Memoirs
in his retirement; the beft edition of which is that of
Amfterdam, 4 vols. izmo. 1719.
GONORRHOEA, an effluvia of white, greeniffl, or
differently-coloured matter from the urethra ; moll
commonly owing to venereal infe&ion. See (Index
fubjoined to) Mejoicine, and Surgery.
GONZAGA (Lucretia), was one of the molt il-
luftrious ladies or the 16th century; and much cele¬
brated for her wit, her learning, and her delicate ftyle.
Hortenfio Lando wrote a beautiful panegyric upon
her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating
the paffions. Her beautiful letters have been colle&ed
with the greateft care. We learn from thefe, that her
marriage with John Paul Manfrone was unhappy.-—
She was married to him when (he was not 14 years of
age, and his conduA afterwards gave her infinite un-
eafinefs. He engaged in a confpiracy" againft the
duke of Ferrara ; was detected and imprifoned by
him; but, though condemned by the judges, not put
to death. She did all in her power to obtain his en¬
largement, but in vain; for he died in prifon, having
(hewn fuch impatience under his misfortunes, as made
it imagined he had loft his fenfes. She never would
liften afterwards to any propofals of marriage, tho*
feveral were made to her. All that came from her
pen was fo much efteemed, that a colleftion was made
even of the notes (he writ to her fervants; feveral
of which are to be met with in the edition of her
letters.
GONDOLA, a fort of barge curioufly ornamented,
and navigated on the canals of Venice ; alfo a paffage-
boat, of fix or eight oars, in other parts of the coafts
of Italy.
GOOD,
GOO [ 3346 j G O R
■Good, GOOD, In general, whatever Is apt to increafe
—  pleafure, ro diminilh pain in us; or,'which amounts to
the fame, whatever is able to procure or preferve to us
the pofieffion of agreeable fenfations, and remove thofe
of an oppofite nature.
Moral Good denotes the right conduft of the fe-
veral fenfes and paffions, or their juft proportion and
accommodation to their refpeftive objects and rela¬
tions. See Morals.
Good ^bearing, (bonus gejlus,) fignifies an ex aft
Carriage or behaviour of a fubjeft towards the king
and the people, whereunto feme perfons upon their
tnifbehaviour are bound : and he that is bound to this,
is faid to be more ftriftly bound than to the peace ;
becaufe where the peace is not broken, the furety de
~ bono gejlu may be forfeited by the number of a man’s
company, or by their weapons.
Good Behaviour, in law, an exaft carriage and be¬
haviour to the king.and his people.
A juftice of the peace may, at the requeft of ano¬
ther, or where he himfelf fees caufe, demand furety
for the good behaviour ; and to that end the juftice
may iffue out his warrant againft any perfons whatfo-
ever, under the degree of nobility; but when it is a
nobleman, complaint is to be made in the court of
chancery, or king’s-bench, where fuch nobleman may
be bound to keep the peace. Infants and feme-co¬
verts, who ought to find furety by their friends, may
„ be bound over to their good behaviour; as alfo luna-
Law DiB. t*03* that have fometimes lucid intervals, and all others
who break the peace, or being fufpefted to do it, by
affrays, affaults, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrel¬
ling, threatening, &c. A perfon may be likewife
bound to his good behaviour for a fcandalous way of
living, keeping bawdy-houfes, gaming-houfes, &c.
and fo may common drunkards, whoremongers, com¬
mon whores, cheats, libellers, &c. He who demands
furety for the peace, on any violence offered, muft
take an oath before the juftice, that he goes in fear of
his life, or fome bodily harm, &c. and that it is not
out of malice, but from a regard to his own fafety.
Good-Friday, a fa ft of the Chriftian church, in
memory of the fufferings and death of Jefus Chrift.
It is obferved on the Friday in holy or paffion week;
and it is called, by way of eminence, good, becaufe of
the bleffed effefts of our Saviour’s fufferings, which
■were a propitiatory or expiating facrifice for the fins
of the world. The commemoration of our Saviour’s
fufferings has been kept from the very firft ages of
Chriftianity, and was always obferved as a day of the
ftrifteft fafting and humiliation. Among the Saxons
it was called Long-Friday; but for what reafon, ex¬
cept on account of the long fallings and offices then
ufed, is uncertain. On Good-Friday the Pope fits on
a plain form ; and, after fervice is ended, when the
cardinals wait on him back to his chamber, they are
obliged to keep a deep filence, as a teftiraony of their
forrow. In the night of Good-Friday, the Greeks
perform the obfequies of our Saviour round a great
crucifix, laid on a bed of ftate, adorned with flowers:
thefe the bilhops diftribute among the affitlants, when
the office is ended. The Armenians, on this day, fet
open a holy fepulchre, in imitation of that of mount
Calvary.
Good-Hope, or Cape of Good-Hope, the moft fouth-
erly promontory of Africa, where the Dutch have Goofe
built a good town and fort. It is fituated in the II.
country of the Hottentots. See Hottentots. Gordius'
Good Manners.. See Manners.
GOOSE, in ornithology. See Anas.
Goosu-Hnder, in ornithology. See Mergus.
Goosu-Berry, in botany. See Rises.
GoosE-iVeef, in a ffiip, a piece of iron fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the
whip-ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for fleering the
fhip.
Goosz-Wing, in the fea-language. When a fhip
fails before, or with a quarter-wind on a freflr gale,
fo make the more halte, they lanch out a boom,
and fail on the lee-fide; and a fail fo fitted, is called
a goofe-wing.
GORCUM, a town of the United Provinces, in
South Holland, which carries on a confiderable trade
in cheefe and butter. It is fituated on the rivers
Lingne and Maefe, in E. Lon. 4. 55. N. Lat.
51. 49.
GORDIANUS I. (Roman general,) was for his
valour and virtues, chofen emperor by the army in the
reign of Maximinus, A. D. 237; but his fon, whom
he had affociated with himfelf in the throne, being
flain by Capellian, the governor of Mauritania for
Maximinus, Gordianus killed himfelf the fame year.
See Rome.
Gordianus III. (grandfon of the former), a re¬
nowned warrior, and ftyled The guardian of the Ro¬
man commonwealth. He was treacheroufly affaffinated
by Philippus, an Arabian, one of his generals; who, to
the eternal difgrace of the Romans of that sera, fuc-
ceeded him in the empire, A. D. 244. See Rome.
GORDIAN-.A7Z0/, in antiquity, a knot made in
the leathers orharnefs of the chariot of Gordius king
of Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no find¬
ing where it began or ended. The inhabitants had a
tradition, that the oracle had declared, that he who
untied this knot (liould be mafter of Afia. Alexander
having undertaken it, was unable to accomplilh it;
when fearing left his not untying it ftiould be deemed
an ill augury, and prove a check in the way of his.
conquefts, he cut it afunder with his fword, and thus
either accomplilhed or eluded the oracle.
GORDIUS, the hair-worm, a genus of infefts
belonging to the clafs of vermes intefina. There are
two fpecies, r. The aquaticus, with a filiform body,
of equal thicknefs, and fmooth. It hath a pale co¬
lour, with both the ends black; and inhabits boggy
places, and clay at the bottom of water. 2. The ar-
gillaceus is of an uniform yellow colour, twifted fpi-
rally, and lying flat. It is common in the inteftines
of herring, and other fea-filh. Ariftotle remarks, that
the ballerus and tillo are infefted in the dog-days with
a worm that torments them fo much, that they rife to
the top of the water, where the heat deftroys them.
To thefe worms alfo may probably be owing* the ago¬
nies to which the bleaks are at certain times fubjeft.
See Cyprinus.
GORDIUS, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas,
was a poor hufband man, with two yokes of oxen, where¬
with he ploughed his land and drew his wain. An
eagle fitting a long while upon one of his oxen, he
confulted the foothfayers; a virgin bid him facrifice
to
o O R l 3347 ] G O R
Gordon to Jupiter in the capscity of king. He married the
.11 virgin, who brought forth Midas. The Perfians in-
Gor^et' ftruded by the oracle to fet the firft perfon they met
in a wain upon the throne, met Gordius, and made him
king. Midas for this good fortune dedicated to Jupi¬
ter his father’s cart. The knot of the yoke, they fay,
was fo well twifted, that he who could unloofe it was
promifed the empire of Afia; hence the proverb of
ike Gordian knot had its original. See Gordian
Knot.
GORDON (Thomas) noted for his tranflafions
and political writings, was born at Kirkudbright in
North-Britain. He came young to London; where
he fupported himfelf by teaching languages, until he
procured employment under the earl of Oxford in
queen Anne’s time, but in what capacity is not now
known. He firft diftinguifhed himftlf in the defence
of Dr Hoadley in the Bangorian contrpvei fy; which
recommended him to Mr Trenchard, in conjunflion
with whom he wrote the well-known Cato's Letters^
upon a variety of important public fubjedts. Thefe
were followed by another periodical paper, under the
title of The Independent Whig; which was continued
fome years after Mr Trenchard’s death, by Gordon
alone, againft the hierarchy of the church; but with
more acrimony than was fhewn in Cato's Letters. At
length Sir Robert Walpole retained him to defend his
adminiftratiou, to which end he wrote feveral pam¬
phlets; and died firft commiflioner of the wine-licences
in 1750. There are two other colledlions of tradfs of
his writing. The cordial for low fpirits, and The pillars
of prief craft and orthodoxy foaken. In his tranflatiocs
of Salluft and other works, he places the verbs at the
ends of fentences, according to the Latin idiom, in a
very ft iff and affedfed manner.
GORE, in heraldry, one of the abatements, which,
according to Gullim, denotes a coward. It is a figure
confifling of two arch lines drawn one from the finifter
chief, and the other from the finifter bafe, both meet¬
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Heraldry.
GOREE, a fmall ifland of Africa, near Cape de
Verd, fubjedl to the French. It is barren, but of great
importance on account of its good trade. It was taken
by the Englifh in May 1759, and given up by the
treaty of peace in 1763. E. Long. 12. 25. N. Lat.
14.30.
Goree, the capital town of an ifland of the fame
name in Holland, eight miles South of Briel. E.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GORGE, in architedlure, the narroweft part of the
Tufcan and Doric capitals, lying between the aftra-
gal, above the fhaft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in forrtification, the entrance of the plat¬
form of any work. See Fortification.
GORGED, in heraldry, the bearing of a crown,
coronet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan,
&c. and in that cafe it is faid, the lion or cygnet is
gorged with a dudal coronet, &c.
Gorged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of a
peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different colour
cr metal from the reft.
GORGET, a kind of breaft-plate like a half moon,
with the arms of the prince thereon; worn by the of¬
ficers of foot. They are to be either gilt or fllver, ac¬
cording to the colour of the buttons on the uniforms. Gorgons
GORGONS, in antiquity. Authors are not agreed c P .
in the accounts they give of the Gorgons. Diodorus 
Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons to have
been two warlike natigns of women who inhabited that
part of Libya which lay on the lakeTritonidis. We may
well imagine, fays that author, that they had frequent
quarrels together; as being women and neighbours.
He goes on to give an account of a moft bloody en¬
gagement between them, wherein the Amazons had
the better; three thoufand of the Gorgcns being mad-
prifoners, and the reft obliged to take fhelter in a wood,
to which the Amazons fet fire, with an intention to
deftroy the whole nation of Gorgons; but as the wind
did not prove favourable, they were obliged to defift,
and retire to their own territories. Here the Ama¬
zons, intoxicated with their viflory, gave themfelves up
to feafting and mirth; and as the guard was very ne¬
gligently kept in the night-time, the 3000 prifoners
laid hold of the opportunity, and, feizing the fwords
of theTe imprudent females, maflacred a great number
of them ; but were themfelves at laft overpowered and
cut to pieces. Myrine, the queen of the Amazons,
caufed monuments to be ere&ed to her female warriors
who had been flain on this occalion; which monuments
were dill to be feeu, fays our author, in his days. Thefe
female nations are faid to have been exterminated by
Hercules.
Paufanias’s account of the Gorgons is much to the
fame purpofe. They were, fays he, the daughters of
Phorbus; after whofe death one of them, named Me-
difdt reigned over the people dwelling near the lake
Tritonidis. The queen was paffionately fond of hunt¬
ing and war, fo that ftie laid the neighbouring coun¬
tries quite watte. At laft, Perfeus having made war
on the Gorgons, and killed the queen herfelf, when
he came to take a view' of the field of battle, he found
the queen’s corpfe fo extremely beautiful, that he or¬
dered her head to be cut off, which he carried home
with him to fhew to his countrymen the Greeks, who
could not behold it without aftonifhment.
Thefe accounts appear fomewhat credible; but others
reprefent the Gorgons in a very incredible manner,
making them to be a kind of monftrous women, all
covered over with hair, who lived in woods and forefis.
Others again, make them a kind of animal refembling
a fheep, with-fuch long hair on their faces, that it re¬
quired their utmoft efforts to clear it away before they
could fee any thing;.but when once they had effetfed
this, they killed all they faw with the poifonous influ¬
ence of their eyes.
GORGONA, a fmall ifland of Italy, in the fea of
Tufcany, and near that of Corfica, about eight miles
in circumference; remarkable for the large quantity of
anchovies taken near it. E. Long. 10. g. N. Lat.
43. 22.
Gorgona, a fmall ifland of the South Sea, 12 miles
Weft of the coaft of Peru, iu America. It is indif¬
ferent high land, very woody, and fpme of the trees
are very tall and large, and proper for mails. It is
about 1 o miles in circumference, and has feveral fprings
and livulets of excellent water, but is fubjedl to cou-
flant rains. W. Long. 79. 3. S. Lat. 3. 30.
GORITIA, or Goritz, a ftrong town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Auftria, and duchy of Carniola,
with
G O S [ 3348 ] GOT
Gorlitz with a caftle ; feated on the river Lizonzo, 20 miles
II north-ealt of Aquileia, and 70 north-eaft of Venice.
GotiTypium. E> Long> ^ N. Lat. 46. 12.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in Upper Lufa-
tia, fubjeff to the eledior of Saxony. It is a hand-
fome ftrong place, and feated on the river Niefle, in
E. Long. 15. 15. N. Lat. 51. 10.
GOSHAWK. See Falco.
GOSLAR, a large and ancient town of Lower
Saxony, and in the territory of Brunfwick; it is a free
imperial city, and itavas here that gun-powder was firft
invented, by a monk as is generally fuppofed. It is a
large place, but the buildings are in the ancient tafte.
In 1728, 280 houfes, and St Stephen’s fine church,
were reduced to afhes. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Gofe, and near it are rich mines of iron.
The inhabitants are famous for brewing excellent beer.
E. Long. 3. 37. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOSPEL, the hiltory of the life, a&ions, death,
refurredlion, afcenfion, and do&rine of Jefus Chrift.
The word is Saxon, and of the fame import with
the Latin term which fignifies glad tidings,
or good news.
This hiftory is contained in the writings of St Mat¬
thew, St Mark, St Luke, and St John ; who from
thence are called evangelifts. The Chriftian church
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels as
canonical ; notwithftanding which, feveral apocryphal
gofpels are handed down to us, and others are entirely
loft.
GOSSYPIUM, or Cotton, a genus of the poly-
andria order* belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies, all of them natives of
warm climates, r. The herbaceum, or common her¬
baceous cotton, hath an herbaceous fmooth ftalk two
feet high, branching upwards; five-lobed fmooth
leaves; and yellow flowers from the ends of the branches,
fucceeded by roundifh capfules full of feed and cotton.
2. The hirfutum, or hairy American cotton, hath
hairy ftalks branching laterally two or three feet high:
palmated, three and five lobed hairy leaves; and yellow
flowers, fucceeded by large oval pods furnifhed with
feeds and cotton. 3. The barbadenfe, or Barbadoes
fhrubby cotton, hath a (hrubby ftalk branching four
or five feet high, three-lobed fmooth leaves, glandu-
lous underneath; and yellow flowers fucceeded by oval
pods, containing feeds and cotton. 4. The arboreum,
or tree-cotton, hath an upright woody perennial ftalk,
branching fix or eight feet high; palmated, four or
five lobed fmeoth leaves; and yellow flowers, fucceed-
by large pods filled with feeds and cotton.
The firft three fpecies are annual, but the fourth is
perennial both in root and ftalk. In warm countries
thefe plants are cultivated in great quantities in the
fields for the fake of the cotton they produce; but the
firft fpecies is moft generally cultivated. The pods are
fometimes as large as middling-fized apples, clofely
filled with the cotton furrounding the feed. When
thefe plants are raifed in this country, they muft be
continually kept in a warm ftove, where they will pro¬
duce feeds and cotton. They are propagated by feeds.
See Cotton.
The American Iflands produce cotton fhrubs of va¬
rious fizes, which rife and grow up without any cul¬
ture ; efpecially in low and marfhy grounds. Their
produce is of a pale red; fome paler than others; but Goflyp;ura
fo fhort that it cannot be fpun. None of this is brought || mm
to Europe, though it might be ufefully employed in Gothland,
making of hats. The little that is picked up, ferves ~ ' '
to make mattrafles and pillows.
The cotton-fhrub that fupplies our manufattures,
requires a dry and ftony foil, and thrives beft in grounds
thatbaye already been tilled. Not but that the plant
appears more flourifhing in frefh lands than in thofe
which are exhaufted ; but, while it produces more
wood, it bears lefs fruit.
A weftern expofure is fitted for it. The culture
of it begins in March and April, and continues during
the firft fpring-rains. Holes are made at feven or eight
feet diftance from each other, and a few feeds thrown
in. When they are grown to the height of five or fix
inches, all the Items are pulled up, except two or three
of the ftrongeft. Thefe are cropped twice before the
end of Auguft. This precaution is the more neceffary,
as the wood bears no fruit till after the fecond prun¬
ing; and, if the (hrub was fuffered to grow more than
four feet high, the crop would not be the greater, nor
the fruit fo eafily gathered. The fame method is pur-
fued for three years ; for fo long the fhrub may con¬
tinue, if it cannot conveniently be renewed oftener
with the profpedt of an advantage that will compen-
fate the trouble.
This ufeful plant will not thrive if great attention is
not paid to pluck up the weeds that grow about it.
Frequent rains will promote its growth ; but they muft
not be inceflant. Dry weather is particularly neceffary
in the months of March and April, which is the time
of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being dif-
coloured and fpotted.
When it is all gathered in, the feeds muft be picked
out from the wool with which they are naturally mix¬
ed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill; which is
an engine, compofed of two rods of hard wood, about
18 feet long, 18 lines in circumference, and fluted two
lines deep. They are confined at both ends, fo as to
leave no more diftance between them than is neccffary
for the feed to flip through. At one end is a kind of
little millftone, which, being put in motion with the
foot, turns the rods in contrary dire&ions. They fe-
parate the cotton, and throw out the feed contained in
it.
GOTHA, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and capital of a duchy of the fame
name. It is 15 miles weft of Erford, and 15 fouth-
eaft of Mulhaufen. E. Long. it. o. N. Lat. 52. 25.
GOTHARD, one of the higheft mountains of
Swiflerland; and from the top, where there is an hofpital
for monks, is one of the fineft profpe<Sts in the world.
It is eight miles from Aldorf.
GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to
the Goths: thus, we fay, Gothic cuftoms, Gothic ar-
chite&ure, &c.
GOTHLAND, the moft fouthern province of Swe¬
den, being a peninfula, encompafted on three fides by
the Baltic Sea, or the channel at the entrance of it. It
is divided into feveral parts, which are Eaft Gothland,
Weft Gothland, Smaland, Halland, Bleaking, and
Schonen. It was a long time in the pofleflion of the
kings of Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden in 1654.
The principal towns of Gothland are Calmar, Land-
fcroon,
GOT [ 3349 ] GOT
Goths, (croon, Chrifttanople, Dalcburg, Gothenburg, Heltn-
ftat, Lunden, Malmone, and Vexio.
GOTHS, a warlike nation, and above all others
famous in the Roman hiftory, came Originally out of
Scandinavia, (the name by which the ancients diftin-
uifhed the prefent countries of Sweden, Norway, Lap-
ind, and Finmark.) According to the moft probable
accounts, they were the firft inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries^ and from thence fent colonies into the iflands of
the Baltic, the Cimbrian Cherfonefus, and the adja¬
cent places yet deftitute of inhabitants. The time of
their firft fettling in Scandinavia, and the time when
they firft peopled with their colonies the abovemen-
tioned iflands and Cherfonefus, are equally uncertain;
though the Gothic annals fuppofe the latter to have
happened in the time of Serug the great-grandfather
of Abraham. This firft migration of the Goths is
faid to have been conduced by thek king Eric; in
which all the ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as the
Danifh and Swedifh ones, agree. Their fecond migra¬
tion is fuppofed to have happened many ages after;
when, the abovementioned countries being overftocked
with people, Berig, at that time king of the Goths,
went out with a fleet in queft of new fettlements. He
landed in the country of the Ulmerugians, now Po¬
merania, drove out the ancient inhabitants, and divi¬
ded their lands among his followers. He fell next up¬
on the Vandals, whofe country bordered on that of the
Ulmerugians, and overcame them; but inftead of for¬
cing them to abandon their country, he only made them
(hare their pofleffions with the Goths.
The Goths who had fettled in Pomerania and the
adjacent parts of Germany being greatly increafed, in-
fomuch that the country could no longer contain them,
they undertoook a third migration in great numbers,
under Filimer furnamed the Great, their fifth prince
after leaving Scandinavia; and taking their route eaft-
ward, entered Scythia, advanced to the Cimmerian Bof-
phorus, and, driving out the Cimmerians, fettled in the
neighbourhood of the Palus Msotis. Thence in pro-
cefs of time, being greatly increafed in Scythia, they
refolved to feek new fettlements; and accordingly, ta¬
king their route eaftward, they traverfed feveral coun¬
tries, and at length returned into Germany.
Their leader in this expedition was the celebrated
Woden, called alfo Voden, Othen, Oden, Godan, and
Guadan. Of this Woden many wonderful things are
related in the Sueo-gothic chronicles. He was king
of the Afgardians, whom the northern writers will
have to be the fame with a people called Afpurgians
mentioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. By Strabo they
are placed near the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Afpurgia
was the metropolis of a province which Strabo calls
Afia; and Woden and his followers are ftykd by the
ancient Gothic writers Afee, Afianx, and Afiotx. The
kings of Afpurgia were mafters of all that part of
Scythia which lay to the weftward of Imaus, and was
by the Latins called Scythia intra Imaum, or “ Scy¬
thia within Imaus.’'
At what time Woden reigned in this country, is
quite uncertain ; but all hiftorians agree, that he went
out in queft of new fettlements with incredible num¬
bers of people following him. He firft entered Roxo-
lania, comprehending the countries of Pruflia, Livo¬
nia, and great part of Mulcovjv From thence he went
Von. V.
by fea into the north parts of Germany; and having Goths,
reduced Saxony and Jutland, he at laft fettled in Swe-
den, where he reigned till his death, and became fo fa¬
mous that his name reached all countries, and he was
by the northern nations worfhipped as a god. He is
fuppofed to have brought with him the Runic charac¬
ters out of Afia, and to have taught the northern na¬
tions the art of poetry; whence he is ftyled the father
of the Scaldi or Scaldri, their poets,, who deferibed in
verfe the exploits of the great men of their nation, as
the bards did among the Gauls and Britons.
The Romans diftinguiihed the Goths into two clafles;
the Oftrogoths and Vifigoths. Thefe names they re¬
ceived before they left Scandinavia, the Vifigoths be¬
ing foftened by the Latins from Weflerogoths, or
thofe who inhabited the Weftern part of Scandinavia,
as the Oftrogoths were thofe who inhabited the eaftem
part of that country. Their hiftory affords nothing of
moment till the time of their quarrelling with the Ro¬
mans ; which happened under the reign of the empe¬
ror Caracalla, Ion to Severus. After that time their
hiftory becomes fo clofely interwoven with that of the
Romans, that for the moft remarkable particulars of it
we muft refer to the article Rome. After the deftrup-
tion of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Oftro¬
goths, under their king Theodoric, became mafters of
the greateft part of Italy, having overcome and put to
death Odoacer king of the Fleruli in 494. They re¬
tained their dominion in this country till the year 553;
when they were finally conquered by Narfes, the em¬
peror Juftinian’s general. See (Hiftory of) Italy.
The Vifigoths fettled in Spain in the time of the em¬
peror Honorius, where they founded a kingdom which
continued till the country was fubdued by the Sara¬
cens ; for a particular account of all which, fee the ar¬
ticle Spain.
The Goths were famous for their hofpitality and
kindnefs to ftrangers, even before they embraced the
Chriftian religion. Nay, it is faid, that from their be«
ing eminently good, they were called Goths by the
neighbouring nations ; that name, according to Gro-
tius and moft other writers, being derived from the
German word which fignifies “ good.” They
encouraged, fays Dio, the ftudy of philofophy above all
other barbarous or foreign nations, and often chofe
kings from among their philofophers. Polygamy was
not only allowed but countenanced among them; every
one being valued or refpe&ed according to the num¬
ber of his wives. By fo many wives they had an incre¬
dible number of children, of whom they kept but one
at home, fending out the reft in queft of new fettle¬
ments ; and hence thofe fwarms of people which over¬
ran fo many countries. With them adultery was a ca¬
pital crime, and irremiffibly puniftiedwith death. This
feverity, and likewife polygamy, prevailed among them
when they were known to the Romans only by the
name of Getes, (their moft ancient name); as appears
from the poet Menander, who was himfelf one of that
nation; and from Horace, who greatly commends the
chaftity of their women. Their laws fell little (hart
of thofe of the ancient Romans. Their government
was monarchical; their religion was much the fame
with that of the ancient Germans or Celtes; and their
drefs is deferibed by Apollinaris Sidonius in the fol¬
lowing words; “ They are (hod (fays he) with high
19 F fhoes
G O T, [ 3350 . ] G O U
‘Gothofred fhoes made of hair, and reaching up to their ankles;
^ I! t their knees, thighs, and legs, are without any covering;
Gottenbur ; f jie;r garmcnts of various colours fcarce reaching to the
knee; their lleeves only cover the top of their arms;
they wear green caffocks with a red border; their belts
hang on their fheulder; their ears are covered with
twifted locks, they ufe hooked lances and miflile wea¬
pons.”
GOTHOFRED, or Godfrey, (Denis or Diony-
fius) an eminent civil lawyer, born'of an illuftrious
houfe at Paris, in 1549. Finding his country invol¬
ved in the confufion of the leaguers, he accepted of a
profefibr’s chair at Geneva, until he was patronized
and employed by Henry IV. ; but being afterward
ftripped of his employments as a huguenot, he at
length retired to Heidelburg, from whence no offers
were able to detach him. He was, however, difap-
pointed of his intention to end his days there ; for the
difturbances that broke out in the Palatinate obliged
him, in 1621, to take refuge in Strafburg, where he
died the following yyar. He wrote a great number
of books; but his principal work is the Corpus Ju-
rus Civilis cum notis.
Gothofred (Thodore), fon of the former, was born
at Geneva, in 1580. As foon as he had finifhed his
■ftudies, he went to Paris ; where he conformed to the
Romifh religion, and applied with indefatigable indu-
ttry to the ftudy of hiftory, that of France particu¬
larly, wherein he became very eminent, as appears by
his works. In 1632, the king made him one of his
hiftoriographers, with a ftipend of 3000 livres ; and,
in 1636, he was fent to Cologn, to affift at the treaty
of peace negociating there, on the part of France,
by the cardinal of Lyons. This treaty being remo¬
ved to Munfter, Gothofred was fent thither, where he
drew up Memoirs on the fubjeft; and continued in
that city, in the king’s fervice, to his death in 1649.
His principal work is his Account of the Ceremonial of
the kings of France.
Gothofred (James), brother of the preceding,
was born at Geneva, in 1587. Applying himfelf to
the ftudy of the law, he obtained the profeffor’s chair
there, was made counfellor of the city, and was feve-
ral times employed in France, Germany, Piedmont,
and Switzerland, to negociate their affairs in the name
of the republic. He died in 1562 ; and his chief
work is his Codex Theodfanus, cumperpetuis commenta-
riis, <&c,
Gothofred (Denis), fon of Theodore above men¬
tioned, was born at Paris, in 1615. He ftudicd hi¬
ftory, after his father’s example ; became as eminent in
that department of knowledge ; and obtained the re-
verfion of his father’s place of hiftoriographer royal,
from Lewis XIII. when he was but 25 years of age.
He publilhed his father’s Ceremonial of France; fi-
nifhed his Memoirs of Philip de Commines; and was
preparing a Hi/lory of Charles VIII. when he died
in 1681. It was publifhed by his eldeft fon, Denis,
in 1684.
GOTPENBURG, a rich and ftrong town of Weft
Gothland, in Sweden, with a good harbour, at the
mouth of the river Gothelba ; which is the beft fitua^
ted for foreign trade of any in Sweden, as it lies with-
•ut the found. E. Lon. 11. 50. N. Lat. 57. 44.
GOTTINGEN, a coahderable town of Lower
Saxony, in Germany, and in the duchy of Brunfwick; Gottorp
formerly free and imperial, but now fubjeft to the e- P
ledlor of Hanover. Here his late Majefty, George II. GourgHes*
founded an univerfity. It is feated on the river
Leine, in E. Lon. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51.32.
GOTTORP, a town of the duchy of Hefwic, in
Denmark, and capital of the duchy of Holftein Got¬
torp, where the duke has a very fine palace,
GOUDA, or Turgovv, a confiderable town of
South Holland, in the United Provinces, remarkable
for its (lately church. It is feated on the river Iffel, in
E. Lon. 4. 37. N. Lat. 52. 2.
GOVERNMENT, in general, is the polity of a
ftate, or an orderly power conftituted for the public
good.
Civil government was inftituted for the prefervation
and advancement of mens civil interefts, and for the
better fecurity of their lives, liberties, and properties.
The ufe and neceffity of government isfuch, that there
never was an age or country without feme fort of ci¬
vil authority : but as men are feldom unanimous in the
means of attaining their ends, fo-their differences in o-
pinion in relation to government has produced a va¬
riety of forms of it. To enumerate them, would be
to recapitulate the hiftory of the whole earth. But,
according to Montefquieu, and moft other writers,
they may in general be reduced to one of thefe three
kinds. 1. The republican. 2. The monarchical.
3. The defpotic.—The firft is that, where the people
in a body, or only a part of the people, have the fo-
vereign power : the fecond, where one alone governs,
but by fixed and eftablifiied laws: but, in the defpotic
government, one perfon alone, withoutlawand without
rule, direfts every thing by his own will and caprice.
See the article Law, n° 1. 3—10.—On the fubjedt of
government at large, fee Mootefquieu’s IP Efprit des
Loix, 1. 2. c. 1.; Locke, ii. 129, &c. quarto edi¬
tion, 1768; Sidney on Government; Sir Thomas
Smith de Repub. Angl.; and Acherly’s Britannic
Conftitution.—As to the Gothic government, its ori¬
ginal and faults, &c. fee Montefquieu’s L’Efprit des
Loix, 1. j 1. c. 8.—With refpeft to the feudal policy,
how it limited government; fee Feodal Syfem.
Government is alfo a poll or office, which gives
a perfon the power or right to rule over a place a city,
or a province, either fupremely, or by deputation.
Government is likewife ufed for the city, country,
or place to which the power of governing is ex¬
tended.
GOULART (Simon), a famous minifter of Gene¬
va, was born at Senlis, in 1543 ; and was one of the
moft indefatigable writers of his time. He madecon-
fiderahle additions to the Catalogue of witneffes of the
truth, compofed by Illyricus; and acquired a great
reputation by his works, the principal of which are,
1. A tranflatiqn of Seneca. 2. A coHe&ion of memor¬
able hiftories. 3. A tranflation of St Cyprian De lap*
fs. 4. Several devotional and moral treatifes. He
died at Geneva in 1628.
GOURD, in botany. See Cucurb-ita.
GOURGUES (Dominique de), an illuftrious.
French patriot, a private gentleman of Gafcoqy. The
Spaniards having inhumanly maflacred a colony of
Frenchmen who had fettled in Forida, Gourguestook
a fevere revenge on them, an account of which is gi¬
ven
G O W [ 3351 ] G R A
0*iiinay ven under the article Florida. On his return, he
P . was received with acclamations by his countrymen,
G<^"‘ but was forbid to appear at court. Queen Elizabeth
invited him to command an Englilh fleet againft the
Spaniards, in 1593 ; but he died at Tours, in his way
to England.
GOURNAY, a town of France, in the duchy of
Normandy and territory of Bray, celebrated for its
butter-market. It is feated on the river Ept, in E.
Lon. o. 33. N. Lat. 49. 23.
Gournay (Mary de Jars de), a lady celebrated for
her learning, was the daughter of William de Jars,
lord of Neufvi and Gournay. After the death of her
father, (he was prote&ed by Montaigne and Cardinal
Richlieu. To the daughter of the former (he dedi¬
cated her Nofegay of Pindus; and compofed feveral
other works, the moft confiderable of which is Les A-
vis. She died at Paris in 1685, aged 80. The cri¬
tics are divided concerning the reputation of this
lady : by fome flie is ftyled the Syren of France ; o-
thers fay her works (hould have been btiried with
her.
GOUT. See (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
GOWER (John), one of our moft ancient Eng¬
lilh poets, was cotemporary with Chaucer, and his
intimate friend. Of what family, or in what coun¬
ty he was born, is uncertain. He ftudied the law,
and was fome time a member of the fociety of
Lincoln’s inn, where his acquaintance with Chau¬
cer began. Some have afierted that he was a
judge; but this is by no means certain. In the
firft year of Henry IV. he became blind ; a mif-
fortune which he laments in one of his Latin poems.
He died in the year 1402; and was buried in St Ma¬
ry Overie, which church he had rebuilt, chiefly at his
own expence, fo that he mull have lived in affluent
circumftances. His tomb was magnificent, and curi-
oufly ornamented. It ftill remains, but hath been re¬
paired in later times. From the collar of S S, round
the neck of his effigies, which lies upon the tomb, it
is conje&ured that he had been knighted. As to his
character as a man, it is impoffible, at this diftance
of time, to fay any thing with certainty. With re¬
gard to his poetical talents, be was undoubtedly ad¬
mired at the time when he wrote, though a modern
reader may find it difficult to difcover much harmony
or genius in any of his compofitions. He wrote,
1. Speculum meditantis, in French ; in ten books.
There are two copies of this in the Bodleian library.
2. Vox clamantis, in Latin verfe; in feven books.
Preferved alfo in the Bodleian library, and in that of
All-Souls. It is a chronicle of the infurre&ion of the
commons in the reign of Richard II. 3. Confejfw
amantis ; printed at Weftminfter by Caxton, in 1493.
Lond. 1532, 1554. It is a fort of poetical fyttem
of morality, interfperfed with a variety of moral tales.
4. De rege Henrico IV. Printed in Chaucer’s works.
There are likewife feveral hiftorical trails, in manu-
fcript, written by our author, which are to be found
in different libraries; alfo fome fhort poems printed in
Chaucer’s works.
GOWN, robe, a long upper garment, wore by
lawyers, divines, and other graduates ; whs are hence
called men of the gown, or gownmen-
The gown is an ample fort of garment, wore over Gowsr,
the ordinary cloaths, hanging down to the feet.— It is - ('radL _
fafhioned differently for ecclefiaftics, and for laymen.
At Rome, they gave the name “ virile gown,” toga
viri/is, to a plain kind of gown which their youth af-
fumed when arrived at puberty. This they particu¬
larly denominated/’/Yc/ex/tf. See-Toga, Pretexta,
&c.
“ The remarkable drefs of our Britiffl anceftors; yrtj}ory
(Mr Whitaker dbferves), which continued very near- Manchejtevr
ly the fame to the commencement of the laft cen- '• 30*-
tury among the natives of Ireland, and has a6tu-
ally defcended to the prefcnt among the moun¬
taineers of Scotland, and is therefore rendered very
familiar to our ideas, carried in it an aftonifliing ap¬
pearance to the Romans. And it feems to have been
equally the drefs of the men and women, among the
nobles of Britain. But, in a few years after the e~
reclion of the Roman-Britifh towns in the north, and
in theprogrefs of refinement among them, this ancient
habit began to be difefteemed by the chiefs of the
cities, and looked upon as the badge of ancient bar-
barifm. And the growing prejudices were foon fo
greatly improved, that, within twenty years only after
the conftrudlion of the towns, the Britifti fagum was
a&ually refigned, and the Roman toga or “ gown”
affumed by many of them.
“ The gown, however, never became univerfal in
Britain. And it feems to have been adopted only by
the barons of the cities and the officers of the crown ;
and has therefore been tranfmitted to us as the robe of
reverence, the enfign of literature, and the mantle of
magiftracy. The woollen and plaided garments of the
chiefs having naturally fuperfeded the leathern veftures
of their clients, the former were ftill wore by the ge¬
nerality of the Britons. And they were retained by
the gentlemen of the country, and by the commonal¬
ty both in country and city. That this was the cafe,
appears evident from the correfpondent conduA of the
Gauls and Britons ; who kept their Virgata Sagula
to the laft, and communicated them to the Franks and
Saxons. The plaided drapery of the Britons ftill ap¬
peared general in the ftreets of Manchefter ; and muff
have formed a ftriking contrail to the gown of the
chief, the dark mantle of Italy. And it, and the or¬
namented buttons on the fhoulder, are preferved among
us even to the prefent moment, in the parti-coloured
cloathing and the taffelled ihoulder-knots of our foot¬
men.’’
In fome univerfities, phyficians wear a fcarlet-
gown.—In the Sorbonne, the doflors are always in
gowns and caps. Beadles, &c. wear gowns of two
or more colours.
Among the French officers, &c. they diftinguifh
thofe of \.htJhortgonun or robe', which are fuch as
have not been regularly examined.—They have alfb
barbers of thejhort govin, who are fuch as are obliged
to pradlife in an inferior way to thofe of the long robe.
Gown is alfo taken in the general for civil magi-
ftrature, or the profeffion oppofite to. that of arms.
In this fenfe it was that Cicero fa id, cedant arma
tog<e. '
GRAAF (Regnier de), a celebrated phyfician,
born at Sckoonhaven, in Holland, in 1641. He ftu-
19 F 2 died
G R A [ 3352 ] G R A
Orabe, died phyfic at Prufiia. He was educated in Leyden,
Crace' where he acquired great honour by publifhing a trea-
tife De Succo Pancreatico. He alfo publithed three
pieces upon the organs of generation, both male and
female; upon which fubjeft he had a-controverfy with
Swammerdam. He died young, in 1673 ; and his
works, with his life prefixed, were publifhed at Ley¬
den in 1677, in 8vo.
GRADE (John Erneft), a very learned writer in
the beginning of the 18th century, a native of Koninf-
berg in Pruffia. He was educated in the Lutheran
religion ; but the reading of the fathers led him into
doubts. He prefented to the ele&oral confiftory
at Sambia in Pruffia a memorial, containing his
doubts. The ele&or gave orders to three eminent di¬
vines to anfwer them. Their anfwers fhook him a lit¬
tle in his refolution of embracing the Roman Catho-
}ic religion ; and one of them, Spener, advifed him
to go to England. He went ; and king William gave
him a penfion, which was continued by Queen Anne.
He was ordained a prieft of the church of England,
and honoured with the degree of Doftor of Divinity
by the univerfity of Oxford ; upon which occafion Dr
George Smalridge pronounced two Latin orations,
which were afterwards printed. He wrote, t. Spice-
legium S. S. Pairury, ut et Hereticorum fueculi pqft
Chrijlum naturn, 8vo. 2. An edition of the Septua-
gint, from the Alexandrian manufcript in St James’s
library. 3. Notes on Juftin, &c. ; and other works,
which are efteemed by the learned.
GRACE, among divines, is taken, r. For the free
love and favour of God, which is the fpring and
fource of all the benefits we receive from him. 2. For
the work of the Spirit renewing the foul after the
image of God ; and continually guiding and ftrength-
ening the believer to obey his will, to refift and mor¬
tify fin, and overcome it.
Grace is alfo ufed, in a peculiar fenfe, for a fhort
prayer faid before and after meat.
The proofs of the moral obligation of this ceremony,
drawn from different paffages of the New Teftament,
are fo well known, that it is. needlefs to infill on them
here. Some others, drawn from the pra&ice of differ¬
ent nations, and of very remote antiquity, may not be
difagreeable to our readers.
1. Athenxus tells us, in his Deipnojbph. lib. ii. that
in the famous regulation made by Amphi&yon, king
of Athens, withrefpedl to the ufe of wine, both in fa-
crifices, and at home, he required that the name of
Jupiter the Sujlaiuer fhould be decently and reverently
pronounced. The fame writer, in lib. iv. p. 149.
quotes Hermeias, an author extant in his time, who
informs us of a people in Egypt, inhabitants of the
city of Naucratis, whofe cuftom it was on certain oc-
cafions, after they had placed themfelves in the ufual
ppflure of eating at the table, to rife again, and kneel;
when the pried or precentor of the folemnity began
to chant a grace, according to a dated form amongd
them ; and when that was over, they joined in the
meal, in a folemn facrificial manner. Heliodorus,
has a paffage in his JEtbiopics to. the fame purpofe,
that it was the cudom of the Egyptian philofophers
to pour out libations and put up ejaculations before
they fat down to meals. Porphyry, in his treatife
JX ahjin. lib. iv. p. 408. gives a great character of
the Samnean gymnofophids in Egypt, for the ftrifl- Grace,
nefs of their life: as one article in their favour, he "
obferves, that at the founding of a bell before their
meals, which confided only of rice, bread, fruits, and
herbs, they went to prayers ; which being ended, and
not before, the bell founded again, and they fat down
to eating. In general, this was a religious ufage or
rite amongd the ancient Greeks ; and derived from yet
older ages, if Clement of Alexandria rightly informs
us. He mentions, that thefe people, when they met
together to refreflt themfelves with the juice of the
grape, fung a piece of mufic, in imitation of the He¬
brews pfalms, which they called a fcbolion. Livy, lib.
xxxix. fpeaks of it as a fettled cndom among the old
Romans, that they offered facrifice and prayer to the
gods, at their meals and compotations. But one of
the fulled tedimonies to our purpofe is given by Quin¬
tilian, Declam 301. Jldifti menfam, fays he, adquam
cum venire arpimus, Dcos invocamiu ; “ We approach¬
ed the table (at fupper together), and then invoked the
gods.”
The Jefuit Trigautius, in his very elegant and in-
ftrudlive narrative of the Chridian expedition of their
miffianaries into China, book i. p. 69. gives this ac¬
count of the people there, in the particular now under
confideration. “ Before they place themfelves for
partaking of an entertainment, the perfon who makes
it, fets a vcffd, either of gold or diver, or marble, or
fome fuch valuable material, in a charger full of wine,
which he holds with both his hands, and then make*
a low bow to the perfon of chief quality or charafter
at the table. Then, from the hall or dining room,,
he goes into the porch or entry, where he again makes
a very low bow, and turning his face to the fouth,
pours out this wine upon the ground, as a thankful
oblation to the Lord ®f heaven. After this, repeat¬
ing his reverential obeifaace, he returns into the
hall, &c.”
The Turks pray for a blefling on their meat ; and
many more indances might be produced of infidels,
who have condantly obferved the like cudom, in fome
way or other.
2. The faft, therefore, with refpeft to the heathen
world, being thus evident; we proceed to the fenti-
ments and behaviour of the Jew in this particular.
Their celebrated hidorian Jqfephur, giving a detail of
the rites and cudoms of the EJenes, who were con-
fefifedly the dri&eft and mod pious profeffbrs of the
Jewiih religion, has this remarkable paffage to the pre-
fent purpofe: “ The pried,’’fays he, “ begs a bleffing
befor# they prefume to take any nouri/hment; and it is
looked upon as a great fin to take or tade before.”
Then follows the thankfgiving before meat: and
“ when the meal,” proceeds he, “ is over, the prieft
prays again ; and the company with him biefs and
praife God as their preferver, and the donor of their
life and nouriihment.”
Philo, in his book De vita ccntemplativa, gives an
account of a body of men and women dri&er than e-
ven the Effenes themfelves. He diftinguifhes them by
no particular name, though his relation is very accu¬
rate and circumdantial; namely, that, on certain fpe-
cial occalions, before “ they took their meals, they
placed themfelves in a proper decent order; when, lift¬
ing up their hands and eyes to heaven, they prayed to.
God*
ORA f 3353 ] G R A
Grace. God, that he would be pleafed to be propitious to
‘ them in the ufe of thofe his good creatures.”
From the Hebrew ritual it appears, that the Jews
bad their hymns and pfalms of thankfgiving, not only
after eating their pafiover, but on a variety of other
occafions, at and after meals, and even between their fe¬
deral courfes and dirties; as when the belt of their wine
was brought upon the table, or their aromatic confec¬
tions, or the fruit of the garden, &c. On the day of
the paffover was fung Pfalm cxiv. When Ifrael came
out of Egypt, &c.
Ariftaeus has a paffage full on the prefent fubjeft.
“ Mofes,” fays he, “ commands, that when the jews
are going to eat or drink, the company Jhould immediately
join in facrifice or prayer." Where Rabbi Eleazar
(upon that author) met with this fentence, has been
controverted. But fuppofing it not to be found in
fcriptis, it is fufficient for us to know that the Jews
did conftantly praftife this cuftom, upon the founda¬
tion of an ancient and general tradition and ufage.
That the prophet Daniel gave thanks after meat, is
evident from the Apocryphal book concerning Bel and
the Dragon, where, ver. 38, 39. we find, that Daniel
faid. Thou hajl rememhered me, 0 God! neither haft
thou frfaken them who feek thee and love thee. So Da ¬
niel arofe, and did eat. Of this text Prudeutius takes
notice in Cathemirin. hytpn iv.
His fumptis Denielis excitorit
In coetumfaciem, cibique fortis.
Amen reddidit, allelujah dixit.
The much-belov’d took the repaft.
And up to heav’n his eyes he cart v
By which refrcfh’d, he lung aloud.
Amen, and allelujah to his God
Where, by the way, it may be obferved, that the
poet is a little miltaken, in making the prophet give
thanks after meat; whereas, according to the text,
he did it before,
Grace, or Gracefulnefs, in the human character ;
an agreeable attribute, infeparable from motion- as op-
pofed to reft, and as comprehending fpeech, looks,
gefture, and loco-motion.
As fome motions are homely, the oppofite to grace¬
ful; it is to be inquired, With what motions is this at¬
tribute connected ? No man appears graceful in a mafic;
and therefore, laying afide the exprefSons of the coun¬
tenance, the other motions may be genteel, may be
elegant, but of themfelves never are graceful. A mo¬
tion adjufted in the moft perfect manner to anfwer its
end, is elegant; but ftill fome what more is required
to complete our idea of grace or gracefulnefs.
What this unknown more may be, is the nice point.
One thing is .clear from what is faid, that this more
muft arife from the expreflions of the countenance :
and from what expreflions fo naturally as from thofe
which indicate mental qualities, fuch as fweetnefs,
benevolence, elevation, dignity ? This promifes to be
a fair analyfis ; becaufe of all objtfts mental qualities
affetl us the moft.; and the impreflion made by grace¬
ful appearance upon every fpedtator of lafte, is too
deep for any catife purely corporeal.
The next ftep is, to examine what are the mental
qualities, that, in conjuinftion with elegance of motion,
produce a graceful appearance. Sweetnefs, cheer-
fulaefs, affability, are not fepaiately fufficient, nor
even in conjunction. Dgnity alone, with elegant Grace,
motion, produce a graceful appearance ; but ftill more
graceful with the aid of other qualities, thofe efpecially
that are the moft exalted. See Dignity.
But this is not all. The moft exalted virtues may
be the lot of a perfon whofe countenance has little ex-
preflion : fuch a perfon cannot be graceful. There¬
fore to produce this appearance, we muft add another
cirumftance, viz. an expreftive countenance, difplay-
ing to every fpeClator of tafte, with life and energy,
every thing that pafles in the mind.
Colle&ing thefe circumftances together, grace may
be defined, “ that agreeable appearance which arifes
from elegance of motion and from a countenance
expreffive of dignity”. Expreflions of other mental
qualities are not eflential to that appearance, but
they heighten it greatly.
Of all external objeAs, a graceful perfon isthemofc
agreeable.
Dancing affords great opportunity for difplaying
grace, and haranguing ftill more. See Dancing,
Declamation, and Oratory.
But in vain will a perfon attempt to be graceful,
who is deficient in amiable qualities. A man, it is
true, may form an idea of qualities he is deftitute of;
and, by means of that idea, may endeavour to exprefs
thefe qualities by looks and geftures : but fuch ftudied
expreflion will be too faint and obfeure to be graceful.
Aft c/" Grace, the appellation given to the adt of
parliament 1696, c. 32. which allows prifoners for
civil debts to be fet at liberty, upon making oath that
they have not wherewithal to fupport themfelves in
prifon, unlefs they are alimented by the creditors on
whofe diligences they were imprifoned, within ten
days after intimation made for that purpofe. Sec
Law, Part III. N° clxxxv. 13.
Days of Grace, three days immediately following
the term of payment of a bill, within which the cre¬
ditor muft proteft it if payment is not obtained, in or¬
der to entitle him to recourfe againft the drawer.
See Law, Part III. N° clxxiii. 16.
Grace is alfo a title of dignity given to dukes,
archbilhops, and in Germany to barons an<i other in¬
ferior princes.
Graces, in heathen mythology, three goddefits,
whofe names were A glia, Thalia, and Euphroftne;
that 'vi, joining, flourijhing, and gay i or, according to
fome authors, Paftthea, Euphrofyne, and JEgiale. Some
make them the daughters of Jupiter, and Eurynome,
or Eunomia, the daughter of Oceanus; but the moft
commpn opinion is, that they were the daughters of
Bacchus and Venus.
They are fometimes reprefented drefled; but more
frequently naked, to (hew, perhaps, that whatever is
truly graceful, is fc in itfelf, without the aid of exte¬
rior ornaments. They prefided over mutual kindnefs
and acknowledgment; beftowed liberality, eloquence,
and wifdom, together with a good grace, gaiety of
difpofition, and eafinefs of manners.
GRACCHUS (Tiberius), ele&ed tribune of the
Roman people, demanded in the fenate, in their name,
the execution of the Agrarian law; by which all per-
fons poffeffing above 200 acres of land were to be de¬
prived of the furplus, for the benefit of the poor citi¬
zens, amongft whom an equal diftribution of then*
was
ORA [ 3354 ] G R A
Gracula was to be made; having carried his plan into execution
II, by violent tneafures, he fell a vidtim to his zeal, being
Grafting. a{faflinated by his own party, J33 13. C. Cains, his
brother, purfuing the fame fteps, was killed by the
conlul Opimius, 121 B. C. See (hiftory of) Rome.
GRACULA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of picse. The bill is convex, cultrated,
and bare at the point; the tongue is not cloven, but
is flefhy and fharpifh; it has three toes before, and
one behind. There are eight fpecies, principally di-
ftinguilhed by their colour.
GRACULUS, in ornithology. See Corvus.
GRADATION, in general, the afcending ftep by
flep, or in a regular and uniform manner.
Gradation, in logic, a form of reafoning, other-
wife called Sorites.
Gradation, in painting, a gradual and infenfible
change of colour, by the diminution of the teints and
fhades.
Gradation, in rhetoric, the fame with Climax.
GRADISKA, a ftrong town of Hungary in Scla-
vonia, on the frontiers of Croatia, taken by the Turks
in 1691. It is feated on the river Save, in E. Lon.
17. 55. N. Lat. 45. 38.
Gradiska, a ftrong town of Italy, in afmall ifland
of the fame name on the frontiers of Friuli, in E.
Lon. 13. 37. N. Lat. 46. 6. It is fubjed to the
houfe of Auftria.
GRADO, a ftrong town of Italy, in a fmall ifland
of the fame name, on the coaft of Friuli, and in the
territory of Venice. E. Lon. 13. 35. N. Lat.
45. 52.
GRADUATE, a perfon who has taken a degree
in the univerftty. See Degree.
GRJEVIUS (John George), one of the moft
learned writers in the 17th century. In the 24th
year of his age, the eledtor of Brandenburg made him
profeflbr at Duifbourg. In 1658, he was invited to
Deventer to fucceed his former mafter Gronovius. In
1661, he was appointed profeflbr of eloquence at
Utrecht; and 12 years after, he had theprofeflbrlhip
of politics and hiftory conferred on him. He fixed
his thoughts here, and refufed feveral advantageous
offers. He had, however, the fatisfadion to be fought
after by divers princes, and to fee feveral of them come
from Germany to ftudy under him. He died in 1703,
aged 71. His Thsfaurus antiquitatum et bijioriarum
Italia, &c. and other works, are well known.
GRAFTING, or Engrafting, in gardening, is
the taking a (hoot from one tree, and inferting it into
another in fuch a manner, that both may unite clofely
and become one tree. By the ancient writers on
hufbandry and gardening, this operation is called /«-
cifien, to diftinguilh it from inoculation or budding,
which they call inferere aculos.
Grafting hath been pradifed from the moft remote
antiquity; but its origin and invention is differently
related by naturalifts. Theophraftus tells us, that a bird
having fwallowed a fruit whole, caft it forth into a cleft
or cavity of a rotten tree; where mixing with fome of
the putrified parts of the wood, and being waftied
with the rains, it budded, and produced within this
tree another tree of a different kind. This led the
hufbandman to certain refledions, from which foon
afterwards arofe the art of engrafting.
Pliny fets the fame thing in a different light: a Grafting.
countryman having a mind to make.a pallifade in his ’
grounds, that it might endure the longer, he bethought
himielf to fill up and (Lengthen the bottom of the
paliifade, by running or wattling it with the trunks of
ivy. The effed of this was, that the (lakes of the
pallifades taking root, became engrafted into the
trunks, and produced large trees; which fuggefted to
the hu(bandman the art of engrafting.
The ufe of grafting is to propagate any curious
forts of fruits fo as to be certain of the kinds; which
cannot be done by any other method : for as all the
good fruits have been accidentally obtained from feeds,
fo the feeds of thefe, when fown, will many of them
degenerate, and produce fuch fruit as is not worth the
cultivating : but when (hoots are taken from fuch
trees as produce good fruit, thefe will never alter from
their kind, whatever be their (lock or tree on which
they are grafted.
The reafon or philofophy of engrafting is fome-
what obfcure ; and had not accident given the firft
hint, all our knowledge of nature would never have
led us to it. The effedt is ordinarily attributed to
the diverfity of the pores or dudls of the graft from
thofe of the (lock, which change the figure of the
particles of-the juices in pafiing through them to
the reft of the tree.
Mr Bradley, on occafion of fome obfervations of A-
gricola, fuggeftsfomething new on this head. The (lock
grafted on, he thinks, is only to be confidered as a
fund of vegetable matter, which is to be filtered
through the cyon, and digefted, and brought to ma¬
turity, as the time of growth in the veffels of the cyon
diredls. A cyon, therefore, of one kind, grafted on
a tree of another, may be rather faid to take root in
the tree it is grafted in, than to unite itfelf with it:
for it is vifible that the cyon preferves its natural pu¬
rity and intent, though it be fed and nouriftied with a
mere crab ; w7hich is, without doubt, occafioned by
the difference of the veffels in the cyon from thofe of
the (lock: fo that grafting may be juftly compared to
planting.
In profecution of this view of that ingenious au¬
thor, we add, that the natural juices of the earth, by
their fecretion and comminution in paffing through the
roots, &c. before they arrive at the-cyon, muft doubt-
lefs arrive there half elaborated and conco&ed; and
fo difpofed for a more eafy, plentiffil, and perfedt af-
fimilation and nutrition ; whence the cyon muft necef-
farily grow and thrive better and fafter than if it were
put immediately in the ground, there to live on coarfe
diet and harder of digettion : and the fruit produced
by this further preparation in the cyon, muft be finer
and further exalted than if fed immediately from the
more imperfeftly prepared and altered juices of the
(lock.
Many have talked of changing of fpecies, or pro¬
ducing mixed fruits, by engrafting one tree on ano¬
ther of the fame clafs ; but as the graft carries the
juices from the (lock to the pulp of the fruit, there
is little hope of fucceeding in fuch an expectation by
ever fo many repeated grafts: but if, after changing
the graft and (lock feveral fucceflive times, you fet the
feed of the fruit produced on the graft in a good
mould, it is poflible that a change may happen, and
G R A [ 3355 ] G R A
Graft!t|g- a new mixed plant may be produced. Thus the al¬
mond and peach may, by many changes in the graft¬
ings, and by interrations of the ftones of the peaches,
and of the {hells of the almonds, and by teribrations
of the ftem of the root here and there, alter their na¬
ture fo much, that the coat or pulp of the almond may
approach to the nature of the peach, and the peach
may have its kernel enlarged into a kind of almond ;
and on the fame principle, the curious gardener may
produce many fuch mixed kinds of things.
Mr Du Hamel has obferved, that, in grafting of
trees, there is always found at the infertion of the
graft, a change in the direftions of fibres, and a fort
of twifting or turning about of the veffels, which great¬
ly imitates that in the formation of certain glands in
animal bodies : and from thence he infers, that a new
fort of vifcus being formed by this means, the fruit
may very naturally be fo far influenced by it, as to be
meliorated on the new branch ; but that no fuch fud-
den and efl’ential changes can be eftefted by thofie
means, as too many of the writers on agriculture pre¬
tend. He obferves, however, that this anatomical
obfervation would not have been fufficient to convince
him of the falfity of too many of thefe relations, had
not experiment joined to confirm him in this opinion.
He tried many grafts on different trees; and, for fear
of error, repeated every experiment of confequence fe-
veral times: but all ferved only to convince him of the
truth of what he at firft fufpe&ed. He grafted in the
common way the peach upon fhe almond, the plum
upon the apricot, the pear upon the apple, the quince,
and the white thorn ; one fpecies of plum on other
very different fpecies, and upon the peach the apricot
and the almond. All thefe fucceeded alike: the
fpecies of the fruit was never altered ; and in thofe
which would not come to fruit, the leaves, the wood,
and the flowers, were all the fame with thofe of the
I tree from whence the graft was taken.
Authors on agriculture have alfo mentioned a very
different fort of grafting ; namely, the fetting grafts
i of one tree upon flocks of a different genus ; fuch as
the grafting the pear upon the oak, the elm, the
maple, or the plum, &c. Mr Du Hamel tried a great
number of thofe experiments carefully, and found
every one of them unfuccefsful; and the natural con-
clufion from this was, that there muft be forae natural
alliance between the flocks and their grafts, otherwife
the latter will either never grow at all, or very foou
perifh.
Notwithflanding the facility with which grafts ge¬
nerally take on good flocks, there are many accidents
j i and uncertainties attending them in their different
periods. Some perifh immediately ; fome, after ap¬
pearing healthy for many months, and fome even for
years. Of thefe lafl fome die without the flocks fnf-
fering any thing; others perifh together with the
flocks. It is very certain, that the greater part of
grafted trees do not live fo long as they would have
done in their natural flate ; yet this is no unexception¬
able rule : for there are fome which evidently live the
longer for this pra&ice; nay, there are in fiances of
grafts which, being placed on flocks naturally of fhort
duration, live longer than when placed on thofe which
are more robufl and lading. Thefe irregularities have
keen but little confidered hitherto, though they might
be made produclive of confiderable advantages.—One Grafting,
great requifite for the fucceeding of any graft is, that
it be in its own nature capable of fo clofe and intimate
an union with the fubflance of the flock, that it be¬
comes as it were a natural branch of it. If all trees
refembled one another in their flrudlure and juices, the
fize and elaflicity of their veffels, &c. probably the
grafts of all trees would fucceed upon on another; but
this is by no means the cafe.
Trees are well known to be compofed of numerous
arrangements of hollow fibres, and thefe are different
and unequal in every fpecics of tree. In order to the
fncceeding of a graft, it is plain that there mull be a
conformity in its veffels and juices with thofe of the
flock ; and the more nearly they agree in this, pro¬
bably the better they fucceed, and the farther they
differ, the worfe. — If there be, however, forne diffe¬
rence in the folid parts of trees, there are evidently
many more in the juices. The fap in fome trees is
white as milk, in others it is reddifh, and in fome as
clear and limpid as water. In fome, it is thin and very
fluid; in others, thick and vifeous. In the tafle and
fmell of thefe juices there are alfo not lefs differences :
fome are fweet, fome infipid, fome bitter, fome acrid,
and fome fetid : the quality of the fap thus makes a
very great difference in the nature of trees ; but its
quantity, and derivation to the parts, is fcarce lefs ob-
fervable. Of this we have familiar inflances in the
willow and the box; oneof which will produce longer
flioots in a year, than the other in 20.
Another difference yet more flriking, and indeed
more effential in regard to the growth of grafts than
all thefe, is the different feafon of the year at which
trees fhoot out their leaves, or ripen their flowers.
The almond-tree is in flower before other trees in
general have opened their eavliefl buds ; and when
other trees are in flower, this is full of leaves, and has
its fruit fet before the mulberry begins to pufh out its
earliefl buttons. When we confider all thefe diffe¬
rences in trees, we cannot but wonder bow it is pof-
fible for a branch of one to live upon another ; and it
becomes a much more perplexing queflion how apy
graft can fueceed, than how fuch numbers come to
mifearry. A graft of one pear upon another fhall be
feen to fucceed prefently as if upon its own tree ; and
in a fortnight will gain fix inches in length, and fo of
fome others.—This mufl be owing to the great fimi-
larity between the flock and the graft in all refpe&s;
and a great contrariety or diflerence in ftrudlure of
parts will make as remarkable a difference on the
other hand. An inflance of this may be obferved in
the plum and the elm ; which no art can ever make to
fucceed upon one another, whether the plum be
grafted on the elm, or the elm upon the plum flock.
Thefe are examples of the extremes of eafy growth,
and of abfolute decay; but there are many conjunc¬
tions of trees which feem of a middle nature between
the two, and neither immediately perifh, nor totally
fucceed. Of thefe, fuch as were grafted in autumn
ufually remain green the whole winter without pufh-
ing ; and thofe which are grafted in fpring remain
green a month or longer, but dill without (hooting.
Some particular ones have a-lfo been known to make a
few fhoots the firfl, or even the fecond fap feafon
after the^ operation ; but all perifh at the end of thefe
times.
times. Of this kind are the grafts of the pear-tree
upon the elm, the maple, and the hornbeam, and the
mulberry upon the elm and fig, with many others.
When we come to inquire into the caufe of this,
we find that thefe grafts, though unnatural, have yet
had a communication with the flock by means of
a few fmall veffels, which has been fufficient to keep
them green, or even to make them {hoot a little,
during the great afcent of the fap : But the far greater
number of the fibres have had all the while no com¬
munication, and are found putrified, dried up, or
covered with a putrid juice. This has evidently hap¬
pened by means of the difproportion in fize between
the veflels of the flock and of the graft, and the great
difference between their natural juices, which are
obftacles abundantly fufficient to prevent either an
union of the fibres, or the introdu<£lion of new fap.
The grafts of the almond on the plum, and of the
plum on the almond, always grow very vigoroufly for
the firft year, and give all the appearances imaginable
of fucceeding entirely; yet they always perifh in the
fecond or third year. The almond-graft upon the
plum-flock always pufltes out very vigoroufly at firft ;
but the part of the flock immediately under the graft
grows fmaller and perifhes, the graft abforbing too
much of the juices, and the graft neceflarily perifhes
with it. The decay of the whole generally happens
early in the fpring; and that plainly from the different
feafon of the natural (hooting of the two trees, the al¬
mond pufhing very vigoroufly, and confequently drain¬
ing the flock of its juices, at a time when, according
to its nature, the juices are but in fmall quantity in it,
and the fap does not begin to afcend. The grafts of
the plum on the almond are, from the fame caufe, fur-
nifhed with an abundance of fap which they have at
that time no occafion for; and confequently they as
certainly perifh of repletion, as the other of inanition.
The peach-grafted on the plum fucceeds excellently,
and lives longer than it would have done in a natural
ilate; the reafon feems to be, that the peach is a ten¬
der tree, fhoots with great vivacity, and produces more
branches than the root is able to maintain. Thus the
peach trees are ufually full of dead wood; and often
their large branches perifh, and fometimes their whole
trunk. On this occafion the plum being a flow (hoot¬
ing tree, communicates its virtue to the graft; and the
peach confequently fends out fhoots which are more
robuft and ftrong, and are no more in number than the
root is able to fupply with nourifhment, and confe¬
quently the tree is the more lading.
The grafts, or cions, with which the grafting is ef-
fedled, are young fhoots of laft fummer’s growth, for
they muft not be more than one year, and fuch as
grow on the outfide branches, and robuft but moderate
fhooters; fuch alfo as are firm and well ripened, fhould
always be chofen from healthful trees: obferving, that
the middle part of each (hoot is always the beft graft,
cut at the time of grafting to five or fix inches in
length, or fo as to have four or five good eyes or buds;
but fhould be preferred at full length till grafting
time, and then prepared as hereafter dire&ed.
They fhould be collected or cut from the trees in
February, in mild weather, before their buds begin to
fwell, or advance much for (hooting: in colle&ing them,
■chobfe fuch as have not made lateral or fide fhoots; cut
them off at full length ; and if they are not to be ufed
as foon as they are colle&ed, lay their lower ends in
fome dry earth in a warm border till grafting time,
and, if fevere weather fhould happen, cover them with
dry litter.
The proper tools and othet materials ufed in graft¬
ing, are,
A ftrong knife for cutting off the heads of the flocks,
previous to the infertion of the graft; alfo a fmall hand-
faw for occafional ufe in cutting off the heads of large
flocks.
A common grafting-knife, or ftrong, fharp pen¬
knife, for cutting and fhaping the grafts ready for in¬
fertion ; alfo to (lope and form the flocks for the recep¬
tion of the grafts.
A flat grafting-chifel and fmall mallet for clefting
large flocks, in cleft-grafting, for the reception of the
graft.
A quantity of new bafs-ftrings for bandages, for
tying the grafted parts clofe, to fecure the grafts, and
promote their fpeedy union with the flock. And,
A quantity of grafting clay, for claying clofely
round the grafts after their infertion and binding, to
defend the parts from being dried by the fun and
winds, or too much liquified by wet, or pinched by
cold; for thefe parts ought to be clofely furrouud-
ed with a coat of clay in fuch a manner as effe&ually
to guard them from all weathers, which would prove
injurious to young grafts, and deftroy their cementing
property, fo as to prevent the jundion : therefore, a
kind of ftiff loamy mortar muft be prepared of ftrong
fat loam, or, in default thereof, any fort of tough bind¬
ing clay, either of which fhould be laid in an heap,
adding thereto about a fourth of frefh horfe-dung free
from litter, and a portion of cut hay, mixing the whole
well together, and adding a little water: then let the whole
be well beaten with a flick upon a floor, or other hard
fubftance; and as it becomes too dry, apply more wa¬
ter, at every beating turning it over, always continuing
to beat it well at top till it becomes flat; which muft
be repeated more or lefs according to the nature of the
the clay, but fhould be feveral times done the firft
day: next morning repeat the beating, ftill moift-
ening it with water; and by thus repeating the beat¬
ing fix or eight times every day for two or three days,
or every other day at leaf!, for a week, it will be in pro¬
per order for ufe; obferving, it fhould be prepared a
week at leaft before it is ufed, but if a month the bet¬
ter.
The feafon for performing the operation of grafting
is February and March: though, when the work is
performed in February, it for the general part proves
the moft fuccefsful, more efpecially for cherries,
plums, and pears ; and March grafting is well adapt¬
ed for apples.
There are different methods of grafting in practice,
termed Whip-grafti ng* Cleft- graft ing Crown -
grafting—Cheek-grafting—Side-grafting Root¬
grafting—and Grafting by-approach or Inarching;
but Whip-grafting and Cleft-grafting are moft com¬
monly ufed ; and Whip-grafting mofl of all, as being
the moft expeditious and fuccefsful of any.
Whip-grafting.—This being the moft fuccefsful me¬
thod of grafting is the moft commonly pradlifed in all
the nurferies ; it is always performed upon fmalJ flocks*
from
G R A [ 3357 ] G R A
Grafting, from about the fize of a goofe-quill, to half an inch or
1 a little more or lefs in diameter, but the nearer the
Hock and graft approach in iize the better; and is call¬
ed ’luhip-grafthig, becaufe the grafts and flocks being
nearly of a fize, are (loped on one fide, fo as to fit each
other, and tyed together in the manner of whips, or
joints of angling-rods, &c. and the method is as fol¬
lows.
Ma-we's Having the cions or grafts, knife, bandages, and
Difl. of cl a y ready, then begin the work by cutting off the head
ar CttW&‘ of the flock at fome clear fmooth part thereof; this
done, cut one fide (loping upward, about an inch and
half or near two inches in length, and make a notch
or fmall flit near the upper part of the Hope downward
about half an inch long, to receive the tongue of the
cion ; then prepare the cion, cutting it to five or fix
inches in length, forming the lower end alfo in a (loping
manner, fo as exadlly to fit the (loped part of the (lock,
as if cut from the fame place, that the rinds of both
may join evenly in every part; and make a flit fo as to
form a fort of tongue to fit the flit made in the dope
of the (lock; then place the graft, inferting the tongue
of it into the flit of the (lock, applying the parts as
evenly and clofe as pofiible ; and immediately tye the
parts clofe together with a flTring of bafs, bringing
it in a neat manner feveral times round the (lock and
graft; then clay the whole over near an inch thick on
every fide, from about half an inch or more below the
bottom of the graft, to an inch over the top of the
flock, Sniffling the whole coat of clay in a kind of oval
globular form, rather longwife, up and down, clofing
it effedtually about the cion, and every part, fo as no
fun, wind, nor wet may penetrate, to prevent which
is the whole intention of claying; obferving to exa¬
mine it now and then, to fee if it any where cracks or
falls off, and if it does it muff be inftantly repaired
with frefh clay.
This fort of grafting may alfo be peformed, if ne-
ceffary, upon the young (hoots of any bearing tree, if
intended to alter the forts of fruits, or have more than
one fort on the fame tree.
By the middle or latter end of May, the grafts will
be well united with the dock, as will be evident by the
(hooting of the graft; then the clay (hould be wholly
taken away; but fuffer the bafs bandage to remain fome
time longer until the united parts feem to fwell and
be too much confined by the ligature, then take the
tying wholly off.
Their farther culture is dire&ed under the refpec-
tive articles, whether defigned for dwarfs or ftandards,
&c.
Cleft-grafting.—This is fo called, becaufe the dock
being too large for whip-grafting is cleft or flit down
the middle for the reception of the graft; and is per¬
formed,upon (locks from about one to two inches dia¬
meter.
Firft, with a ftrong knife cut off the head of the dock;
or if the dock is very large, it may be headed with a
faw ; and cut one fide (loping upwards about an inch
and half to the top; then proceed with a drong knife
or chifel, to cleave the dock at top, crofs-way the (lope,
fixing the knife or chifel towards the back of the (lope,
and with your mallet drike it, fo as td cleave the dock
about two inches, or long enough to admit the graft,
keeping it open with the chifel; this done, prepare
Vol. V.
the cion, cutting it to fuch length as to leave four or Graftin
five eyes, the lower part of which being (loped on each
fide, wedge-fa(hion, an inch and half or two inches
long, making one fide to a thin edge, the ether mneh
thicker, leaving the rind thereon, which fide mud be
placed outward in the dock; the cion being thus form¬
ed, and the cleft in the dock being made and kept
open with the chifel, place the graft therein at the
back of the dock the thicked fide outward, placing
the whole cut part down into the cleft of the dock,
making the rind of the dock and graft join exadily;
then removing the grafting chifel, each fide of the
cleft will clofely fqueeze the graft, fo as to hold it fad;
it is then to be bound with a ligature of bafs, and
clayed over, as obferved in whip-grafting, leaving three
or four eyes of the cions uncovered.
If intended to graft any pretty large docks or
branches by this method, two or more grafts may be
inferted in each; in this cafe the head muft be cut off
horizontally, making no (lope on the fide, but fmooth
the top, then cleave it quite a-crofs, and place a graft
on each fide, as the dock may be cleft in two places,
and infert two grafts in each cleft; they are thus to
be tied and clayed as in the other methods.
This method of grafting may be performed upon the
branches of bearing trees, when intended either to re¬
new the wood, or change the fort of fruit.
Towards the latter end of May, or the beginning of
June, the junction of the graft and dock in either me¬
thod will be effeilually formed, and the graft begin
to (hoot, when the clay may be taken off, and in a fort¬
night or three weeks after take off alfo the bandages.
Crown-grafting.—This kind of grafting is common¬
ly pradlifed upon fuch docks as are too large to cleave,
and is often performed upon the large branches of
apple and pear trees, &c. that already bear fruit,
when it is intended to change the forts, or renew the
tree with frefh-bearing wood. It is termed crown¬
grafting, becaufe the dock or branch being headed
down, feveral grafts are inferted at top all around be¬
twixt the wood and bark, fo as to give it a crown-like
appearance: obferving, that this kind of grafting (hould
not be performed until March, or early in April; for
then the fap being in motion, renders the bark and
wood of the dock much eafier to be feparated for the
admiffion of the graft.
The manner of performing this fort of grafting is as
follows:
Fird, cut off the head of the dock or branch with a
faw horizontally, and pate the top fmooth; then having
the grafts, cut one fide of each flat, and fomewhat Ho¬
ping, an inch and half long, forming a fort of (boulder
at top of the (lope to red upon the crown of the dock;
and then raifing the rind of the dock with a wedge^
fo as to admit the cion between that and the wood two
inches down, place the grafts with the flat fide next the
wood, thruding it down far enough for the (houlder
to red upon the top of the dock, and in this manner
may be put three, four, five, or more grafts in one large
dock or branch.
When the grafts are all thus inferted, let the whole
be tied tight and well clayedj obferving to leave two
or three eyes of each graft uncovered, but raifing the
clay an inch above the top of the dock, fo as to throw
the wet quickly off, without lodging about the grafted
19 G Partfc
G R A [ 3358 ] G R A
Crafting, parts, whitli would ruin the whole work.
Crown-grafting may alfo be performed, by making
feveral clefts in the crown of the (lock, and inferting
the grafts round the top into the clefts.
The grafts will be pretty well united with the flock,
and exhibit a ftate of growth, by the end of May or
beginning of June, and the clay may then be taken a-
M ’ Wa^‘
The trees grafted by this method will fucceed ex¬
tremely well; but, forthefirft two or three years, have
this inconvenience attending them, of being liable to
be blown out of the flock by violent winds ; which
muft be remedied by tying long flicks to the body of
the flock or branch, and each graft tied up to one of
the flicks.
Cheek-grafting.— Cut the head of the flock off hori¬
zontally, and pare the top fmooth; then cut one fide
(loping an inch and half or two inches deep, and cut
the lower part of the graft floping the fame length,
making a fort of fhoulder at top of the floped part: it
is then to be placed upon the floped part of the flock,
retting the flioulder upon the crown of it: bind it with
bafs, and finilh with a covering of clay as in the other
methods.
Side-grafting.—This is done by inferting grafts in¬
to the tides of the branches without heading them
down ; and may be pra&ifed upon trees to fill up any
vacancy, or for the purpofe of variety, to have feveral
forts of apples, pears, plums, &c. upon the fame
tree.
It is performed thus. Fix upon fuch parts of the
branches where wood is wanted to furnilh the head
or any part of the tree ; there flope off the bark and a
little of the wood, and cut the lower end of the grafts
to fit the part as near as pofiible ; then join them to
the branch, and tie them with bafs, and clay them
over.
Root-grafting.—This is done by Whip-grafting
cions upon pieces of the root of any tree of the fame
genus, and planting the root where it is to remain ; it
will take root, draw nourifiiment, and feed the graft.
Grafting by Approach, or Inarching.—This fort of
grafting is, when the flocks defigned to be graft¬
ed, and the tree from which you intend to take the
graft, either grow fo near, or can be placed fo near
together, that the branch or graft may be made to
approach the flock, without feparating it from the
tree, til! after its union or jundlion with the flock;
fo that the branch or graft being bent to the flock,
they together form a fort of arch ; whence it is called
Grafting by Approach, or Inarching. Being a fure
method, it is commonly pra&ifed upon fuch trees as are
with difficulty made to fucceed by any of the former
ways of grafting.
When intended to propagate any kind of tree or
fhrub by this method of grafting, if the tree, &c.
is of the hardy kind, and growing in the full ground,
a proper quantity of young plants for flocks muft be
fet round it; and when grown of a proper height,
the work of inarching muft be performed ; or, if the
branches of the tree you defign to graft from is too
high for the flocks, in that cafe flocks muft be planted
in pots, and a flight ftage muft be ere&ed around the
tree, of due height to reach, the branches,, and the
pots containing the flocks muftbe placed upon the ftage.
As to the method of performing the work : Ob-
ferve, that in this method of grafting, it is fometimes
performed with the head of the flock cut off, and
fometimes with the head left on till the graft is united
with the flock ; though, by previoufly heading the
flock, the work is much eafier performed ; and having
no top, its whole effort will be dire£led to the nourifh-
ment of the graft; having, however, the flocks pro¬
perly placed, either planted in the ground, or in pots
around the tree to be propagated; then make ..the
moft convenient branches approach the flock, and
mark on the body of the branches the parts where
they will moft eafily join to the flock, and in thofe
parts of each branch pare away the bark and part of
the wood two or three inch.es in length, and in the
fame manner pare the flock in the proper place for the
jundlion of the graft; then make a flit upwards in the
branch, fo as to form a fort of tongue, and make a
flit downwards in the flock to admit it; let the parts
be then joined, flipping the tongue of the graft into
the flip of the flock, making the whole join in an
exadl manner, and tie them clofely together with
bafs, and afterwards cover the whole with a due
quantity of clay, as before dire&ed in the other me¬
thods.
After this, let a flout flake be fixed, if poffible,
for the fupport of each graft, to which let that part
of the flock and graft be fattened, which is neceffary
to prevent their being disjoined by the wind.
The operation being performed in fpring, let them
remain in that petition about four months, when they
will be united, and the graft may then be feparated
from the mother-tree. In doing this, be careful to
perform it with a fteady hand, fo as not to loofen or
break out the graft, floping it off downwards clofe to
the flock; and if the head of the flock was not cut
down at the time of grafting, it mull now be done
clofe to the graft, and all the old clay and bandage
mull alfo be cleared away, and replaced with new, ta
remain a few weeks longer.
Obferve, however, that if you fhall think the grafts
are not firmly united with the flock in the period of
time above-mentioned, let them remain another year
till autumn, before you feparate the grafts from the
parent-tree.
By this kind of grafting, you may raife almofttfny
kind of tree or fhrub, which is often done by way of
curiofity, to ingraft a fruit-bearing branch of a fruit-
tree upon any common flock of the fame fraternity or
genus, whereby a new tree bearing fruit is raifed
in a few months. This is fometimes pradlifed upon
orange and lemon trees, &c. by grafting bearing-
branches upon ftoeks raifed from the kernels of any of
the fame kind of fruit, or into branches of each
other, fo as to have orange, lemons, and citrons, all
on the fame tree.
An anonymous author has given us in a treatife,
publifhed at Hamburgh, under the title Anicenitates
Hortenfes Novae, a new method of grafting trees, fo;
as to have very beautiful pyramids of fruit upon them,
which will exceed in beauty, flavour, and quantity,
all that can be otherwife produced. This, he fays,
he had long experienced, and gives the following me¬
thod
ORA [ 3359 ] G R A
tJraham. thod of doing it. The trees are to be tranfplanted in
autumn, and all'their branches cut off. Early in the
following fummer the young (hoots are to be pulled
off, and the buds are then to be ingrafted into them
in an inverted direftion. This, he fays, adds not on¬
ly to the beauty of the pyramids, but alfo makes the
branches more fruitful. Thefe are to be clofely eon-
ne&ed to the trunk, and to be fattened in with the
common ligature : they are to be placed circularly
round the tree, three buds in each circle, and thefe
circles at fix inches diftance from one another. The
old trees may be grafted in this manner, the fuccefs
having been found very good in thofe of twenty years
{landing ; but the moil eligible trees are thofe which
are young, vigorous, and full of juice, and are not a-
bove a finger or two thick. When thefe young trees
are tranfplanted, they mutt be fenced round with pales
to defend them from the violence of the wind; and
there mutt; be no dung put to them till they are
thoroughly rooted, for fear of rotting them before the
fibres ttrike. The buds ingiafted mull be fmall, that
the wounds made in the bark to receive them, not be¬
ing very large, may heal the fooner; and if the buds
do not fucceed, which will be perceived in a fortnight,
there mufl be others put in their place. The wound
made to receive thefe buds mutt be a ftraight cut, paral¬
lel to the horizon ; and the piece of bark taken out
mud be downward, that the rain may not get in at
the wound. In the autumn of the fame year, this
will be a green and flourifhing pyramid ; and the next
fummer it will flower, and ripen its fruit in autumn.
GRAHAM (James), Marquis of Montrofe, was
comparable to the greateft heroes of antiquity. He
undertook, againft almoft every obilacle that could ter¬
rify a lefs enterprifing genius, to reduce the kingdom
of Scotland to the obedience of the king; and his
fuccefs was anfwerable to the greatnefs of the under¬
taking. By valour, he in a few months almofl effec¬
tuated his defign ; but, for want of fuppiies, was for¬
ced to abandon his conquefts. After the death of
Charles I. he, with a few men, made a fecond attempt,
but was immediately defeated by a numerous army.
As he was leaving the kingdom in difguife, he was
betrayed into the hands of his enemy, by the Lord
Afton, his intimate friend. He was carried to his ex¬
ecution with every circumttance of indignity that wan¬
ton cruelty could invent; and hanged upon a gibbet
30 feet high, with the book of his exploits appended
to his neck. He bore this reverfe of fortune with his
yfual greatnefs of mind, and expreffed a juft fcorn at
the rage and infult of his enemies. We meet with
many inftances of valour in this aftive reign ; but
Montrofe is the only inftance of heroifm. He was
executed May 21ft, 1650. See Britain, n° 137,
143, 165.
Graham (Sir Richard), lord vifcount Prefton,
eldeft fon of Sir George Graham of Netherby, in
Cumberland,Bart, was born in 1648. He was fent am-
baffadorby Charles II. to Lewis XIV. and was matter
of the wardrobe and ’fecretary of ftate under James II.
But when the Revolution took place, he was tried
and condemned, on an accufation of attempting the
reftoration of that prince; though he obtained a par¬
don by the queen’s interceffion. He fpent the remain¬
der of his days in retirement, and publifhed an ele¬
gant tranflation of Boethius on the confolation of philo- Grain
fophy. He died in 1695.
Graham (George), clock and watch maker, the Graminil-
moll ingenious and accurate artift in his time, was
born in 1675. After his apprenticefhip, Mr Tom-
pion received him into his family, purely on account
of his merit ; and treated him with a kind of paren¬
tal affedlion as long as he lived. Befide his univerfal-
ly acknowledged (kill in his profefiion, he was a com¬
plete mechanic and aftronomer ; the great mural arch
in the obfervatory at Greenwich, was made for Dr
Halley, under his immediate infpe&ion, and divided
by his own hand : and from this incomparable origi¬
nal, the bell foreign inftruments of the kind are co¬
pies made by Englilh artifts. The fedlor by which
Dr Bradley firft difcovered two new motions in the fix¬
ed liars, was of his invention and fabric: and when
the French academicians were fent to the north to
afcertain the figure of the earth, Mr Graham was
thought the fitteft perfon in Europe to fupply them
with inftruments ; thofe who went to the fouth were
not fo well furnilhed. He was for many years a mem¬
ber of the Royal Society, to which he communica¬
ted feveral ingenious and important difcoveries ; and
regarded the advancement of fcience more than the
accumulation of wealth. He died in 1751.
Graham’s Dyke. See Antoninus’s Wall.
GRAIN, corn of all forts, as barley, oats, rye,
&c. See Corn, Wheat, &c.
Grain is alfo the name of a fmall weight, the
twentieth part of a fcnjple in apothecaries weight, and
the twenty-fourth of a penny-weight troy.
A grain-weight of gold-bullion is worth two-pence,
and that of filver but half a farthing.
Grain alfo denotes the component particles of Hones
and metals, the veins of wood, &c. Hence crofs-
grained, or againft the grain, means contrary to the
fibres of wood, &c.
Grain (Baptift le), mailer of the requefts in ordi¬
nary to Mary de Medicis queen of France’s houfehold,
wrote The hi/lory of Henry the Great, and of Lewis
XIII. from the beginning of his reign to the death
of the malhal d’Ancre in 1617. This hiftory is rec¬
koned to be wrote with impartiality, and the fpirit of
a true patriot; and contains many things not tp be
found any where elfe. He vigoroufly afferts the edift
that had been granted to the reformed.
GRAMINA, grasses ; one of the feven tribes or
natural families, into which all vegetables are diftri-
buted by Linnaeus in his Philofophia Botanica. They
are defined to be plants which have very Ample leaves,
a jointed Hem, a bulky calix termed gluma, and a
finglefeed. This defcription includes the feveral forts
of corn as well as graffes. In Tournefort they con-
ftitute a part of the fifteenth clafs, termed apetali; and
in Linnaeus’s fexual method, they are moftly contained
in the fecond order of the third clafs, called triandria
digynia.
This numerous and natural family of the graffes, has
engaged the attention and refearches of feveral emi¬
nent ^botanifts. The principal of thefe are, Ray,
Monti, Micheli, and Linnaeus.
M. Monti, in his Catalogus fir plum agri Bononien-
fss, gramina ac hujusmodi affinia complettens, printed
at Bononia in 1719, divides the grafles, from the dif-
19 G 2 pofition
G R A M M A R,
336°
Gramina. pofition of their flowers, ss Theophraftus and Ray
' ? had divided them'before him, into three fe&ions or
orders—Thefe are, 1. Grafles having flowers colle&ed
in a fpike. 2. Grafles having their flowers colle&ed
in a panicle or loofe fpike. 3. Plants that in their
habit and external appearance are allied to the grafles.
This clafs would have been natural if the author had
not improperly introduced fweet-ruflr, juncus, and ar¬
row-headed grafs, into the third feftion. Monti enu¬
merates about 306 fpecies cf the grafles, which he re¬
duces under Tournefort’s genera; to thefe he has
added three new genera.
Scheuchzer, in his Ariftographia, publifhed like-
wife in 1719, divides the grafles, as Monti, from the
difpofition of their flowers into the five following fec-
tions. 1. Grafles with flowers in a fpike, as phalaris,
anthoxanthum, and frumentum. 2. Irregular grafles,
as fchcenanthus and cornucopiae. 3. .Grafles with
flowers growing in a fimple panicle or loofe fpike, as
teed and millet. 4. Grafles with flowers growing in
a compound panicle, or diffufed fpike, as oats and
poa. 5. Plants by their habit nearly allied to the
grafles, as cyprefs-grafs, fcirpus, linagroftis, rufli, and
fceuchzeria.
Scheuchzer has enumerated about four hundred fpe- Gram
cies, which he defcribes with amazing exa&nefs.
Micheli has divided the grafles into fix fedtions,
which contain in all, forty-four genera, and are ar¬
ranged from the fituation and number of the flowers.
Gramina, the name of the fourth order in Lin-
nseus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding of
the numerous and natural family of the grafles, viz.
agroflis ; aira ; alopecurus, or fox-tail grafs; anthox¬
anthum, or vernal grafs; ariflida ; arundo, or reed ;
avena, or oats; bobartia; briza; bromus; cinna; cornu¬
copiae, or horn-of-plenty grafs; cynofurus ; da&ylis;
elymus; feduca, or fefcue-grafs; hordeum, or barley;
lagurus, or hare’s-tail grafs ; lolium, or darnel 5 ly-
geum, or hooded matweed ; melica ; mileum, or mil¬
let ; nardus ; oryza, or rice ; panicum, or panic-grafs;
pafpalum ; phalaris, or canary-grafs ; phleum ; poa;
faccharum, or fugar-cane; fecale, or rye ; flipa, or
winged fpike-grafs ; triticum, or wheat; uniola, or
fea-fide oats of Carolina ; coix, or Job’s tears; olyra ;
pharus ; tripfacum ; zea, Indian Turkey wheat, or
Indian corn ; zizania; aegilops, or wild fefcue-grafs;
andropogon; apluda; cenchrus; holcus, or Indian
millet; ifchaemum. See Botany, p. 1305, col. 2.
GRAMMAR.
I. ✓"'I RAMMAR is the art of /peaking or of nurit-
ing any language nnith propriety.
2. Grammar confidered as an Art) neceflarily fup-
pofes the previous exidence of language; and as its
defign is to teach any language to thofe who are ig¬
norant of it, it mud be adapted to the genius of that
particular language of which it treats.—A jud method
of grammar, therefore,' fuppofing a language intro¬
duced by cudom, without attempting any alterations
in it, furnilhes certain obfervations called rules, to
which the methods of (peaking ufed in this language
may be reduced ; this colle&ion of rules is what is
called a grammar of any particular language. For
the greater didin&nefs with regard to thefe rules,
granpnarians have ulually divided this fubjeft into
four didinft heads, viz. Orthography, or the art of
combining letters into fyllables, and fyliables into words ;
Etymology, or the art of deducing one word from
Of UNIVERSA
4. TT is not neceflary here to inquire how language
was originally invented, to trace the various
changes it may have undergone, or to examine whe¬
ther any one language may be confidered as the ori¬
ginal from which all others have been derived : it is
fufficient for our purpofe to obferve, that all mankind,
however diverfified in other refpefts, agree in the com¬
mon ufe of language; from which it appears, that
language is not merely accidental and arbitrary, but
founded in the nature of things, and within the reach
of all mankind. It is therefore an objeft worthy of
a philofophic inquiry, to difcover the foundations upon
which this univerfal fabric has been raifed.
5. The defign of fpeech is to publifli to others the
thoughts and perceptions of our mind. The moft
acute feelings of man, as well as of every other ani-
another, and the various modifications by which the fenfe
of any one word can be diverfified; Syntax, or what
relates to the conflruttion or due difpojition of the words
of a language into fentences or phrafes ; and Prosody,
or that which treats of the quantities and accents of
fyllables, and the art. of making verfes.
3. But grammar confidered as a Science, views lan¬
guage in itfelf: negle&ing particular modifications,
or the analogy which words may bear to each other,
it examines the analogy and relation between words
and things; diftinguifhes between thofe particulars
which are effential to language, and thofe which are
only accidental; and thus furniflies a certain ftandard
by which different languages may be compared, and
their feveral excellencies or defefts pointed out. This
is what is called Philosophic or Universal Gram¬
mar.
L GRAMMAR.
mal, are expreffed by fimple inarticulate founds, which,
as they tend to the prefervation of the individual, are
univerfally underftood. Thefe inarticulate but figni-
ficant founds, therefore, conffitute a natural and uni¬
verfal language, which man, as a mere fenfitive being,
partakes in common with the other, animals. But as
man is not only endowed with fenfation, but with the
faculty of reafoning, fimple inarticulate founds are in-
fufficient for expreffing all the various modifications of
thought, or for communicating to others a chain of
argumentation : it was therefore neceffary to call in
the aid of articulation; which by modifying thefe
fimple founds, and by fixing a particular meaning to
thefe modifications, forms the language peculiar to
man, and which diftinguiflits him from all other ani¬
mals, and enables him to communicate with facility
all
Chap. I. G R A M
PDivifion all that diverfity of ideas with which his mind is ftored.
? Words. Thefe founds, thus modified and having a determinate
meaning, are called Words ; and as all language is
compofed of fignificant words varioufly combined, a
knowledge of them is neceffary previous to our acqui¬
ring an adequate idea of language.
6. But, as it is by words that we exprefs the va¬
rious ideas which occur to the mind, it is neceflary to
examine how ideas themfelves are fuggefted, before
we can afcertain the various clafles into which words
may be diftributed. With this, view, therefore, let us
fuppofe a reafonable being, devoid of every prepoflef-
fion whatever, placed upon this globe. His attention
would, in the firft place, be dire&ed to the various
objefts which he faw exilting around him : thefe he
would naturally endeavour to diftinguifh from one ano¬
ther, ^nd give them names, by means of which the idea
of them might be recalled when the objefts themfelves
were abfent. This is one copious fource of words;
and forms a natural clafs which muft be common to
every language, and which is diftinguifhed by the
name of Nouns. And as thefe nouns are the names
of the feveral fubftances which exift, they have like-
wife been called Substantives.
7. It would likewife be early difcovered, that every
one of thefe fubftances was endowed with certain
qualities or attributes, to exprefs which another clafs
of words would be requifite. Thus, to be ’weighty^ is
a quality of matter; to think, is an attribute of man.
Therefore, in every language, words have been in¬
vented to exprefs the various qualities of the feveral
objefts which exift. Thefe may all be comprehended
under the general denomination of Attributives.
8. Thefe two clafles of words muft comprehend all
things that exift: for whatever exifts, muft of neceffity
be either a fubftance, or the attribute of fome fub-
ftance; and hence thefe two clafles muft comprehend
all thofe words which are fignificant of themfelves,
and may be called words significant of them¬
selves. If any other words occur, they can only be
fignificant in fo far as they tend to explain or connedt
the words of the two former clafles.
9. But, although thefe words form the bafis or
matter of a language, in the fame manner as ftones
form the matter of a building; yet, as ftones cannot be
arranged into a regular ftrufture without acement to bind
and conned! them, fo thefe original words ftand in need
of others to conned! them, before they can be made to
exprefs all the variety of our ideas. Another order of
words, therefore, was neceflary, which, although not
of themfelves fignificant, yet, when joined with others,
might acquire a meaning. Thefe form a fecond ge¬
neral clafs of words, that may be called words not
of themselves significant, and which cannot ac¬
quire any meaning but fo far as they ferve either to
explain or connect the others.
j o. Hence, therefore, all words which can poflibly
be invented, may be divided into two general clafles;
thofe that are significant of themselves, and thofe
that are not. Words which are fignificant of them¬
felves, are either expreflive of the names of fubftances,
and therefore called substantives; or, of qualities,
which we call attributives. Words which are not
fignificant of themfelves, muft acquire a meaning ei¬
ther as defining or connedling others, which we ftiall
MAR. 3361
arrangxe under the two clafles of definitives and Of nouns.
connectives, each of which (hall be examined in their
order.
Chapter I.
Of SUBSTANTIVES.
xi. Substantives may be divided into two claffes,
viz. thofe which are primary, commonly called nouns;
and thofe of a fecondary order, which are often fub-
ftituted for nouns, and are hence called pronouns;
each of which we fhall confider feparately.
Sect. I. Of Subftantives of the Firjl Ordert
called Nouns.
12. Nouns are all thofe •words by which objefts or
fubjlances are denominated, and which diflinguifh them
from one another, by names applicable to each, without
marking either quantity, quality, action, or relation.
And as all the objects which exift muft be either in
the fame ftate that they were produced by nature, or
changed from their original ftate by art, or abjlraficd
from fubftances by the powers of imagination, this
naturally fuggefts a divifion of nouns into natural,
as man, vegetable, tree, &c.; artificial, as houfe,
fhip, watch, &c.; or abstract, as whitenefs, tempe¬
rance, &c.
13. But the diverfity of objefts being fo great as
to render it impofiible for any perfon to know the di-
ftin£t names of every individual, therefore it has been
found expedient to arrange them under certain general
claffes, the names of which may be more eafily ac¬
quired, fo that by referring any unknown object to
the clafs to which it belongs, we in fome meafure fup-
ply the want of proper names. Hence, therefore,
each of the above fpecies of nouns are divided into
thofe which denote genera, fpecies, and individuals.
Thus, in natural fubftances, animal, vegetable, and
fojfle, denote genera; man, dog, tree, metal, are fpe¬
cies; and Alexander, Ceefar, oak, gold, are individuals.
In artificial fubftances, edifice is a genus; houfe, tower,,
church, are fpecies ; and the Vatican, Tron-church,
and HerrioVs-hifpital, individuals. In abflratt fub¬
ftances, motion is a genus; flight and courfe, are fpe¬
cies ; the flight of Mahomet, the courfe of a gre-hound,
are infiividuals. Each of thefe general clafles might
be fubdivided Into many fmaller; but as thefe lefler
divifioHS can only relate to the particular genius of
different languages, it does not fall within our plan to
confider them- We therefore proceed to take notice
of the accidents which accompany nouns. Of which,
kind may be reckoned number and gender.
14. As nouns are the names of fubftances, and as
there may be many fubftances of the fame kind, there¬
fore nouns muft be adapted to exprefs whether there
is one or more of thofe objefls of which we fpeak.
Nouns, therefore, in every language, admit of a cer¬
tain variation to denote this circumftance, which is
called number. Thus, in the Englifti language, when,
we fpeak of a fingle place of habitation, we call it a
houfe; but if of more, we call them houfes. In the
firft of thefe cafes the noun is faid to be in the Jlngu-
lar, and in the lad cafe the plural number: nor does the
Englifti, or any other language except the Greek, ad¬
mit of any other variation but thefe two: and altho*’
the Greek language admits of a particular variation off
3362
GRAM
Of nouns, the noun called the dual number, which is a plural
—  limited to two obje&s ; yet this cannot be confidered
as effential to language; and it is perhaps doubtfu[
whether this variation ought to be confidered as an
elegance or a defeat in that language.
15. But although number be a natural accident of
nouns, it can only be conlidered as eflential to thofe
which denote genera or fpecies, as it does not defcend
to individuals. Thus we fay, animalt or animals, ve¬
getables, and fifth; as alfo man, or men, dogs, trees,
&c. But we only fay, Xenophon, Ctcfar, Bucephalus,
&c. in the Angular. Nor do thefe admit of a plural,
excepting when we confider any proper name as a
general appellative under which many others are ar¬
ranged, when it is no longer the name of an indivi¬
dual, but that of a fpecies, and as fuch admits of a
plural; as the Alexanders, the Ptolemies, the Howards,
the Pelhams, the Montagues, &c. The reafon of all
which will be obvious, if we confider, that every genus
may be found whole and entire in each of its fpecies ;
for tnan, horfe, and dog, are each of them an entire
and complete animal: and every fpecies may be found
whole and entire in each of its individuals; for So¬
crates, Plato, and Xenophon, are each of them com¬
pletely and entirely a man. Hence it is, that every
genus, though one, is multiplied into many; and
every fpecies, though one, is alfo multiplied into
many, by reference to thofe beings which are their fub-
ordinates. But as no individual has any fuch fubordi-
nates, it can never in ftriftnefs be confidered as many,
and fo is truly an individual as well in nature as in
name, and therefore cannot admit of number.
16. Befides number, another accident of nouns is
gender, the nature of which may be thus explained :
As nouns are the names of the various objects in na¬
ture; and as the diftinftion of fex is perceptible among
all thofe obje&s which are animated, and as thofe which
are inanimate cannot admit of any fex at all; therefore
all the beings which can become the objefts of our fpe-
culation, may be confidered as either males ox females,
or fuch as admit of no fex, and therefore may be faid
to be neuter, or of neither fex. Hence, therefore,
grammarians have made a threefold diftinition of nouns,
into mafculine genders, or thofe which denote males;
feminine, or thofe which denote females ; and neuters,
which denote thofe fubftances that admit of no fex.
But, although the origin of genders is thus fo clear
and obvious ; yet every language that we know of,
except the Englifh, deviates from the order of nature,
and often attributes fex to thofe fubftances which are
totally incapable of any: nay, fome languages arefo
particularly defe&ive in this refpeft, as to clafs every
objeft inanimate as well as animate under either the
mafculine or feminine gender, as they admit of no
gender for thofe that are of neither fex. This is the
cafe with the French, Italian, and Spanifh. But the
Englifti, ftriflly following the order of nature, puts
every noun which denotes a male animal, and no o-
thers, in the mafculine gender;‘every name of a fe¬
male animal, in the feminine', and every animal whofe
fex is not obvious, or known, as well as every inani-
mote objeft whatever, in the neuter gender. Nor does
this rule admit of any exceptions; although poets take
the liberty of perfonifying any objefts they think pro-
M A R. Chap. I,
per, and endow them with whatever fex fuits their Of nouns
purpofe beft ; which ferves admirably to diftinguifh
between the cool language of philofophy, and the
enthufiafm of poetry.
17. Although Cafes are not neceffary accidents of
nouns; yet as they have been often confidered as fuch,
it will perhaps be deemed proper to take fome notice
of them.— As natural objefts remain the fame, altho*
obferved from many different points of view, they are
not in their own nature altered, although they may
be connefted with others in many different ways : their
names therefore ought to remain unchanged, although
their relations to other words may be varied. How¬
ever, there are certain circumftances in which nouns
may be confidered with refpeft to their relation to,
and conneftion with, other words, which occur more
frequently than others. Some languages (particu¬
larly the Greek and Latin) exprefs fome of thefe cir¬
cumftances by a variation of the original noun, which
variations are called cases. But the Englifh, and al-
moft all the modern languages of Europe, have follow¬
ed the order of nature, and allow the noun to remain
the fame, expreffing its relation and conneftion with
other words by the help of diftinft words called pre-
pofitions.—Which of thefe methods is beft, it is not
our prefent purpofe to inquire. See Language.
18. It has been fuppofed the Englifh nouns admit
of one variation which anfwers to the genitive cafe of
the Latins.—Thus the word Alexander is an Englifh
noun in its proper form, and in that cafe which in La¬
tin would be called the Nominative. The variation
which they called the Genitive Cafe, is expreffed in
Englifh by adding the prepofition of before the noun ;
thus, of Alexander. But the fame meaning may be
conveyed by the word Alexander’s ; for the meaning
is the fame, if I fay the houfe of Alexander, or Alex¬
ander’s houfe. This, therefore, has been called a true
infleftion of the original noun. However, although
this opinion has been adopted by all grammarians, it
appears to have been adopted without fufficient exami¬
nation, as will be evident from the following confide-
rations.
There are certain eircumftances in which this fup¬
pofed genitive cannot be fubftiiuted inftead of the o-
ther: for I may fay, I fpeak of Alexander, I write
of Csefar, I think of Pompey, but I cannot fay, I
fpeak Alexander’s, I write Ctefar's, or I think Pom¬
pey’s. Hence thefe two are not in all cafes fynony-
mous terms; and therefore one of them muft be con¬
fidered as only accidentally coinciding with the other
in particular circumftances.
Again, everyone of thefe fuppofed genitives can
with propriety affume all the various figns of the dif¬
ferent cafes in the Englifti language; for we may fay
fimply, as in the nominative cafe, Alexander’s houfe;
but we can alfo fay, of Alexander's houfe, to, with,
from, in, by, or for Alexander’s houfe, &c. If this
then be a real genitive, it requires the fign of the ge¬
nitive, as well as of the other cafes, to explain it;
which would be an abfurdity too great to be admitted.
— But it may be aftted, If thefe are not genitives, to
what clafs of words can they be referred ?
In anfwer to this, it has been already obferved,
that the variety of fubftances is fo great, that it is
'Chap. I. G R A
(Pronouns, jmpoflible for any perfoti to know the names of every
4-<   one of them ;*and therefore, they have been arranged
under the feveral orders of genera and fpecies. We
now further obferve, that as the individuals are fo ex¬
ceedingly numerous, it would be impcffible even to
invent proper names for each, and far lefs would it
be poffible to make thefe names be known to every
perfon who might accidentally fee them: therefore,
when we want to afcertain any individual objed, and
diftinguifh it from all the other individuals of the fame
fpecies, we are obliged to have recourfe to particular
epithets, or definitives, to afcertain that individual.—
Thus, I fee a particular houfe which I want to diftin-
guilh from other houfes : this has no particular name
of its own : I mull therefore afcertain it in the belt
manner I can : and as the (hortefl is always the belt,
■we moft naturally denominate.it from its owner or
pofTcfTor if we know him.; and therefore call it Alex¬
ander's, James's, or John's, houfe.—Here then we
fee, that the words Alexander's, James's, and John's,
| do not fland as nouns, but as articles or dejinitives
ferving to afcertain and point out the individuality of the
noun with which they are joined, and are much nearer
allied to adje&ives than to fubfiantiyes. Thefe, there¬
fore, like other articles, do not alter the cafe of the
noun ; fo that the term Alexander's houfe, is as much
the proper name of a particular houfe, as Alexander
or James are the proper names of particular men,
and of confequence may be varied through the diffe¬
rent cafes as well as the other.—It is furprifing, that
this idea never occurred to grammarians; for St Peter's
at Rome, and St Paul's at London, are as truly the
proper names of thefe two noble edifices, as the Ro-
tundo or the Circus are the proper names of two other
ilruftures.—We may therefore fafely conclude, that
the Englilli language admits of no cafes at all, and
that the only effential accidents of nouns are gender
J and number.
Sect. II. Of Subftantives cf the Second Order,
called Pronouns.
19. All converfation pafles between individuals.
When thefe individuals are unknown to «ach other, how
lhall the one fpeaker addrefs the other when he knows
not his name ; or how explain himfelf by his own
name, of which the other is wholly ignorant i1 This
might perhaps have been at firlt effc&ed by pointing:
but as it behoved this method to be extremely inconve¬
nient and defedtive, it was neceffary that a particular
clafs of words fiiould be invented for this purpofe; and as
thefe wmrds always fupply the place of a noun, they
have been called pronouns;—the nature of which may
be explained as follows.
20. Suppofe the parties converfing to be wholly unac¬
quainted, and the fubjedf of the converfation to be the
fpeaker himfelf: here, to fupply the place of pointing,
the inventors of language have furnilhed the fpeaker
with the pronoun 1; I write, I defire: and as the
fpeaker is always principal with refpedf to his own dif-
courfe, they have therefore called this the pronoun of
the first perfon.
Again, fuppofe the fubjeA of the converfation to be
the party addrefied: here, for fimilar reafons, they in¬
vented the pronoun thou, thou writefl, thou walkeft;
and as the party addreffed is next in dignity to the
I M A R. 3363
fpeaker, or at lead comes next with reference to the Pronouns.
difeourfe, they therefore called this the pronoun of the 
second perfon.
Bat as the fubjedl of the converfation may be fome
third objedt different from either the fpeaker or the
party addreffed, another pronoun was neceffary; and
as this objedf might be either a male or a female, or 3
neuter, it was neceffary to have one pronoun for each
of the genders, he for the mafeuline, she for the fe¬
minine, and it for the neuter', and this, in diftindtion
to the former, was called the pronoun of the third per¬
fon.—Hence the diftribution of pronouns into perfms.
21. We have already feen that nouns admit of num¬
ber; pronouns, which are their fubflitutes,likewife admit
of number. There may be many fpeakers of the fame
fentiment, as well as on* who including himfelf fpeaks
the fame fentiment with many; fpeech may likewife
be addreffed to many at a time as well to as one; and
the fubjedt of the difeourfe may likewife be many ;
therefore the pronoun of every one of the perfons muft
admit of number, to exprefs this fiilgulanty or plura¬
lity. Hence, therefore, the pronoun of the firft perfon
I, has the plural we; that of the fecond perfon thou,
has the plural you; and that of the third perfon he,
foe, or it, has the plural they, which is equally ap¬
plied to all the three genders.
22. With regard to gender, we do not find in any lan¬
guage that the pronouns of the Firft or Second perfons
admit of any diftin&ton in this refpedt: nor was it ne¬
ceffary that they fhould ; as the fpeaker and party ad¬
dreffed are ufually prefent with one another, this di-
flindfion is generally obvious from drefs and external
appearance. But this is not the cafe with regard to
the pronoun of the Third perfon; of whofe charadter
and diftindtions we often know no more than what we
learn from the difeourfe itfelf; and hence it is, that in
almoft all languages the pronoun of the third perfoa
admits of genders, as we have already feen the Englifh
admits of the triple diltindh’on of mafeuline, feminine,
and neuter.—The utility of which threefold diitinc-
tion will be beft fhewn by an example. Suppofing
there was no fnch diftindtion, and that we ftiould read
in any hiftory he caufed him to deftroy him, and were
told that the pronoun which is here thrice repeated
flood each time for fomething different; that is to fa)v
for a man, for a woman, and for a city, whofe names
were Alexander, Thais, and Perfepolis. Taking the
pronoun thus divefted of its genders, it does not ap¬
pear which of the three was deftroyed, which the de¬
ft r oyer, or which the caufe that moved to the deftnic-
tion. But there is no ambiguity when we hear the
genders diftinguilhed; and when,1 iuftead of the ambi¬
guous fentence, he caufed him to deftroy him, we are
told with the proper diftinflions that she caufed him
to deftroy it. Then we know with certainty, that the
promoter was the woman, that her inftrument was the
hero, and that the fubjedt of her cruelty was the unfor¬
tunate c/Vy.— From this example we would be furpri-
fed how the Italian, French, and Spanfth, could exprefs
themfelves with precifion or elegance, with no mpre
than two variations of this perfon.
23. From the famecaufes, as a diftinftiorr of gender is
unneceffary in the pronouns of the firfl and fecond per¬
fons, we fee the reafon why a fingle pronoun to each,
perfon, an / for the firft:, and a thov for the feeond-,
are
3364
GRAMMA R.
Chap.
Pronouns. are fufficient for all the purpofes oflangnage,_as thefe
are always fuppofed prefent and obvious. But it is
not fo with refpeft to the third perfon, as the various
relations of different obje&s made it neceflary to have
not one, but many; fuch as, he, she, it, this, that,
OTHER, SOME, ALL, ANY, &C.
24. Although we have faid that there is only one pro¬
noun for each of the firft and fecond perfons, yet the
Englifh reader may perhaps bepuzzled with finding two
diftindl; words applied to each; I and me, for the firft;
perfon ; thou and thee, for the fecond. The learned
reader will at once fee that thefe two words me and
thee are equivalent to the accufative cafe of the Latin
pronoun : but, in order to make the meaning of this
as plain as poffible without embarralfing ourfelves about
unneceflary terms, we lhall only obferve, no effedt can
be produced without a caufe, and no adtion can be per¬
formed without producing fome effedt. The fame per¬
fon may in different circumftances be either the adtive
and efficient caufe of, or the paflive fubjedl who fuffers
by, an adfion: fome languages have therefore formed
different words to exprefs the fame objedt in thefe dif¬
ferent circumftances. Thus in the Latin fentences,
Brutus nmavit Caffium, Brutus loved Caffius; and Caf-
fius amavit Brutum, Caffius loved Brutus; the word
Brutus in the firft, and Cafius in the fecond, is the
form which the noun affumes when it is ufed as the ef¬
ficient caufe; and Brutum and Caffium the forms which
the fame nouns affume when they are reprefented as the
paffive fubjedhs. This laft, then, is what was called
the accufative cafe of the noun, and the firft was called
the nominative. We have already feen, that the Eng-
lilh noun admits of no cafes, the adlive fubjedl always
preceding the verb, and the paffive following it; as is
plain from the above fentences, where Brutus and Caf
fius remain unchanged in both fituations; and the fame
might be obferved of all other modern languages: yet
the Engli(h and all modern languages admit of a differ¬
ent word to exprefs the different ftate of the pronouns.
Thus, we fay, I efleem thee, I admire him, I love her :
in all of which fentences,/the pronoun of the firft perfon,
is the attive; and thee of the fecond perfon, and him
and her of the third, are \\\e paflive fubjedts, and are
therefore expreffed by the words thee, him, and her.
But if the cafe be reverfed, and the pronoun of the
firft perfon becomes the paffive fubjedt, and the others
the adtive, they affume a different form 5 thus, thou
efleemefl, he admires, she loves—me. Hence, there¬
fore, it appears that we have two diftindt words for
each of thefe pronouns to exprefs the different ftates
in which they may be reprefented, exadtly analogous
to the nominative and accufative cafes of the Romans.
Whether thefe are to be admitted as cafes of our pro¬
nouns, or whether they may not rather be confidered
as diftindt words formed for that particular purpofe,
is of little confequence for us to inquire; as, in what¬
ever light they be confidered, this variation cannot be
looked upon as an effential part of language, but only
as a particular refinement, invented to prevent the dif-
agreeable repetition of the pronoun, which behoved
frequently to have happened without this contrivance.
This feems to be the only reafon why pronouns
have been endowed with this variety, and not nouns.
For as nouns are in themfelves greatly diverfified, the
famenefs of founds does not here fo often occur as it
would have done in the pronouns, where the fame I, Pronoi
thou, he, she, or it, anfwers for the.name of every
objedh which occurs in nature; but, by this diverfity
in the form of the words, this circumftance is in fome
meafure obviated. And it is probably for the fame
reafon, that the plural of each of thefe pronouns is fo
very different from the lingular. Thus, from / of the
firft perfon is formed we in the plural, and from me
the plural us; from thou and thee the plurals ye
and you; from he, she,—him, her, and it, the
plurals they and them. In all of which there is
not the leaft refemblance between the Angular and
plural of any one word ; and, except in he and him,
they and them, there is not any fimilarity between
what may by fome be thought to be the different cafes
of the fame word.
25. We have feen that the fame objeft may fome- ;
times be the caufe of an a&ion, and fometimes the |
objeft which fuffers by it. We now obferve, that the
fame objed may fometimes be, with regard to the fame j
adion, both the adive caufe and paffive fubjed : as 1
when we fay, Brutus killed himfelf. In which cafe it
is evident, that Brutus was both the caufe that pro¬
duced, and the objed that fuffered by the adion ; the
pronoun himfelf being put for his name : for, were it {
not for the famenefs of the found, and the ambiguity
which would be occafioned by it, we might furely fay,
Brutus killed Brutus. It was therefore neceffary to
have a particular pronoun for the paffive fubjed, in all 1
thofe cafes where the fame objed was the agent; and
on this account the word self has been invented, ha- lj{
ving the plural selves. This pronoun therefore, which !
ferves on all occafions to reprefent the adion as re- '|j
turning upon the agent that produced it, maybe call- i
ed the reciprocal pronoun ; which has this peculiarity,
that it can never ftand by itfelf, but muff alway have j
the affiftance of the pronoun in whofe place it is fub-
ftituted ; as, myself, thyself, himself, herself,
itself, with their plurals. But although this feems ]
to have been the original ufe of this pronoun ; yet, in
the Englilh language, its ufe has been extended fur¬
ther ; and from its always having a reference to the I
agent of any adion, it has been employed to denote
that agent by way of emphafis, as performing the ac- :
tion without the aid or affiftance of any other ; as, he \!
himfelf <went. And from this circumftance it has been
further extended to denote any objed as performing
or fuffering any thing which we would not naturally
have expeded from its known charader or nature ; as
in this fentence: “ The moft daring of mankind are
fometimes ftartled before they venture upon the com-
miffion of any extraordinary crime; even Csefar him¬
self felt the utmoft perturbation of mind before he
dared to pafs the Rubicon.”
26. Thefe are all that can be properly called perfonal'
pronouns ; but there are others which are derived from
them, caWzdi pojfeflive pronouns, as, my, thy, mine,
his, her’s, its, &c. the nature of which it will be
neceffary here to explain. We have already ffiewn how
nouns, when they came to denote poffeffion, were no 1
longer to be confidered as nouns, but rather as de¬
finitives or articles; fo the pronouns which we here con-
fider, being the real fubftitutes of nominal articles,
ought alfo to be confidered as a diftind clafs of pro-
nomial articles; for as thefe never, in any cafe, can be
fub-
Chap.
Ptoqouds.
I. GRAMMAR.
fubftitiited for a noun, they cannot he confidered as
’pronouns. Grammarians have been led into the mif-
take of placing them under this head, becaufe they
are the fubliitutes of thefe words, which, although
they affume the appearance of nouns, only per¬
form the part of definitives. Thus we have feen,
that when we fay, Alexander's koufe; the word Alex¬
ander's can only be confidered as a definitive: and,
in the fame manner, if Alexander was the fpeaker,
he might fay, my houfe; if the party addrefled,
it would be, thy houfe; or if any third perfon,
his, and in the fame manner hers or its, houfe.
In all which cafes this pofieiEve pronoun is fubftituted
for that word which only ferves to define and afcertain
the identity of the noun ; and not for the noun itfelf,
which mult always be either exprefled or underftood.
Hence the reafonwhy one pronoun becomes the fubfti-
tute of this noun and its proper definitive, whether that
definitive appears in the form of a noun or pronoun :
for I can fay, “Alexander's houje is more elegant than
Mary's, or his houfe is more elegant than hers, although
it neither is fo commodious nor agreeable to live in.”
In which example it is plain, that the words his and
hers are llridtly the fubfiitutes only of Alexander's and
Mary's, and nothing more ; whereas the pronoun it
is the fubllitute of the whole noun with its definitive
Alexander's houfe. The other clafs of pronouns poffef-
iive, mine, thine, &c. as they do not fo much ferve to
diftinguilh individuals, as to afcertain the property of
the thing fpoken of, which may, in a certain fenfe, be
confidered as an attribute thereof, are more nearly al¬
lied to attributives, and have therefore by fome been
called adje(lives. And itmuft be acknowledged, that
thefe two claffes of words are fo nearly allied to one
another, that it is difficult to al'certain, in all cafes, the
precife boundary between them.
27. Befides thefe, there are other words which fome-
times affume the province of pronouns, and are gene¬
rally confidered as belonging to this clafs, although
in many cafes improperly; fuch as, this, that, any,,
some, these, those, all, and fome others, which
may be called improper pronouns. To diftinguifh
when they may be confidered as pronouns, we may
obferve, that when they ftand by themfelves, and fup-
ply the place of a noun, as when we fay, this // vir¬
tue, give vie that, then are they pronouns. But
when they are affociated to fome noun, as when we
fay, this habit is virtue, or that man defrauded
vie; then, as they do not fupply the place of a noun,
but only ferve to afcertain one, they fall rather under
the fpecies of definitives, or articles. And indeed it
muff be confeffed, that thefe, as well as the pofTeflive
pronouns, are more properly adapted to define and af¬
certain individuals among nouns, than to fupply their
place ; and therefore are oftener to be confidered as
articles than as pronouns. The beft rule to diflin-
guifh when they are to be confidered as the one or the
other, is this. The genuine pronoun always Jlands
by itfelf, affuming the power of a noun, and fupply-
ing its place. The genuine article never Jlands by
itfelf; but appears at all times affociated to fomething
elfe, requiring a noun for its fupport, as much as at¬
tributives or adjeftives.
28. The three orders of pronouns already mentioned,
may be called prepofitive; becaufe they are capable of
Vou V.
introducing or leading a fentence, "without having re¬
ference to any thing previous. But there is another
order of pronouns which can never be employed but
to conneft fentences, and muft therefore always have a
reference to fome feritence that precedes them ; as;
who, which, what. The nature of which may be
explained as follows.
29. Suppofe I fay, light is a body, light moves with
great celerity ; thefe would apparently be two diftinffe
fenttnees. But if, inftead of the fecond light, I
were to place the prepofitive pronoun it,; and fay,
light is a body, it moves with great celerity \ the fen¬
tences would fiill be difiindt, and two. But if I add
a connettive, (as for example, and) faying, light is
a body, and it moves with great celerity', I then, by
connexion,, make the two into one. Now it is in the
united powers ofh conneftive and another pronoun, that
we may fee the force and .character of the pronoun
here treated of. : For if, ihftead. of the wdrds and it,
we fubftitute that or which; faying, light is a
body which moves, with great celerity; the fentenee
ilill retains its unity, and becomes, if polfible, mb,re
compaft than before. We may therefore call this
pronoun the subjunctive; becaufe it cannot intro¬
duce an original fentence, but only ferves to fubjoin
one to fome other which is previous.
30. The application of tW\s fubjundive, likethe Other
pronouns, is univerfa). It may be the fublfitute of alf
kinds of fubftantives, natural, artificial, or abftraft ;
general, fpecial, or particular: for we may fay; The
man who, the flip which, Alexander who, virtue which,
&c. Nay, it may even be the fubftitute of aH •the
other pronouns, and is therefore of courfe expreflive of
all the three perfons. Thus we fay, I who now write;
thou who' now readejl, he who now h'eareth. See.
And thus the subjunctive ia truly a pronoud frord
its fubjlitution ; there being no fubftantive exifting
in whofe place it may not ftand. At the fame time it
is effentially diftinguiftied from the other pronouns by
this particular, that it is not only a fubjiitute, but like-'
wife a conned he.
31. As to the accidents of this pronoun: From its
performing the part of a connedtive; it of courfe fol¬
lows, that xwithtr gender nor number can be cdnlidered
as effential to it; becaufe thefe are always exprefifed
in the preceding parts of the fentence to which it re¬
fers ; nor do we in fa& find, that this pronoun, at
leaft in modern languages, admits of any diftindtion
to denote number, although the Englifh langudge^ad-
mits of one variation for the gender ', as we employ
who for the mafeuline and feminine, and wwich for
the neuter gender, thus: "The man, or the- woman,
who went to Rome', the tree which Jlands on yonder,
plain, &c. It likewife admits of a variation fimilar to,
that of the accufative cafe ; at leaft when, applied to
males or females. For when the objedt, which it re-
prefents is the efficient caufe of adtion, it is who; as,
the man who fell, &c.; but when it is the paffiye.fub-.
jedi, it then, in certain circumftances, takes the form
of whom ; as, the man of whom I fpeak; although
this is not univerfal; as we likewife fay, the rnan who
was beaten. But the neuter admits of no fuch di-
ftindlions, as we equally fay, //Wrrr which^//, or ths
tree of which Ifpoke. But both of thefe admit of a
variation to denote poffeffion or .qualities, which is the
19 H word
3366 GRAMMAR. Chap. II.
Verbs, word whose for all genders. Thus we fay, Socrates
whose only fiady nuas virtue', Elizabeth, whose reign
'Mas glorious.
32. Tq conclude: We have feen that fubftantives
are either primary or fecondary, or, in other words,
nOuns or.pronouns. The nouns denote fubftances,
either natural, artificial, or abjlraft; and thefe either
general, Jpecial, or particular. The pronouns, their
fubftitutes, are either prepofitive or fubjunftive: the
prepositive is diftinguilhed into three orders, called
^he firjl, the feeond, and the third perfons; the sub¬
junctive includes the powers of all the three, having
fuperadded, as of its own, the peculiar force of a con-
ne&ive.
Chapter II.
Of ATTRIBUTIVES.
33. Asall attributives muft either be expreflive of the
attributes of substances, or of other attributes,
we divide this clafs into two kinds; calling thofe of
the firlt kind, attributives of the first order;
and thofe of the fecond kind, attributives of the
SECOND ORDER.
Sect. I. Attributives cfi the Firjl Order.
34. Attributives are all thofe principal words
that denote attributes confidered as attributes. Such,
for example, are the words, black, white, great, little,
wife, eloquent, to write, to walk, to fpeak, &c. all of
which are the attributes of fubjlances. Thus black is
an attribute of jet, white okJnow;—wife and eloquent,
as alfo, to write and fpeak, are attributes of men.
In examining the different attributes of fubllances,
we readily perceive that fome of them have their ef-
fence in motion; fuc'h are, to walk, to.fly, toJlrike, to
live. See. Others have it in the privation of motion',
as, to flop, to rejl, to ceafe, to die, &c. And others
have it in fubjefts that have nothing to do with either
motion or its privation', fuch are the attributes of
great and little, wife and foolijh, white and black, and,
in a word, the feveral quantities and qualities of all
things. This therefore furniflies a natural divilion of
attributives of this order; and grammarians have
cajle.d all .thofe, whofe eflence confilfs in motion or
its privation, verbs; and all the others have been
called adjectives; each of which we Ihall conlider
feparately.
I. Of Verbs.
35. Verbs are all thofe principal words which de¬
note whofe effence confifts in motion, or
energies, (for we ehoofe to make ufe of this lalt term,
as it implies the exertions of the mind as well as thofe
of the body), or their privation. This order of attri-
biitives differs from the order called adjectives', not
only in the particular above-mentioned, but alfo be-
eaufe adjectives denote only qualities or quantities,
which do not admit of any change of ftate; whereas
the verbal attributives may be confidered as in feveral
different dates, and therefore admit of feveral varia¬
tions in the tecnj employed to exprefs thefe. It may,
in the firft place, be confidered as a Ample attribute
or- energy, without particularizing any circumftance
relating to the ftate it may be in; as in the word to
write. Or, in the fecond place, as thefe are all at¬
tributes which, denote motions or energies, they may
be reprefented as in the ftate of afhial motion or exer- Verbs, j ?
tion; as in the word writing. Or, laftly, the mo- f
tion or energy may be finiftied, and its effeft com¬
pleted; as in the word written. Hence, therefore,
every verb admits of a threefold variation in every
language, in each of which languages they are diftin-
guifhed by fome particular names. Our grammarians
have given the name of the infinitive mode to the
original verb itfelf, and the other two variations of it
are both diftinguifhed by the name of participles;
that variation which exhibits the verb in its ftate of
energy being called the participle present or ac¬
tive, and the other variation is called the participle
PERFECT or PAST.
36. Thefe variations of the verb are founded in the
nature of things, and therefore muft be found in every
language under fome form or other. As to the other
fuppofed variations of verbs relating to perfon, num¬
ber, time, See. the flighteft refle&ion on this fubjeft will
ftievv, that a verb, confidered as a fimple attributive,
can admit of none of thefe affe&ions, but muft for
ever remain the fame at all times and in all fituations
whatever; for who does not fee, that the attribute to
write is the fame whether it is poffefled by you, by me,
or by any number of different perfons ? Nor does this
attribute fuffer any change, whether it is reprefented
as having been exerted a thoufandyears ago, or at this
prefent moment, or at any other ailignable period of du¬
ration ; but, like every other attribute, it muft remain
for ever the fame. For however fubjlances may vary
with time, and be inqeffantly changing ; yet attributes
of every fort are altogether beyond its power. And
we muft eafily perceive, that the attribute which is ex-
preffed by the word good, is the fame now as it was
at the creation, or will be while the world exifts. And
in the fame manner, to walk, to write, to fly, denote
attributes, which muft each of them preferve their
own particular nature during all the fucceffive ages of
time. Hence therefore we fee, that the verbal attri¬
bute muft for ever remain in that ftate, or modifica¬
tion, in which it is at firft; reprefented. Nor can it
fuffer any change, however different the circumftances
may be in which it can be applied in language. All,
therefore, that can be faid of thefe feveral variations
with which grammarians have ufually endowed verbs,
is this, That, as an attributive, it hath fuch an inti¬
mate connexion with a fubftantive, as neceffarily to
be united with one, before it can make a principal fi¬
gure in language : and as that union may be reprefent¬
ed as taking place at different times, and under diffe¬
rent circumftances, the inventors of fome languages
have contrived to exprefs thefe different connections by
a fingle word, inftead of doing it by different words,
as the thing in itfelf would naturally require ; in the
fame manner as thofe who ufe the fhort-hand method
of writing, make a fingle character exprefs a whole
word or fentence: And as it was moft natural for the
contrivers of thefe words to derive them from the verb
itfelf of which they are compounded, they have each
of them become a real variation of the original word
which expreffes the verbal attribute; and, from thus
being a variation of the verbal they have at laft
come to be confidered as an ejfential variation of the
verb itfelf, which has occafioned thofe contradictory
definitions, and that confufion of ideas, which we meet
with
Chap. IT. G R A I
Verbs. wIth among all writers on this fubjed. But as we
here confider language as in itfelf, without regarding
the particular forms under which It may appear, we
mull rejedt all thefe variations of perfons, numberj,
modes, and tenfes, which the verb itfelf has ufually
been fuppofed to undergo ; and confider them, not as
eflential variations of the verb itfelf, but as variations
produced in language by the combination of the verb
with other parts of fpeech; and, therefore, relating
to fyntax, and of courfe belonging to thofe gram¬
matical difquifitions alone which treat of the peculia¬
rities of any particular language. But as thefe varia¬
tions have been fo univerfally confidered as eflential
parts of the verb itfelf, and as the terms which this
divifion of the verb have introduced into grammar are
fo frequently to be met with, it will be neceffary to
explain, in fome meafure, the meaning of thefe feve-
ral terms.
37. In the natural world, no attribute can poflibly
exill without a fubftanee to which it belongs, nor any
fubftance without poifefling certain attributes. So ne-
ceflary and intimate is the connedtion between thefe,
that it is as impoffibie to feparate them, as to create
or annihilate the feveral fubftances that poflefs thefe
attributes. But although we are thus circumfcribed
as to our bodily powers, the mind admits not'of fuch
limitation; but can, with the utmoft facility, feparate
•every quality from every objedt whatever, and confi¬
der them apart; as, colour without fuperficies, fupcrfl-
cies without folidity, or weight without matter, he.
and, when thus feparated, apply them to whatobjedls,
and in what manner, it pleafes. In this manner the
mind abftradls thofe attributes which denote motions
or energies from their agents or energizers, in the fame
way as it abflradts qualities from their fubjlances. And
it is thefe energies thus abltradled, which form that
fpecies of words called verbs ; in the fame manner as
thofe attributes which AtuoXequantities and qualities ab-
ftradled from their neceflary fubftances, form adjeftives.
Thus, the term to walk, denotes a particular energy
confidered perfedtly apart from every energizer, in the
fame manner as the worddenotes a certain quality
without regard to any particular fubflance.
38. Heie then we difeover a moll eflential difference
between the order of nature, and that reprefentation
of it which man makes by means of Words. For in
nature, every quality mull at all times be united with
fome fubftance, nor can ever be exhibited feparate
from it ; but in language, every attributive, if it be
confidered at all, mull be feparated from the obje£l to
which it naturally belongs. Hence we fee the reafon
why, in language, every energy and energizer, not on¬
ly may be confidered feparately, but mujl for ever re¬
main feparate, unlefs they be united by fome other
power than what is neceflarily their own. For the at¬
tribute to write, can no more be united to man its pro¬
per energizer, than a motion could commence without
a caufe ; and till this attribute is united to its proper
energizer, it mull remain in a great meafure dead and
inefficacious in language.—To communicate life and e-
nergy, therefore, to this inert attribute, it muftbeunited
to its proper energizer ; which can only be effedled by
the help of an affertion of the fpeaker himfelf; which
may be confidered as the fame with regard to lan¬
guage, as life is in the natural world.
1 M A R.
39. It is evident, that, by the affiftar.ce of an affer¬
tion, the fpeaker is enabled to unite any energy to any
particular energizer, and thus, without making any
change upon the attribute itfelf, reprefent a variety of
changes produced upon other bodies by its means.—
Thus, if I [ay,' I write, what do I more than affert
that I myfelf am poffeffed of that particular attribute
denoted by the verb to write? If I fay, 7~ou write,
or Rewrites, what do I more than affert that another
perfon is poffelfed of that particular attribute or'ener-
gy ?—If I fay, He did write, I only affert that the
fame attribute was poffeffed at another time, by the
fame perfon, as before. Hence, therefdre, by the
help of this affertion of the fpeaker, we are euabled
to join this particular attribute to many different ener¬
gizers, as well as to reprefent thefe differrent combi¬
nations as occurring at many different times 5 fo that
the fame attribute may thus be made to appear under
a great many different circumftances, and exhibit a
great variety of changes upon other objedls, although,
itfelf remains unchanged; the feveral variations Which
we perceive, only relating to tbe obje6ts with which it
is combined, or the means by which that union is ef¬
fected.-—In the fame manner it often happens, that
any objeCl in nature, a houfe, for example, may appear
extremelydifferentwhen viewed fromditferent fituations.
40. From the intimate connection that takes place
between the energy, the energizer, the affifcrtion, and
time, thefe feveral acceffories have been coufidCred as
effential parts of the verb } and therefore fdme gram¬
marians have defined a verb to be A word denoting ctn
energy, with time, and an ajfertion. But if we were
thus to confound things with thofe which may necef-
farily accompany them, we could never arrive at a clear
perception of any fubjeCl whatever. But not to en¬
ter into the arguments that might be prodiic'ed to fliew
tbe impropriety of this definition, we'rfha1t only ob-
ferye, that by the uniyerfal acknowlcJgftVent of all
grammarians this cannot be juft. For they unanimouf-
ly agree, that the infinitive mode is not only a part of
every verb, but the mojl ejfentialpart; as it forms tbe
root from which all the other parts are derived. But
as this mode neither denotes either time or an afler-
tion, it is evident that thefe, Cven by their own ac¬
knowledgment, can be at bell but acceffbrieS, and not
effential parts of the verb.
41. From thefe arguments, therefore, we muff con¬
clude, that the verb itfelf admits of no other variations
but thofe already taken notice of;—that before it can
produce any aCtive effeCl in language, like every other
attribute, it mull be united to fome proper energizer;
—that this union in language can never be effeCled but
by means of an exertion of the vital powers of the
fpeaker, whereby he either publifties his perception
thereof, or his will that it ffiould be ;—and that this
union may be reprefented as taking place at all the
different times that can be affigned. Thefe, therefore,
are each of them neceffary accompaniments of a verb,
but each of them feparate and diltinA in their own na¬
ture, not only from this verb, but from one another;
and it becomes an effential part of the fyntax of every
language, to confider the various ways in which thefe
can be combined and affedl one another..—Nay, fo in¬
timate has this connection been thought to be by fome,
that the contrivers of certain languages have arranged
19 H 2 them
3367
Verhs^
3,168 GRAMMA R. Chap. II.
Verb's, tiiem under particular daffes, for the fake of diilind-
nefs and precifion.—The form which a verb affumed,
when thus varied in all the ways that their particular
language would admit of, was called the conjuga-
tjon of the verb ; the feveral parts of which may be
underftood from the following Iketch.
42. When the verb is confidered under the compound
form of which we now fpeak, it can admit of varia¬
tions chiefly in three refpedts. For, firft, fuppofing
the attribute, the energizer, and the time when that
attribute was exerted by the energizer, to be the fame;
a variation may be occafioned by a change being pro¬
duced in the perception or volition of the fpeaksr,
(which, for brevity, we will call the ajfertion), as in
thefe examples: 1’write, scribo; I may’write, sc ri¬
ba m ; do you •write, scribe. The variations produ¬
ced by this means have been called modes. Secondly,
Suppofing the attribute, the energizer, and the affer-
tion, to be the fame ; a change may be produced in the
time, as in thefe examples : 1 do ’write, scribo ; 1 have
y’writen,. scrip si ; J/ball’write, scribam, &c. The varia-
ticJns produced from thiscaufehave been called tenses.
And thirdly, Suppofing the attribute, the time, and the
ajjertion, to remain unchanged, there maybe a difference
in the energizer', and this likewife admits of a divifion:
for as the energizer may be only one or more perfons,
it mull have a variation intoJingular and plural on
theft; accounts 5 as in thefe examples: I’write, scri¬
bo ; scribis; he ’writes, scribit; and
and in the plural, •we •write, scribimus ; ye •write,
scribitis ; they •write, scribunt. The variations
produced from this caufehave been called person and
number. Thefe are all the variations which have
been made in the Latin or Greek languages ; and
therefore our grammarians, who have adopted every
idea they< have of grammar from thefe languages,
mention i|iio fpoye: but it was not neceffary that they
fhould have ftopt here ; for an attribute is furely as
fufceptible of the diftindtion of fex as of perfon, fo
that they might have had a variation for Gender alfo ;
and inftead of having one word scribit to anfw’erfor
all the three genders, he,Jhe, ox it •writes, they might
have had three different words.—The compofers of
the Hebrew language have adopted this plan, and ad¬
mit of two variations on this account. And the Ruffian
language admits of a like variation in their verb for
thefe genders; as in this example: on zohelal, he
las done \ on& zoh'E'la.i.a, Jhe has done, &c. But as
the two languages above-mentioned do not admit of
this diflindfion, therefore all the variations that our
verbs are faid to admit of are modes, which include
within them tenses, which include under them per¬
sons, under which head is included number ; and
thefe are all the parts into which a conjugation has
been divided.—As to what concerns the nature and
leffer diftin&ions of each of thefe, the following gene¬
ral remarks may be fufficient.
43. With regard to modes ; as this relates folely to
the perception or volition of the fpeaker, it neceffari-
ly follows, that there ought to be a diftindl and par¬
ticular mode for each diverfity that there can be in his
manner of perceiving or willing any thing whatever,
the principal of which are the following.
if we (imply declare that we perceive any objedl, or
that fuch a thing is or will be, without any limitation
or contingency, it forms what has been called the de- Verbs.
clarative or indicative mode; as, I •write.—A-
gain, if we limply reprefent it to be within our power,
or to depend upon our choice, it forms two other modes,
which may be called the potential, as, I can write ;
or the elective, as, I may write In the fame man¬
ner, if the fpeaker reprefents himfelf, or any other ob-
je6t, as determined to perform any a ft ion, or as cotn-
polled to it, or as it is his to perform it; thefe
form fo many diltinA modes, which may be called the
the determinative, as, 1 will write; the compul¬
sive, as, / mujl write; and obligative, as, IJbould
write. But although each of thefe reprefents the
fpeaker as perceiving the agent under a different light
with refpetff to the action ; yet as all of them, except
the indicative, agree in this, that however much they
may reprefent it as \}w duty ox inclination, &c. of the
agent to perform any adtion with which they are affo-
ciated, yet as they are (till of the nature of contingents
which may never take effedt, they are frequently fub-
joined to any other verb ; therefore the Latins have
comprehended all of thefe under one mode, which they
have called the subjunctive. We only take notice
of this circumftance here, to (hew, that however na¬
turally fentences may be diiiinguifhed into modes, ac¬
cording to the different iituation of the fpeakfr; yet
as the whole order of the variation of words in the
conjugation of a verb is merely arbitrary, thofe wh%
invent them may arrange them into what order they
pleafe, and call them by what names they may think
mod proper. But, however they may vary the
names or external arrangement, this does not affeft the
things ihenjfelves. For, by whatever name the mode
may be known which comprehends the words expref-
five of thefe feveral meanings, the fentences formed
by thefe will be either potential, obligativ.e, compuljive,
&c. as above explained.
All thefe modes above-mentioned only relate to the
different perceptions of the fpeaker. But as man is not
only endowed with the powers of perception, but thofe
of volition alfo, he muff have words to exprefs thefe ;.
which forms another order of modes. As he is not
only dependent himfelf, but has others depending upon
him, he may command, intreat, beg, pray, wtjh, in¬
quire.— Hence, therefore, fo many different orders of
modes, the imperative, REquisiTivi-:, precative*
optatite, interrogative, &c. to which may be
added the vocative. But although each of thefe dif-
plays a diffinft affe&ion of the fpeaker, yet grammari¬
ans have allotted only one variation of the verb for
all of thefe purpofes, called the imperative mode ;
all the other volitions being expreffed by this, or fome
other modes, by the help of particular contrivances,,
which are different in different languages.
44. With regard to that variation of the verb which
relates la time, called tenses t As an aftion or event
may be reprefented as happening at any affignable pe¬
riod of time, it is neeeffary to divide that duration,
into certain parts, that we may be able to reprefent the
different relations which events bear to one another
with refpedl to this particular. The firff and moil ob¬
vious diviffim of time is into prefent, pafi,. *od future.
But we may go farther ftill in. our diviiions of timei
For as time pad and future may be infinitely extend¬
ed, we may in univerfal timepajl affume many particu¬
lar
5 Chap. ll.
| Verbs. lar timet paji, and in univerfal time future many par-
■'I—r- ticular times future, fonie raore, feme lefs remote, and
correfponding to each other under different relations.
Even prefent time, however, in drift pbyfical truth,
it may be incapable of it, is by the power of the ima¬
gination brought to admit of thefe differences, and as
neceffarily implies fume degree of extenfon, as every
given line however minute: And hence it is not fuffi-
cient for language to denote indefinitely mere pajl,
prefent, ox future times; but on many occafions to de¬
fine with more precifion what kind of paji, prefent,
or future, is meant.
45. Tenfes, therefore, or thofe variations of a verb
which denote a difference of only, may be all di¬
vided into present, past, and future; each of
which may be fubdivided into definite and indefi¬
nite. The definite tenfes are thofe where the particu¬
lar inftant of time, whether prefent, paft, or future,
is pointed out. The indefinite are thofe where paif,
prefent, or future time is indicated in general, without
confining it to a particular intfant in either of thefe
cafes. Thefe have been dillinguifhed among gram¬
marians by the name of aorists.—Thus when Mil-
ton makes Adam fay,
Millions of fpiritual creatures walk the earth,
Unfeen, both when we wake and when we jleep,
the verb walk means not that they were walking at
that inftant only when Adam fpoke, but indefinitely in
any inftant whatever. Solikewife, when the fame au¬
thor calls hypocrify
 the only evil which walks
Invifible except to God alone,
the verb walks has the like aoriftical fignification. He
went, Ae fell, are of the paft, as they do not
fpecify any particular inftant, but refer to paft time in
general. So likewife in the legiflative fentences, thou
/halt not kill, thou fait not fteal, <bc. the fame aorif¬
tical meaning is perceived, as the prohibition does not
relate to any paricular time future, but is extended
indefinitely to every time future.
46. But it is not fufficient for a language to denote
time in this indefinite manner: it is neceffary likewife
that it fhould be capable of fpecifying any particular
inftantmftime in an exaft and definite manner. Thus,
if, inftead of the word walk in the tirft fentence
above quoted, we were to put are walking, it
brings down the verb to denote a particular time,
and fpecifies that thefe fpiritual creatures are, at that
very inftant in which Adam fpeaks, walking upon the
earth unfeen. In like manner, in the ftcond fentence,
if the word walks were changed to is walking,
it denotes, that hypocrify, at that particular inftant
in which the fentence was pronounced, was walking
invifible upon the earth. And in the fame manner,
was walking, or will be walking, each of them
denote, that thefe energies were or will be exerted at
a particular fpecified time. Thefe, therefore, form
fo many diftinft definite tenfes, under whatever techni¬
cal name thefe may be known.
47. Here then we may fee the ufe of that diftinftion
of the different ftates of the verb, into the verb properly
fo called, and participles. For as the verb itfelf ex¬
hibits the word as altogether indefinite; when this is
33%
joined to its proper energizer, it forms all thefe inde- Verbs.
finite tenses which our language requires. Thus,
/ write, 1 did write, I will write, I may write, I
can write, &c. each of them, although they reprefent
the attribute as united to the energizer in fome paft,
prefent, or future time, do not fpecify any particular
inftant, and are therefore fo many aorifts or indefinite
tenfes. Whereas in the participle the attribute is re-
prefented as in a ftate of exertion, it neceffarily fol¬
low's, that if it be ever united to its energizer, it rnuft
point out the particular inftant when that union took
effect, and of confequence form as great a variety of
definite tenses as the verb forms of indefinite.
Thus, 1 asn osypiting, neceffarily implies that I anj
actually exerting this particular energy at the very in¬
ftant that I declare it. So likewife, if I fay, / was
writing, it indicates, that at one particular inftant of
paft duration, to which this has a reference, I was
aftually employed in that particular occupation. This
inftant is generally fixed by fome collateral circum-
ftance ; as, “ upon the twentieth day of Auguftlaft,
at twelve o’clock, I was writing ;,f or, “ when the
thunder broke upon the tower in my neighbourhood,
1 was writing," &e. And the fame may be faid of
future time; as, “ to-morrow at ten o’clock IJhall
be writing," &c. In all of which cafes it is obvious,
that a particular now or inftant pointed out, in
which the attribute is reprefented as united to its pro¬
per energizer. We might here proceed to fhew the
various times that each of thefe different ftates of the
verb might be made to indicate; the number of tenfes
that each mode admitted of; the feveral changes that
might be produced by joining, the participle perfeft
with any objeft ; which cannot be here called the
energizer, but the fubjett ; for as the energy is by this
participle reprefented as compleated, if it has any con¬
nexion with any perfon, as the attribute cannot be
affeXed by any energizer after it is compleated, it
muft of neceffity affeX the perfon, inftead of being
affeXed by it ; and hence it is that the feveral varia¬
tions produced by this participle perfeX have been
called the passive voice of the verb. But as all
thefe particulars only relate to the conftruXion of one
particular language, it would lead us a great deal too
far from the particular fubjeX of which this article
treats. We lhall therefore only obferve, that befides
the above variations of the verb, which the Greeks
and Romans have thought proper to make, the terms
of which we have adopted ; there are many others
that they might with equal propriety have made, but
which they rather chofe to exprefs by the help of
other words called But fome other languages
have gone further in this refpeX, and endowed their
verbal word with feveral variations to exprefs fcveral
other circumftances than they do. This is particularly
the cafe with the Hebrew language, which, befides
the variation for gender above-mentioned, has allotted
certain other variations of its verb to exprefs feveral
other circumftances. Thus, pakad in that language
fignifies he viftted; pakeda, fhe vijited, &c.; pikked,
he viftted diligently ; hephked, he made him viftt; and
hethpeked, he viftted himfelf. In this manner is
every verb in that language varied ; and each of thefe
different conjugations of their verb admits of a parti¬
cular variation for the paffive of each.—Hence, there¬
fore.
GRAMMAR.
337°
Verbs.
GRAMMAR. Chap. II
fore, the conjugation of a verb in that language
admits of a great many variations which neither the
Greeks nor Romans were aquainted with : for betides
the diftin&ions of modes, tenfes, perfons, and number,
they have divided their verb into fo many diftindf
diviiions to anfwer for thefe dittinctions above men¬
tioned, which they have denominated kal, pihel-,
hiphil, and Hithpahel. with their paffives Niphal,
puhal, and hophal ; each of which admit of varia¬
tions through all the modes, tenfes, 'perfons, numbers,
and genders which any of their verbs admit of.
48. The only ufe which we meant to make of thefe
obfervations, on the Hebrew verbs, is this: That as
the authors, who have formed their idea of grammar
from the forms which the fevcral partsbf fpeech admit
of in the Greek and Latin languages, have fuppofed
that every variation which thefe languages admitted
of was a natural and neceffary part of language ; and
that therefore every language which did not admit of
the fame number of variations,, with theirs, in every
part of fpeech, was in fo far defe&ive and incomplete ;
fo, for the fame reafon, an author who had formed
his idea of grammar upon the model of the Hebrew
tongue, would as naturally fuppofe, that the feveral
variations which the verb admitted of in his own
favourite language were eflential and neceffary ; and
that, of confequence, every language which did not
admit of as many variations was imperfeft and incom¬
plete. But to any one who confiders this matter with
attention, it will appear, that there could be no end
to thefe unneceffavy difcuflions and groundlefs claims
of fancied fuperiority : for if compound words have
fuch an advantage over fimple, the Chinefe language,
in which we are told almoft every fentence has a parti¬
cular compound charafter to exprefs it, muff be by
far the moft perfect in the world ; but fo far is this
from being the cafe, that every one allows it to be the
mod imperfeft and incomplete. The only method,
therefore, which remains for us to confider this fub-
je& is, to difregard every particular form of language,
and confider the words in themfelves, as divefted of
every extraneous circumilance, and obferve what vari¬
ations they neceffarily require, allowing every particu¬
lar language to compound thefe with one another in
what manner it Ihall think proper. It is in this
manner we have confidered the verbal attributives,
and endeavoured to difentangle them from thofe un-
neceffary fetters with which they have been loaded,
and reftore them to their own original freedom.
49. Bdides the variations above-mentioned, verbs
have been diftinguifhed from one another in a different
manner ; the names and nature of which may be thus
explained.
We have already feen, that all verbs, as they de¬
note energies, neceffarily have reference to certain
energizing fulflances. For, how could there be fuch
energies as to love, to fty, to wound ? &c. were there
not fuch beings as men, birds, fwords, &c. Farther,
every energy not only requires an energizer, but is
neceffarily converfant about fome fubjed. For ex¬
ample, if we fay, Brutus loves, we mult needs fupply
—loves Cato, Cafius, or fome one. And thus it is,
that every energy is neceffarily fituated between two
fubdantivee, an energizer which is attive and a fub-
jeft which is pafive. If the energizer leads the
fentence, the energy has been faid to follow its cha- Adjeftii
rader, and becomes what we call a verb active :
thus we fay, Brutus amat, Brutus loves. On the
contrary, if the paffive fub|ed be principal, it is faid
to follow the charaderof this too, and becomes what
we call a verb passive : thus we fay, Portia
Amatur, Portia is loved. But in fome verbs it hap¬
pens, that the energy always keeps within the ener¬
gizer, and never paffes out to any extraneous fubjed.
Thus, when we fay, Cafar walketh, Ceefar fitteth, it
is impoffible that the energy flioald pafs out, becaufe
both the energizer and the paflive fubjett are united in
the fame perfon. For what is the caufe of this
walking or fitting ? it is the will and vital powers
belonging to Ceefar : And what is the fubjed made fo
to move or fit? it is the body and limbs belonging alfo
to the lame Csefar. This fpecies of verbs have been
by grammarians diftinguilhed by the name of verbs
neuter, as if they were void both of atlion and
pajfwn, when perhaps they maybe rather faid to imply
both. It is in this manner, that verbs have been
diftinguiihed into the three claffes of active, pajfwe,
and neuter. Thefe, however, might with more pro¬
priety be divided into two claffes, which might be
called verbs transitive, and not transitive ; the
firft dafs including all thofe verbs which are ufually
called active, with the pajjives belonging to them ; for
it is evident, that thefe paffives are not verbs them¬
felves, but a variation only of a verb; and the fecond
clafs including thpfe verbs commonly called
Some languages, as the Greek and French, have
another clafs of vertis, which are called by the firll
verbs middle, and by the laft reciprocal verbs;
which are employed to denote that ftate of any tran-
fitive verb, when the energizer himfelf becomes the
fubjeft ; as thus, Brutus killed himfelf. See. But as
thefe only exprefs a flight variation of an accompani¬
ment of a verb, they have no claim to be confidered
as a diilind fpecies.
II. Of Adjectives.
50. Adjectives are all thofe words which denote
attributes whofe effence does not confill in motion
or its privation : or, in other words, they are thofe
words which denote the attributes of quantity, qua¬
lity, and relation ; fuch as, many, few, great and
little, black and white, good and bad, double, treble,
quadruple, &c.
As thefe attributes admit of no change of ftate,
nor can be effieded by the variations of . time, or any
other accident, but are in their own nature perfectly
fixed and invariable, the words which exprefs them
ought to be in all fituations and on all occafions the
fame. For as the qualities good or bad, black or white,
admit of no change in their own nature, whether they
be applied to a man, to a woman, to many or to few;
neither ought the word which expreffes any one of
thefe attributes in ftridnefs to admit of any alteration,
whether it be joined to one or other of thefe fubftan-
tives. So that although, in fome languages, from the
particular conftrudion of the other parts of fpeech;
it has been found neceffary to endow their adjedives
with the threefold diftindion of gender, number, and
cafe ; yet this mull only be confidered as an accidental
variation occafioned by particular circumllances, and.
not
Chap. II. GRAMMAR. 3371
idverbs. notin the .lead efiential to language, but rather a
i~' deviation from the order of nature, which would re¬
quire them to be kept invariably the fame in all cafes.
This order, the Englifli language (which in this and
almoft every other cafe is moll ilridtly conformable to
the nature of things than any other language we are
acquainted with) molt ftriftly obferves ; as we fay
equally, a good man, or a good •woman, a good houfe ;
or good ?nen, good hoafes, &c.
It has probafcly been from obferving that the
adje&ives in fome particular languages are endowed
with variations conformable to xhtgender, number, and
cafe of their fubftantives, that grammarians have been
led into the ftrange abfurdity of ranging them with
nouns, and feparating them from verbs; though with
refpeft to verbs they are perfectly homogeneous, and
with refpeft to nouns they are quite the contrary.
Adje&ives are homogeneous with refpefl to verbs,
as both forts denote attributes; they are hetergeneous
with refpedl to nouns, as never properly denoting fub-
Jlances.
51. Befides original adje&ives, there is another clafs
which are formed from fubllantives. Thus when we
fay, the party of Pompey, thejlyle of Cicero, the phildfo-
phy of Socrates’, in thefe cafes, the party, the ftyle,
and philofophy fpoken of, receive a ftamp and cha-
radler from the perfons they refpeft, and actually pafs
into attributives, and as fueh affnme the form of ad-
jeclives. And hence we fay, the Pompeian party, the
CiceronianJlyle, and the Soaratic philofophy. In like
manner, for a trumpet of brafs, we fay, a brafen
trumpet ; for a crown of gold, a golden crown, &c.
Even pronomial fubltances admit the like mutation;
as, inftead of faying the book of me, of thee, or of him,
we fay, my book, thy book, his book, &c. Yet it
mull be acknowledged, that thefe, as they often ferve
rather to define a noun than to denote any quality ap¬
pertaining to it; they partake more of the nature of
articles than adjettives; fo that it is in many cafes
difficult to afcertain exafitly to which clafs they are
to be refered. But of this we have already taken par-
p ticnlar notice.
The nature of thefe variations of adjeftives, which
have been called degrees of coniparifon, will be more
properly explained under the following feftian.
Sect. II. Of Attributives of the Second Order,
called Adve-RBs.
52. As the Attributives hitherto mentioned denote
the attributes of fitbfances, fo there is an inferior clafs
of them which denote the attributes on\y of attributes.
To \xplain thefe by examples of either kind : When
we fay, “ Cicero and Pliny were both of them elo¬
quent ; Statius and Virgil both of them wrotein
thefe inttances, the attributes eloquent and wrote, are
immediately referable to the fubllantives Cicero, Virgil,
&c.: As, therefore, denoting the attributes of fub-
Jlances, we call them attributives of the first
order. But when we fay, “ Pliny was moderately
eloquent, but Cicero exceedingly eloquent; Statius
wrote indifferently, hot Virgil wrote admirably:'” in
thefe inliances, the attributives moderately, exceeding¬
ly, indifferently, and admirably, are not referrable to fab-
jlantives, but to other attributes ; that is, to the words
eloquent and wrote: As, therefore, denoting attri¬
butes of attributes, we call them attributes of Adverbs.
the second order. Thefe have been by gramma- ' ~
rians, called adverbs. And indeed, if we take the
word verb in its mod comprehenfive fignification, as
including all the words which denote ihe attributes of
fubjlances, (which was the fenfe in which Ariilotle
and many of the mod ancient grammarians employed
it), we (hall find the name adverb to be a very juft'
appellation, as denoting a part of fpeech the statural
appendage of verbs. So great is this dependence in
grammatical fyntax, that an adverb can no more
fubfid without its verb, than a verb can fubfid with¬
out its fubjlantive.
53. Among the attributes of fubdances are recko¬
ned quantities and qualities. Thus we fay, a white
garment, a high mountain, &c. Now fome of thefe
quantities and qualities are capable of intenfon and
rcmffion. Thus we fay, a garment exceedingly
white, a mountain tolerably or moderately high.
Hence, then, one copious fource of fecondary at¬
tributives, or adverbs, to denote thefe two, that is,
interrjbn and remffion; fuch as,greatly, vajfly, extreme-
ty, fffciently, moderately, tolerably, indifferently, &c.
But where there are different intenfions of the fame
attribute, they may be compared together: thus, if
the garment A be exceedingly white, and the gar¬
ment B be moderately white, we may fay, the gar¬
ment A is more white than the garment B. In thefe
indances, the adverb more not only denotes intenfion,
but relative intenfion. Nay, we flop not here, as we
not only denote intenfion merely relative, but relative
intenfion than which there is none greater. Thus we
not only fay, the mountain A is more high than the
mountain B, but that it is the most high of all moun¬
tains. Even verbs properly fo called, as they admit
offimple intenfons, fo they admit alfo of thefe compa¬
rative ones. . Thus, in the following example, Fame
he loveth more than riches, but virtue of all things
he loveth most ; the words more and most denote
the different comparative intenjions of the verbal at¬
tribute loveth.
54. Hence the rife of comparison of adje&ives,
and of its different degrees, which cannot well be
more than the two fpecies above-mentioned; one to
denote fnnple excefs, and one to denote fuperlativef
Were we indeed to introduce more degrees than thefe,
we ought perhaps to introduce infinite, which is ab-
furd. For why dop at a limited number, when in all
fubje£ls fufceptible of intenfion the intermediate ex-
ceffes are in a manner infinite ? There are infinite de¬
grees of more white, between the fird fimple white, and
the fuperlative wbitejl ’, and the fame may be faid of
more great, more drong, more minute, &c. The
do&rine of grammarians about three fuch degrees of
comparifon, which they call Xhe pqfitive, the compara¬
tive, and the fuperlative, mud be abfurd ; both be-
caufe in their pofitive there is no comparifon at all,
and becaufe their fuperlative is a comparative as much
as their comparative itfelf. Examples to evince this
may be met with everywhere; Socrates was the most
iJvise of all the Athenians ; Homer was the most sub¬
lime of all poets, kc.
55. The authors of language have in fome indan¬
ces contrived a way to retrench thefe comparative ad*
verbs, by expreffing their force by an inflexion of the
primary ,
3372 GRAMMAR. Chap. Hi
A^'erks- primary attributive. Thus, indead of more fair, they
fay fairer ; inftead of viojlfair, fairest : and the
fame method of compofition takes place both in
the Greek and Latin languages ; with this difference,
however, between the genius of thde languages and
ours, that we are at liberty to form the comparifon
either in the one method or the other: but, in thefe
languages, the comparifon is almoft never formed by
the affiftance of the adverb, but always by the inflec¬
tion of the adjeftive ; and hence this inflexion is al¬
ways confidered by them as a necdfary accident of the
adjedive. But this method of exprefling the power
of the adverb has reached no farther than to adjedives,
or to their participles, which are fo nearly allied to
adjedives. Verbs were perhaps thought to be too
much diverfified, to admit of more variations without
perplexity.
56. Some qualities admit of comparifon, others ad¬
mit of none : ftich, for example, are thofe which de¬
note that quality of bodies arifing from their figure-, as
when we fay, a circular table, a quadrangular court,
a conical piece of metal, <bc. The reafon is, that a
million of things participating the fame figure, par¬
ticipate it equally if they do it all. To fay, there¬
fore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, that
A is more or lefs quadrangular than B, is abfurd. The
fame holds in all attributives denoting definite quanti¬
ties, of whatever nature. For as there can be no com¬
parifon without intenfwn or remifion,. and as there can
be no intention or remiflion in things always definite,
therefore thefe attributives can admit of no compari¬
fon. By the fame method of reafoning, we difcover
the caufe why why no fubjlantive is fufceptible of thefe
degrees of comparifon. A mountain cannot be faid
more to be or to ExtsT than a mole-hill-, nor the
lion A cannot be more a lion than the lion B : but the
more or lefs mutt be fought for in their quantities and
qualities ; a mountain is more bulky than a mole-hill,
and the lion A is tmre fierce than the lion B ; the ex-
cefs being always derived from their attributes.
57. Of the adverbs or fecondary qualities already
mentioned, thofe denoting intenfion and remiflion may
be called adverbs of quantitv continuous; once,
twice, thrice. See. are adverbsof quantity discrete;
snore and mofi, lefs and leaf, to which may be added
equally, proportionally. Sec. are adverbs of relation.
There are others of quality ; as when we fay, ho¬
nestly indiifirious, prudently brave-, they fought
bravely, he painted finely,
58. The adverbs hitherto mentioned, are common
to verbs of every fpecies; but there are fome which are
confined to verbs properly fo called, that is to fay, to
fuch as denote motions or energies with their privations.
All motion and reft imply time and place as a kind of
necefl'ary coincidence. Hence, if we would exprefs
the place or timeoi either, we mutt needs have recourfe
to adverbs formed for this purpofe; of place, as when
we fay, he flood there, he went hence, he travelled
far, isc.-, or of time, as when we fay, he flood
then, he went afterward, travelled formerly,
- Should it be aiked, Why adverbs of time, when
verbs have tenfes ? The anfwer is, though tenfes may
be fufficient to denote the greater diftin&ions of
time, yet to denote them all by tenfes would be a
perplexity without end. What a variety of forms
would be neceflary to denoteyefterday, to-day, to-mor- Advert >:
row, formerly, juft now, now, immediately, prefently, p
foon, hereafter ? See.
59. To thefe adverbs juft mentioned may be added
thofe which denote the interfions and remijfions peculiar i
to motion, fuch as fpeedUy, haftily, fwiftly, Jlowly, &c.; t
as alfo adverbs of place made out of prepofttions, fuch
as upward and downward, from up and down. In j
fome inttances the prepofition. fuffers no change, but
becomes an adverb by nothing more than its applica- j
tion ; as when we fay, be rides a.ko\it, he was near
falling. See. j
60. There are likewife adverbs, of interrogation; J
fuch as, where, whence, whither, how, &.c. of which
there is this remarkable, that when they lofe their in-
terrogative power, they aflame that of a relative, fo as
to reprefent the relative or fitly tin fiive pronoun ; as in
this doggerel tranflation of a line from Virgil,
And corn doth grow where Troy town flood ; H
that is to fay, corn groweth in that place in which, ]
Troy food, the power of the relative being implied in
the adverb. It is in like manner that the relative
pronoun becomes an interrogative ; as in this line from
Milton,
.Whofirftt [educ'd them to that foul revolt?
The reafon of this is as follows: the pronoun and ad¬
verbs here mentioned are all, in their original charac¬
ter, relatives. Even when they become interroga-
tives, they lofe not this charadler, but are ftill relatives
as much as ever: the difference-is, that, without an
interrogation, they have reference to a fubjeft which is
antecedent, definite, and known-, within interrogation,
to a fubjedl which is fubfequent, indefinite, and un¬
known, and which it is expedted the anfwer (hould ex¬
prefs and afeertain. Who firft feduc'd them? The j
queftion itfelf fuppofes a feducer, to which, though
unknown, the pronoun who has a reference — Th' infer¬
nal ferpent. Here, in the an.fwer, we have the fub-
jeft, which was indefinite, afeertained; fo that we fee
who, in the interrogation, is as much a relative as if
it had been faid originally, without any interrogation
at all. It was the infernal'ferpent who fitftfeducedthem:
and thus interrogatives and relatives mutually pals into
one another.
Having thus confidered all thofe parts of fpeech
which are significant of themselves, we pro¬
ceed to thofe auxiliary parts which are only sig¬
nificant WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH OTHERS, which
we have already faid are either definitives pr con¬
nectives. Of which in their order.
Chapter III.
Concerning Definitives commonly called
ARTICLES.
61. The knowledge of man is at bell but limited
and confined. Although we have invented words to
denominate almoftall the fubftances which exift, yet as it
is impoflible for any perlon to be acquainted with all of
thefe, ft ivas neceflary to fall upon fome contrivance
in language to obviate the difficulties whicn would a-
rife from this caufe. With this view, we have already
feen, that fubftances have been divided into general
clafles, each of which includes under it feveral lefler
'f2
/.a,.:.
*
’ ' :
Chap. III. G R A I
Articles. fubdivsGons ; the names of which general clafles, being
' but few, may be more eafily retained, as animal, edi¬
fice, motion, be. for by referring the feveral objects
that we may accidentally fee, and with which we are
unacquainted, to the feveral clafles to which they may
belong, we are in fome meafure enabled to communicate
<*ur ideas without the knowledge of the particular
names. But as this particular objeft muft in fome
manner be diflinguiflied from others of the fame clafs
to which it belongs, a particular clafs of words was
found neceffary to define and afeertain thefe individuals;
which has given rife to this order of words of which
we now treat, and which we have called definitives,
becaufe they ferve to define and afeertain any particular
objeft, fo as to feparate it from the general clafs to 'which
it does belong, and of courfe denote its individuality.
The principal of thefe definitives have been ufually
called articles, the nature of which may be explained
as follows.
62. Suppofing I fee an objeft with which I am to¬
tally unacquainted, having a head and limbs, and ap¬
pearing to poflefs the powers of felf-motion and fenfa-
tion. If I know it not as an individual, I refer it to
its proper fpecies, and call it a dog, a horfe, a lion, or
the like ; and if none of the names of any fpecies with
which I am acquainted fit it, I refer it to the genus,
and call it an animal.
I But this is not enough. The objedl at which we
are looking, and want to diih’nguilh, is perhaps an
individual. — Of what kind ? Known or unknown ? Seen
now for the firjl time, or feen before and now remem¬
bered ? It is here we fliall difeover the ufe of the two
articles A and the ; for the article a refpe£Is our pri¬
mary perception, and denotes individuals as unknown',
whereas the refpecls our fecondary perception, and
denotes individuals as known. To explain this by an
example, I fee an objedl pafs by which I never faw
till then : What do I fay ? There goes A beggar with A
long beard. The man departs, and returns a week af¬
ter : What do I then fay? There goes the beggar
with the long beard. Here the article only is changed,
the reft remains unaltered. Yet mark the force of this
apparently minute change. The individual once vague
is now recognifed as fomething known, and that merely
, by the efficacy of this latter article, which tacitly in-
» finuates a kind of previous acquaintance, by referring
a prefent perception to a like perception already paft.
Hence therefore we fee, that although the articles A
and the are both of them definitives, as they circum-
feribe the latitude of genera and fpecies, by reducing
them, for the moft part, to denote individuals ; yet
they differ in this refpedt, that the article a leaves the
individual itfelf unafeertained, but the article tde
afeertains the individual alfo, and is for that reafon the
more accurate definitive of the two. They differ like-
wife in this refpedf, that as the article a ferves only
to feparate one particular object from the general clafs
to which it belongs, it cannot be applied to plurals.
But as the article the ferves to define objedls, or re¬
fer to them as already known, without relation to
number, or any other circumftances, it is applicable
to both numbers indiferiminately, as well as nouns of
gender, without fuffering any fort of change;
for it is evident, that no variation of the nature of the
noun can make any difference in thofe words which
Vol. V.
^ MAR. 3373
ferve to define or denote a certain reference to them. Articles.
So that although we find fome moekrn languages
which admit of a variation of their article, which re¬
lates to the gender of the noun with which it is aflb-
ciated, yet this cannot be confidered as effential to this
fpecies of words : and fo far is this from being an im¬
provement to the language, that it only ferves to per¬
plex and confufe, as it always prefents a particular
idea of fex, where in many cafes it is not in the leaft
neceffary.
63. Of all the parts of fpeech which may be con¬
fidered as effential to language, there is none in which
we find fo many languages defedlive as in this. For
we know of no language, except our own, which has
the particular article a ; and the Latin language has
no word of the fame import with the word the. The
reafon of which deficiency is, that as other parts of
fpeech may be fo eafily converted from their original
meaning, and be made to affume the chara&er of de¬
finitives, they have made fome of thefe perform both
of thefe offices: and as the article a only .fepa-
rates a particular objedt, and is therefore fo nearly
allied to a numeral, many languages, as the French,
Italian, Spanifh, and German, have made the nu¬
meral word one fupply its office ; while others, as
the Greek, have denoted this particular, objedt by
a mere negation of the other article ; and as the
article the agrees with pronouns in this refpedl,
that they both denote reference, the Latins made their
pronoun, by a forced periphrafis, fupply the place of
this. But all of thefe methods of fupplying the want
of the genuine article are defedtive, as will appear
more particularly by and by.
64. As articles are by their nature definitives, it
follows of courfe, that they cannot be united with fuch
words as are in their own nature as definite astheytnay
be; nor with fuch words as, being indefinite, can¬
not properly be made otherwife; but only with thofe
words which, though indefinite, are yet capable, through
the article, of becoming definite. Hence we fee the rca-
fon why it is abfurd to fay the I, or the thou, be¬
caufe nothing can make thefe pronouns more definite
than they are ; and the fame may be faid of proper
names. Neither can we fay the both, becaufe thefe
words are in their own nature each of them perfedtly
defined. Thus, if it be faid, “ I have read both
poets,” this plainly indicates a definite pair, of whom
fome mention has been made already. On the con¬
trary, if it be faid, “ I. have read .two poets,” this
may mean any pair, out of all that ever exifted. And
hence this numeral, being in this fenfe indefinite, (as
indeed are all others as well as itfelf,) is forced to afi
fume the article whenever it would become definite.
Hence alfo it is, that as two, when taken alone, has
reference to fome primary and indefinite perception,
while the article the has reference to fome perception
fecondary and definite, it is bad language to fay two
the men, as this would be blending of incompatibles,
that is to fay, of a definedfubjiantive with an undefined
attributive. On the contrary, to fay both the men,
is good and allowable; becaufe the fubftantive cannot
poffibly be lefs apt, by being defined, to cqalefce with
an attributive which is defined as well as itfelf. So
likewife it is correft to fay, the two men; becaufe
here the article, being placed at the beginning, extends
19 I its
3374
GRAMMAR. Chap. III.
its ponutr as well throagli fubftantive as attibutive, and
"equally tends to define them both.
65. As fome of the above words admit of no article,
becaufe they are by nature as definite as may be ; fo there
are others which admit it not, becaufe they are not tobe
defined at all. Of this fort are all interrogatives.
If we queltion about fubftantives, we cannot (ay the
who is this; but who is this? And the fame as
to qualities, and both kinds of quantities: for we fay
without an article, what sort of, how many,
how great ? The reafon is, the article the refpefts
beings already known, and interrogatives refpeft be¬
ings about which we are igmrant; for as to what we
know, interrogation is fuperfluous. In a word, the
natural ajfociators with articles are all those com¬
mon APPELLATIVES WHICH DENOTE THE SEVERAL
genera and species of beings. It isthefe, which, by
affuming a different article, ferve either to explain an in¬
dividual upon itslirft being perceived, or elfe to indicate,
upon its return, a recognition or repeated knowledge.
66. But although proper names do not admit of
the article, being in their own nature definite s yet
as thefe often fall into homonymic, that is, different
perfons often go by the fame name, it is neceffary to
diflinguifh thefe from one another, to prevent the am¬
biguity that this would oceafion. For this purpofe
we are obliged to have recourfe to adjectives or epithets.
For example, there were two Grecian chiefs who bore
the name of Ajax\ and it was not without reafon that
Mnejlkeus ufes epithets, when his intention was to
diftinguifh the one from the other : “ If both Jljaxes
“ cannot be fpared, (fays he), at leaf! let mighty 7V-
“ lamonian Ajax come.” But as epithets are in their
own nature perfe&ly indefinite, feeing the fame adjec¬
tive may be applied to infinite fuhje&s, it is neceffary
to define thefe when we want to apply them to any
particular objedl; fo that it is neceffary to endow
thefe with an article, that they may have a reference to
fome Jingle perfon only. And thus it is we fay, T'rypho
the grammarian, Apollodorus the Cyrenian, See. It
is with reafon, therefore, that the article is here alfo
added, as it brings the adjective to an individuality as
precife as the proper name. Even common appellatives,
by the help of an article, come to have the force of
proper names, without the affiflance of any epithet
whatever. Thus, in Englifh, city is a name common
to many places, and fpeaker a name common to many
men. Yet if we prefix the article, the city means
our metropolis ; and the the speaker, a high officer
in the Britifh parliament. And hence, by an eafy
tranfition, the article, from denoting reference, comes
to denote eminence alfo; that is to fay, from implying
an ordinary pre-acquaintance, to prefume a kind of
general and univerfal notoriety. Thus, among the
Greeks, the poet meant Homer, and the stagy-
rite meant Ariftotle; not but that there were many
poets befides Homer, and many Jlagyrites befides Ari-
Jiotle, but none equally illufirious.
67. The articles already mentioned are thofe ftri&ly
fo called ; but, befide thefe, there are the pronomial
articles, fuch as this, that, any, fome, all, other,
none. See. Of thefe we have already fpoken in the
chapter upon Pronouns, where we have fhewn when
they may be taken as pronouns, and when as articles.
Ytt, in truth, if the offence of an article be to define
and afeertain, they are much more ftricffly articles than Articles,
any thing elfe, and ought to be confidered as fuch in
univerfal grammar. Thus, when we fay, “ this pic¬
ture I approve, but that I diflike;” what do wre
perform by the help of thefe definitives, but bring
down the common appellatives to denote individuals ?
So when we fay, “ some men are virtuous, but all
men are mortalwhat is the natural effeft of this all
and some, but to define that univerfality and partial'
larity which would remain indefinite were w7e to take
them away ? The fame is evident in fuch fentences as
thefe: “ some fubftances have fenfation, others
want it ; choofe any way of ailing, and some men
will find fault, &c.” For here, some, other, and
any, ferve all of them to define different parts of a
given whole; some, to denote a definite part; any,
to denote an indefinite; and other, to denote the re¬
maining part, when a part has been already affumed.
Even the attributive pronouns, my, thy, his, her's, &c.
are, in ftriftnefs, more properly articles than any thing
elfe, feeing each of them ferves only to define and af-
certain the individual object to which it is applied.
As when we fay, “ my honfe is lefs commodious
than your’s; her form is more elegant than his,
&c.” For, in thefe examples, what do the words my
and your’s do, but afeertain two individual, ifoa/e/?
or the words his and her’s, but afeertain two indivi¬
dual forms, which are compared with one another?
In the fame manner, w'e have already feen nouns fome-
times lay afide their own proper character, and be¬
come definitives, as in the words Alexander’s, Ce¬
sar’s, Pompey’s, &c. which may be faid to form fo
many nomial articles. But of thefe we have
fpoken fo fully in the chapter of Nouns, that it is un-
neceffary to fay more of them in this place.
68. Before we leave this fubjedt, we fhall produce
one example to (hew the utility of this fpecies of
words; which, although of themfelves infignificant
and feemingly of fmail importance, yet, when pro¬
perly applied, ferve to make a few general terms be
fnfficient for the accurate expreffion of a great variety
of particulars, and thus makes language capable of
expreffing things infinite, without wandering into in¬
finitude itfelf. To explain this: Let the general
term be man, which I have occafion to employ for
the denoting of fome particular. Let it be required
to exprefs this particular, as unkown-, I fay, a man:
—.Known ; I fay, the man :—Definite ; a certain
man:—Indefinite', any man:—Prefent, and near',.
this man: — Prefent, and diflant', that man:—Like
to fome other', such a man: - Different from fome
other', another man:—An indefinite multitude ; many
men: — A definite multitude', A thousand men:—
The ones of a multitude, taken throughout; every
man:—The fame ones, taken with dijlinCiion', each
man:—Taken in order', first man, second man,
&c.—The whole multitude of particulars taken collec¬
tively', all men:—The negation of that multitude-, no
man A number of particulars prefent, and at fotne
diflance ', these men ■.--At a greater djlance, or op-
pofed to others, those men :---A number prefent and'
near\ these men \ ---A number of individuals from ano¬
ther number; other men :---A great number of in¬
dividuals taken colledively ; many men:—A fmall nu?n-
ber‘, few men:—-A proportionally greater number',
MORE
Chap. IV.
Conjune- more tneti -Smaller fiumber ; fewer men s—-And
tions• fo on we might go almoit to infinitude. But not to
dwell longer upon this article, we (hall only remark,
“ that minute changes in principles, lead to mighty
changes in effects ; fo that principles are well in-
titled to regard, however trivial they may appear.”
Chapter IV.
Of CONNECTIVES.
69. Connectives, according as they conned either
fentences or ‘words, are called by the different names
of conjunctions or prepositions. Of thefe names,
that of the prepofttkn is taken from a mere accident,
as it commonly llands in conne&ion before the part
which it conneds. Thz conjunftion, as is evident, has
reference to its ejftntial charafter. We fliall treat of
thefe two feparately.
Se£t. I. Of Conjunctions.
70. A Conjunction is a part offpeech void of fig-
nif cation itfelf, but fo formed as to help Jignification, by
making two or morefignificantfentences to beonefignifieant
fentence. As, therefore, it is the ejjenceot conjundions to
ccnnettfentences', at the fame time that they do this, they
muft either conned their meaning or not. Forexample, let
us take thefe two fentences, Rome ‘was enfaved—Cte-
far ‘was ambitious, and conned them together by the
conjundipn because ; Rome was enjlaved, because
Csefar was ambitious. Here the meanings, as well as
the fentences, appear to be conneded. But if I fay,
mannners muft be reformed, or liberty will be loft \ here
the conjundion or, though it join the fentences, yet,
as to their refpedive meanings, is a perfed disjunftive.
And thus it appears, that though all conjundionsrca-
join fentences, yet, with refped to the fenfe, fome are
conjunctive, and others are disjunctive.
Thofe conjundions which conjoin both fentences and
their meanings are either copulatives or continua-
tives. The principal copulative in Englifb is and.
The continuatives are much more numerous ; if, be¬
cause, therefore, wherefore, hence, that, <bc.
The difference between thefe is this : The copulative
does no more than barely couple fentences, and is
therefore applicable to all fubjeds whofe natures are
not incompatible : Continuatives, on the contrary, by
a more intimate connedion, confolidate fentences
one continuous whole ; and are therefore applicable on¬
ly to fubjeds which have an ejfential coincidence : For
example, it is noway improper to fay, Lyftppus was
aftatuary, and Prifcian a grammarian ; the fun fhi-
neth, and the Jky is clear-, becaufe thefe are things
that may co^exift, and yet imply no abfurdity. But
it would be abfurd to fay, Lyftppus was a ftatuary,
because Prifcian was a grammarian •, though not
to fay, the fun fhineth because the Jky is clear. The
reafon is, with refped to the fivft, the coincidence is
merely accidental: with refped to the laft, it is ejfen¬
tial, and founded in nature.
As to the continuatives, they are suppositive, fuch
as //'; or positive, fuch as becaufe, therefore, as, &c.
Take examples of each:—Tou will live happily if
you live honeftly : Tou live happily because you live
honeftly:—Tou live honeftly, therefore you live hap¬
pily. The difference between thefe continuatives is
this: The fuppofttives denote connedion, but do not
3375
aflert adual exigence; the pofttives imply both the C^ junc-
one and the other. ti,,ns-
Thefe pojitives above mentioned are either casual,
fuch as becaufe, Jlnce, as, isc. or collective, fuch
as therefore, wherefore, tie. The difference between
which is this: The cafuals fubjoin caufes to effedsi
“ the fun is in eclipfe, because the moon intervenes
The colledives fubjoin ejfeds to caufes ; “ the moon in¬
tervenes, therefore the fun is in eclipfeP We
therefore ufe cafuals in thofe inftances where the ef-
fed being confpicuous we feek for its caufe ; and col¬
ledives, in demonftrations and fcience, properly fo
called, where the caufe being firft known, by its help
we difeern ejfeds.
All thefe continuatives are refolvable m\.ocopulatives’.
For, inftead of faying, because it is day, it is light;
we may fay, It is day, and it is light. Inftead
of If it is day, it is light; we may fay. It is at
the fame time necejfary to be day, and to be light.
The reafon is, That the power of the copulative
extends to all connedions, as well to the ejfential as
to the cafual. Hence the continuative may be re-
folved into a copulative andfomething more ; that is to
fay, into a copulative implying an ejfential coincidence
in the fubjeds conjoined.
As to cafual conjundions, we may further obferve,
that there is no one of the four fpecies of caufes which
they are not capable of denoting. For example,
the material cauje ; The trumpet founds, because
it is made of metal. The formal ; The trumpet founds.
Because it is long and hollow. The efficient ; The
trumpet founds, because an artift blows it. The fi¬
nal ; The trumpet founds, that it may rotife our cou¬
rage. It is worth obferving, that the three firfl cau¬
fes are exprefled by the ftrongeft affirmation; beegufe,
if the effed. adually be, that muft be alfo. But this
is not the cafe with refped to the laft, which is only
affirmed as a thing that may happen. The reafon is,
That however this may be the end which fet the ar¬
tift firft to work, it may ftill be beyond his pow¬
er to obtain, and which, like all other contingents,
may either happen or not. Hence alfo it is connec¬
ted by a particular conjundion, that, abfolutely con¬
fined to this eaufe.
We now come to the disjunctive conjunctions ;
a fpecies of words which bear this contradidory name,
becaufe, while they disjoin the fenfe, they conjoin
the fentences.
With refped to thefe, we may obferve, that as there
is a principle of union diffufed through all things by
which this whole is kept together and preferved from
diffipation; fo there is, in like manner, a principle of
diversity diffufed through all, the fource of diftinc-
tion, of number, and of order. Now, it is to exprefs
in fome degree the modifications of this diverfity, that
disjunctive conjunctions feem at firft to have
been invented.
Of thefe disjundives, fome are simple, fome ad¬
versative. Simple; as when we fay, either////
day, or it is night:—Adverfative; as when we fay, It
is not day, but it is night. The difference between
thefe is, that the fimple do no more than merely dif-
join; the adverfative disjoin with a concomitant oppo¬
sition. Add to this, that the adverfative are definite;
the fimple indefinite. Thus, when we fay, the number
19 I 2 three
GRAMMAR.
3376
Co,.June- three is not an even number, but an odd; we not only
 disjoin two oppbfite attributes, but we definitely affirm
one, and deny the other. But, when we fay, the nu??i-
her of the fiars is either even or odd-, though we
aflert one attribute to be, and the other not to be,
yet the alternative is, notwithftanding, left indefi-
tiite.
As to adverfative disjunctives, it has been already
faid, that they imply opposition. Now, there can
be no oppofition of the fame attribute in the fame
fubjeft ; as when we fay, Nereus was beautiful. But
the oppofition muff be either of the fame attribute in
different fubje&s; as when we fay, “ Brutus was a pa¬
triot, but Ccefar was not:” Or of different attributes
in the fame fubjedl; as when we fay," “ Gorgius was a
fophijl, but not a philofopherOr of different attri¬
butes in different fubje&s; as when we fay, “Plato
was a philofopher, but Hippias was a fophi/l.” The
conjunctions ufed for all thefe purpofes may be called
abfolute adverfatives.
But there are other adverfatives befides thefe: as
when we fay, “ Nereus was more beautiful than
Achilles,— Virgil was as great a poet as Cicero was an
erator.” The charafler of thefe latter is, that they
go farther than the former, by marking not only op¬
pofition, but that equality or excefs which arifes from
the comparifon of fubjefts ; and therefore they may
be called adverfatives of comparifort.
Befides the adverfatives here mentioned, there are
two other fpecies, of which the moft eminent are un¬
less and although: For example, “ Troy will be
taken, unless the Palladium be preferved; Troy will
b; taken* although Heitor defend it.” The nature
of thefe adverfatives may be thus explained. As
every event is naturally allied to its caufe, fo, by pa¬
rity of reafon, it is oppofed to its preventive-, and as
every caufe is either adequate or inadequate, (inade¬
quate, when it endeavours, without being effectual),
fo in like manner is every preventive. Now, ade¬
quate preventives are expreffed by fuch adverfatives
—as unless: “ Troy will be taken, unless the
Palladium be preferved ;” that is, that this alone is
fufficient to prevent it. The inadequate are ex-
preffed by fuch adverfatives as although: “ Troy
will be taken, although Hettor defend it;” that
is, Hedor's defence will prove ineffectual. Thefe
may be called adverfatives adequate and inade¬
quate.
Before we leave this fubjeCf, we may obferve, that
the words when and where, and all others of the fame
nature, fuch as whence, whether, whenever, where-ever,
ffsc. may be called adverbial conjunctions; becaufe
they participate the nature both of adverbs and con¬
junctions; of conjunctions, as they conjoin fentences;
of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of time
or place. And thtfe adverbial conjunctions (contrary
to the character of acceffary words, which have ftriCtly
no fignifieation but when affociated with other words),
have a kind of obfeure fignification when taken alone,
by denoting thefe attributes of time and place. And
hence it is, that they appear in grammar like zoophytes
in nature, a kind of middle beings, of amphibious
character, which, by fharing the attributes of the
higher and the lower, conduce to link the whole to¬
gether.
Chap. IV.
Sect. II. Of thofe Connectives, called Pre- Prepofi-
positions. tlQlls'
A preposition is a part of fpeech devoid itfelf of
fgnification, but fo formed as to unite two swords that
are Jignificant, and that refufe to coalefce of themfelves.
This connective power (which relates to words only,
and not to fentences) will be better underltood by the,
following obfervations.
Some things naturally coalefce and unite of them¬
felves, while others refufe to do fo without help, and as
it were by compulfion. For example, all quantities'
and qualities coalefce immediately with their fub-
ftanccs: thus it is we fay, a fere lion, a vaf mountain,
&c. In like manner aCtions eoalefce with their agents,
and paffions with their patients: thus it is we fay,
Alexander conquers, Darius is conquered. Nay, as
every energy is a kind of medium between its agent
and patient, the whole three, agent, energy, and pa¬
tient, coalefce with the fame facility; as when we fay,
Alexander conquers Darius. Farther than this, as the
greatell part of attributives themfelves may be charac-
terifed, as when we fay of fuch attributives as ran,
beautiful, learned, &c. “ he ran fwiftly, fhe was very-
beautiful, he was moderately learned,” &c. thefe mull
readily coalefce with the attributes which they thus
charaCterife. From all which it appears, that thofe
parts of fpeech unite of themfelves in grammar, whofe
original archetypes unite of themfelves in nature.
Hence, therefore, it is, that although fubftances na- j
turally coincide with their attributes, yet they abfo-
lutely refufe doing fo one with another: and hence
thofe known maxims in pbyfics, that body is impe¬
netrable, that two bodies cannot poffefs the fame
place, &c.
From thefe principles it follows, that when we form
a fentence, the fubftance without difficulty coincides-
with the verb, from the natural coincidence of fub-
ftance with energy ; the sun warmeth : fo likewife
the energy with the fubjeCt on which it operates ;
warmeth the earth : fo likewife both fubftance and
energy with their proper attributes ; the splendid
sun genially warmeth the fertile earth. But
fuppofe we are to add other fubftantives, as, for in- ' f
fiance, air, ox beams-, how could thefe coincide, or
under what charafter be introduced ? Not either as the
energizer of the verb, nor as the fubjeCi on which it o-
perates \ for both of thefe places are already filled up,
the fir ft by the word sun, and the lafi by the fubfiance
earth : not as attributes to thefe laft, or to any o-
ther thing ; for attributes by nature they neither are
nor can be made. Here, then, we perceive the rife
and ufe of prepojitions : by thefe we conne& thofe fub¬
ftantives to fentences, which at the time are unable
to coalefce of themfelves. Let us affume, for inftance,
a pair of thefe conne&ives, through and with, and
mark their effeft upon the fubftances here mentioned ;
the fplendid fun with his beams genially warmeth
through the air the fertile earth : the fentence, as be¬
fore, remains entire and one ; the fubftantives required
are both introduced, and not a word which was there
before is difpiaced from its proper ftation.
It mull be here obferved, that mojl if not all pre-
pofitions feem originally formed to denote the relations,
of place ; becaufe_this is that grand relation which bo¬
dies-.
GRAMMAR.
jChap.IV. GRAF
trepofi- Jig; or naturalfubjlances maintain at all times to one
3 lons' another, whether they are contiguous or remote, whe¬
ther in motion or at reft. Thus we have prepofitions
to denote the contiguous relation of hody ; as when we
fay, Caius walked with a Jlaff; thejlatue flood upon
a pedeflal; the river ran over a precipice. Others, for
the detached relation s as when we fay, he is going to
Italy ; the fun is rifen above the hills ; thefe figs came.
from Turkey. So, as to motion and rcfl: only with
this difference, that here the prepofition varies its cha-
rafter with the verb : thus if we fay, that lamp hangs
from the ceiling, the prepofition from affumes the
charader of nuiefcence ; but if we fay, that lamp is
falling from the ceiling, the prepofition affumes a cha-
rader of motion. So in Milton ;
  To fupport uneafy fleps
Over the burning marie  
Again,
——He with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamour’d. 
In the firft: of thefe examples, over denotes motion,
and in the laft it denotes ref.
But though the original ufe of prepofitions was to
denote the relations ai place, they could not be con¬
fined to this office only; but by degrees extended
themfelves to fubjeds incorporeal, and came to denote
relations as well intellectual as local. Thus becaufe,
in place, he who is above has commonly the advantage
of him who is below, we transfer over and under to
dominion and obedience : of a king we fay, he ruled o-
his people \ of a common foldier, he fervcd under
fuch a general: fo too we fay, with thought; with¬
out attention ; thinking over afubjeCt; under anxie¬
ty ; from fear •, out of love', through jealoufy, &c.
All which inftances, with many of the like kind, fhew,
that the firfi words of men, like their firf ideas, had
an immediate reference to fenftble objects ; and that, in
after days, when they began to difcern with their in¬
tellect, they took thefe words which they found alrea¬
dy made, and transferred them, by metaphor, to in¬
tellectual conceptions. There is indeed no method to
ex.prefs new ideas, but either by metaphor, or by coin¬
ing new words ; both which have been pradifed by
philofophers,1 according to the nature and exigence of
the occafion.
In the foregoing ufe of prepofitions, we have feen
how they are employed by way aijuxta-poftion-, that
is to fay, where they are prefixed to a word without
becoming a part of it; But they may be alfo ufed by
G R A —
GRAMMARIAN, one that is fkilled in, or teaches
grammar.
Anciently the name grammarian was a title of ho¬
nour, literature, and erudition, being given to perfons
accounted learned in any art or faculty whatever.
But it is otherwife now, being frequently ufed as a
term of reproach, to fignify a dry plodding perfon,
employed about words and phrafes, but inattentive to
the true beauties of expreflion and delicacy of fenti-
ment. The ancient grammarians, called alfo philolo-
gers, muft not be confounded with the grammatifts,
whole foie bufinefs was to teach children the firlt ele-
/[ M A R. 3377
way of compofition; that is, they may be prefixed to Interjec-
a word fo as to become a part of it: thus, to under- tlons'
fland, to foreA?//, to over<7<?, to underiWw, to out-
go, &c. are fo many diftind words formed by prepo¬
fitions joined intimately with fame other word : in all
which cafes, the prepofitions commonly transfufe fome-
thing of their own meaning into the word with which
they are compounded ; and this imparted meaning, in
moft inftances, will be found refolvable into fome of
the relations of place, as ufed either in its proper or
metaphorical acceptation.
Besides the above parts of fpeech, there is ano¬
ther, which cannot be comprehended under any of the
foregoing claffes, called Interjectiohs : of this kind
are the words, ah! alas! fie! &c. This fpecies of
words coincide with no part of fpeeeh, but are either
uttered alone, or elfe thrown into a fsntence, without
altering its form either in fyntax or ftgnifcat ion. It
It may be therefore objedied, that as we fay, that all
language is divided into the feveral pans above enu¬
merated, and this clafs cannot be comprehended in
any of thefe divifions ; of courfe, the anal) fis that
we have made cannot be juft, becaufe it does not comr
prehend the whole. To this obje&ion it may be an-
fwered, that the language of which we have been
treating, is that which has been formed by mutual
compadl, for the purpofes of reafoning and fpecula-
tiou ; that, befides this artificial language, man, like
every other fenfitive animal, is endowed with a natu¬
ral language, by which he can exprefs any flrong fen-
fation. This language does not owe its charadlerifti-
cal expreffion to the arbitrary form of articulation ;
but derives its whole force from the tone of voice, and
modification of countenance and gefture : and of con-
fequence thefe tones and geftures exprefs .the fame
meaning without any relation to the articulation which
they may affume, and are therefore univerfally under-
ftood by all mankind. Now, interjection is the name
by which wediftinguifh thefe natural expreflions : thefe
cannot be properly called words, or parts of fpeech ;
but certain adventitious founds, or voices of nature,
exprefling thofe pafiions and natural emotions which
fpontaneoufly arife in the mind upon the view or nar¬
rative of interefting events. We muft, therefore, ftill
conclude, that all language properly fo called is com-
pofed of words, all of which may be arranged into
the feveral claffes above-mentioned ; and as a recapitu¬
lation of the whole that we have faid, we have annex¬
ed a Table, which prefents at one view the feverat
claffes and fubdivifions of words.,
G R A
ments of language. Varro, Cicero, Meffala, and even
Julius Caefar, thought it no di{honour to be ranked
grammarians, who had many privileges granted to them,
by the Roman emperors.
GRAMMONT, a town of France, in the Limo-
fine, remarkable for its abbey, which is the chief of
the order. E. Lon. 133. N. Lat. 45. 56..
GRAMPOUND, a town ofCornwalWn England,
feated on the river Valle in W. Lon. 5. 25, N. Lat.
50. 20. The inhabitants have a confiderable manu-
fafture of gloves. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment*
GRAM-
G R A [ 3378 ] G R A
Grampus GRAMPUS, in ichythology; a fp'ecies of del-
(i phinus. See Delphinus.
-- ranil a’ GRANADA, a province of Spain, whiAi for a
long time was a kingdom diftinft from the reft of that
country, the hiftory of which is given under the ar¬
ticle of Spain. At prefent it is fometimes called Up¬
per Andaluiia. It is bounded to the fouth and eaft
by the Mediterranean, to the weft and north by
Lower Andalufia, and to the north-eaft by Murcia.
Its extent from weft to eaft is two hundred and ten
miles ; but its greateft breadth exceeds not eighty.
The air here is temperate and healthy ; and though
there are many mountains in the province, and fome
of them very high, yet they are almott every where
covered with vines and fruit-trees, together with lau¬
rel, myrtle, fweet-bafil, thyme, lavender, marjoram,
and other aromatic herbs, which give an exquifite
tafte to the fleih of their ftieep and cattle. A great
deal of (ilk and fugar, flax and hemp, honey and wax,
is alfo produced here; befides dates and acorns, fupe-
rior to the fineft nuts; good ftone for building ; feve-
ral forts ofgems; fumach, ufed in dreffing goat-lkins;
and galls, of which a dye is made for leather. The
valleys, with which the mountains are interfperfed, are
extremely beautiful and fertile. The inhabitants of
fome of the higheft mountains are faid to be defcen-
dants of the Moors ; and, though they are become
Roman-catholics, retain, in a great meafure, their
ancient cuftoms, manners, and language. The prin¬
cipal rivers in the province are the Xenil and Guada-
lantin, befides which there are many lefler ftreams.
Abundance of fait is made in this province ; which,
though neither fo populous nor fo well cultivated as
when fubjeft to the Moors, yet is as much fo as any in
Spain. It was the laft of the kingdoms pofiefied by
the Moors, and was not reduced and annexed to the
crown of Caftile until 1492.
Granada, the capital of the above province, (lands
at the conflux of the Xenil and Dario, in a whole-
fome air and fruitful country, an hundred and eighty
miles fouth of- Madrid, in W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat.
36. 56. It is large and magnificent, containing a
great number of very handfome public and private
buildings. Its walls, which are adorned with many
towers at equal diftances, are faid to be ten miles
in compafs. Here are two caftles ; the one built by
the Moors, and the other by Charles V. and Philip
II. They both command a very fine profpedl; and
the firft is fo large, that it looks like a city by itfelf,
and, it is faid, has room enough to accommodate forty
thoufand people, exclufive of the royal palace, and
the convent of St. Francis. Here is alfo a court of
inquifition ; a royal tribunal; and an univcrfity, foun¬
ded in 1531 ; with the fee of an archbilhop, who has
a revenue of forty thoufand ducats per annum. A
great many noblemen, clergymen, and wealthy citi¬
zens, refide in this city, of which the filk trade and
manafa&ure is very great, and the arfenal is faid to
be the beft furnifhed of any in Spain. The inhabi¬
tants, who are partly defcended of the Moors, are
well fuppliedwith water. There are feveral fine fquares,
particularly that called the Bivaramba or Pla^a Mayor,
where the bull-fights are held ; and without the city
is a large plain, full of towns and villages, called La
Vega de Granada.
GRANADA, or Grenada, one of the Caribbee Gnmada
iflands. See Grenada. ||
GRANADA, a town of America, in the pro- Granado‘
vince of Nicaragua, and in the audience of Guati-
mala, feated on the lake Nicaragua, 70 miles from
the S. Sea. It was taken twice by Uie French buc¬
caneers, and pillaged. The inhabitants carry on a
great trade by means of the lake, which communi¬
cates with the N. Sea. W. Lon. 85. 10. N. Lat.
11. 8.
GRANADA, New, a province of South Ame.-
rica, in Terra Firma, about 75 miles in length, and
as much in breadth. It is bounded on the N. by
Carthagena and St. Martha, on the E. by Venezuela,
on the S. by Popayan, and on the W. by Darien. It
contains mines of gold, copper, and iron; horfes,
mules, good paftures, corn, and fruits. It belongs
to the Spaniards, and Santa-Fe-de-Bagota is the ca¬
pital town.
GRANADILLOES, the name of fome iflands
of the Caribbees, in America, having St Vincent to
the N. and Granada to the S. They are fo incon-
fiderable that they are quite negle&ed ; but were ce¬
ded to England by the treaty of peace in 1763.
GRANADIER, a foldier armed with a fword, a
firelock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand-grana-
does. They wear high caps, are generally the tailed
and brifkeft fellows, and are always the firft upon all
attacks.
Every battalion of foot has generally a company
of grenadiers belonging to it; or elfe four or five
granadiers belong to each company of the battalion,
which, on occafion, are drawn out, and form a com¬
pany of themfelves. Thefe always take the right of
the battalion.
GRANADO or Grenade, (in the art of war, a
hollow bailor (hell of iron or other metal, of about 2^
inches diameter, which being filled with fine powder, is
fet on fire by means of a fmall fufe, driven into the fufe-
hole, made of well-feafoned beech-wood, and thrown
by the grenadiers into thofe places where the men
(land thick, particularly into the trenches and other
lodgements made by the enemy. As foon as the
compofition within the fufe gets to the powder in the
grenado, it burfts Into many pieces, greatly to the da¬
mage of all who happen to be in its way. Granados
were invented about the year 1594. The author of
the Military Diftionary has the following remark on the
ufe of granados. “ Grenades have unaccountably
funk into difufe ; but I am perfuaded there is no¬
thing more proper than to have grenades to throw a-
mong the enemy who have jumped into the ditch.
During the fiege of Caffel under the Count de La
Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a young engineer
undertook to carry one of the outworks with a much
fmaller detachment than one which had been repulfed,
and fuceeded with eafe from the ufe of grenades; which
is a proof that they fhould not be negle&ed, either irt
the attack or defence of polls.”—The word Granada
takes its rife from hence, that the (hell is filled with'
grains, of powder as a pomegranate is with kernels.
GRANARY, a building to lay or (lore corn in,
efpecially that defigned to be kept a confiderable time.
Sir Henry Wotton advifes to make it look towards
the north, becaufe that quarter is the cooled and moft
temperate,
irandenr
iftingnift.
1 from
eauty.
G R A [ 3379
temperate. Mr Worlidge obferves, that the heft gra¬
naries are built of brick, with quarters of limber
wrought in the infide, to which the boards may be
nailed, with which the infide of the granary muft he¬
lmed fo clofe to the bricks, that there may not be
any room left for vermin to {belter themfelves. There
may be many (lories one above another, which fhould
be near the one to the other; becaufe the (hallower
the corn lies, it is the better, and more eafily turned.
GRANDEE, a defignation given to a nobleman
of Spain or Portugal.
The grandees are allowed to be covered before the
king, who treats them like princes, {lyling them 11-
luftrious, in his letters; and in fpeaking to them, or
of them, they are ftyled Eminences.
GRANDEUR and Sublimity. Thefc terms
have a double fignification : they commonly iignify
the quality or circumftance in objects by which the
emotions of grandeur and fublimity are produced ;
fometimes the emotions themfelves.
In handling the prefent fubje&, it is neceflary that
the impreffion made on the mind by the magnitude of
an objeft, abdra&ing from its other qualities, fhould
be afcertained. And becaufe abilradtion is a mental
operation of fome difficulty, the fafeft method for
judging is, to choofea plain objeft that is neither beau¬
tiful nor deformed, if fuch a one can be found. The
plained that occurs, is a huge mafs of rubbifh, the
ruins perhaps of fome extenfive building; or a large
heap of dones, fuch as are colledled together for keep¬
ing in memory a battle or other remarkable event.
Such an objedl, which in miniature would be perfect¬
ly indifferent, makes an impreffion by its magnitude,
and appears agreeable. And fuppofing it fo large,
as to fill the eye, and to prevent the attention from
wandering upon other objeCts, the impreffion it makes
will be fo much the deeper. See Attention.
But though a plain objeCt of that kind be agree¬
able, it is not termed grand: it is not entitled to that
character, unlefs, together with its fize, it be poffefled
of other qualities that contribute to beauty, fuch as re¬
gularity, proportion, order, or colour: and according to
the number of fuch qualities combined with magnitude,
it is more or lefs grand. Thus St Peter’s church at
Rome, the great pyramid of Egypt, the Alps towering
bove the clouds, a great arm of the fea, and above all
a clear and ferene fky, are grand; becanfe, befide their
fize, they are beautiful in an eminent degree. On the
other hand, an overgrown whale, having a difagree-
able appearance, is not grand. A large building a-
greeable by its regularity and proportions, is grand ;
and yet a much larger building deftitute of regularity,
has not the leaft tin&ure of grandeur. A fingle re¬
giment in battle-array, makes a grand appearance ;
which the furrounding crowd does not, though perhaps
ten for one in number. And a regiment where the men
are all in one livery and the horfes of one colour, makes
a grander appearance, and confequently ftrikes mote
terror, than where there is confufion of colour and drefs.
Thus greatnefs or magnitude is the circumftance that
diftrnguifhes grandeur from beauty : agreeablenefs is
the genus, of which beauty and grandeur are fpeeies.
The emotion of grandeur, duly examined, wdll be
found an additional proof of. the foregoing doClrine.
That this emotion is pleafant iaa high degree, requires
] G R A
no other evidence but once to have feen a grand ob- Grandeur.
je&: and if an emotion of grandeur be pleafant, its r
caufe or objedl, as obferved above, muft infallibly be t>0 10111 L*
agreeable in proportion.
The qualities of grandeur and beauty are not more
diftintt, than the emotions are which thefe qualities
produce in a fpeClator. It is obferved in the article
Beauty, that all the various emotions of beauty
have one common character, that of fweetnefs and
gaiety. The emotion of grandeur has a different cha*
racter: a large objeCt that is agreeable, occupies the
whole attention, and fwells the heart into a vivid emo¬
tion, which, though extremely pleafant, is rather feri-
ous than gay. And this affords a good rcafon for
diftinguifhing in limguage thefe different emotions.
The emotions raiftd by colour, by regularity, by pro¬
portion, and by order, have fuel) a retemblance to each
other, as readily to come under one general term, viz.
the emotion of beauty,i but the emotion of grandeur is
fo different from thefe mentioned, as to merit a pecu¬
liar name. 3
Though regularity, proportion, order, and colour, Dfjnian^R
contribute to grandeur as well as to beauty, yet thefe puiarirtv r9*
qualities are not by far fo effential to the former as to 5
the latter. To make out that propofition, fome pre»
liminaries are requifite. In the firft place, the mind,,
not being totally occupied with a fmall objedl, can
give its attention at the fame time to every minute
part; but in a great or extenfive objeft, the mind, be¬
ing totally occupied with the capital and ftriking parts,,
has no attention left for thofe that are little or indif¬
ferent. In the next place, two fimilar objefts appear
not fimilar when viewed at different diftances: the
fimilar parts of a very large objedl, cannot be feen
but at different diftances; and for that reafon, its re¬
gularity, and the proportion of its parts, are in fome^
meafure loft to the eye ; neither are the irregularities
of a very large obje& fo confpicuous as of one that is
fmall. Hence it is, that a large obje& is not fo agree¬
able by its regularity, as a fmall objeft; nor fo difa-
greeable by its irregularities.
Thefe confiderations make it evident, tliat grandeur
is fatisfied with a lefs degree of regularity, and of the
other qualities mentioned, than is requifite for beau- Qualities-
ty; which may be illuftrated by the following experi- contribu-
ment. Approaching to a fmall conical hill, we take hug to
an accurate furvey of every part, and are fenfible of
the flighted deviation from regularity and proportion.
Suppoftng the hill to be coniiderably enlarged,, fo as
to make us lefs fenfible of its regularity, it will upon
that account appear lefs beautiful. It will not, how¬
ever, appear-lefs agreeable, becaufe fome flight emo¬
tion of grandeur comes in place of what is loft in
beauty. And at laft, when the hill is enlarged to a
great mountain, the fmall degree of beauty that is
left, is funk in its grandeur. Hence it is, that a
towering hill is delightful, if it have but the flighted
refemblanee of a cone; and a chain of mountains not
lefs fo, though deficient in the accuracy of order and
proportion. We require a final] furface to be fmooth;
but in an extenfive plain, confiderable inequalities are
overlooked. In a word, regularity, proportion, orderj,
and colour, contribute to grandeur as well as to beau¬
ty; but with a remarkable difference, that in palling;
from fmail to great, they are not required in the fame
degree*
Grandeur
Sublimity.
Sublimity.
G R A [ 3380 ] G R A
degree of perfe&ion. This remark ferves to explain
the extreme delight we have in viewing the face of
. nature, when fufficiently enriched and diverfified with
objefts. The bulk of the objefts in a natural land-
fcape are beautiful, and fome of them grand: a flow¬
ing river, a fpreading oak, a round hill, an extended
plain, are delightful; and even a rugged rock, or bar¬
ren heath, though in themfelves difagreeable, contri¬
bute by contrail to the beauty of the whole; joining
to thefe the verdure of the fields, the mixture of light
and lhade, and the fublime canopy fpread over
all; it will not appear wonderful, that fo extenfive a
groupe of fplendid objedls Ihould fwell the heart to its
utmoft bounds, and raife the ftrongeft emotion of
grandeur. The fpe&ator is conlcious of an enthufi-
afm which cannot bear confinement, nor the ftridtnefs
of regularity and order: he loves to range at large;
and is fo enchanted with magnificent objects, as to
Overlook flight beauties or deformities.
The fame obfervation is applicable in fome meafure
to works of art. In a fmall building, the flighted ir¬
regularity is difagreeable: but in a magnificent pa¬
lace, or a large Gothic church, irregularities are lefs
regarded. In an epic poem, we pardon many negli¬
gences that would not be permitted in a fonnet or epi¬
gram. Notwithftanding fuch exceptions, it may be
juftly laid down for a rule, That in works of art, order
and regularity ought to be governing principles; and
hence the obfervation of Longinus, “ In works of art
we have regard to exadl proportion; in thofe of na-
“ ture, to grandeur and magnificence.”
The fame refleflions are in a good meafure appli¬
cable to fublimity: particularly, that, like grandeur,
it is a fpecies of agreeablenefs; that a beautiful objedl
placed high, appearing more agreeable than formerly,
produces in the fpe&ator a new emotion, termed
emotion of fublimity; and that the perfe'clion of
order, regularity, and proportion, is lefs required
in objedls placed high, or at a diftance, than at
hand.
The pleafant emotion raifed by large objects, has
not efcaped the poets;
 He doth beftride the narrow world
Like a Colofliis ; and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs. Julim Cxfar, ad 1. fc. 3.
Cleopatra. I dreamt there was an emp’ror Antony:
Oh fuch another deep, that I might fee
But fuch another man!
His face was as the heav’ns : and therein duck
A fun and moon, which kept their courfe, and lighted
The little O o’tld earth.
His legs bedrid the ocean, his rear’d arm
Creded the world. Antony and Cleopatra, ad j. fc. 3.
 —Majedy
Dies not alone; but, like a gnlph, doth draw
What’s near it with it. It’s a mady wheel
Fix’d on the fummit of the higheft mount;
To whofe huge fpokes ten thoufand leder things
Are mortis’d and adjoin’d; which when it falls
Each fmall annexment, petty confequence.
Attends the boid’rous min. Hamlet, ad 3. fc. 3.
The poets have alfo made good ufe of the emo¬
tion produced by the elevated fituation of an ob-
jedl:
Quod ft me lyricis vatibus inferes,
Sublimi feriam fidera vdrtke.
Oh thou ! the earthly author of my blood,
Whofe youthful fpirit, in me regenerate.
Doth with a twofold vigour lift me up,
To reach at vidtory above my head.
Richard IT. ad 1. fc. 4.
Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal
The mounting Bolingbvoke afeends my throne.
Richard H. ad 5. fc. x.
Anthony. Why was I rais’d the meteor of the world,
Hung in the Ikies, and blazing as I travell’d,
Till all my fires were fpent; and then cad downward
To be trod out by Caelar? Dryden, All for Love, ad t.
The defeription of Paradife in the fourth book of
Paradife Lojl, is a fine illullration of the imprdlion
made by elevated objects :
So on he fares, and to the border comes
Of Eden, where delicious Paradife,
Now neater, crowns with her inclofure green,
As with a rural mound, the champain head
With a deep wildernefs ; whofe hairy tides
Of tiiicket overgrown, grotefque and wild,
Accefs deny’d ; and over head up grew
- Infuperable height of loftied lhade.
Cedar, and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A fylvan feene; and as the ranks afeend.
Shade above fiiade, a woody theatre
Of ftatelied view. Yet higher than their tops
The verd’rous wall of Paradife up fprung;
Which to onr general fire gave profpefl large
Into his nether empire, ncighb’ring round.
And higher than that wall a circling row
Of goodlied trees, leaden with faired truit,
BlofToms and fruits at once of golden hue.
Appear’d, with gay enamell’d colours mix’d. 1. 131.
Though a grand objeft is agreeable, we muft not
infer that a little objedl is difagreeable; which would
be unhappy for man, confidering that he is furrounded
with fo many objedls of that kind. The fame holds
with refpedl to place: a body placed high is agree¬
able; but the fame body placed low, is not by that
circumftance rendered difagreeable. Littlenefs and
lownefs of place are precifely fimilar in the following
particular, that they neitner give pleafure nor pain.
And in this may vilibly be difeovertd peculiar atten¬
tion in fitting the internal conftitution of man to his
external circumftances.. Were littlenefs and lownefs
of place agreeable, greatnefs and elevation could
not be fo: were littlenefs and lownefs of place dif¬
agreeable, they would occafion uninterrupted un-
eafinefs.
The difference between great and little with refpeft
to agreeablenefs, is remarkably felt in a feries when
we pafs gradually from the one extreme to the other.
A mental progrefs from the capital to the kingdom,
from that to Europe—to the whole earth—to the
planetary fyftem—to the univerfe, is extremely plea¬
fant : the heart fwells, and the mind is dilated at every
ftep. The returning in an oppofite direction is not
politively painful, though our pleafure leffens at every
Itep, till it vanifli into indifference : fuch a progreis
may fometimes produce .pleafure of a different fort,
which arifes from taking a narrower and narrower in-
fpedtion. The famC obfervation holds in a progrefs
upward and downward. Afcent is pleafant becaufe it
elevates us; but defeent is never painful: it is for the
moft part pleafant from a different caufe, that it is ac¬
cording to the order of nature. The fall of a Hone
from
Herat. Cam, 1. %, ode 1.
G R A [ 3381 ] G R A
from any height, is extremely agreeable by its acce¬
lerated motion. We feel it pleafant to defcend from a
mountain, becaufe the defcent is natural and eafy.
Neither is looking-downward painful; on the con¬
trary, to look down upon objefts, makes part of the
pleafure of elevation : looking down becomes then
only painful when the objeft is fo far below as to create
dizzinefs; and even when that is the cafe, we feel a
fort of pleafure mixed with the pain: witnefs Shake-
fpear’s defcription of Dover cliffs:
■ How fearful
And dizzy ’tis, to cart one’s eye fo low!
The crows aud choughs, that wing the midway air,
Show fcarce (b grofs as beelles. Half-way down
Hangs one that gathers famphire ; dreadful trade!
Methinks he feems no bigger than his head.
The fifhermen that walk upon the beach.
Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark
Dimin'fh’d to her cock ; her cock, a buoy
Almoft too fmall for fight. The murmuring furge.
That on th’ unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes.
Cannot be heard fo high. I’ll look no more,
Left my brain turn, and the deficient fight
Topple down headlong. King Lear, aft 4. fc. C.
A remark is made above, that the emotions of
grandeur and fublimity are nearly allied. And hence
it is, that the one term is frequently put for the other:
an increafing feries of numbers, for example, producing
an emotion fimilar to that of mounting upward, is
commonly termed an afcending feries: a feries of num¬
bers gradually decreafing, producing an emotion fimi¬
lar to that of going downward, is commonly termed
a defending feries: we talk familiarly of going up to
the capital, and of going down to the country: from
a leffer kingdom we talk of going up to a greater;
whence the anabajis in the Greek language, when one
travels from Greece to Perfia. We difcover the fame
way of fpeaking in the language even of Japan; and
its univerfality proves it the offspring of a natural
feeling.
The foregoing obfervation leads us to confider
grandeur and fublimity in a figurative fenfe, and as
applicable to the fine arts. Hitherto thefe terms
have been taken in their proper fenfe, as applicable to
obje&s of fight only: and it was of importance tobe-
ftow fome pains upon that article; becaufe, generally
fpeaking^ the figurative fenfe of a word is derived from
its prpper fenfe, which holds remarkably at prefent.
Beauty, in its original fignification, is confined to ob-
objedU of fight; but as many other objedls, intel-
ledtual as well as moral, raife emotions refembling
that of beauty, the reftmblance of the effeds prompts
us to extend the term beauty to thefe objeds. This
equally accounts for the terms grandeur and fublimity
taken in a figurative fenfe. Every emotion, from
whatever caufe proceeding, that refembles an emotion
of grandeur or elevation, is called by the fame name:
thus generofity is faid to be an elevated emotion, as
well as great courage; and that firmnefs of foul which
is fuperior to misfortunes, obtains the peculiar name
of magnanimity. On the other hand, every emotion
that contrails the mind, and fixeth it upon things
trivial or of no importance, is termed low, by its re-
femblance to an emotion produced by a little or low
objeil of fight: thus an appetite for trifling amufe-
ments, is called a low tafle. The fame terms are ap-
Vol. V.
plied to charafters and adlions: we talk familiarly ofGramhur
an elevated genius, of a great man, and equally fo of
littlenefs of mind : fome ailions are great and elevated, ‘Subl:nilty-
and others are little and groveling. Sentiments, and
even expreffions, are charadlerifed in the fame man¬
ner: an expreffion or fentiment that raifes the mind, ^
is denominated great or elevated; and hence the Jlie .fub‘
SUBLIME in poetry. In fuch figurative terms, we
lofe the diftin&ion between great and elevated in their
proper fenfe ; for the refemblance is not fo entire, as
to preferve thefe terms diftinft in their figurative ap¬
plication. We carry this figure ftill farther. Eleva¬
tion, in its proper fenfe, imports fuperiority of place;
and lownefs, inferiority of place: and hence a man
of fuperior talents, of fuperior rank; of inferior
parts, of inferior talle, and fuch like. The venera¬
tion we have for our anceftors, and for the ancients in
general, being fimilar to the emotion produced by an
elevated objefl of fight, juftifies the figurative expref¬
fion, oj the ancients being raifed above us, or pof-
fefiiug a fuperior place. The notes of the gamut,
proceeding regularly from the blunter or grofl’er
founds, to the more acute and piercing, produce
in the hearer a feeling fomewhat fimilar to what
is produced by mounting upward; and this gives
occafion to the figurative expreffions, a high note, a
low note.
Such is the refemblance in feeling between real
and figurative grandeur, that among the nations on 8
on the eaft coaft of Afric, who are diredled purely by
nature, the officers of ftate are, with refpeft to rank, gfandeuv
diftinguiftied by the length of the batoon each car- intimately
ries in his had ; and in Japan, princes and great lords connefted.
fhew their rank by the length and fize of their fedan-
poles. Again, jt is a rule in painting, that figures of
a fmall fize are proper for grotefque pieces; but that
an hiftorical fubjeft, grand and important, requires
figures as great as the life. The refemblance of thefc
feelings is in reality fo ftrong, that elevation in a figu¬
rative fenfe is obferved to have the fame effeft, even
externally, with real elevation :
K. Henry. This day is call’d the feaft of Ciifpian.
He that oulives this day, and comes fafe home,
Will ftand a-tiptoe when this day is nam’d,
And route him at the name of Crifpian.
Henry V. all 4. fc. 8.
The refemblance in feeling between real and figu¬
rative grandeur, is humoroufly illuflrated by Addi-
fon in criticifing upon Englifh tragedy * : “ The or- • SpeHaUr^
“ dinary method of making an hero, is to clap a N°4i.
“ huge plume of feathers upon his head, which rifes
“ fo high, that there is often a greater length from
“ his chin to the top of his head, than to the foie of
“ his foot. One would believe, that we thought a
“ great man and a tall man the fame thing. As thefe
“ fuperfluous ornaments upon the head, make a
“ great man ; a princefs generally receives her gran-
“ deur, from thofe additional incumbrances that fall
“ into her tail: I mean the broad fweeping train,
“ that follows her in all her motions ; and finds con-
“ ftant employment for ahoy, who ftands behind her
“ to open and fpread it to advantage.” The Scy¬
thians, impreffed with the fame of Alexander, were
aftoniflied when they found him a little man.
A gradual progrefs from fmall to great, is not left
19 K remarkable
Cramleaur
and
Sublimity.
Figurative
grandeur.
G R A
[ 3332 ]
G R A
remarkable in figurative than in real grandeur or
elevation. Every one muft have obferved the de¬
lightful effedt of a number of thoughts or fentiments,
artfully difpofed like an afcending feries, and making
iinpreffions deeper and deeper: fuch difpofition of
members in a period, is termed a climax.
Within certain limits grandeur and fublimity pro¬
duce their ftrongeft effe&s, which leflen by excels as
well as by defeft. This is remarkable in grandeur
and fublimity taken in their proper fenfe : the grand-
eft emotion that can be raifed by a vifible objedt is
where the objedl can be taken in at one view ; if fo
immenfe as not to be comprehended but in parts, it
tends rather to diftradl than fatisfy the mind * : in
like manner, the ftrongeft emotion produced by ele¬
vation, is where the objedt is feen diftindlly; a
greater elevation leflens in appearance the objedl, till
it vanifti out of fight with its pleafant emotions. The
fame is equally remarkable in figurative grandeur and
elevation ; which lhall be handled together, becaufe,
as obferved above, they are fcarce diftinguifiiable.
Sentiments may be fo ftrained, as to become obfcure,
or to exceed the capacity of the human mind : againft
fuch licence of imagination, every good writer will
be upon his guard. And therefore it is of greater
importance to obferve, that even the true fublime
may be carried beyond that pitch which produces the
higheft entertainment. We are undoubtedly fufcep-
tible of a greater elevation than can be infpired by
human adlions, the moft heroic and magnanimous ;
witnefs what we feel from Milton’s defcription of
fuperior beings : yet every man muft be fenfible of a
more conftant and fweet elevation, when the hiftory
of his own fpecies is the fubjedf ; he enjoys an eleva¬
tion equal to that of the greateft hero, of an Alex¬
ander, or a Caefar, of a Brutus, or an Epaminondas :
he accompanies thefe heroes in their fublimeft fenti¬
ments and moft hazardous exploits, with a magnani¬
mity equal to theirs; and finds it no ftretch, to
preferve the fame tone of mind for hours together,
without finking. The cafe is not the fame in defcri-
bing the adtions or qualities of fuperior beings : the
reader’s imagination cannot keep pace with that of
the poet; the mind, unable to fupport itfelf in a
ftrained elevation, falls as from a height; and the
fall is immoderate like the elevation: where that
effedl is not felt, it muft be prevented by fome ob-
furity in the conception, which frequently attends
the defcriptions of unknown objedfs. Hence the St
Francifes, St Dominies, and other tutelary faints
among the Roman Catholics. A mind unable to
raife itfelf to the Supreme Being felf-exiftent and
eternal, or to fupport itfelf in a ftrained elevation, finds
itfelf more at eafe in ufing the interceflion of fome
faint whofe piety and penances while on earth arefup-
pofed to have made him a favourite in heaven.
A ftrained elevation is attended with another in¬
convenience, that the author is apt to fall fuddenly
as well as the reader; becaufe it is not a little
difiicult, to defeend, fweetly and eafily, from fuch
elevation, to the ordinary tone of the fubjedl. The
following paflage is a good illuftration of that obfer-
vation :
S*pe etiam immenfum coelo v*nit agmen aquarum,
Et foedam glomerant tempeftatem imbribus atris
Conleft® ex alto nubes. Ruit arduus sther,
Et phivia ingeiitia fata Iteta boumqne labores
Diluit. Inplentor fofl*, et cava flumitu ctefcunt
Com fonitu, fervetque fretis fpiratitibns tequor.
Ipfe Pater, media nimborum in nofte, corufca
Fulmina molitur dextra. Quo tmxuma motu
Terra tremit: fugere fer* ! et mortalia corda
Per gentes humifs llravit pavor. lile flagranti
Aut Atho, aut Rhodopen, ant alta Ceraunia tclo
Dejicit : ingeminant aujlri, et ienjtjfimui imber.
Virg. Georg. 1. 1.
In the defcription of a ftorm, to figure Jupiter
throwing down huge mountains with his thunder¬
bolts, is hyperbolically fublime, if we may ufe the
exprefiion : the tone of mind produced by that image,
is fo diftant from the tone produced by a thick
Ihower of rain, that the fudden tranfuion muft be un-
pleafant.
Objedls of fight that are not remarkably great nor
high, fcarce raife any emotion of grandeur or of fub¬
limity: and the fame holds in other objefts ; for we
often find the mind roufed and animated, without
being carried to that height. This difference may
be difeerned in many forts of mufic, as well as in
fome mufical inftruments: a kettle-drum roufes, and
a hautboy is animating; but neither of them infpires
an emotion of fublimity: revenge animates the mind
in a confiderable degree ; but it never produceth an
emotion that can be termed grand or fublime', and
perhaps no difagreeable pafiion ever has that effedf.
No defire is more univerfal than to be exalted and
honoured; and upon that account, chiefly, are we
ambitious of power, riches, titles, fame, which would
fuddenly lofe their relifti did they not raife us above
others, and command fubmiflion and deference : and
it may be thought, that our attachment to things
grand and lofty, proceeds from their connexion with
our favourite paflion. This connexion has undoubted¬
ly an effe& ; but that the preference given to things
grand and lofty muft have a deeper root in human
nature, will appear from confidering, that many be¬
llow their time upon low and trifling amufements,
without having the lead tindlure of this favourite
paffion : yet thefe very perfons talk the fame language
with the reft of mankind; and prefer the morei
elevated pleafures: they acknowledge a more refined
taftf, and are alhamed of their own as low and gro¬
veling. This fentiment, conftant and univerfal, muft
be the work of nature ; and it plainly indicates an
original attachment in human nature to every objeft
that elevates the mind : fome men may have a greater
relifti for an objeft not of the higheft rank ; but they
are confcious of the preference given by mankind in
general to things grand and fublime ; and they are
fenfible, that their peculiar tafte ought to yield to the
general tafte.
What is faid above fuggefts ;
Gramleu
and 1
Sublimity |
capital rule for
reaching
* It is juftly obferved by Addifon, that perhaps a man would have been more aftoniftied with the majeftic air
that appeared in one of Lyfippus’s ftatues of Alexander, though no bigger than the life, than he might have been
nvith Mount Athos, had it been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the propofal of Phidias, with a river in.
eue hand and a city in the other. Spectator, N° 4iy.
Grandeilr
i and
it Sublimity.
'• Grandeur
: of manner.
* Spe&otor,
i N°4ij.
y*tChap. g.
G R A [ 3383 ] G R A
reacliing tfie fublime in fuch works of art as are fuf-
ceptible of it; and that is, to prefent thofe parts or
circumftances only which make the greateft figure,
keeping out of view every thing low or trivial; foy
the mind, elevated by an important objedf, cannot,
without relutUnce, be forced down to beftow any
fhare of its attention upon trifles. Such judicious
fele&ion of capital circumftances, is by an eminent
critic ([y]ed grandeur of manner*. In none of the fine
arts is there fo great fcope for that rule as in poetry ;
which, by that means, enjoys a remarkable power
of beftowing upon objeft* and events an air of gran¬
deur : when we are fpedtators, every minute obje&
prefents itfelf in its order ; but in defcribing at fecond
hand, thefe are laid afide, and the capital objedts are
brought clofe together. A judicious tafte in thus
feledlir.g the moft interefting incidents, to give them
an united force, accounts for a fadt that may appear
furprifing; which is, that we are more moved by fpirit-
ed narrative at fecond hand, than fry being fpedlators
of the event itfelf, in all its circumftances.
Longinus * exemplifies the foregoing rule by a
comparifon of two paflages.
Ye pow’rs, what madnefs! how on (hips fo frail
(Tremendous thought!) can thoughtlefs mortals fail?
For flormy feas they quit the pleafing plain,
Plant woods in waves, and dwell amidft the main.
Far o’er the deep (a tracklefs path) they go.
And wander oceans in purfuit of wo.
No eafe their hearts, no reft their eyes can find.
On heaven their looks, and on the waves their mind,
Sunk are their fpirits, while their arms they rear.
And gods are wearied with their fruitlefs prayer.
Alt 1ST £ u s.
Burft as a wave that from the cloud impends,
And fweft’d with tempefts on the (hip defeends.
White are the decks with foam : the winds aloud
Howl o’er the marts, and fing through every (hroud.
Pale, trembling, tir’d, the tailors freeze with fears,
And inftant death on every wave appears. Homer.
In the latter paflage, the moft ftriking circumftances
are fele&ed to fill the mind with terror and aftonilh-
ment. The former is a colleftion of minute and low
circumftances, which fcatter the thought and make
no impreffion : it is at the fame time full of verbal an-
tithefes and low conceit, extremely improper in a feene
of did refs.
The following defeription of a battle is remarkably
fublime, by colle&ing together, in the feweft words,
thofe circumftances which make the greateft figure.
« Like autumn’s dark ftorms pouring from two echo-
“ ,’ng hills, toward each other approached the heroes;
“ as two dark ftreams from high rocks meet and roar
a on the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet
“ Lochlin and Inisfail. Chief mixes his ftrokes with
“ chief, and man with man : fteel founds on fteel, and
“ helmets are cleft on high : blood burfts and fmokes
“ around : firings murmur on the polilh’d yew : darts
“ ru(h along the Iky : fpears fall like fparks of flame
“ that gild the ftormy face of night.
“ As the noife of the troubled ocean when roll the
“ waves on high, as the laft peal of thundering hea-
“ ven, fuch is the noife of battle. Though Cormac’s
“ hundred bards were there, feeble were the voice of
“ a hundred bards to fend the deaths to future times ;
“ for many were the deaths of the heroes, and wide Gmn vlTr
“ poured the blood of the valiant.” . Fingal.
The following paflage in the 4th book of the Iliad J ^
is a defeription of a battle, wonderfully ardent.
“ When now gathered on either fide, the hofts pltin-
“ ged together in fight ; (hield is hardily laid to (hield ;
“ ipears crafh on the brazen corflets ; bolfy buckler
“ with buckler meets; loud tumult rages over all;
“ groans are mixed with boafts of men ; theflain and
“ flayer join in noife ; the earth is floating round with
“ blood. As when two ruftiing ftreams from two
“ mountains come roaring down, and throw together
“ their rapid waters below, they roar along the gul-
“ phy vale. The ftartlcd fliepherd hears the found,
“ as he ftalks o’er the diftant hills ; fo, as they mixed
“ in fight, from both armies clamour with loud ter-
“ ror arofe.” But fuch general deferiptions are not
frequent in Homer. Even his fingle-combats are rare.
The fifth book is the longeft account of a battle that
is in the Iliad ; and yet contains nothing but a long
catalogue of chiefs killing chiefs, not in fingle combat
neither, but at a diftance with an arrow or a javelin ;
and thefe chiefs named for the firft time and the laft.
The fame feene is continued through a great part of
the fixth book. There is at the fame time a minute
defeription of every wound, which for accuracy may
do honour to an anatomift, but in an epic poem it
tirefome and fatiguing. There is no relief from hor¬
rid languor but the beautiful Greek language and me¬
lody of Homer’s verfification.
In the twenty-firft book of the Odyfley, there is a
paflage which deviates widely from the rule above laid
down : it concerns that part of the hiftory of Penelope
and her fuitors, in which flie is made to declare in fa¬
vour of him who (hould prove the moft dextrous in
(hooting with the bow of Ulyfles :
Now gently winding up the fair afeent,
By many an eafy ftep, the matron went:
Then o’er the pavement glides with grace divine,
(With polifli'd oak the level pavements ihine) ;
The folding gates a dazzling light difplay’d.
With pomp of various architrave o’erlay’d.
The bolt, obedient to the filken firing,
Forfakes the ftaple as (he pulls the ring ;
The wards refpondent to the key turn’d'round;
The bars fall back ; the flying valves refound.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring ;
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
She moves majeftic through the wealthy room,
Where treafur’d garments caft a rich perfume;
There from the column where aloft it hung,
Reach’d, in its fplendid cafe, the bow unftrung.
Virgil fometimes errs againft this rule: in the fol¬
lowing paflages minute circumftances are brought into
full view ; and what is ftill worfe, they are deferibed
with all the pomp of poetical didlion, JEneid, L. r.
/. 214, to 219. L. 6. /. 176, to 182. L. 6. /. 212,
to 231. .• and the laft, which deferibes a funeral, is the
lefs excufable, as the man whofe funeral it is makes no
figure in the poem.
The fpeech of Clytemneftra, defeending from her
chariot in the Iphigenia of Euripides *, is (luffed with * dR %•
a number of common and trivial circumftances.
But of all writers, Lucan in this article is the mod
injudicious: the fea-fight between the Romans and 4>>
Maffilians f, is deferibed fo much in detail, without t
19 K 2 exhibiting
G R A
Grandeur
and
Subiimil
[ 3384 ]
G R A
exhibiting any grand or total view, that the reader is Such afentimcnt from a man expiring of his wounds, G
fatigued with endlefs circumftances, without ever feel- is truly heroic ^ and muft elevate the mind to the great-
ing any degree of elevation ; and yet there are fome eft height that can be done.by a (ingle expreffion: it
ty
fine incidents, thofe, for example, of the two brothers,
and of the old man and his fon, which, taken fepa
rately, would affeft us greatly. But Lucan, once en¬
gaged in a defcription, knows no end. See other paf-
fages of the fame kind, L. 4 /. 292, to 337. L. 4.
will not fuffer in a comparifon with the famous fenti-
ment mourut of Corneille : the latter is a fenti-
ment of indignation merely, the former of firm and
cheerful courage.
To cite in oppofition many a fublime paftage, en-
/. 750, to 765. The epifodeof the forcerefs'Eri&ho, riched with the fineft images, and drefled in the mod
end ofbook 6th, is intolerably minute and prolix.
This rule is alfo applicable to other fine arts. In
painting it. is eftabliftted, that the principal figure
nervous expreflions, would fcarce be fair. We fhall
produce but one inftance, from Shakefpear, which
fets a few obje&s before the eye, without much pomp
uft be put in the ftrongeft light ; that the beauty of of language : it operates its effeft by reprefenting tlufe
termsougbt
to b« avoid¬
ed where
fublimity is
intended.
attitude confifts in placing the nobler parts moft in
view, and in fupprefling the fmaller parts as much as
pofiible ; that the folds of the drapery muft be few and
large; that forefhortenings are bad, becaufe they make
the parts appear little ; and that the mufcles ought to
be kept as entire as poffible, without being divided
into fmall fedlions. Every one at prefent fubferibes
to that rule as applied to gardening, in oppofition to
parterres fplit into a thoufand fmall parts in the ftiff-
eft regularity of figure. The moft eminent an hiteifts
have governed themfelves by the fame rule in all their
works.
Another rule chiefly regards the fublime, though it
is applicable to every fort of literary performance in¬
tended for amufement; and that is, to avoid as much
as pofiible abftraft and general terms. Such terms,
fimilarto mathematical figns, are contrived to exprefs
vur thoughts in a concife manner ; but images, which
are the life of poetry, cannot be raifed in any perfec¬
tion but by introducing particular obje&s. General
terms that comprehend a number of individuals, muft
be excepted from that rule: our kindred, our clan, our
country, and words of the like import, though they
fcarce raife any image, have, however, a wonderful
power over our pafiions: the greatnefs of the complex
objedl overbalances the obfeurity of the image.
Grandeur, being an extreme vivid emotion, is not
readily produced in perfe&ion but by reiterated im-
preffions. The effeft of a fingle imprefilon can be
but momentary; and if one feel fuddenly fomewhat
like a fwellingor exaltation of mind, the emotion va-
niflieth as foon as felt. Single thoughts or fentiments
are often cited as examples of the fublime ; but their
objefts in a climax, raifing the mind higher and high¬
er till it feel the emotion of grandeur in perfedion :
The cloud-capt tow’rs, (he gorgeous palaces,
The folemn temples, the great globe jtfclf,
Yea all which it inherit, (hail Jifiblve, &c.
The cloud-capt to<w'rs produce an elevating emotion,
heightened by the gorgeous palaces ; and the mind is
carried (till higher and higher by the images that fol¬
low. Succeffive images, making thus ftronger and
ftronger impreffions, muft elevate more than any lin-
gle image can do.
As, on the one hand, no means diredly applied
have more influence to raife the mind than grandeur
and fublimity; fo, on the other, no means indire&ly
applied have more influence to fink and deprefs it : for
in a ftate of elevation, the artful introdu&ion of an
humbling objedi, makes the fall great in proportion
to the elevation. Of this obfervation Shakefpear gives
a beautiful example, in the paflage lait quoted :
m.ty em¬
ployed in-
direftly
to fink the;fd
mind.
The cloud-capt tow’rs, the gorgeous palaces.
The folemn temples, the great globe itfelf.
Yea all which it inherit, Ihall diflblve,
And like the bafelefs fabric of a vifion
Leave not a rack behind.  Tempefi, aft 4. Jc. 4.
The elevation of the mind in the former part of this
beautiful paflage, makes the fall great in proportion,
when the moft humbling of all images is introduced,
that of an utter difiblution of the earth and its inha¬
bitants. The mind, when warmed, is more fufeep-
tible of impreffions than in a cool liate ; and a depref-
fing or melancholy objedl liftened to, makes the ftrong¬
eft impreffion when it reaches tlie mind in its higheft
efledt is far inferior to that of a grand fubjed difplay’d fta‘e of elevation or cheerfulnefs.
• • *. 1 ttt /i 11 • r 11. Unt p niimrilincr is nrv
in its capital parts. We (hall give a few examples, that
the reader may judge for himfdf. In the famous ac¬
tion of Thermopylae, where Leonidas the Spartan
king, with his chofen band, fighting for their country,
But a humbling image is not always necefiary to
produce that effed : a remark is made above, that in
deferibing fuperior beings, the reader’s imagination,
unable to fupport itfelf in a ftraiued elevation, falls.
ning, witn 111s cuuicii uanu, nguung ror ineir country, _  - 1 r- - .   , ’ "
were cut off to the lalt man, a faying is reported of °ften 33 *ronl a height, and finks even below its ordi-
Dieneces, one of the band, which, expreffing cheer¬
ful and undifturbed bravery, is well entitled to the firft
place in examples of that kind: talking of the num-
nary tone. The following inftance comes luckily in
view ; for a better cannot be given : “ God faid, Let
there be light, and there was light.” Longinus
ber of their enemies, it wasobferved, that the arrows T,ot,es this paffage from Mofes as a Ihining example
Hcroiot,
lib. 7.
Ihot by fuch a multitude would intercept the light of
the fun ; “ So much the better, fays he, for we (hall
then fight in the lhade.”
■t thou as we are,
Somerfet. AM Warwick, Warwick,
We might recover all our lofs again.
The Queen from France hath brought a puifTant power.
£v’n now we heard the news. Ah f couidft thou fly!
Wanuhk. Why, then I would not fly.
Third part, hit nry VI. aft s-fc. 3.
of the fublime; and it is fcarce poffible, in fewer
words, to convey fo clear an image pf the infinite
power of the Deity: but then it belongs to the pre¬
fent fubjed to remark, that the emotion of fublimity
raifed by this image is but momentary ; and that the
mind, unable to fupport itfelf in an elevation fo much
above nature, immediately finks down into humility and
veneration for a Being fo far exalted above groveling
mortals*
Grandeur
and
Sublimity.
* Boiler,u
and Hurt.
Falfe tub*
lime.
G R A [ 3385
mortals. Every one is acquainted with a difpute about
that paffage between two French critics, the one po-
fitively affirming it to be fublime, the other as poii-
tively denying. What has been remarked, {hows, that
both of them have reached the truth, but neither of
them the whole truth : the primary effeft of the paf¬
fage is undoubtedly an emotion of grandeur; which
fo far juftifies Boileau : but then every one mud be
fenfible, that the emotion is merely a flafh, which, va-
nifhiag inftantaneoufly, gives way to humility and ve¬
neration. That indirect effeft of fublimity juftifies
Huet, on the other hand, who being a man of true
piety, and probably not much carried by imagina¬
tion, felt the humbling paffions more fenfibly than
bis antagonifl did. And laying afide difference of
character, Huet’s opinion may perhaps be defended as
the more folid; becaufe in fuch images, the depreffing
emotions are the more fenfibly felt, and have the long¬
er endurance.
The draining an elevated fubjedt beyond due bounds,
and beyond the reach of an ordinary conception, is
not a vice fo frequent as to require the corredtion of.
criticifm. But falfe fublime is a rock that writers of
more fire than judgement commonly fplit on; and
therefore a collection of examples may be of ufe as a
beacon to future adventurers. One fpecies of falfe
fublime, known by the name of bombaft, is common
among writers of a mean genius : it is a ferious endea¬
vour, by {trained defeription, to raife a low or fami¬
liar fubjedt above its rank; which, inftead- of being
fublime, fails not to be ridiculous. The mind, indeed,
is extremely prone, in fome animating paffions, to mag¬
nify its objedts beyond natural bounds: but fuch hy¬
perbolical defeription has its limits; and when carried
beyond the impulfe of the propenfity, it degenerates
into burlefque. Take the following examples ;
Sejanus. Great and high
The world knows only two, that’s Rome and I.
My roof receives me not : ’tis air I tread,
And at each ftep I feel my advanc’d head
Knock out a ftar in heav’n. Sejanus, Ben Johnfon, aH j.
A writer who has no natural elevation of mind, devi¬
ates readily into bombaft : he (trains above his natu¬
ral powers; and the violent effort carries him beyond
the bounds of propriety.
Guilford. Give way, and let theguSiing torrent come;
Behold the tears we bring to fwelfthe deluge.
Till the flood rife upon the guilty world
And make the ruin common.
Lady Jane Gray, aft 4. rear the end.
Another fpecies of falfe fublime, is {till more faul¬
ty than bombaft : and that is, to force elevation by
introducing imaginary beings without preferving any
propriety in their adtions ; as if it were lawful to af-
cribe every extravagance and inconfiftence to beings of
the poet’s creation. No writers are more licentious in
that article than Johnfon and Dryden :
Methinks 1 fee Death and the Furies waiting
What we will do, and all the heaven at leifure
For the great fpeffacle. Draw then your fwords :
And if our deltiny envy our virtue
The honour of the day, yet let ns care
To fell ourlelves at fuch a price, as may
Undo the world to buy ns, and make Fate,
While flit tempts ours, jo fear her own eftate.
Catilinef ad 5,
] G R A
—— -The furies flood on hills
Circling the place, and trembled to (ee men
Do more than they : whilft Piety left the field,
Griev’d for that fide, that in id bad a caufe
They knew not what a crime their valour was.
The Sun flood full, and was, behind the cloud
The battle made, feen fweating to drive up
Plis frighted horfe, whom flill the noife drove backward.
Hid, ad }.
Ofmyn. While we indulge our common happinefs.
He is forgot by whom we all poflefs,
The brave Almanzor, to whofe arms we owe
All that we did, and all that we {hall do ;
Who like a tempell that outridts the wind.
Made ajnft battle ere the bodies join’d-
Abdalla. His viffoties we lea roe could keep in view,
Or polifh ’em fo fall as he rough drew.
Abiltmelecb. Fate after him below with pain did moVe,
And Viflory could fcarce keep pace above.
Death did at length fo many fl.iin forget.
And ioft the tale . and took’em by the great.
Conquejl of Granada, all i. at beginni’g.
An acior on the ftage may be guilty of borabaft as
well as an author in his clofet: a certain manner of
a&ing, which is grand when fupported by dignity in
the fentiment and force, in the expreffion, is ridiculous
where the fentiment is mean and the expreffion flat.
GRANGE, a houfe or farm, not only furnifltet!
with neceflary places for all manner of hufbandry, as
ftabks for horfes, ftalls for cattle, &c. but where there
are granaries and barns for corn, hay-lofts, &c. And
by the grant, of a grange, fuch places will pafs, with¬
out being particularly mentioned.——The word is for¬
med of the ~L.iUn grartea ox gramnn, grain, corn, &c.
Hence alfo granger, or grangler, a grange-keeper or
farmer.
GRANICUS, a fmaller river near the Hellefpont
in Lefler Afia, remarkable for the firft viftory gained
by Alexander the Great over the armies of Darius.—
Authors difagree very much about the number of the
Perfians, though all agree that they were vaftly more
numerous than the Greeks. Juftin and Orofius tell us,
that the Perfian army confided of 600,000 foot and
20,000 horfe; Arrian makes the foot amount to
200,000; but Diodorus tells us, that they were not
more than 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe. The
Macedonian army did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000
horfe. The Perfian cavalry lined the banks of the
Granicus, in order to oppofe Alexander wherever he
ffiould attempt a paflage; and the foot were pofted be¬
hind the cavalry on an eafy afeent. Parmenio would
have had Alexander to allow his troops fome time to
refreffi themfelves; but he replied, that, after having
croffed the Hellefpont, it would be a difgrace to him
and his troops to be flopped by a rivulet. Accor¬
dingly a proper place for croffing the river was no
fooner found, than he commanded a ftrong detach¬
ment of horfe to enter, he himfelf following with the
right wing which he commanded in perfon ; the trum¬
pets in the mean time founding, and loud (houts of joy
being heard through the whole army. The Perfians let
fly Inch (howersof arrows againft thedetachment ofMa-
cedonian horfe, as caufed fome confufion ; feveral of
their horfes being killed or wounded. As they drew
near the bank a moft bloody engagement enfued ; the
Macedonians attempting to land, and the Perfians
pufhing them back into the river. Alexander, who
ebferYed the confufion they were in, took the com-
maadL
Grandeur
n
Granicus.
G R A [ 3386 ] G R A
mand of them himfelf; and landing in fpite of all op-
pofition, obliged the Perfian cavalry, after an obltinate
refiftance, to give ground. However, Spithrobates,
governor of Ionia, and fon-in-law to Darius, (lill main¬
tained his ground, and did all that lay in his power
to bring them back to the charge. Alexander ad¬
vanced full gallop to engage him ; neither did he de¬
cline the combat, and both were flightly wounded at
the firft encounter. Spithrobates having thrown his
javelin without effect, advanced fword in hand to meet
his antagonift, who ran him through with his pike
as he railed his arm to difcharge a blow with his fcy-
mitar. But Rofaces, brother to Spithrobates, at the
fame time gave Alexander fuch a furious blow on
the head with his battle-ax, that he beat off his plume,
and flightly wounded him through the helmet. As
lie was, ready to repeat the blow, Clitus with one
ftroke of his fcymitarcut off Rpfaces’s head, and thus
in all probability faved the life of his fovereign. The
Macedonians then, animated by the example of their
king, attacked the Perfians with new vigour, who
foon after betook themfelves to flight. Alexander
did not purfue them ; but immediately charged the e-
nemy’s foot with all his forces, who had now pafled the
river. The Perfians, difheartened at the defeat of their
cavalry, made no great refiftance. The Greek merci-
naries retired in good order to a neighbouring hill,
whence they fent deputies to Alexander defiring leave
to march off unmoltfted. But he, inftead of coming
to a parley with them, rufhed furioufly into the
middle of this fmall body ; where his horfe was killed
under him, and he himfelf in great danger of being
cut in pieces. The Greeks defended themfelves with
incredible valour for a long time, but were at laft al-
moft entirely cut off.—In this battle the Perfians are
faid to have loft 20,000 foot and 2,500 horfe, and
the Macedonians only 55 foot and 60 horfe.
GRANITE, in natural hiftory, a diftinft genus
of ftones, compofed of feparate and very large con¬
cretions rudely compared together; of great hard-
nefs, giving fire with fteel, not fermenting with a-
cids, and flowly and imperfe&ly calcinable in a great
fire.
Of this genus there are three fpecies : 1. The hard
white granite with Black fpots, commonly called moor-
ftone. This is a very valuable kind, confifting of a
beautiful congeries of very varioufly conftVufted and
differently coloured particles, not diffufed among or
running into one another, but each pure and diftirnft,
though firmly adhering to whichever of the others it
comes in contaft with, and forming a very firm mafs.
It is much ufed in London for the tteps of public
buildings, and on other occafions where great ftrength
and hardnefs are required. 2. The hard red granite
variegated with black and white, and common in E-
gypt and Arabia. 3. The pale whitifh granite, varie¬
gated with black and yellow. This is fometimes
found in ftrata, but more frequently in loofe nodules,
and is ufed for paving the ftreets.
Some of thefe kinds of ftones are found in almoft
every country, and in many places they are found of
immenfe bignefs. The large ft mafs of this kind in
the known world, lying as an unconne&ed ftone, is
found near the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, and
@f which we have the following defcription in .the Phi-
lop. TranfadL vol. 68. p. 102, given by Mr An- Granite,
derfon in a letter to Sir John Pringle. “ The ftone
is fo remarkable, that it is called by the people here
the Tower of Babel, and by fome the Pearl Dia¬
mond. It either takes the laft name from a place
near which it is fituated, or it gives name to the tradl
of cultivated land called the Pearl. It lies upon the
top of a ridge of low hills, beyond a large plain, at
the diftance of about thirty miles from the Cape Town;
beyond which, at a little diftance, is a range of_ hills
of a much greater height. It is of an oblong fhape,
and lies north and fouth. The fouth end is higheft ;
the eaft and weft Tides are fteep and high ; but the
top is rounded, and Hopes away gradually to the north
end, fo that you can afcend it by that way, and en¬
joy a moft extenfive profpecl of- the whole country.
I could not precifely determine its circumference, but
it took us above half an hour to walk round it; and
by making every allowance for the rugged way, and
Hopping a little, I think the moft moderate computa¬
tion muft make it exceed half a mile. The fame dif¬
ficulty occurred with refpecl to knowing its height:
but I think, that, at the fouth-end, it is nearly equal
to half its length; or, were I to compare it to an
objeft you are acquainted with, I ihould fay it equal¬
led the dome of St Paul’s Church.
“ I am uncertain whether it onght to be confidered as
the top of the hill, or a detached ftone, becaufe there
is no pofitive proof of either, unlefs we were to dig
about its bafe; but it would certainly emprefs every
beholder, at firft fight, with the idea of its being one
ftone, not only from its figure, but becaufe it is real¬
ly one folid uniform mafs from top to bottom, with¬
out any interruption ; which is contrary to the gene¬
ral character of the high hills of this country, they
being commonly divided, or compofed of different ftra¬
ta, at leaft if we may judge from the rows of plants
or fhrubs which grow on the Tides of the fteepeft, and,
as I fuppofe, are produced from the fmall quantity of
earth interpofed between them. It has indeed a few
fiffures, or rather impreflions, which do not reach
deeper than four or five feet; and near its north end
a ftratum of a more compaft ftone runs acrofs, which
is not above twelve or fourteen inches thick, with its
furface divided into little fquares, or oblongs, difpo-
fed obliquely. This ftratum is perpendicular; but
whether it cuts the other to its bafe, or is fuperficial,
I cannot determine. Its furface is alfo fo fmooth,
that it does not appear to have formerly been joined to,
or feparated from, any other part by violence, as is
the cafe with many other large fragments; but enjoys
the exaft fituation where it was originally placed, and
has undergone little change from being expofedfor fo
many fuccefilve ages to the calcining power of a very
hot climate.”—A part of this ftone being examined
by Sir William Hamilton, he determined it to be a
granite, and of the fame nature with the tops of fome
of the Alps ; and fuppofes both of them to have been
elevated by volcanic explofions.
GRANIVOROUS, an appellation given to ani¬
mals which feed on corn or feeds. Thefe are princi¬
pally of the bird kind.
GRANT, in law, a cohveyance in writing of fuch
things as cannot pafs or be conveyed by word only ;
fuch are rents, reverfions, fervices, &c.
GRANT
G R A [ 3387 ] G R A
Grant. GRANT (Francis), Lord Cullen, an eminent law-
' ^ yer and judge in Scotland, was defcended from a
younger branch of the family of the Grants of Grant
in that kingdom, and was born about the year 1660.
When he commenced advocate he made a diftinguifh-
ed figure at the revolution, by oppofing the opinion
of the old lawyers, who warmly argued on the inabi¬
lity of the convention of eftates to make any difpo-
fition of the crown. The abilities he Ihewed in
favour of the revolution recommended him to an ex-
tenfive pradlice ; in which he acquired fo much honour,
that when the union between the two kingdoms was
in agitation, queen Anne unexpectedly, and without ap¬
plication, created him a haronet, with a view of fe-
curing his intereft in that meafure ; and upon the fame
principle, fhe foon after created him a judge, or one
of the lords of feffion. From this time, according
to the cuftom of Scotland, he was ftyled, from the
name of his eftate, Lord Cullen ; and the fame good
qualities that recommended him to this honourable
office, were very confpicuous in the difeharge of it;
which he continued for 20 years Vith the higheft: re¬
putation, when a period was put to his life by an ill-
nefs which lafted but three days. He expired with¬
out any agony on March 16th 1726.
His character is drawn to great advantage in the
Biographia Britannica ; where it is obferved, among
other remarks to his honour, “ That as an advocate he
was indefatigable in the management of bufinefs; but
at the fame time that he fpared no pains, he would
ufe no craft. He had fo high an idea of the dignity
of his profeffion, that he held it equally criminal to
negleft any honeft means of coming at juftice, or to
make ufe of any arts to elude it.
“ In refpeft to fortune, though he was modeft and
frugal, and had a large practice, yet he was far from
being avaritious. His private charities were very con-
fiderable, and grew in the fame proportion with his
profits. He was, befides, very fcrupulous in many
points; he would not fuller ajuft caufe to be loft through
a client’s want of money. He was fuch an eiemy to
oppreffion, that he never denied his affiftance to fuch
as laboured under it ; and with refpeft to the clergy
of all profeffions (in Scotland) his confcience obliged
him to ferve them without a fee. He faw their wrongs
required affiftance, and he knew their circumftances
would not admit of expence. His additions, therefore,
to his paternal eftate were much inferior to what might
have been expe&ed, and a large acceffion of charac¬
ter was the principal produce of that a&ivity and di¬
ligence by which he was diftinguilhed at the bar.
“ When his merit had raifed him to the bench, he
thought himfelf accountable to God and man for his
conduft in that high office; and that deep fenfe of
his duty, at the fame time that it kept him ftriftly to
it, encouraged and fupported him in the performance.
The pleadings in Scotland are carried on chiefly in
writing, which renders them fometimesvery prolix, fo as
to take up much of a judge’s time, and to exercife alike
his parts (and his patience in going through and
making himfelf mafter of them. In this the diligence
and dexterity of lord Cullen were equally confpicuous:
he went through every thing that came into his hands
very carefully, and fifted it thoroughly ; fo that the
lawyers at the bar never found themfelves too ftrong
for the bench, but on the contrary were often told Grant.
many things by his lordfhip, which had either efca- 
ped their notice, or which the intereft of their client
had engaged them to conceal. As his attention to
the pleadings guided him to the real merits of thecaufe;
fo when he was once mafter of thefe, his fecond care
was to difpatch it. He knew, that, in judicature, the
next fault to denying, was delaying juftice ; by which
families are always injured, and too often ruined.
Whenever, therefore, he had provided againft being
miftaken, he was defirous of bringing the matter to
a (hort decifion ; and as he was very folieitous about
the former, fo the parties themfelvcs helped him not
a little as to the latter. Whenever he fat as lord or¬
dinary ; 'the paper of caul?s was remarkably full, for
his reputation being equally ertabliftied for knowledge
and integrity, there were none, who had a good opi¬
nion of their own pretenfions, but were defirous of
bringing them before him, and not many who did not
fit down fatisfied with his decifion. This prevailed
more efpecially after it was found that few of his
fentences were reverfed ; and when they were, it was
commonly owing to himfelf : for if, upon mature re-
fle&ion, or upon new reafons offered at the re-hearing,
he faw any juft ground for altering his judgment, he
made no fcruple of declaring it; being perfuaded, that
it was more manly, as well as more juft, to follow
truth, than to fupport optnion|: and his conduct in this
refpedl had a right effetft; for inftead of leffening, it
raifed his reputation.
“ He would not, however, with all this great ftock
of knowledge, experience, and probity, truft himfelf
in matters of blood, or venture to decide in criminal
cafes on the lives of his fellow-creatures ; which was
the reafon, that, though often folicited, he could ne¬
ver be prevailed upon to accept of a feat in the judi¬
ciary court.
“ He was fo true a lover of learning, and was fo
much addi&ed to his ftudies, that, notwithftanding the
multiplicity of his bufinefs while at the bar, and his
great attention to his charge when a judge, he never-
thelefs found time to write*’various treatifes, on very
different and important fubje&s : Some political, wdiich
were remarkably well-timed, and highly ferviceable
to the government: others of a moft extenfive nature,
fuch as his effays on law, religion, and education^
which were dedicated to his prefent majefty when
prince of Wales ; by wliofe command, his then fecre-
tary, Mr. Samuel Molyneaux, wrote him a letter of
thanks, in which were many gracious expreffions, as
well in relation to the piece, as to its author. He
compofed, befides thefe, many difeourfes on literary
fubjefts, for the exercife of his own thoughts, and
for the better difeovery of truth; which went no far¬
ther than his own clofet, and from a principle of mo-
defty were not communicated even to his moft inti¬
mate friends.
“ In his lordfhip’s private charafter he was as ami¬
able as he was refpeftable in his public. There were
certain circumftances that determined him to part with
an eftate that was left him by his father; and it being
forefeen that he would employ the produce of it, and
the money he had acquired by his profeffion, in a new
purchafe, there were many decayed families who folicited
him to take their lands upon his own terms, relying
entirely
G R A [ 3388 ] G U A
Grant, entirely on that equity, which they conceived to be
Granville. the ru]e of his adtions. It appeared that their opi-
nion of him was perfedUy well grounded. For being
at length prevailed upon to lay out his money on the
eftate of an unfortunate family, who had a debt upon
it of more than it was worth; he firft. put their affairs
into order, and by clafiing the different demands, and
compromifing a variety of claims, fecured fome thou-
fand pounds to the heirs, without prejudice to any,
and of which they had never been poffeffed but from
his interpofition and vigilance in their behalf: So far
was he either from making any advantage to himfelf
of their necefiities, or of his own {kill in his profefiion;
a circumftance juftly mentioned to his honour, and
which is an equal proof of his candor, generofity, and
compaflion. He was charitable without oftentation,
difinterefted in his friendfhips, and beneficent to all
who had any thing to do with him. He was not
only ftri&ly juft; but fo free from any fpecies of ava¬
rice, that his lady, who was a woman of great pru¬
dence and diferetion, finding him more intent on the
bufinefs committed o him by others, than on his own,
took upon herfclf the care of placing out his money;
and to prevent his poftponing, as he was apt to do,
fuch kind of affairs, when fecurities'offered, fhe caufed
the circumftances of them to be ftated in the form of
cafes, and fo procured his opinion upon his own con¬
cerns, as if they had been thofe of a client. Thefe
little circumftances are mentioned as more exprefiive
of his temper, than actions of another kind could be ;
becaufe, in matters of importance, men either aft from
habit, or from motives that the world cannot pene¬
trate; but, in things of a trivial nature, are lefs upon
their guard, fhew their true difpofition, and Hand con-
feffed for what they are.”
GRANVILLE (George), lord Lanfdowne, was
{Jefcended from a very ancient family, derived from
Rollo the firft duke of Normandy. At eleven years
of age he was fent to Trinity College in Cambridge,
where he remained five years: but at the age of 13
was admitted to the degree of mafter of arts; ha¬
ving, before he was 12, fpoken a copy of verfes of
his own compofition to the duchefs of York at bis
college, when fhe paid a vifit to the Unverfity of
Cambridge. In 1696, his comedy called the She-gal-
lants was afted at the theatre-royal in Lincolns-inn-
fields, as his tragedy called Hertic Love was in the
year 1698. In 1702 he tranflated into Englifh the
fecond Olynthian of Dcmofthenes. He was member for
the county of Cornwall in the parliament which met in
1710; was afterwards fecretary of war, comptroller
of the houfehold, then treafurer, and fworn one of the
rivy-council. The year following, he was created
aronLanfdowne. On the acceffion of king George I.
in 17x4, he was removed from his treafurer’s place;
and the next year entered his proteft againft the bills
for attainting lord Bolingbroke and the duke of
Ormond. He entered deeply into the fcheme for
raifing an infurreftion in the weft of England; and
being feized as a fufpefted perfon, was committed to
♦he tower, where he continued two years. In 1719,
he made a fpeech in the houfe of Lords, againft the
bill to prevent occafional conformity. In 1722, he
withdrew to France, and continued abroad almoft ten
years. At his return in 1732, he publifhed a fine
edition of his works in 2 vols quarto. He died in Granville Ij
1735, leaving no male iffu e. II-
Granville. a fea-porttown of France, in Lower GraPJome
Normandy, partly feated on a rock and partly on a —J
plain. It gives a title to an Englifh earl. W. Long.
1. 32. N. Lat. 48. 58.
GRANULATED, fomething that has undergone
granulation. See the next article.
GRANULATION, in chemiftry, an operation by
which metallic fubftances are reduced into fmall grains,
or roundifh particles-; theufeof which is, to facilitate
their combination with other fubftances. —This opera¬
tion is very fimple ; it confifts only in pouring a
melted metal flowly into a veflel filled with water,
which is in the mean time to be agitated with a
broom. With melted copper, however, which is apt
to explode with great violence on the contaft of water,
fome precautions are to be obferved, of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, n° 406.
Lead or tin may be granulated bypouring them when
melted into a box, the internal furface of which is to
be rubbed with powdered chalk, and the box ftrougly
fhaken till the lead has becomej folid. Metals are
granulated, becaufe their duftility renders them inca¬
pable of being pounded, and becaufe filing is long
and tedious, and might render the metal impure by
an admixture of iron from the file.
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. See Vine.
Grape-hWo/, in artillery, is a combination of fmall
fhot put into a thick canvafs bag, and corded ftrongly
together, fo as to form a kind of cylinder, whofe
diameter is equal to that of the ball which is adapted
to the cannon.
To form grape-fhot, a bag of coarfe cloth is made
juft to hold the bottom which is put into it, then as
many fhot as the grape is to contain ; and with a
ftrong pack-threed they are quilted, to keep the fhot
from moving; and when finifhed they are put into boxes
for carriage, to be tranfported wherever it is neceffary. '
—The number of fhot in a grape varies according to
the fervice or fize of the guns. ’ In fea-fervice the
number is always nine ; but by land it is increafed to
any number or fize, from an ounce and a quarter in
weight. It has not yet been determined with any
accuracy, what number or fize beft anfwers in praftice;
for they often fcatter fo much, that only a fmall
number take place.
Proper charges for grape-fhot have pever yet been
effeftually determined. From fome experiments, how¬
ever, it appears, that for heavy fix-pounders one third
of the-weight of the fhot appears to be the beft charge
of powder ; for the light fix-pounders, one fourth of
the weight of the fhot; and, for howitzers, one
eighth or one tenth anfwers very well.
This kind of fire feems yet not to have been enough
refpefted or depended on. However, if cannon and
howitzers can be made to throw one third or one
fourth of their charge into a fpace of 39 X 12 feet, at
200 and 300 yards diftance, and thofe fired ten or
twelve times in a minute, it furely forms the thickeft
fire that can be produced from the fame fpace.
GRAPHOMETER, a mathematical inftrument,
otherwife called a Semicircle; the ufe of which- is to
obferve any angle whofe vertex is at the centre of the
inftrument in any plane, though it is moft commonly
hori-
G R A [ 3389 ] G. R A
g, horizontal, or nearly fo), and to find how many de- fhould be laid on early in the winter, that the rain Gra/s-lioj>--
grees it contains. See Geometry, p. [12.] may wafh them into the ground, otherwife they will p£r'
~ GRAPPLING, a fort offmall anchor, fitted with occafion the grafs to burn, when the warmth of the
four or five flukes or claws, and commonly ufed to the fummer begins.
ride a boat or other fmall veffcl. When grafs is fo drefled, and well rolled and mow--
jF/Vt-Grappling, an inftrument nearly refembling ed, it may be kept very beautiful for many years ;
the former, but differing in the conftru£tion of its but where it is not dreffed, or fed with fheep, it will
flukes, which are furnifhed with ftrong barbs on rarely continue handfome more than eight or ten
their points. Thefe machines are ufually fixed on the years.
yard-arms of a fhip, in order to grapple any adver- GRASSHOPPER, in zoology, a fpecies of Gryl-
fary whom {he intends to board. They are, however, lus. This infc6l breeds in fuch plenty in our mea-
more particularly ufeful in jire-Jhips for the purpofes dovvs, that it is known to every body. It is of the co-
defcribed in that article. lour of green leaves, except a line of brown which
GRASS, in botany, &c. a name given to fcveral flreaks the back, and two pale Hnes under the belly
dilb'ndt plants; as the agrottis or couch-grafs, the and behind the legs. It may be divided into the head,
briza or quaking-grafs, &c. Under the term grafs the corflet, and the belly. The head is oblong, re-
alfo are comprehended all manner of herbaceous plants garding the earth, and bearing fome refemblance to
ferving for the food of cattle, as clover, rye-grafs, &c. that of a horfe. * Its mouth is covered by a kind of
See Agriculture, and Gramina. round buckler, jutting over it, and armed with teeth
Grass iSow/^g-. See Agriculture, n° 51 — 57. of a brown colour, hooked at the points. Within
and 133 137. the mouth is perceivable a large reddifh tongue, and
Grass-/Ttf/L are made, for the moft part, not by fixed to the upper jaw. The antennae are very long,
fowing grafs-feed, but by laying turfs: and indeed tapering off to a point; and the eyes are like two
the turfs from a fine common or down are much black fpecks, a little prominent. The corflet is eleva-
preferable to fown grafs: but if walks or plats are ted, narrow, armed above and below by two ferrated
to be made by fowing, the beft way is to procure the fpines. The back is armed with a flrong buckler, to
feed from thofe paftures where the grafs is naturally which the mufcles of the legs are firmly bound ; and
fine and clear ; or elfe the trouble of keeping it from round thefe mufcles are feen the veffels by which the
fpiry or benty grafs will be very great, and it will animal breathes, as white as fnow. The laft pair of
fcarce ever look handfome. legs are much longer and ftronger than the firft two
In order to fow grafs-walks, the ground mufl be pair; fortified by thick mufcles, and well formed for
firft dug ; and when it has been drefled and laid even, leaping. It has four wings ; the anterior ones fpring-
it muft be very carefully raked over, and all the clods ing from the fecond pair of legs, the polterior from
and ftones taken off, and then covered over an inch the third pair. The hinder wings are much finer and
thick with good mould. more expanfive than the foremoft, and are the princi-
This being done, the feed is to be fown pretty pal inftruments of its flight. The belly is confidera-
thick, that it may come up clofe and fhort; it muft bly large, compofed of eight rings, and terminated
then be raked over again, to cover the feed, that if by a forky tail, covered with down, like the tail of a
the weather fhould happen to be windy, it may not rat. When examined internally, befides the gullet,
be blown away. It ought alfo to be obferved, that we difcover a fmall ftomach ; and behind that, a very
where grafs is fown in gardens, either for lawns or large one, wrinkled and furrowed within-fide. Low-
walks, there fhould always be a good quantity of the er down, there is ftill a third : fo that it is thought,
white trefoil or dutch clover fown with it; for this and with fome probability, that all the animals of this
will make a fine turf much fooner than any other fown order chew the cud; as they fo much refemble rumi-
grafs, and will continue a better verdure than any nant animals in their internal conformation,
other of the grafs-tribe. A fhort time after the grafshopper affumes its
In order to keep grafs-plats or walks handfome, wings, it fills the meadows with its note 5 which, like
and in good order, you may fow in autumn frefh that among birds, is a call to courtfhip. The male
Teed over any places that are not well filled, or where only of this tribe is vocal; and, upon examining at
the grafs is dead : but nothing improves grafs fo much the bafe of the wings, there will be found a little hole
as mowing and conftant rolling. in its body, covered with a fine tranfparent membrane.
When turf is laid in gardens, it is a generally prac- This is thought, by Linnaeus, to be the inftrument it
tice to cover the furface of the ground under the turf, employs in Tinging ; but others are of opinion the
either with fand or very poor earth: the defign of this found is produced by rubbing its hinder legs againft
is to keep the grafs fine, by preventing its growing each other. But, however this may be, the note of one
too rank. This is proper enough for very rich ground : male is feldom heard, without being returned by ano-
but it is not fo for fuch land as is middling, or but ther; andthetwolittleanimals,aftermany mutualinfults
poor; for when this is pra&ifed in fuch places, the of this kind, are feen to meet and fight defperately.
grafs will foon wear out and decay in patches. The female is generally the reward of the viftory ;
When turf is taken from a common or down, fuch for, after the combat, the vidtor feizes her with his
ought to be chofen as is free from weeds: and when teeth behind the neck, ajid thus keeps her for feveral
it is defigned to remain for years without renewing, hours, till the bufinefs of fecundation is accomplifhed.
a' dreffing fhould be laid upon it every other year, At this time they are fo ftrongly united, that it is al
either of very rotten dung, afhes, or, where it can be moft impoffible to feparate them, without tearing their
eafily procuredj very rotten tan; but thefe dreffings bodies afunder. Towards the latter end of autumn,
Vol. V. 19 L the
G R A [ 3390 ] G R A
Grafs hop- the female prepares to depofit her burthen ; and her
Per- body is then feen greatly diftended with eggs, which
jhe carries to the number of 150. In order to make
a proper lodgment in the earth for them, nature has
furnifhed her with an inftrument in her tail, fomewhat
refembling a two-edged fword, which fhe can (heath
and undieath at pleafure : with this (he pierces the
earth as deep as (he is able ; and into the hole which
the inftrument has made, (he depoftts her eggs one af¬
ter the other.
Having thus provided for the continuation of her
pofterity, the animal herfelf does not long furvive ;
but, as winter approaches, (he dries up, feems to feel
the effeft of age, and dies from a total decay. Some,
however, affert that (he is killed by the cold; others,
that (he is eaten by worms : but certain it is, that
neither male nor female are ever feen to furvive the
winter. In the mean time, the egg» which have been
depofited, continue unaltered either by the feverity of
the feafon, or the retardation of the fpring. They
are of an oval figure, white, and of the confidence of
horn: their fize nearly equals that of a grain of anife:
they are enveloped in the body within a covering
branched all over with veins and arteries; and when
excluded, they crack on being prefled between the
fingers. Their fubftance within, is a whitifti, vifcous,
and tranfparent fluid. In this manner they remain de¬
pofited within the furface of the earth during the
whole winter, till the return of fpring begins to hatch
them. About the beginning of May, each egg pro¬
duces an infeft about the bignefs of a flea. Thefe
are at firil of a whitilh colour; at the end of two or
three days they turn black, and foon after they be¬
come of a reddilh brown. They appear from the be¬
ginning like grafshoppers wanting wings, and hop a-
mong the grafs, as foon as excluded, with great agili¬
ty. Yet (till they are by no means arrived at their
full (late of perfection ; although they bear a ftrong
refemblance to the animal in its perfcCt form. They
want, or feem to want, the wings which they at lalt
afiume ; and can only hop among the grafs, without
being able to fly. The wings, however, are not want¬
ing, but are concealed within four little bunches that
feem to deform the fides of the animal. There they
lie rolled up in a mod curious manner, and occupy¬
ing a fmaller fpace than one could conceive who faw
them extended. Thefe wings, however, it has never
been deftitute of; though they remain folded up for
20 days, lb that they cannot be feen. When it is to
undergo this change, the animal ceafes from its grafly
food, and feeks about for a convenient place be¬
neath fome thorn or thiftle that may proteCl it from
an accidental (hower. It fwells up its head and neck,
and then draws them in again ; and thus alternately
for fome time it endeavours to get free. At length,
the (kin covering the head and bread divides above the
neck, and the head iflues fotth. The other parts fol¬
low fucceffively; fo that the little animal, with its
long feelers, legs, &c. works its way from the old
(kin, which remains fixed to the thiftle or thorn. It
is indeed inconceiveable how the infeCl can extricate
itfelf from fueh an exaCl (heath as that which covered
every part of its body.
The grafshopper, thus difengaged from its outer
fkin, appears in its perfeCl form ; but is then fo feeble,
and its body fo foft and tender, that it may be moulded Grafs-hop-fcj
like wax. It is no longer of the obfcure colour it had Per<
before ; but is of a greeniftt white, which becomes more "]
vivid, as the moifture on the furface is dried away.
Still, however, the animal continues to (hew no (igns
of life; but appears quite.fpent and fatigued with its
labour for more than an hour together. During this
time the body is drying, and the wings unfolding to
their greateft expanfion ; and the curious obferver will
perceive them, fold after fold, opening to the fnn,
till at laft they become longer than the two hinder
legs. The infeft’s body alfo is lengthened during this
operation, and it becomes much more beautiful than
before.
Thefe infe&s are generally vocal in the midft of
fummer ; and they are heard at funfetting much loud¬
er than during the heats of the day. They are fed
upon grafs; and if their belly be prefled, they will
be feen to return to the juices of the plants they have
laft fed upon. Though unwilling to fly, and flow of
flight, particularly when the weather is moift or cool,
they are fometimes feen to fly to confiderable diftan-
ces. If they are caught by one of the hinder legs,
they quickly difengage themfelves from it, and leave
the leg behind them. This, however, doth not grow
again, as with crabs and fpiders; for as they are ani¬
mals of but a Angle year’s continuance, they have not
fufficient time for repairing thefe misfortunes. The
lofs of their leg alfo prevents them from flying ; for
being unable to lift themfelves in the air, they have
not room upon the ground for the proper expanfion of
their wings. If they be handled roughly, they will
bite very fiercely ; and, when they fly, they make a
noife with their wings. They generally keep in the
plain, where the grafs is luxuriant, and the ground
rich and fertile : there they depofit their eggs, parti¬
cularly in thofe cracks which are formed by the heat
of the fun.
Thefe animals are fometimes very mifchievous, by
reafon of their great numbers. Some time ago they
appeared in Languedoc, and other places of France,
in very formidable fwarms, and eat up all the harveft
of feveral years. They took their flight like birds,
were about an inch long, of a grey colour, and ex-c
a&ly fhaped like the common fort. They were
found in many places covering the whole furface
of the earth, four or five inches deep, and ufed to lie
quiet towards noon; but when the fun then (hone
warmly upon them, they nfed to arife and take wing,
and, fetting on the corn-fields, they would in a few
hours eat up the whole produce, ears, leaves, and e-
ven the more tender parts of the (talks.—When they
had deftroyed one field in this manner, they ufed ta
take wing and fly to another. They ufually flew very
high in the air, and dire&ly againft the wind; but
as foon as they faw a new crop of corn, they dropped,
together in a (warm, and cleared it as they had done
the fir ft. This practice they continued the whole day ;
and towards evening they fettled upon the ground,
where they remained quiet till the heat of the follow¬
ing day railed them again. When they had deftroy¬
ed all the corn in the country, they feized upon the
vines, garden-herbs, and willows, and at laft upon
the hemp. Whole fields of this laft they eat up, not-
withilanding its great bittercefs, Towards autumn* . ||
G R A [ 3391 ] G R A
;iGratarolns tliey left off feeding, and were then found in copula-
! . II tion } and foon after this, the females were every
I Gratiani where feen laying their eggs, which they depofited in
the ground, making a hole with their tail, large e-
nough to receive a goofe-.quill.
In thefe holes every female would lay 40 or 50 eggs,
each of the fize of a millet-feed; and when they’ had
finilhed the laying, they covered up the hole to keep
out the water. After this they died apace ; and the
multitude of their carcafes Hunk intolerably, poifon-
ing the air. The next year they hatched in April:
and from this one fwarm fuch prodigious numbers were
hatched, that 15 tuns of them were deftroyed while
no bigger than flies, and nine tuns of their eggs be¬
fore the hatching ; and yet there remained enough
of them to deftroy, in a great meafure, the fucceed-
ing harveft. After this, they gradually decreafed for
feveral years, till they were not more numerous than
elfewhere. This was attributed to the induftry of the
farmers in killing them ; but it is more probable that
unfavourable feafons deftroyed them.
GRATAROLUS (William), a learned phyfician
in the 16th century, was born at Bergamo in Italy;
and taught phyiic with reputation at Padua .• but ha¬
ving embraced the Proteftant religion, he retired to
Switzerland, where he was made profeffor of phyfic.
He died at Bafil in 1568, aged 52. He wrote feve¬
ral curious works in Latin; amongft which are, 1. The
manner of preferving and improving the memory.
2. Of preferving in health travellers, men of letters,
magiftrates, and ftudious perfons, Sec.
GRATES for Fires, are compofed of ribs of
iron, placed at fmall diftances from one another, fo
that the air may have fufficient accefs to the fuel, and
the accumulation of the alhes, which would choke the
fire, may be prevented.—Grates feem peculiarly adapt¬
ed to the ufe of pit-coal, which requires a greater
quantity of air to make it burn freely than other kinds
of fuel. The hearths of the Britons feem to have been
fixed in the centre of their halls, as is yet pra&ifed in
fome parts of Scotland, where the fire is nearly in the
middle of the houfe, and the family fit all around it.
Their fire place was perhaps nothing more than a large
jlone, depreffed a little below the level of the ground,
and thereby adapted to receive the allies. About a
* century ago, it was only the floor of the room, with
the addition of a back or hob of clay. But it was
now changed among the gentlemen for a portable
fire-pan, raifed upon low fupporters, and fitted with a
circular grating of bars. Such were in ufe among the
Gauls in the tirft'century, and among the Wellh in
the tenth.
GRATIAN, the fon of Valentinian I. by his firft
wife, was declared Auguftus by his father at the city
of Amiens in 365, and fucceeded him in 367; a prince
equally extolled for his wit, eloquence, modefty,.cha-
ftity, and zeal againft; heretics. He alfociated Theo-
dofius with him in the empire, and advanced the poet
[ Aufonius to the confulate. He made a great flaugh-
eg* See Ar- ter of the Germans at Strafburg *, and hence was fur-
rnitnloreiam. named Alemannicus. He was the (irfl; emperor who
refufed the title of Pontifex Maximus, upon the fcore
of its being a Pagan dignity. He was affaffinated by
Andragathius in 375, in the 24th year of his age.
Gratian, a famous Benedictine monk; in the 1 Ah
century, was born at Chiuii, and employed hear twen- Gratius
ty-four years in compoling a work, entitled, Deere-
turn, or Concordantia Difcordantium Canonum, becaufe ralz‘ .
he there endeavoured to reconcile the canons, which
feemed contradictory to each other. This work he
pubiilhed in tiyi. As he is frequently miftaken, in
taking one canon of one council, or one paffage of one *
father, for another, and has often cited falfe decretals,
feveral authors have endeavoured to correCt his faults ;
and chiefly Anthony Auguftine, in his excellent work,
entitled, De emendations Gratiar.i. To the decre¬
tals of Gratian, the popes principally owed the great
authority they exercifed in the thirteenth and follow¬
ing centuries.
GRATIUS, a Latin poet, cotemporary with O-
vid, the author of a poem intitled Cynegeticon, or the
Manner of hunting with dogs ; the beft edition of which
is that of Leyden, t2mo, with the learned notes of
Janus Ulitius.
GRATIOLA, hedge-hyssop ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies ; the molt remarkable
of which is the officinalis, or common hedge-hyffop.
This grows naturally on the Alps and other moun¬
tainous parts of Europe. It hath a thick, flefhy, fi¬
brous, creeping root, which propagates very much,
when planted in a proper foil and fituation. From
this arife feveral upright fquare ftalks, gavnifhed with
narrow fpear-fliaped leaves, placed oppolite. The
flowers are produced on the fide of the ftalks at each
joint; they are fhaped likethofe of the fox-glove, but
are fmall, and of a pale yellowilh colour.—This herb
has an emetic and purgative virtue; to aufwer which
intentions, it was formerly ufed by the common people
in England, but was never much prefer!bed by the
phyficians, and at laft fell totally into difufe. Of late,
however, it has been the fubjefl of a differtation by
Dr James Koftrzewflci of Warfavv, in Poland; who
gives fome remarkable accounts of its effefls in ma¬
nia and obftinate venereal cafes. It was given in pow¬
der, or in extraft, to the quantity of half a drachm
of the firft, and a whole drachm of the fecond, at
each dofe. From the cafes related in his diflertation,
the author draws the following conclufions: 1. The
gratiola may be given with fafety both to male and
female patients. 2. In all diforders proceeding from
a fuperabundance of ferum in the fluids, it appears
to be a moft effe&ual remedy. 3. In confequence of
this, it is had recourfe to with very great advantage in
melancholy and mania arifing from that ftate of the
fyftem. 4. It powerfully promotes purging, vomit¬
ing, fweat, and urine ; and is therefore much fuperi-
or to any of the ufual evacuating medicines, moft of
which prove only a&ive in promoting one of thefe
difeharges at onee. 5. The moft obftinate cafes of
gonorrhoea,fluor albus,and venereal ulcers, arecured by
the powder.—-In fome inftances it has induced faliva-
tion ; but whether or not it can always be made to
produce that effeft, is not as yet altogether certain.
6. The powder of gratiola prepared from the extraft,
and exhibited with fugar, does not induce vomiting ;
and, on the contrary, the powder cf the root always
promotes that evacuation.
GRATZ, a handfome ftrong town of Germany,
add capital of Styria, with a caftle feated on a rock,
19 L a and
G R A [ 3392 1 G R A
o ave and an univerfity. The Jefuits have a college here ;
II and there arc a great number of handfome palaces,
rave mcs. a ^ne arfena]> caft]e ftands on a very lofty
hill, and communicates with the river by means of a
deep well. The emprefs-dowager was obliged to re¬
tire hither during the war of 1741 and 1742. It is
feated on the river Muer, in E. Lon. 16. 25. N. Lat.
47- 4-
GRAVE, in mufic, is applied to a found which is
of a low or deep tone.
Grave. The names of places ending with this
fyllable come from the Saxon graf, a wood, thicket,
den, or cave.
Grave, a very ftrong town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Brabant, feated on the river Maefe, beyond
which there is a fort. E. Lon. 5. 41. N. Lat.
51. 46.
GRAVEL, in natural hiftory and gardening, a
congeries of pebbles, which, mixed with a ftiffloam,
makes lading and elegant gravel-walks; an ornament
peculiar to our gardens, and which gives them an ad¬
vantage over thofe of other nations.
Gravel, in medicine. See the Index fubjoine'd to
that article.
GraveL-/f'k/L-. To make thefe properly, the
bottom Ihould be laid with lime-rubbilh, large flint-
ffones, or any other hard matter, for eight or ten inches
thick, to keep weeds from growing through, and over
this the gravel is to be laid fix or eight inches thick.
This fhould be laid rounding up in the middle, by
which means the larger ftones will run off to the fides,
and may be raked away; for the gravel Ihould never
be fcreened before it is laid on. It is a common
millake to lay thefe walks too round, which not only
makes them uneafy to walk upon, but takes off from
their apparent breadth. One inch in five feet is a fuf-
ficient proportion for the rife in the middle; fo that
a walk of 20 feet wide fhould be four inches higher
at the middle than at the edges, and fo in proportion.
As foon as the gravel is laid, it fhould be raked, and
the large ftones thrown back again : then the whole
fhould be rolled bothlengthwife and croffwife ; and the
perfon wbo draws the roller fhould wear fhoes with
flat heels, that he may make no holes; becaufe holes
made in a new walk are not eafily remedied. The
walks fhould always be rolled three or four times in
very hard fhowers, after which they will bind more
firmly than otherwife they could ever be made
to do.
Gravel, with fome loam among it, binds more
firmly than the rawer kinds; and when gravel is na¬
turally very harfh and fharp, it is proper to add a
mixture of loam to it. The beft gravel for walks is
fuch as abounds with fmooth round pebbles, which,
being mixed with a little loam, are bound fo firmly
together, that they are never afterwards injured either
by wet or dry weather. Thefe are not fo liable to be
turned up by the feet in walking, as the more irregu¬
larly fhaped pebbles, and remain much more firmly in
their places after rolling.
GRAVELINES, a very ftrong fea-port town of
the Netherlands in French Flanders, with a caftle and
harbour. It was ceded to France by the treaty of
the Pyrenees, and is feated in a marfliy country on
the river Aa, near the fea, in E. Lon. 2. 13. N. Lat.
59-
GRAVELLY land, or soil, that abounding with Gravelly |
gravel or fand, which eafily admits of heat and moi- II |
fture; and the more flony fuch lands are, the more 'Gravere"(1- •
barren they prove.
GRAVENAC, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, and capital of a county of the fame name.
E. Lon. 8. 15. N. Lat. 48. 22.
GRAVER, in the art of engraving, a tool by
which all the lines, fcratches, and fhades, are cut in
copper, &c. See Engraving.
GRAVESANDE (William James), was born of
an ancient and honourable family at Delft in Holland,
in 1688. He ftudied the civil law at Leyden, but
mathematical learning was his favourite amufement.
When he had taken his dodlor’s degree in 1707, he
fettled at the Hague, and pradlifed at the bar, in .. 1
which fituatipn he cultivated an acquaintance with
learned men ; with a fociety of whom, he publifhed a
periodical review entitled Le Journal Litteraire, which
was continued without interruption from the year 1713
to the year 1722, when he died. The moft confider-
ableof his works are, treatifs on perfpeclive; An in-
troduttion to the Newtonian philofophy> or a treatife on
the elements of phyjics confirmed hy experiments y A trea¬
tife on the elements of algebra, for the ufe of young Jlu-
‘ ’ w. He had
dents; and A courfe of logic and metaphyfics,
intended to have prefented the public with a fyftem of
morality, but his death prevented the execution. The
minifters of the republic confulted him on all occa-
fions wherein his talents were requifite; and his fkill
in calculation was often of fervice to them; as was his
addrefs in decyphering, for detedling the fecregcorre-
fpondence of their enemies. As profeffor of mathe¬
matics and aftronomy at Leyden, none ever applied the
powers of nature with more fuccefs, or to more ufeful
purpofes.
GRAVESEND, a town of Kent in England,
fituated on the banks of the Thames. It is a place
of great refort, being the common landing-place for
feamen and paffengers in their journey to London.
All outward-bound fhips are obliged to come to an
anchor here, till they have been vifitcd and examined
by the cuftom-houfe officers, and hers they generally
take in provifions. Here is a blockhoufe well mounted
with cannon, to command the fhips and river, direflly
oppofite to Tilbury fort in Effex. Both at Billingf-
gate and Gravefend a bell is rung for 15 minutes at
high water by night and day, to give notice to the tilt-
boats and wherries to put off. The town is commonly
called the corporation of Gravefend and Milton, thefe
two places being united under the government of a
mayor, 12 aldermen, 24 common-council, a town-
clerk, &c. Here is a very handfome charitable foun¬
dation; Mr Henry Pinnock having in 1624 given
two dwelling-houfes, and a houfe for a mafter-weaver,
to employ the poor; and a good eftate is alfo fettled
for the repairs.' The town was plundered and burnt
by the French and Spaniards in the reign of Richard
II. after which the king, at the requeft of the abbot
of St Mary-le-Grace of Tower-hill, to whom he had
granted a manor there, called Parrocks, veiled it with
the foie privilege of carrying paffengers thence by
water. Great part of it wasdeftroyed by fire in 1727,
together with the church. The latter has fince been
rebuilt as one of the 50 new churches, and the houfes
Gravina
'G 11 t
G R A [ 3393 } G R A
are much handfomer than before. The ftxeets are
narrow, but paved with flints. The chief employment
- of the labouring people is fpinning of hemp to make
ropes and nets for fifhing. The town is alfo famous
for gardening; the bed afparagus in the kingdom be¬
ing produced here.
GRAVINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and Terra di Bori, with a bifliop’s fee, and the
title of a duchy. E. Lon. 17°. N. Lat. 410.
GRAVINA (John Vincent), an eminent fcholar,
and illuftrious lawyer of Italy, born at Roggiana in 1664.
He was profeflbr of the canon law in the college of
Sapienzi at Rome; and though many foreign univer-
fities made propofals to draw him to them, he never
quitted that city, but died there in 17x8. His works
are both curious and ufeful; the greateft of them is
De ortu et prcgrejfu Juris Chilis. A colled ion of his
works was printed in 410. at Leipfic in 1737, with the
notes of Mafcovius.
Gravina (Peter), an Italian poet, much efteemed
by the great general Gonfalvo, and Profper Colonna.
He wrote, in a pure Roman ftyle, difcourfes on mat¬
ters relating to the law and to the belles letters, as
well as poems. He died in 1527.
GRAVITATION, in natural philofophy, is fome-
times didinguifhed from gravity. Thus M. Mauper-
tuis takes gravity for that force whereby a body would
fall to the earth; but gravitation for the fame dimi-
nifhcd by the centrifugal force. See Newtonian
Pbilofophy.
GRAVITY, or Gravitation, (for the words are
moft commonly ufed fynoniraoufly,) fignifies either
the force by which bodies are prefled towards the fur-
face of the earth, or the manifeit effed of that force ;
in which lalt fenfe the word has the fame fignification
with nueight, or heaviness.
Concerning gravity in the firft fenfe of the word,
or that adive power by which ^11 bodies are impelled
towards the earth, there have been great difputes.
Many eminent philofophers, and among the reft Sir
Ifaac Newton himfelf, have confidered it as the firft of
all fecond caufes ; an incorporeal or fpiritual fubftance,
which never can be perceived any other way than by
itseffeds; an univerfal property of matter, &c. Others
have attempted to explain the phenomena of gravitati¬
on by the adion of a very fubtile etherial fluid; and to
this explanation Sir Ifaac, in the latter part of his life,
ferms not to have been averfe. He hath even given a
conjedure concerning the manner in which this fluid
might occafion thefe phenomena. But for a full ac¬
count of the difcoveries of this great philofopher con¬
cerning the laws of gravitation, the conjedures made
by him and others concerning its caufe, the various
objedions that have been made to his dodrine, and
the ftate of the difpute at prefent, fee the articles
Newtonian Astronomy, Atmosphere,
Earth, Electricity, Fire, Light, Attraction,
Repulsion, Plenum, Vacuum, &c.
Specific Gravity, denotes the weight belonging to
an equal bulk of every different fubttance. Thus the
exad weight of a cubic inch of gold, compared with a
cubic inch of water, tin, lead, &c. is called its fpecific
gravity. See Hydrostatics.
GRAUNT (John), author of a curious and cele¬
brated book, entitled, Natural and political ebferva-
tions made upon the hills of mortality. He was a ha- Gray.
berdaflier of fmall wares; but laid down his trade, and  :_
all public employments, on account of his religion.
He was educated a Puritan ; afterwards profeffed him¬
felf a Socinian ; yet, in the latter part of his life, de¬
clared himfelf of the Roman Catholic religion. He
was a member of the royal fociety, and died in 1674.
GRAY, a town of France, in the Franch Compte,
and capital of the bailiwick of Amont. It is a trading
place, and feated on the river Saone, in E. Lon. c. 41.
N. Lat. 47. 30.
GRAY (Thomas), an admired Englifli poet, was
the youngeft and only furviving fon of a reputable ci¬
tizen of London, and was born in Cornhill in 1716.
He was educated at Eton, where he contrafted a friend-
ftiip with Mr Horace Walpole, and with Mr Richard
Weftfonof the lord chancellor of Ireland. Mr Weft and
Mr Gray were both intended for the bar; but the former
died early in life, and the latter was diverted from that
purfuit by an invitation to accompany Mr Walpole in
his travels; which he accepted without any determined
plan for his future life. During Mr Gray’s travels, he
wrote a variety of letters to Mr Weft and to his pa¬
rents, which are printed with his poems; and when he
returned, finding himfelf in narrow circumftances, yet
with a mind indifpofed for active employment, he re¬
tired to Cambridge, and devoted himfelf to ftudy.
Soon after his return, his friend Weft died: and the
melancholy impreffed on him by this event may be tra¬
ced in his admired “ Elegy wrote a country church¬
yard; ’ which is thought to have been begun, if not
finifhed, at this time: tho’ the conclufion, as it Hands
at prefent, is certainly different from what it was in
the firft manufeript copy.
The firft impulfe of his forrow for the death of his
friend gave birth to a very tender fonnet in Englifli, on
the Petrarchian model; and alfo to a fublime apo-
ftrophe in hexameters, written in the genuine ftrain of
claffical majelty, with which he intended to begin one
of his books De Principiis cogitandi.
From the winter of the year 1742, to the day of his
death, his principal refidence was at Cambridge: from
which he was feldom abfent any confiderable'time, ex¬
cept between the years 1759 and 1762; when, on the
opening of the Britifh Mufeum, he took lodgings in
Southampton-row, in order to have recourfe to the
Harleian and other manuferipts there depofited, from
which he made feveral curious extra&s, amounting in
all to a tolerably-fized folio, at prefent in the hands of
Mr Walpole.
About the year 1747, Mr Mafon, the editor of Mr
Gray’s poems, was introduced to him. The former
had written, a year or two before, fome imitations of
Milton’s juvenile poems, viz. A Monody on the death
of Mr Pope, and two pieces, entitled, IlBellicofo, and
II Pacifica, on the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; and the
latter revifed them, at the requeft of a friend. This
laid the foundation of an intimacy, which continued
without interruption to the death of Mr Gray.
About the year 1750, Mr Gray had put his laff
hand to his celebrated Elegy written in a country
church-yard, and had communicated it to his friend
Mr Walpole, whofe good tafte was too much charmed
with it to fuffer him to with-hold the fight of it from
his acquaintance. Accordingly it was Ihown about for
fome
Gray,
G R A [ 3394 ] G R A
fome time in manufcript, and received With all the ap- his dliftance, he was informed, that Mr Warton, of
plaufe it fo juflly merited. * Trinity College, Oxford, was engaged in a work of
A,t laft the publifner of one of the magazines having the fame kind. The undertaking was therefore relin-
obtained a furreptitious copy of it, Mr Gray wrote to quiHied, by mutual confent ; and, foon after, on that
Mr Walpole, defiring that be would put his own ma- gentleman’s defiring a light of the plan, our author
nufeript into the hands of Mr Dodfley, and order him readily fent him a copy of it.
to print it immediately. This was the moft popular Among other fciences, Mr Gray had acquired a
of all our author’s publications. It ran through eleven great knowledge of Gothic archite&ure. He had feen
editions in a very fliort fpace of time; was finely tranf- and accurately ftudied in his youth, while abroad, the
lated into Latin by MefTrs Andy and Roberts; and, Roman proportions on the fpot, both in ancient times.
in the fame year, by Mr Lloyd.
Prom July 1759, to the year 1762, lie generally re-
fided in London, with a view, as we have already ob-
ferved, of having recourfe to the Britilh Mufeum. In
July 1768, his grace the duke of Grafton wrote him
a polite letter, informing him, that his niajeity had
been pleafedto offer to him the profefibrfiiip of Modern
Hiftory in the univerfity of Cambridge, then vacant
by the death of Mr Laurence Brocket. This place
was valuable in itftif, the falary being 4001. a-year; but
what rendered it particularly acceptable to. Mr Gray
was its being given him without any folicitation. He
was indeed remarkably dffinterefted in jail bis purfuits.
Though his income, before this addition, was very
fmall, he never read or wrote with a view of making
his labours ufeful to himf^lf. He may be faid to have
been one of tliofe few perfonages in the annals of lite¬
rature, efpecially in the poetical clafs, who are devoid
of felf-intereft, and at the fame time attentive to ceco-
nomy; and alfo was, among mankind in general, one
of thofe very few oeconomitts, who poflefs that talent,
untinftured with the flighted dain of avarice. When
his circumdanc'es were at the lowed, he gave away fuch
fums in private charity, as would have done credit to
an ampler purfe. But what chiefly deterred him from
feeking any advantage by his literary purfuits, was a
certain degree of pride, which led him to defpife the
idea of being thought an author by profefiion.
However, it is probable, early in life he had
an intention of publifhing an edition of Strabo ; for
his papers contain a great number of notes and geo¬
graphical difquifitions on that author, particularly
with rc-fpedt to that part of Afia which comprehends
Perfia and India. The indefatigable pains which he
took with the writings of Plato, and the quantity of
critical as well as explanatory obfervations which he
has left upon almod every part of his works, plainly
indicate, that no man in Europe was better prepared
to republifli and illuftrate that philofopher, than Mr
Gray. Another work, on which he bedowed uncom-
rnon labour, was the Anthologia. In an interleaved
copy of that colle&ion of Greek epigrams, he has tran-
feribed feveral additional ones, which he feledted in his
' extendve reading; has inferted a great number of cri¬
tical notes and emendations, and fubjoined a copious
index. But, whether he intended this performance for
the prefs or not, is uncertain. The only work, which
he meditated upon, with this direft view from the be¬
ginning, was a hidory of Englifli poetry, upon a plan
Iketched out by Mr Pope. He has mentioned this
himfelf in an advertifement to thofe three fine imita¬
tions of Norfe and Welch poetry, which he gave the
world in the lad edition of his Poems. But, after he
had made fome confiderable preparations for the exe¬
cution of this defign, and Mr Mafon had offered him
and in the works of Palladio. In his later years he
applied himfelf to confider thofe dupendous ftrii&ures
of more modern date that adorn our own country ;
which, if they have not the fame grace, have undoubt¬
edly equal dignity. He endeavoured to trace this
mode of building, from the time it commenced, thro’
its various changes, till it arrived at its perfection in
the reign of Henry VIII. and ended in that of Eliza¬
beth. For this purpofe, he did not fo much depend
upon written accounts, as that internal evidence which
the buildings themfelves give of their refpe&ive anti¬
quity; fince they conftantly furnifli to the well inform¬
ed eye, arms, ornaments, and other marks, by which
their feveral ages may be afeertained. On this account
he applied himfelf to the ftudy of heraldry, as a pre¬
paratory fcience; and has left behind him a number of
genealogical papers, more than fufficient to prove him
a complete mailer of it. By thefe means he arrived at
fo very extraordinary a pitch of fagacity, as to be en¬
abled to pronounce, at firft fight, on the precife time
when every particular part of any of our cathedrals was
ereCled.
But the favourite ftudy of Mr Gray, for the laft ten
years of his life, was natural hiftory, which he then
rather refumed than began; as, by the inftrudfions of
his uncle Antrobus, he was a confiderable botanift at
fifteen. The marginal notes, which he has left on Lin¬
naeus, and other writers on the vegetable, animal, and
foffile kingdoms, are very numerous: but the moft con¬
fiderable are on Hudfon’s Flora Anglica, and the tenth
edition of the Syftsma Natune; which latter he inter¬
leaved and filled almoft entirely. While employed on
zoology* he read Ariftotle’s treatife on that fubjeft
with great care, and explained many difficult paflages
of that obfeure ancient by the lights he had received
from modern naturalifts. In a word, excepting pure
mathematics, and the ftudies dependent on that fcience,
there was hardly any part of human learning, in which
he had not acquired a competent fkill, and in moft of
them a confummate maftery.
To this account of his literary charaifter we may
add, that he had a fine tafte in pamting, prints, gar¬
dening, and mufic; and was moreover a man of good¬
breeding, virtue, and humanity.
He died in 1771; and an edition of his poems, with
memoirs of his life and writings, were publiflied in 410,
in 1775, by Mr Mafon. 'This gentleman, however,
inftead of employing his own pen in drawing Mr Gray’*
character, has adopted one drawn by the Rev. Mr
Temple, redlor of Mamhead in Devonfliire, in a letter
to Mr Bofwell; to whom the public are indebted for
communicating it.
“ Perhaps (fays Mr Temple) he was the raoft
learned man in Europe. He was equally acquainted
with the elegant and profound parts of fcience, and
that
Gray.
G R E [ 3395 ] G R E
Gray, that not fuperficially but thoroughly. He knew every
Greaves, branch of hiitory, both natural and civil; had read all
| ' the original hiltoriaus of England, France, and Italy;
and was a great antiquarian. Criticifm, metaphyfics,
morals, politics, made a principal part of his plan of
iludy; voyages and travels of all forts were his favou¬
rite amufetnent ; and he had a fine tafte in painting,
prints, archite&ure, and gardening. With fuch a
fund of knowledge, his converfation muft have been
equally inftru&ing and entertaining ; but he was alfo
a good man, a well-bred man, a man of virtue and hu¬
manity. There is no chara&er without feme fpeck,
feme imperfection ; and I think the greateil defeat in
his was an affectation in delicacy, or rather effeminacy,
and a vifible faltidioufnefs, or contempt and difdain of
his inferiors in fcience. He alfo had, in fome degree,
that weaknefs which difgufted Voltaire fo much in Mr
Congreve: though he feemed to value others chiefly
according to the progrefs they bad made in knowledge,
yet he could not bear to be confidered himfelf merely
as a man of letters; and though without birth, or for¬
tune, or ftation, his defire was to be looked upon as a
private independent gentleman, who read for his a-
mufement.. Perhaps it may be faid, What fignifies fo
much knowledge, when it produces fo little? Is it
worth taking fo much pains to leave no memorial but
a few poems ? But let it be confidered, that Mr Gray
was, to others, at leaft innocently employed; to him¬
felf, certainly beneficially. His time paffed agreeably;
he was every day making fome new acquifition in
| fcience; his mind was enlarged, his heart foftened, and
j his virtue ftrengthened ; the world and mankind were
fhewn to him without a mafk; and he was taught to
confider every thing as trifling, and unworthy the at¬
tention of a wife man, except the purfuit of know¬
ledge, and the pra&ice of virtue in that ftate wherein
God hath plaped us.”
GRAYLING, in ornithology, a fpecies oT Sal-
mo.
In angling for this fifh your hook muft be armed
upon the fhanks with a very narrow plate of lead, which
Ihould be flendereft at the bent of the hook, that the
bait (which is to be a large grafhopper, the uppermoft
wing of which muft be pulled off) may come over to
it the more eafily. At the point let there be a cad-
bait in a continual motion. The jag-tail, which is a
worm of a pale flefh-colour, with a yellow tag on its
tail, is an excellent bait for the grayling in March and
April.
GREASE, a fwelling and gourdinefs of the legs
©f a horfe. See Farrihry, $ xxxv.
GREATER tone, in mufic. See Tone.
GREAVES (John), an eminent phyfician and an¬
tiquary, was the eldeft fon of John Greaves re&or of
Colemore near Alresford in Hampfhire, and born in
1602. He was educated at Baliol college in Oxford,
from which he removed to Merton. He was after¬
wards, on the foot of his great merit, chofen geo¬
metry profefibr of Greftiam college. His ardent third
of knowledge foon carried him into feveral parts of
Europe, where he eagerly feized every opportunity of
Ij , improving it. His next voyage was into the ealiern
countries ; where nothing remarkable in the heavens,
earth, or even fubterraneous places, feems to have
efcaped his niece obfervation. He, with indefatigable
induftry, and even at the peril of his life, collecled Grefce,
a confiderable number of Arabic, Perfic, and Greek Gretce-
nranuferipts for archbifhop Laud. Of thefe he well"
knew the value, as he was a mafter of the languages
in which they were written. He alfo collected for
that prelate many oriental gems and coins. He took
a more accurate furvey of the pyramids than any tra¬
veller who went before him. On his return from the
Fall, he vifited feveral parts of Italy a fecond time.
During his itay at Rome, he made a particular inquiry
into the true (late of the ancient weights and meafures.
Soon after he had finilhed his fecond voyage, he was
chofen Savilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford. He
was eminently qualified for this profefforfliip, as the
works of ancient and modern aftronomers were fami¬
liar to him. His books relating to oriental learning,
his Pyramidographia, or a defeription of the pyra¬
mids in Egypt, his Epccka Celebriorts, and other cu¬
rious and ufeful pieces, of which Mr Ward has given
us a catalogue, (hew him to have been a great man.
Thofe which he intended to publifh would have ftiewn
him to be a greater ; but he was Hopped in his great
career by death, in 1652.
GREBE, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
GREECE, the prefent Rumelia, and in many re-
fpefts one of the moft defervedly celebrated countries
in the world, was anciently bounded on the north by
Macedonia, and the river Strymon ; on the weft by the
Ionian fea ; on the fouth by the Mediterranean ; and
on the call by the Egeau fea and Archipelago. It
extended from the Strymon, by which it was parted
from Thrace, to the promontory of Tenarus, the
fouthmoft point of the Peloponnefus, now theMorea, ar
bout 6° 20' of latitude, or nearly 440 EnglHh miles,
and in breadth from call to weft about 359 miles.
The general .names by which the inhabitants of this
country were known to the ancieuts, were thofe of
Graioi, ot Graicoi, from whence the name of Greece
is plainly derived. Thefe names are thought come
from Graecus, the father, or (according to fome) the
fon, of Theflalus, who gave name to Theflaly ; but
fome modern critics chufe to derive it from Ragau, the
fame with Reu, the fon of Peleg, by the tranfpofitior*
#f a letter to fofte-n the found.—Thefe names were
afterwards changed for Ached and Hellenes ; the firft,
as is fuppofed, from Acheeus, the fon of Xuthus, the fon of
Hellen, and fatherof Ion; or, according tothefable, the
fon of Jupiter: theotherfrom Hellen, above-mentioned,
the fon of Deucalion, and father of Dorns, from whom
cSme the Dores, afterwards a famous nation among
the Greeks.—Another name by which the Greeks
were known in fome parts of the country, was that
of Pelafgi, which the Arcadians, the moft ancient
people in Greece, deduced from their pretended foun¬
der Pelafgus ; who is faid to have got fuch footing in
Peloponnefus, that the whole peninfula from him was
called Pelafgia. But the moft ancient name of all is
univerfally allowed to have been that of Tones, which
the Greeks themfelves derived from Ion the fon of
Xuthus ; or, as the fable hath it, of Apollo, by Cre-
ufa the daughter of Erichtheus thegrandfon of Deu¬
calion. Jofephus, however, affirms, that their origi¬
nal is of much older date 3 and that Javan, the foil of
Japhet, and grandfon of Noah, was the firft who-
peopled thefe countries; which Bocharthath alforen-
dereii
G R E [ 3396 ] G R E
Greece, dered very probable. It is true, indeed, that among
— "1' the Greeks themfelves, only the Athenians, and fuch
colonies as fprung from them, were called lones ; but
it is alfo plain beyond exception, that other nations
gave this name to all the inhabitants of Greece.
The inhabitants of Greece in the firft ages, even
by the confefiion of their own hiftorians, appear to
have been favages fcarce a degree removed from brutes.
They lived indifferently on every fruit, herb, or root
that came in their way ; and lay either in the open
fields, or at beft (heltered themfelves in dens, caves,
and hollow trees ; the country itfelf in the mean time
remaining one continued uncultivated defart. —The firft
improvement they made in their way of living, was
the exchanging of their old food for the more whole-
fome acorns, building huts for themfelves to deep in,
and covering their bodies with the Ikins of beafts. For
all this, it feems, they were beholden to Pelafgius a-
bove-mentioned, (fuppofed by feme to be Peleg fpoke
of in Scripture), and who was highly reverenced by
them on that account.—This reformation in their way
of life, however, it feems wrought none in their man¬
ners. On the contrary, they who had nothing to fight
for but a hole to deep in, began now to envy and rob
one another of thefe dender acquifitions. This, in
procefs of time, put them under a necefiity of joining
themfelves into companies under fome head, that they
might either more falfely plunder their neighbours,
or preferve what they had got. Laws they had none,
except that of the fword : fo that thofe only lived in
fafety w ho inhabited the moft barren and craggy pla¬
ces ; and hence Greece for a long time had no fettled
inhabitants, the weakeft being always turned out by
the drongeft. Their gigantic fize and ftrength, if we
may believe Plutarch, added fo much to their infolence
and cruelty, that they feemed to glory in committing
the greateft a&s of violence and barbarity on thofe
that unhappily fell into their hands.
The next advance towards civilization, was their
forming themfelves into regular focieties, to cultivate
the lands, and build themfelves towns and cities for
their fafety. Their original barbarity and mutual vio¬
lences againft each other naturally prevented them from
uniting as one nation, or even into any confiderable
community ; and hence the great number of ftates in¬
to which Greece was originally divided. The moft
remarkable of thefe final! principalities mentioned in
hiftory are the following:—In Peloponnefuswere thofe
of Sicyon, Argos, and Meffenia, Achaia Propria,
Arcadia, and Laconia. In Grecia Propria, (that
part of Greece which lay without Peloponnefus), were
thofe of Attica, Megara, Boeotia, Locris, Epichne-
midia, Doris, Phocis, Locris, Ozolaea, and iEtolia.
In Epirus were the Moloffi, Amphilochi, Cafiiopaei,
Draeopes, Chaoces, Threfpotii, Almeni, and Acar-
nani. In Theffaly were thofe of Theffaliotis, Efti-
otis, Pelafgiotis, Magnefia, and Phthia.—All thefe
have at one time or other been feverally governed by
kings of their own, though w'e only find the names of
many of them mentioned in the hiftories of the more
confiderable kingdoms of Sparta, Attica, Thebes,
&c.—The ereftion of thefe kingdoms, however, for
fame time, did not much alter the cafe; the inhabi¬
tants of the new kingdoms plundered and deftroyed
one another without mercy. Attica was the only.place
in any degree free from thefe incurfions, beeaufe it Greece. -
was naturally deftitute of every thing that could in- ————
yite a plundering enemy; but thofe cities fared much
worfe which were fituated in the fea-coafts ; becaufe
they were in continual danger of being plundered ei¬
ther by fea or land: for pirates at that time did not
lefsinfeft all thofe feas, than robbers did the land. And
this was one main caufe why moft of the ancient cities
of Greece were fituated at fome confiderable diftance
from the fhore ; but even in thefe, as all their fafety
confifted In the refiftance they could make againft an
invader, their inhabitants were under a neceffity of go¬
ing eonftantly armed, and being ever on their guard.
Another mifehief arifing from thefe continual pira¬
cies and robberies was, that they occafioned the far
greater part of the lands to lie uncultivated, fo that
the people only planted and fowed as much as was
barely neceffary for their prefent fupport; and where
there was fuch an univerfal negledl of agriculture,
there could be as little room for any difeoveries in o-
ther ufeful arts, and trades. Hence, when other na¬
tions, as the Jews, Egyptians, Midianites, Phoenici¬
ans, &c. had improved themfelves to a very high de¬
gree, the Greeks feem to have been utter ftrangers t»
every ufeful art.
During this period of favage barbarity, the mdft
renowned Grecian heroes, as Hercules, Thefeus, &c.
performed their exploits; which, however exagger¬
ated by poetic fidtion, no doubt had a foundation in
truth. Some indeed are of opinion that the Grecian
heroes are entirely fictitious, and their exploits de¬
rived from thofe of the Hebrew worthies, fuch as Sam-
fon, Gideon, &c. Yet, confidering the extreme de¬
gree of barbarity which at that time prevailed through¬
out Greece, it feems not at all improbable that fome
perfons of extraordinary ftrength and courage might
undertake the caufe of the oppreffed, and travel about
like the more modern knights-errant in queft of ad¬
ventures.
The firft expedition in which we find the Greeks
united, was that againft Troy, the particulars of which
are recited under the article Troy. Their fuccefs
here (which happened about 1184 B. C.) coft them
very dear; vaft numbers of their braveft warriors be¬
ing flain; great numbers of the furvivors being call
away in their return ; and many of thofe who had the
good luck to get back again, being foon after mur¬
dered, or driven out of their country. It is probable,
however, that their having ftaid for fuch a long time
in Afia, might contribute to civilize the Greeks fome-
what fooner than what they otherwife would have
been ; and accordingly from this time, we find their
hiftory fomewhat lefs obfeure, and as it were begin-
to emerge out of darknefs. The continual wars, in¬
deed, in which they were engaged among themfelves*
no doubt, for a long time, prevented them from ma¬
king any confiderable progrefs in thofe arts in which
they afterwards made fo great progrefs. Thefe wars,
which indeed never ceafed as long as the Greeks pre-
ferved their liberty, rendered them brave, and /killed
in the military art, above all other nations; but at the
fame time they effeftually prevented them from making
permanent conquefts, and confined them within the
bounds of their own country ; while the different ftates
were one way or other fo equally balanced, that fcarce
one
G R E [ 3397 ] G R E
Greece, one of them was able perfedUy to fubdue another. The
Spartans, however, having, with great difficulty, re¬
duced the kingdom of Meffene, and added its terri¬
tories to their own, became the leading people in
Greece. Their fuperiority was long difputed by A-
thens ; but the Peloponnefian war at lafl determined
that point in favour of the Spartans, when the city
of Athens was taken, and its walls demoliffied by Ly-
fander the Spartan general. See Attica, n° 164.
—By the battle of Leudlra, the Spartans loft that
fuperiority which they had maintained for 500 years,
and which now devolved on the Thebans. After the
death of Epaminondas, the celebrated Theban gene¬
ral, however, as nfljjperfon was found poffefied of his
abilities, the Theoans were again obliged to yield
the fuperiority to the Spartans. But by this time
the Greeks had become acquainted with the luxuries
and elegancies of life ; and all the rigour of their ori¬
ginal laws could not prevent them from valuing thefe
as highly as other people. This did not indeed abate
their valour, but it heightened their mutual animofi-
ties ; at the fame time that, for the fake of a more ea-
fy and comfortable life, they became more difpofed to
fubmit to a mafter. The Periians, whofe power they
had long dreaded, and who were unable to refift them
by force of arms, at laft found out (by the advice of
Alcibiades) the proper method of reducing the Gre¬
cian power; namely, by affifting them by turns, and
fupplying one ftate with money to fight againft another,
till they fhould all be fo much reduced, that they
might become an eafy prey. Thus the Greeks were
weakened, though the Perfians did not reap any bene¬
fit from their weaknefs. Philip of Macedon entered
into the fame political views; and partly by intrigue,
partly by force, got himfelf declared Generahlfi-
mo of Greece. His fuccefibr Alexander the Great
completed their fubje&ion ; and by deftroying the ci¬
ty of Thebes, and exterminating its inhabitants, ftruck
fuch a terror throughout Greece, that he was as
fully obeyed by all the ftates, as by any of the reft of
his fubje&s. During his abfence in Perfia, however,
they attempted to (hake off the Macedonian yoke, but
were quelled by his general Antipater. The news of
Alexander’s death was to them a matter of the utmoft
joy; but their mutual animofities prevented them
from joining in any foil’d plan for the recovery of their
liberties, and hence they continued to be oppreffedby
Alexander’s fucceffors, or other tyrants, till Aratus,
an Achaean, about 268 B. C. formed a defign of fet-
ting his country free from thefe oppreffors. He per-
fuaded a number of the fmall republics to enter into a
league for their own defence, which was called the
dchaan league; and notwitbftaading that the repu¬
blics, taken fingly, had very little ftrength, they not
only maintained their independency, but foon became
formidable when united. This affociation continued
to become daily more and more powerful; but received
a fevere check from Cleomenes, king of Sparta, which
obliged them to call in Antigonus to their aififtance.
This prince overcame Cleomenes at the battle of Sellafia,
and afterwards made himfelf mafter of Sparta. Thus he
became a more formidable enemy than the one he had
conquered, and the recovery of the Grecian liberties
was incomplete.
Soon after this, the Greeks began to feel the weight
Vot. V.
of a power more formidable than any which they had Greece
yet experienced; namely, that of the Romans. That '
infidious and haughty republic firft intermeddled with
the Grecian affairs, under pretence of fetting them at
liberty from the oppreffion of Philip of Macedon.
This, by a proper union among themfelves, they might
have accomplilhed: but in this they afted as though
they had been infatuated; receiving with the utmoft
joy the decree of the Roman conful, who declared
them free ; without confidering, that he who had thus
given them liberty, might take it away at his pleafure.
This leffon, however, they were foon taught, by the
total redudfion of their country to a Roman province ;
yet this can fcarce be called a misfortune, when we
look back to their hiftory, and confider their outra¬
ges upon one anc;her: nor can we fympathife with
them for the lofs of that liberty which they only made
ufe of to fill their country with [laughter and blood¬
ied. After their conqueft by the Romans, they
made no united effort to recover their liberty. They
continued in quiet fubje&ion till the beginning of
the 15th century. About that time, they began
to fuffer under the tyranny of the Turks, and their
fufferings were completed by the taking of Conftanti-
nople in 1453. Since that time, they have groaned
under the yoke of a moft defpotic government; fo that
all traces of their former valour, ingenuity, and learn¬
ing, are now in a manner totally extinft.
Modern Greece comprehends Macedonia; Albania,
now called Arnaut; Epirus; Theffaly, now Jana; A-
chaia, nowLivadia; the Peloponnefus, now Morea; to¬
gether with the illands on its coaft, and in the Archi¬
pelago. The continent of Greece is feated betwixt
the 36th and 43d degrees of north latitude ; and be¬
tween the 19th and 27th degrees of longitude, eaft
of London. To the north it is bounded, by Bulga¬
ria and Servia, from which it is divided by a ridge
of mountains; to the fouth, by the Mediterranean fea;
to the eaft, by Romania and the Archipelago; and to
the weft, by the Adriatic, or gulph of Venice. Its
length is faid to be about four hundred miles, and
its utmoft breadth about three hundred and fifty.
The air is extremely temperate and healthy : and the
foil fruitful, though badly cultivated, yielding corn ;
wine, delicious fruits, and abounding with cattle, fowls,
and venifon. As to religion, Chriftianity was planted
in Greece foon after the death of our Saviour, and
flouriftied there for many ages in great purity; but
fince the Greeks became fubjed to the Turkilh yoke,
they have funk into the moft deplorable ignorance, in
confequence of the flavery and thraldom under which
they groan, and their religion is now greatly corrupt¬
ed. It is indeed little better than a heap of ridicu¬
lous ceremonies and abfurdities. The head of the
Greek church is the patriarch of Conftantinople; who
ischofen by the neighouring archbifliops and metro¬
politans, and confirmed by the emperor or grand vizir.
He is a perfon of great dignity, being the head and
dire&or of the eaftern church. The other patriarchs
are thofe of Jerufalem, Antioch, and Alexandria,
Mr. Tournefort tells us, that the patriarchates are
now generally fet to fale, and beftowed upon thofe
who are the higheft bidders. The patriarchs, me¬
tropolitans, archbilhops, and bifhops, are always cho-
fen from among the Caloyers or Greek monks. Bs-
19 M fore
G R E [ 3398 ] G R E
Greece. fore the patriarchs receive their patents and the caftan,
which is a veft of linfey-woolfey, or fome other fluff,
prefented by the grand fignioi to ambaffadors and o-
ther perfons newly invefted with fome contiderable dig¬
nity, they are obliged to make large prefents to tli£
vizir, &c. The income of the patriarch of Conftan-
tinople is faid to amount to no lefs than one hundred
and twenty thoufand guilders, of which he pays the
one half by way of annual tribute to the Ottoman
Porte, adding fix thoufand guilders befides as a pre-
fent at the feaft of Bairam. The next perfon to a
bifhop among the clergy is an archimandrite, who is
the director of one or more convents, which are cal¬
led mandren ; then come the abbot, the arch-prieft,
the priefl, the deacon, the under-deacon, the chanter,
and the lecturer. The fecular cletgy are fubje&ed
to no rules, and never rife higher than high-prieft.
They are allowed to marry once 5 but it muft be with
a virgin, and before they are ordained. They have
neither glebe nor tythes, but depend on the perqui-
fites that arife from their office ; and they feldom preach
but in Lent. The Greeks have few nunneries; but a
great many convents of monks, who are all priefts,
and, (Indents excepted, obliged to follow fome han¬
dicraft employment, and lead a very auftere life. The
Greeks deny the fupremacy of the pope, and abhor
the worfhip of images ; but have a multitude of pic¬
tures of faints in their churches, whom they pray to
as mediators. Their fafts are very fevere. They be¬
lieve alfo in the doftrine of tranfubftantiation, and
that the Holy Ghoft does not proceed from the Son.
They admit not of purgatory, fays Mr. Thevenot :
but yet they allow a third place, where they fay the
bleffed remain, in expectation of the day of judgment.
At mafs they confecrate with leavened bread; and
communicate under both kinds, as well laics as priefts,
and as well women and children as men. When they
carry the facrament to the fick, they do not pro-
ftrate themfelves before it, nor expofe it to be adored:
neither do they carry it in proceffion, or have any
particular feaft in honour of it. Baptifm is perform¬
ed among them by plunging the whole body of the
child thrice into water. Immediately after baptifm,
they give it confirmation tind the communion ; and
feven days after that, it undergoes the ceremony of
ablution. When a prieft is married, among other ce¬
remonies, the bridegroom and bride drink each two
glaffes of wine ; then the glafs !* given to the prieft,
who merrily drinks off the reft of the wine, and break-
ing the glafs, fays, So may the bridegroom break the
virginity of the bride. As to the character of the
modern Greeks, they are faid to be very covetous, by-
rocritical, treacherous, great pederafts, and at the
ame time revengeful to the higheft degree ; but very
fuperftitjous. They are fo much defpifed by the Turks,
that thefe do not value even a Greek who turns Ma¬
hometan. The Turks are remarkable for their taci¬
turnity ; they never ufe any unneceflary words: but
the Greeks, on the contrary, are very talkative and
lively. The Turks generally pra&ife what their re¬
ligion enjoins, but the Greeks do not; and their mi-
fery puts them upon a thoufand mean fhifts and fcan-
dalous practices, authorized by bad example, and
perpetuated from father to fon. The Greek women
have fine features and beautiful complexions: their
countenances ftill very much refemble thofe of the an¬
cient Greek ftatues.
GREEK, or Grecian, any thing belonging to
ancient Greece.
The Greek language, as preferved in the writings
of the celebrated authors of antiquity, as Homer, He-
fiod, Demofthenes, Ariftotle, Plato, Xenophon, &c.
has a great variety of terms and expreffions, fuitable
to the genius and occafions of a polite and learned
people, who had a tafte for arts and fciences. In it,
proper names are fignificative; which is the reafon that
the modern languages borrow fo many terms from it.
When any new invention, inftrument, machine, or the
like, is difeovered, recourfe is g^erally had to the
Greek for a name to it ; the facility wherewith words
are there compounded, affording fuch as will be ex-
preffive of its ufe: fueb-are, barometer, hygrometer,
microfcope, telefcope, thermometer, &c. But of all
fciences, medicine moft abounds w ith fuch terms; as
diaphoretic, diagnofis, diarrhoea, hasmorrhage, hy¬
drophobia, phthifis, atrophy, &c. Befides the copi-
oufnefs and fignificancy of the Greek, wherein it ex¬
cels moft, if not all, other languages, it has alfo three
numbers, viz. a Angular, dual, and plural: alfo a-
bundance of tenfes in its verbs, which makes a variety
in difeourfe, prevents a certain drynefs that alw ays ac¬
companies too great an uniformity, and renders that
language peculiarly proper for all kinds of verfe. The
ufe of the participles, of the aorift and preterite, toge¬
ther with the compound words already mentioned, giva
it a peculiar force and brevity without taking any
thing from its perfpicuity.
It is no eafy matter to afiign the precife difference
between the modern and ancient Greek; which con-
fifts in the terminations of the nouns, pronouns, verbs,
&c. not unlike what obtains between fome of the di¬
alers of the Italian or Spanifh. There are alfo in the
modern Greek many new words, not to be met with
in the ancient. We may therefore diftinguifh three
ages of the Greek tongue : the firft of which ends at
the time when Conftantinople became the capital of
the Roman empire ; the fecond lafted from that period
to the faking of Conftantinople by the Turks; and
the third, from that time to this.
Greek Bible. See Br BEE.
Greek Church. See Greece.
Greek Monks and Nuns, of whatever order, con-
fider St Bafil as their founder and common father,
and efteem it the higheft crime to deviate in the leaft
from his conftitutions. There are feveral beautiful
convents with churches, in which the monks perform
divine fervice day and night. Some of the monks are
coenobites, or live together, wear the fame habit, eat
at the fame table, and perform the fame exercifes and
employments.
GREEN, one of the original prifmatic colours,
exhibited by the refraftion of the rays of light. See
Optics.
Green, among painters. See Couoxjk-Making,
n° 26.
Green Cloth, a board or court of juftice held
in the compting-houfe of the kings houfehokl, com-
pofed of the Lord Steward and officers under him,
who fit daily. To this court is committed the charge
and overfight of the king’s houfehold in matters of
juftice
ORE [ 3399 ] G R E
Green, juftice and government, with a power to correft all
reenland. offenders, and to maintain the peace of the verge, or
jurifdi&ion of the court-royal ; which is every way
about 200 yards from the lalt gate of the palace
where his majefty refides.
It takes its name, board of green cloth, from a green
cloth fpread over the board where they fit.
Without a warrant firtl obtained from this court,
none of the king’s fervants can be arrefted for debt.
. Clerks of the Green Cloth are two officers of the
board of green cloth, who appoint the diet of the king
and his houfehold ; and keep all records, legers, and
papers relating thereto ; made up bills, parcels, and de¬
bentures for falaries, and provifiohs and neceffaries for
the officers of the buttery, pantry, cellar, &c.
They alfo wait upon foreign princes-when enter¬
tained by his majefty.
Green-/'/»c/> in ornithology, the Engliflr name
of the greenfth fringilla, with the wings and tail va¬
riegated with yellow. See Fringilla.
Gret n -Houfe, or' Confervatory, a hpufe in a gar¬
den, contrived for ihelteiing and preferving the moft
curious and tender exotic plants, which in our climate
will not bear to be expofed to the open air, efpecially
during the winter feafon. Thefe are generally large
and beautiful ftruftures, equally ornamental and ufe-
ful.
Green-S/Viw, the name of an ancient cuftom
within the manor of Writtel in the county of Effex
in England; which is, that every tenant whofe fore¬
door opens to Greenbury, (hall pay an half-penny
yearly to the lord, by the name of green-fiver.
Green Wax, is ufed where eftates are delivered to
the fheriffs out of the exchequer, under the feal of
that court, made in green wax, to be levied in the
feveral counties. This word is mentioned the 43d
flat. Ed. III. c. 9. and 7 Hen. IV. c. 4.
GREENLAND, a general name by which are
denoted the moft eafterly parts of America, ftretching
towards the north pole, and likewife fome iflands to
the northward of the continent of Europe, lying in
very high latitudes.
This country is divided into Weft and Eaft Green-
i land.—Weft Greenland is now determined by our
fft lateft maps to be a part of the continent of America,
efcrlbed^ though upon what authority is not very clear. That
part of it which the Europeans have any knowledge of
is bounded on the weft by Baffin’s bay, on the fouth by
Davis’s ttraits, and on the eaft by the northern part
of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a very mountainous
country, and fome parts of it fo high that they may
be difeerned thirty leagues off at fea. The inland
mountains, hills, and rocks, are covered with perpetual
Tnow: but the low lands on the fea-fide are clothed
with verdure in the fummer feafon. The coaft a-
bounds with inlets, bays, and large rivers; and is
furrounded with a vaft number of iflands of different
dimenfions. In a great many places however, on the
eaftern coaft efpecially, the fhore is inacceffible by
reafon of the floating mountains of ice. The princi¬
pal river, called Baal, falls into the fea in the 64th
degree of latitude, where the firft Daniih lodge was
built in 1721 ; and has been navigated above 40 miles
up the country.
Weft Greenland was firft peopled by Europeans in
the eighth century. At that time a company of preenland,
Icelanders, headed by one Ericke Rande, were by
accident driven on the coaft. On his return he re- ^^ ^
prefented the country in fuch a favourable light, that a colony ^
fome families again followed him thither, where they from Ice-
foon became a thriving colony, and bellowed on their ‘and-
new habitation the name of Greenland, or Greenland,
on account of its verdant appearance. This colony was
converted to Chriftianity by a mifi^nary from Norway,
fent thither by the celebrated Olaf, the firft Norwe¬
gian monarch who embraced the true religion. The
Greenland fettlement continued to inereafe and thrive
under his protection ; and, in a little time, the coun¬
try was provided with many towns, churches, con¬
vents, bilhops, &c. under the jurifdiction of the
archbifhop of Drontheim. A confiderable commerce
was carried on between Greenland and Norway ; ami
a regular intercourfe maintained between the two
countries till the year 1406, when the laft bifhop 3
was fent over. From that time all correfpondence --h corre-
was cut off, and all knowledge of Greenland has been fi-dndence
buried in oblivion. denly'cur "
This ft range and abrupt ceffation of all trade and off.
intercourfe has been attributed to various caufts ; but
the moft probable is the following. The colony, from
its firft fettlement, had been haraffed by the natives,
a barbarous and favage people, agreeing in cuftoms,
garb, and appearance, with the Esquimaux found a-
bout Hudfon’s Bay. This nation, called Schreilings,
at length prevailed againft the Iceland fettlers who in¬
habited the weftern diftrid, and exterminated them in Colonyfnp-
the 14th century : infomuch, that when their brethren pofed to be
of the eaftern diftrid. came to their affiftance, they exte‘’mina-
found nothing alive but fome cattle and flocks of ftieep te ‘
running wild about the country. Perhaps they them-
felves afterwards experienced the fame fate, and were
totally deftroyed by thefe Schreilings, whofe defeend-
ants ftill inhabit the weltern parts of Greenland, and
from tradition confirm this conjedure. They affirm
that the houfes and villages whofe ruins ftill appear,,
were inhabited by a nation of ftrangers, whom their
anceftors deftroyed. There are reafons, however,
for believing that there may be ftill fome defeendants
of the ancient Iceland colony remaining in the eaftern
diftrid, though they cannot be vifited by land, on ac¬
count of the ftupendous mountains, perpetually cover¬
ed with fnow, which divide the two parts of Green¬
land ; while they have been rendered inacceffible by
fea, by the vaft quantity of ice driven from Spitzber-
gen, or Eaft Greenland. One would imagine that
there muft have been fome confiderable alteration in the
northern parts of the world fince the 15th century, fo
that the coaft of Greenland is now become almoft to¬
tally inacceffible, though formerly vifited with very
little difficulty. It is alfo natural to afk. By what
means the people of the eaftern colony furmounted
the above-mentioned obftacles when they went to the
affiftance of their weftern friends, how they returned
to their own country, and in what manner hiftorians
learned the fuccefs of their expedition ? Concerning
all this we have very little fatisfadory information.
All that can be learned from the moft authentic re- 5
cords is, that Greenland was divided into two diftrids, Acc“unt pf
called Wef Bygd, and Eaft Bygd: that the weftern di-the colony*
vifion contained four pariflres, and 100 villages: that
19 M 2 the
G R E
Greenland, the eaftern diftrift was Hill more flourKhing, as being
nearer to Iceland, fooner fettled, and more frequented
by {hipping from Norway. There are alfo many ac¬
counts, though mod of them romantic and {lightly
attefted, which render it probable that part of the ea¬
ftern colony {fill fubfifts, who, at fome time or other,
may have given the imperfedl relation above-mention¬
ed. This colony, in ancient times, certainly compre¬
hended twelve extensive parifhes, one hundred and
ninety villages, a birtiop’s fee, and two monafteries.
The prefent inhabitants of the weftern diftrift are en¬
tirely ignorant of this part, from which they are di¬
vided by rocks, mountains, and deferts, and ftill more
effetfually by their apprehenfion : for they believe the
eaftern Greenlanders to be a cruel, barbarous nation,
that deftroy and eat all ftrangers who fall into their
hands. About a century after all intercourfe between
6 Norway and Greenland had ceafed, feveral (hips were
Attempts fent fucceffively by the kings of Denmark, in order to
to redifeo- difeover the eaftern diftriif ; but all of them mifear-
ver the r;ecj. Among thefe adventurers, Mogens Heinfon,
country. after having furmounted many difficulties and dangers,
got fight of the land, which, however, he could not
approach. At his return, he pretended that the {hip
was arrefted in the middle of her courfe, by certain
rocks of loadftone at the bottom of the fea. The
fame year, 1576, in which this attempt was made,
has been rendered remarkable by the voyage of Cap¬
tain Martin Frobilher, fent upon the fame errand by
Queen Elizabeth. He likewife deferied the land ; but
could not reach it, and therefore returned to England;
yet not before he had failed fixty leagues in the ftrait
which ftill retains his name, and landed on fcveral if-
lands, where he had fome communication with the na¬
tives. He had likewife taken pofieffion of the country
in the name of Queen Elizabeth ; and brought away
fome pieces of heavy black (tone, from which the re¬
finers of London extra&ed a certain proportion of gold.
In the enfuing fpring, he undertook a fecond voyage,
at the head of a fmall fquadron, equipped at the ex¬
pence of the public ; entered the ftraits a fecond time;
difeovered upon an ifland a gold and filver mine ; be¬
llowed names upon different bays, iftands, and head¬
lands ; and brought away a lading of ore, together
with two natives, a male and a female, whom the
Englifh kidnapped.
Such was the fuccefs of this voyage, that another
armament was fitted out under the aufpices of Admiral
Frobilher, confilling of fifteen fail, including a confider-
ablenumber of foldiers, miners, fmelters,carpenters,and
bakers,to remain all the winter near the mines in a wood¬
en fort, the different pieces of which they carried out in
G R E
the tranfports. They met with boifterous weather, Greenland,
impenetrable fogs, and violent currents upon the coaft “
of Greenland, which retarded their operations until
the feafon was far advanced. Part of their wooden
fort was loft at fea; and they had neither provifion
nor fuel fufficient for the winter. The admiral there¬
fore determined to return with as much ore as he could
procure : of this they obtained large quantities out of
a new mine, to which they gave the name of theCoun-
tefs of Suflex. They likewife built an houfe of ftone
and lime, provided with ovens ; and here, with a view
to conciliate the affe&ion of the natives, they left a
quantity of fmall morrice-bells, knives, beads, look-
ing-glaffes, leaden pictures, and other toys, together
with feveral loaves of bread. They buried the timber
of the fort where it could be eafily found next year;
and fowed corn, peafe, and other grain, by way of
experiment, to know what the country would produce.
Having taken thefe precautions, they failed from thence
in the beginning of September ; and after a month’s
ftormy pafiage, arrived in England: but this noble de-
fign was never profecuted.
Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, being defirous of
difeovering the old Greenland fettlcment, fent three
{hips thither, under the command of Captain Godflce
Lindenow; who is faid to have reached the eaft coaft
of Greenland, where he traded with the favage inha¬
bitants, fuch as they are ftill found in the weftern dif-
trift, but faw no figns of a civilized people. Had he
a&ually landed in the eaftern divifion, he muft have
perceived fome remains of the ancient colony, even in
the ruins of their convents and villages. Lindenow
kidnapped two of the natives, who were conveyed to
Copenhagen ; and the fame cruel fraud * was prac-
tifed by other two {hips which failed into Davis’s
Straits, where they difeovered divers fine harbours*
and delightful meadows covered with verdure. In fome
places they are faid to have found a confiderable quan¬
tity of ore, every hundred pounds of which yielded
twenty-fix ounces of filver. The fame Admiral Lin¬
denow made another voyage to the coaft of Greenland:
in the year 1606, direftinghis courfe to the weftward
of Cape Farewell. He coafted along the Straits of
Davis; and having made fome obfervations on the
face of the country, the harbours and iflands, return¬
ed to Denmark. Garden Richards, being detached
with two {hips on the fame difeovery, deferied the high
land on the eaftern fide of Greenland ; but was hinder¬
ed by the ice from approaching the fhore.
Other expeditions of the fame nature have been plan¬
ned and executed with the fame bad fuccefs, under the
aufpices of a Danifti company of merchants. Two
fhips
[ 34°° ]
* Nothing can be more inhuman and repugnant to the diftates of common juftice, than this practice of tearing away poor crea¬
tures from their country, their familes, and connexions : unlefs we fuppofethem altogether deftitute of natural affeXion ; and that this
was not the cafe with thofe poor Greenlanders, fome of whom were brought alive to Copenhagen, appears from the whole tenor of
their conduX, upon their firfl: capture, and during their confinement in Denmark. When firft captivated, they rent the air with
their cries and lamentations : they even leaped into the fea, and, when taken on board, for fome time refufed all fuftenance. Their
eyes were continually turned towards their dear country, and their faces always bathed in tears. Even the countenance of his Da-
nilh majefty, and the carefles of the court and people, could not alleviate their grief. One of them was perceived to (bed tears al¬
ways when he faw an infant-in the mother’sarms; a circumftance from whence it was naturally concluded, that be had left his wife-
with a young child in Greenland. Two of them went to fea in their little canoes, in hope of reaching Greenland : but one of them:
was retaken. Other two made the fame attempt: but were driven by a ftorm on the coaft of Schonen, where they were apprehend¬
ed by the peafants, and reconveyed to Copenhagen. One of them afterwards died of a fever, caught in filhing pearl, during the
winter, for the governor of Kolding. The reft lived fome years in Denmark : but at length, feeing no profgeX of beings able, to
revifit their native country, they funk into a kind of melancholy diforder, and expired.
G R E
[ 3401 ]
G R E
• (hips returned from the weftern part of Greenland
* loaded with a kind of yellow fand, fuppofed to con¬
tain a large proportion of gold. This being aflayed
by the goldfmiths of Copenhagen, was condemned as
ufelefs, and thrown overboard : but from a fmall tpian-
tity of this fand, which was referved as a curiolity,
fogs that are equally difagreeable and unhealthy.Greenland.
Near the ftiore, and in the bays and inlets, the low
land is clothed with the moft charming verdure; but
the inland mountains are perpetually covered with ice
and fnow. To the northward of the 68th degree of
latitude the cold is prodigioufly intenfe; and towards
an expert chemift afterwards extrafted a quantity of the end of Auguft all the coaft is covered with ice,
pure gold. The captain, who brought home this ad¬
venture, was fo chagrined at his difappointment, that
he died of griefy* without having left any diredlions
concerning the place where the fand had been difeo-
vered. In the year 1654, Henry Muller, a rich Dane,
equipped a veflel under the command of David de Nel-
les, who failed to the weft coaft of Greenland, from
which he carried off three women of the country. Ci¬
ther efforts have been made, under the encouragement
of the Danifh king, for the difeovery and recovery of
the old Iceland colony in Greenland : but all of them
mifearried, and people began to look upon fuch expe¬
ditions as wild and chimerical. At length the Green¬
land company at Bergen in Norway, tranfported a
colony to the weftern coaft, about the 64th degree
of latitude ; and thefe Norwegians failed in the year
1712, accompanied by the Reverend Hans Egede, to
whofe care, ability, and precifion, we owe the beft
and moft authentic account of modern Greenland.
This gentleman endeavoured to reach the eaftern di-
ftridt, by coafting fouthwards, and advanced as far as
the States Promontory : but the feafon of the year,
and continual ftorms, obliged him to return ; and as
he could not even find the Strait of Frobifiier, he con¬
cluded that no fuch place ever exifted. In the year
1724, a (hip, being equipped by the company, failed
on this difeovery, with a view to land on the eaft fide
oppofite to Iceland ; but the vaft (hoals of ice, which
barricadoed that part of the coaft, rendered this fcheme
impracticable. His Danifh majefty, in the year 1728,
caufed horfes to be tranfported to Greenland, in hope
that the fettlers might by their means travel over land
to the eaftern diftridt ; but the icy mountains were
found impaffable. Finally, lieutenant Richards, in
a (hip which had wintered near the new Daniih colo¬
ny, attempted, in his return to Denmark, to land on
the eaftern (hore; but all his endeavours proved abor¬
tive.
Mr Egede is of opinion, that the only prafticable
method of reaching that part of the country, will be
to coaft north-about in fmall veffels, between the great
flakes of ice and the (hore; as the Greenlanders have
declared, that the currents continually ruffling from
the bays and inlets, and running fouth-weftwards a-
long the (hore, hinder the ice from adhering to the
land ; fo that .there is al ways a channel open, through
which never thaws till April or May, and fometimes
not till the latter end of June. Nothing can exhibit a
more dreadful, and at the fame time a more dazzling
appearance, than thofe prodigious maffes of ice that
furround the whole coaft in various forms, reflefting n
multitude of colours from the fun-beams, and calling
to mind the enchanted feenes of romance. Such pro-
fpedls they yield in calm weather; but when the wind
begins to blow, and the waves to rife in vaft billows,
the violent (hocks of thofe pieces of ice dafhing againft
one another, fill the mind with horror.— Greenland is
feldom vifited with thunder and lightning, but the
Aurora Borealis is very frequent and bright. At the
time of new and full moon, the tide rifes and falls
upon this coaft about three fathoms ; and it is re¬
markable, that the fprings and fountains on (hore
rife and fall with the flux and reflux of the ocean.
The foil of Greenland varies like that of all other
mountainous countries. The hills are very barren,
being indeed frozen throughout the whole year; but
the valleys and low grounds, efpecially near the fea,
are rich and fruitful. The ancient Norwegian chro¬
nicles inform us, that Greenland formerly produced a
great number of cattle; and that confiderable quantities
ofbutter and cheefe were exported to Norway ; and, on
account of their peculiar excellency, fet apart for the
king’s ufe. The fame hiftories inform us, that fome
parts of the country yielded excellent wheat; and that
large oaks were found here, which carried acorns as
big as apples. Some of thefe oaks (till remain in the
fouthern parts, and in many places the marks of
ploughed land are eafily perceived. At prefent,
however, the country is deftitute of corn and cattle,
though in many places it produces excellent pafture;
and, if properly cultivated, would probably yield grain
alfo. Mr Egede fowed fome barley in a bay adjoin¬
ing to the Dani(h colony. It fprang up fo faft, that,
by the latter end of July it was in the full ear; but
being nipped by a night-froft, it never arrived at ma¬
turity. This feed was brought from Bergen, where
the fummer is of greater heat and duration than in
Greenland; but in all probability the corn which
grows in the northern parts of Norway would alfo
thrive here. Turnips and coleworts of an excellent
tafte and flavour are alfo produced here. The fides of
the mountains near the bays are clothed with wild
which veffels of fmall burden might pafs, efpecially if thyme, which diffufes its fragrance to a great diftance.
lodges were built at convenient diftances on the fliore,
for the convenience and diredlion of the adventurers.
£. Egede’s That part of the country which is now vifited and
- yf fettled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between
n- the 64th and 68th degrees of north latitude; and thus
far it is (aid the climate is temperate. In the
fummer, which continues from the end of May to the
middle of September, the weather is warm and com¬
fortable, while the wind blows eafterly; though even
at this time ftorms frequently happen, which rage with
incredible violence; and the fea-coafts areinfefted with
The herb tormentil is very common itT this country,
and likewife many others not deferibed by the bota-
nifts. Among the fruits of Greenland we number
juniper-berries, blue-berries, bil-berries, and bramble-
berries.
Greenland is thought to contain many mines of me¬
tal, though none of them are wrought. To the fouth-
ward of the Danifti colony are fome appearances of a
mine of copper. Mr Egede once received a lump of
ore from one of the natives; and here he found cala¬
mine of a yellow colour. He once fent a confiderable
quantity
G R E [ 3402 ] G R E
Greenland, quantity of fand of a yellow colour, intermixed with
ftreaks of vermilion, to the Bergen company. They
probably found their account in this prefent; for they
defired him by a letter to procure as much of that
fand as poilible: but he was never able to find the
place where he law the firft: fpe-’imen. It was one of
the fmalleft among a great number of iflands; and the
mark he had fet up was blown down by a violent
ftorm. Polfibly this might be the fame mineral of
which Capt. Frobilher brought fo much to England.
This country produces rock-cryftals both red and
white, and whole mountains of the albeftos or incom-
buftible flax. Around the colony, which is known
by the name of Good Hope, they find a kind of baftard
marble of various colours, which the natives form into
bowls, lamps, pots, &c. All that has been faid of
the fertility of Greenland, however, mull: be under-
ttood only of that part which lies between the 60th
and 65th degrees of latitude. The mod northern parts
are totally deftitute of herbs and plants. The wretched
inhabitants cannot find grafs in fufficient quantities to
fluff into their Ihoes to keep their feet warm, but are
obliged to buy it from thofe who inhabit the more
fouthern parts.
The animals which abound mod in Greenland are
rein-deer, foxes, hares, dogs, and white bears. The
hares are of a white colour, and very fat; the foxes
are of different colours, white, greyilh, and bluilh ;
and fmaller than thofe of Denmark and Norway. The
natives keep a great number of dogs, which are large,
white, or fpeckled, and rough, with ears danding up¬
right, as is the cafe with all the dogs peculiar to cold
climates. They are timorous and dupid ; and neither
bay nor bark, but fometimes howl difmally. In the
northern parts the natives yoke them in fledges;
which, though heavy laden, they will draw on the ice
at the rate of 70 miles in a fhort winter’s day. Thefe
poor animals are very ill rewarded for their fervice;
being left to provide for themfelves, except when their
maders happen to catch a great number of feals. On
thefe occafions the dogs are regaled with the blood
and entrails ; at other times, they fubfid, like wild
beads, upon mufcles aud berries. Here alfo are found
great numbers of ravens, eagles of a prodigious fize,
faulcons, and other birds of prey ; and likewife a kind
of. linnet, which warbles very melodioufly. Whales,
fwprd-fifti, porpoifes, &c. abound on the coads; alfo
holybut, turbot, cod, haddock, &c. The more dubious
animals alfo, called mermaids, fea ferpents, and kra-
kens, faid to be found on the coad of Norway, are faid
likewife to dwell in thefe feas. Mr Egede affures us,
that, in the year 1734, the fea-ferpent was feen off the
new Danifli colony, and raifed its head mad-high above
the furface of the water. See Kraken, Mermaid,
9 and .Sfrf-serpent.
Account of The people who now inhabit the wedern coad of
the inhabi- Greenland, and who, without doubt, are the defcen-
tents. dants of the ancient Schrellings, who exterminated the
fird Iceland colony, bear a near refemblance to the
Samoiedes and Laplanders intheirperfons, complexions,
and way of life. They are fliort, brawny, and inclined
to corpulency; with broad faces, flat nofes, thick lips,
black hair and eyes, and a yellowilh tawney com¬
plexion. They are for the mod part vigorous and
healthy, but remarkably (hart-lived ; few of them
reaching the grand clima&eric; and many dying in Greenlaij I
their infancy, and in the prime of youth. They are-
fubjedt to a weaknefs in the eyes, occafioned by the
piercing winds and the glare of the fnow in the winter¬
time. The leprofy is known among them, but is not
contagious. Thofe that dwell in the northern parts
are miferably tormented with dyfenteries, rheums, and
pulmonary diforders, boils, and epilepfy. The fmall-
pox being imported among them from Copenhagen in
the year 1734, made terrible havoc«among thefe poor
people, who are utterly deftitute of arty knowledge of
the medicinal art,, and depend entirely for afliflance
upon then angekuts or conjurers. In their difpofitions
the Greenlanders are cold, phlegmatic, indolent, and
flow of apprehenfion; but very quiet, orderly, and
good-natured. They live peaceably together; and
have every thing in common, without llrife, envying,
or animofity. They are civil and hofpitable, but flo-
venly to a degree almoft beyond the Hottentots them¬
felves. They never wafh themfelves with water; but
lick their paws like the cat, and then rub their faces
with them. They eat after their dogs without waffl¬
ing their diflies.; devour the lice which devour them ;
and even lick the fweat, which they ferape off from
their faces with their knives. The women walh them¬
felves with their own urine, which they imagine makes
the hair grow; and in the winter-time go out immedi¬
ately after, tolet the liquor freeze upon their (kin. They
will often eat their vhftuals off the dirty ground, with
out any veffel to hold them in ; and devour rotten flelh
with the greateft avidity. In times of fcarcity they will
fubfift on pieces of old (kin, reeds, fea-weed, and a
root called tugloronet, dreffed with train-oil and fat.
The dung of rein-deer taken from the inteftines, the
entrails of partridges, and all forts of offals, are counted
dainties among thefe favages; and of the ferapings of
feals (kins they make delicate pan-cakes. At firft they
could not tafte the Danifli provifions without abhor¬
rence ; but now they are become extremely fond of
bread and butter, though they dill retain an averfion
to tobacco and fpirituous liquors, in which particular
they differ from almoft all favages on the face of the
earth,
The Greenlanders commonly content themfelves
with one wife; who is condemned, as among other
favage nations, to do all the drudgery, and may be
corrected, or even divorced, by the hufband at pleafure.
Heroes, however, and extraordinary perfonages, are
indulged with a plurality of wives. Their young
women are generally chafte and baffiful; but at fome
of their feafts, in the midft of their jollity, a man re¬
tires with his neighbour’s wife behind a curtain made
of (kins; and all the guefts, thus coupled, retire in
their turns. The women think themfelves happy if
an angekut or prophet will thus honour them with his
careffes. Thefe people never marry within the prohi¬
bited degrees of confanguinity, nor rs it counted de¬
cent in a couple to marry who have been educated
in the fame family.—They have a number of ridicu¬
lous and fuperftitious cuftoms, among which the two
following are the moft remarkable. While a woman
is in labour, the goflips hold a chamber-pot over her
head, as a charm to haften the delivery. When the
child is a year old, the mother licks and flabbers it all o-
ver, to render it, as (heimagines, more ftrongand hardv.
All
G R E [ 3403 ] G R E
Greenland. All the Greenlanders hitherto known fpeak the fame
  language, though different diale&s prevail in different
jv 10 t parts of the country. It abounds with double con-
fonants; and is fo guttural, that the pronunciation
c. * of many words is not to be learned except by thofe
who have been accuftomed to it from their infancy.
The letters C, D, F, and X, are not known in
l! their alphabet. Like the North Americans, and in¬
habitants of Kamfchatka, they have a great number
of long polyfyllables. Their words, nouns as well as
verbs, are infleded at the end by varying the termi¬
nations without the help of articles ; but their lan¬
guage being found defedive, they have adopted a good
many words from the Norwegian dialed. Notwith-
ftanding the endeavouts of the Danifh miflionaries,
they have no great reafon to boaft of the profelytes
they have made of the natives of Greenland. Thefe
favages pay great deference and refped to the Danes,
whom iudeeed they obey as their mailers, and hear
the truths of the Ch/illian religion expounded with¬
out doubting the veracity of their teachers; but at
the fame time they liflen with the mod mortifying in¬
difference, without being in the leaft influenced by
what they have heard. They believe in the immor¬
tality of the foul, and the exigence of a fpirit whom
they call Tortigarfuk •, but of whom they have form¬
ed the mofl ridiculous notions. The Angekuts, who
are fuppofed to be his immediate minifiers, differ con¬
cerning the principles of his exidence ; fome affirming
that he is without form or flrape ; others, that he has
the drape of a bear; others, that he has a large hu¬
man body with only one arm ; while others affirm that
that he is no larger than a man’s finger, with
many other abfurdities of a fimilar kind. They
have alfo a peculiar kind of mythology, by which
they believe all the elements to be full of fpirits, from
among which every one of their prophets is fupplied
with a familiar which they name Torngack, and wdro
is always ready when fummoned to his affiftance.
The Greenlanders are employed all the year round
either in fifhing or hunting. At fea they purfce
whales, morfes, feals, fifh for eating, and fea-fowl.
On flrore they hunt the rein-deer in different parts of
the country. They drive thefe animals, wdiichfeedin
large herds, into a narrower circle or defile, where
they' are eafily flain with arrows. Their bow is made
of fir-tree, wound about with the twided finews of a-
nimals: the firing is compofed of the fame duff, or
of feal fkin: the arrow is a good fathom in length,
pointed with a bearded iron, or a {harp bone ; but
thofe with which they kill birds are blunt, that they
may not tear the flefh. Sea-fowls they kill with lan¬
ces, which they throw to a great diflance with fur-
prifing dexterity. Their manner of catching whales
is quite different from that praftifed by the Europe¬
ans. About 50 perfons, men and women, fet out in
one long boat, which is called a kone-boat, from kone a
“ woman,” becaufe it isrowed by femalesonly. When
they find a whale, they flrike him with harpoons, to
which are fadened with long lines fome feals (kins
blown up like bladders. Thefe, by floating on the
furface, not only difcover the back of the whale, but
hinder him from diving under water for any length of
time. They continue to purfue him until he lofes
ftrength, wheu they pierce him with fpears and lan¬
ces till he expires. On this occafion they are clad in Greenland,
their fpring-coats confiding of one piece, with gloves, —
boots, caps made of feal-lkin fo clofely laced and few’-
ed that they keep out water. Thus accoutred, they
leap into the fea ; and begin to dice off the fat, even
under w'ater, before the whale is dead.—They have
many different wrays of killing feals; namely, by drik-
ing them with a fmall harpoon equipped alfo with an
air-bag; by watching them when they come to breathe
at the air-holes in the ice, and driking them with
fpears; by approaching them in the difguife of their
own fpecies, that is, covered with a feal-lkin, creep¬
ing upon the ice, and moving the head from fide to
fide as the feals are accudomed to do.' By this dra-
tagem the Greenlander moves towards the unfuf-
pedling feal, and kills him wu’th a fpear. The
Greenlanders angle with lines made of whale-bone
cut very fmall, by means of which they fucceed
wonderfully. The Greenland canoe, like that u-
fed in Nova Zembla and Hudfon’s bay, is about
three fathoms in length, pointed at both ends, and
three quarters of a yard in breadth. It is com-
pofed of thin rafts fadened together with the finews
of animals. It is covered with dreffed feal-{kins both
below and above, in fuch a manner, that only a cir¬
cular hole is left in the middle, large enough to ad¬
mit the body of one man. Into this the Greenlan¬
der thruds himfelf up to the waid, and fadens the
{kin fo tight about him that no water can enter. Thus
fecured, and armed with a paddle broad at both ends,
he will venture out to fea in the mod dormy weather
to catch feals and fea-fowl; and if he is overfet, he can
eafily raife himfelf by means of his paddle. A Green¬
lander in one of thefe canoes, which was brought
with him to Copenhagen, outdripped a pinnace of
16 oars, manned with choice mariners.—The kone-
boat is made of the fame materials, but more durable;
and fo large, that it will contain 50 perfbns with all
their tackle, baggage, and provifions. She is fitted
with a mail, which carries a triangular fail made of
the membranes and entrails of feals, and is mana-
ed without the help of braces and bowlings. Thefe
ones are flat-bottomed, and fometimes 60 feet in
length. The men think it beneath them to take
charge of them ; and therefore they are left to the
conduft of the women, who indeed are obliged to do
all the drudgery, including even the building and re¬
pairing their houfes, while the men employ them-
felves wholly in preparing their hunting implements
and fifliing tackle.
This country is but thinly inhabited. In the win¬
ter time the people dwell in huts built of ftone or
turf: on the one fide are the windows, covered with
the {kins of feals or rein-deer. Several families live
in one of thefe houfes, poffeffing each a feparate apart¬
ment, before which is a hearth with a great lamp
placed on a trevit, over which hangs their kettle:
above is a rack or ffielf on which their wet clothes are
dried. They burn train-oil in their lamps; and inftead
of wick, they ufe a kind of mofs, which fully anfwers
the purpofe. Thefe fires are not only fufficient to
boil their vidluals; but likewife produce fuch a heat,
that the whole houfe is like a bagnio. The door is
very low, that as little cold air as poffible may be ad¬
mitted. The houfe within is lined with bid (kins,
and
G R E f 3404 ] G R E
Greenland, and furronnded with benches for the conveniency of
_ ftrangers> jn fummer-time they dwell in tents
made of long poles fixed in a conical form, covered in
the infide with deers fkins, and on the outfide with
feals flcins, drefled fo that the rain cannot pierce
them.
Eafl Green Greenland was for a long time confidered as a
land. Part t*ie continent of Well Greenland, but is now
difcovered to be an aflemblage of iflar.ds lying between
76° 46' and 8o° 30' of north latitude, and between
90 and 20° of call longitude. It was difcovered by
Sir Hugh Willoughby in the 1553, who called it
Groenland; fuppofing it to be a part of the weltern
continent. In 1595, it was again vifited by William
Barentz and John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pre¬
tended to be the original difcoverers, and called the
country Spitzbergin, or Sharp Mountains, from the
many (harp-pointed and rocky mountains with which
it abounds. They alleged that the coaft difcovered
by Sir Hugh Willoughby was fome other country ;
which accordingly the Hollanders delineated on their
maps and charts by the name of Willoughby Land;
whereas in fad no fuch land ever exifted; and long
before the voyage of thefe Dutchmen, Stephen Bar-
rows, an Englilh (hipmaller, had coaftedalonga defolate
country from N. Lat. 78° to 8o° 11', which was un¬
doubtedly Spitzbergen. The fea in the neighbour¬
hood of the iflands of Spitzbergen abounds very
much with whales, and is the common refort of the
whale-filhing (hips from different countries, and the
country itfelfis frequently vifited by thefe (hips; but till
the late voyage of the Hon. Capt. Phipps, by order
of his Majelty, the fituation of it was erroneoufly laid
down. It was imagined that the land ftretched to the
northward as far as 8z° of north latitude ; but Capt.
Phipps found the moft northerly point of land, called
Seven IJlands, not to exceed 8o° 30' of latitude.
Towards the eall he faw other lands lying at a dif-
tance, fo that Spitzbergen plainly apppeared to be
furrounded by water on that fide, and not joined to
the continent of Alia, as former navigators had fup-
ofed. The north and well coalls alfo he explored,
ut was prevented by the ice from failing fo far to the
northward as he wilhed. The coall appeared neither
habitable nor acceffible. It is formed of high, barren,
black rocks, without the lead marks of vegetation ;
in many places bare and pointed; in others covered
with fnow, appearing even above the clouds. The
valleys between the high cliffs were filled with fnow
and ice. “ This profpeft,” fays Capt. Phipps, “ would
have fuggefted the idea of perpetual winter, had not
the mildnefs of the weather, the fmooth water, bright
fun-fhine, and conllant day-light, given a cheerfulnefs
and novelty to the whole of this romantic fcene.”
The current ran along this coall half a knot an hour,
north. The height of one mountain feen here was
found by geometrical menfuration to be at one time
i503t fet-t> at another 1563-1% feet. By a baro¬
meter con llrucled after De Luc’s method, the height
was found to be 1588^ feet. On this occafion Capt.
Phipps has the following remarks. “ I cannot ac¬
count for the great difference between the geometri¬
cal meafure and the barometrical according to M. de
Luc’s calculation, which amounts to 84.7 feet. I
have no reafon to doubt the accuracy of Dr Irving’s
obfervations, which were made with great care. As Greenlanijli
to the geometrical meafure, the agreement of fo many ^rcenocflj
triangles, each of which mult have difcovered even the” jjl
fm a tie ft error, is the moll fatisfadtory proof of its
corre&nefs. Since my return I have tried both the
theodolite and barometer, to difcover whether there ]
was any fault in either; and find them, upon trial, as
I had always done before, very accurate.”
There is good anchorage in Schmeerenburg har- j
hour, lying in N. Lat. 74° 44' E. Long. 90 50' 45",
in 13 fathom, fandy bottom, not far from the fhore,
and well Iheltered from all winds. Clofe to this har¬
bour is an ifland called Amjlerdam Ijland, where the
Dutch ufed formerly to boil their whale-oil ; and the
remains of fome conveniency erefted by them for that
purpofe are ftill vifible. The Dutch Ihips Hill refort !;
to this place for the latter feafon of the whale-filhery.
—The Hone about this place is chiefly a kind of
marble, which diffolves eafily in the marine acid. j
I here w'ere no appearances of minerals of any kind,
nor any figns of ancient or modern volcanoes. No ; ;
infedts, or any fpecies of reptiles, were fee.n, not even
the common earth-worm. There were no fprings or
rivers ; but great plenty of water was produced from
the fnow which melted on the mountains.
The moft remarkable views which thefe dreary j
regions prefent are thofe called Icebergs. They are
large bodies of ice filling the valleys between the
high mountains. Their face towards the fea is near¬
ly perpendicular, and of a very lively light-green
colour. One was about 300 foot high, with a caf- |
cade of water iffuing from it. The black mountains ::
on each fide, the white fnow, and greenilh coloured
ice, compofed a very beautiful and romantic pi&ure.
Large pieces frequently broke off from the icebergs,
and fell with great noife into the water. One piece
was obferved to have floated out into the bay, and
grounded in 24 fathom ; it was 50 feet high above
the furface of the water, and of the fame beautiful
colour with the iceberg from which it had feparated.
Thefe iflands are totally uninhabited, though it
doth not appear but that human creatures could fub-
fift on them, notwithftanding their vicinity to the pole.
Eight Englilh failors, who were accidentally left here
by a whale-filhing fhip, furvived the winter, and were
brought home next feafon. The Dutch then attempt¬
ed to fettle a colony on Amllerdam ifland above-men- |
tioned; but all the people perilhed, not through the
feverity of the climate, but of the fcurvy, owing to
the want of thofe remedies which are now happily
difcovered, and which are found to be fo effeftual in
preventing and curing that dreadful difeafe.—The late j
account alio of fix Ruffian failors who (laid four years
in this unhofpitable country, affords a decifive
proof, that a colony might be fettled on Eall Green¬
land, provided the doing fo could anfwer any good
purpofe.
GREENOCK, a fea-port town of Scotland, and
one of the ports of the city of Glafgow. It isfituated 22
miles from that city; and was formerly called the Bay of
St Laurence. The Frith of Clyde here expands into
a fine bafon four miles wide, and is landlocked on all
fides.
GREENWICH, a town of the county of Kent,
in England, pleafantly fituated on the bank of the
Thames,
G R E [ 3405 ] G R E
rtentt'ic'i. Thames, about five miles call from London. Here
was formerly a royal palace, built by Humphry Duke
of Glocefter, enlarged by Henry VII. and comple¬
ted by Henry VIII. The latter often chofe this town
for his place of refidence ; as did alfo the Queens Ma¬
ry and Elizabeth, who were born in it. This palace,
however, is now pulled down ; and what goes by the
name of palace at prefent, ferves for apartments for
the governor of the hofpital, and the ranger of the
park. This park was walled and planted by Charles
II. and hath a hill in the middle, whence there is a
noble profpeft of London, the Thames, and Ihip-
ping ; alfo a Royal Obfervatory, furnifhed with a
complete fet of aftronomical obfervations. This ob¬
fervatory in the lateft Englifh maps is accounted the
place of the firlt meridian; and the degrees of longi¬
tude, either eaft or weft, are accounted from it. But
the moft remarkable building about Greenwich, is the
hofpital for luperannuated and difabled feamen, and
likewife for their widows and children. It is a very
noble ftrufture ; the wing next London being part of
the palace which King Charles II. intended to have
ere&ed for himfelf, and which coft him 36,000 pounds;
being finely adorned with all the decorations of paint¬
ing, fculpture, and archite&ure. About 2000 old
difabled feamen are maintained in it. The nurfes, who
mutt be feamens widows, have ten pounds a-year, and
fuch as attend the infirmary, two (hillings a-week
more. Befides private benefa&ions, to the amount of
about L. 60,00a, the parliament, in the year 1732,
fettled upon this hofpital the earl of Derwentwater’s
eftate, to the value of L. 6000 per annum. The ball
of the bofpital is finely painted by Sir James Thorn¬
hill. All ftrangers who fee it, pay twopence each ;
and this income is applied to the fupport of the mathe¬
matical fchool for the fons of failors. For the better
fupport of this hofpital, every feaman in the royal na¬
vy, and in the merchant fervice, pays fixpence a-
month, (topped out of their pay, and delivered in at
the (ix-penny receiver’s office in Tower-hill.—On this
account, a feaman, who can produce an authentic cer¬
tificate of his being difabled, and rendered unfit for
fervice, by defending any (hip belonging to his Maje-
fty’s Britiffi fubjefts, or in taking any (hip from the
enemy, may be admitted into this hofpital, and receive
the fame benefit from it as if he had been in his Ma-
jefty’s .immediate fervice. Befides the feamen and wi¬
dows above-mentioned, about too boys, the fons of
feamen, are bred up for the fervice of the royal navy;
but there are no out-penfioners as at Chelfea. Each
of the mariners has a weekly allowance of bread,
beef, mutton, peafe, cheefe, butter, and beer, and
one (hilling a-week tobacco-money. The tobac¬
co-money of the boatfwains is two (hillings and fix-
pence a-week each, that of their mates one (hilling
and fixpence, and that of the other officers in propor¬
tion to their rank. Each common penfioner alfo, once
in two years, has a fuit of blue clothes, a hat, three
pair of dockings, two pair of (hoes, five neck-cloths,
three (hirts, and two night-caps. The principal offi¬
cers of the houfe, are a governor, lieutenant-gover¬
nor, treafurer, three captains, fix lieutenants, two
chaplains, a phyfician, and furgeon, a clerk of the
checque, and an auditor, who have handfome falaries.
The profits of the market belong to this hofpital,
Vol. V.
whofe governors have the direction of it. The firft Gregarious
hofpital founded by an Englilh Proteftant, was at li
Greenwich, in 1560, by one Mr Lambard, (author of a re^01''
book called the Perambulation ofKent), for twenty poor.
GREGARIOUS, among zoologifts, a term ap¬
plied to fuch animals as do not live folitary, but afib-
ciate in herds or flocks.
GREGORIAN calendar, that which (hews the
new’ and full moon, with the time of Eafter, and the
moveable feafts depending thereon, by means of epaft*.
difpofed through the feveral months of the Gregorian
year. See Astronomy, n° 295.
Gregorian Tear. See Astronomy, n° 295.
GREGORY the Great, w'as born at Rome, of a
patrician family. He difeovered fuch abilities in the
exercife of the fenatorial employments, that the emperor
Juftin the younger appointed him prefect of Rome.
Pope Pelafgius II. fent him nuncio to Conftautinople,
to demand fnccours againft the Lombards. When he
thought of enjoying a folitary life, he was elefted Pope
by the clergy, the fenate, and the people of Rome.
Befidcs his learning and diligence in inftrudting the
church, both by w'riting and preaching, he had a very
happy talent in winning over princes in favour of the
temporal as well as fpiritual intereft of religion. He
undertook the converfion of the Englifh, and fent over
fome monks of his order, under the dire&ion of Au-
guftin their abbot. His morality with refpeft to the
chaftity of churchmen was very rigid, afierting that
a man who had ever known a woman ought not to be
admitted to the prieflhood ; and he always caufed the
candidates for it to be examined upon that point. He
likew'ife vigoroufly exerted himfelf againft fuch as
were found guilty of calumny. However, he flatter¬
ed the emperor Phocas, while his hands were yet
reeking with the blood of Mauritius, and of his three
children, who had been butchered in his fight. He
likewife flattered Brunehaut, a very wicked queen of
France. He is accufed of deftroying the noble mo¬
numents of ancient Roman magnificence, that thofe
who vifited the city might not attend more to the tri¬
umphal arches, than to holy things ; and burnt a mul¬
titude of heathen books, Livy in particular. He
died in 604.
Gregory of Nazianzen, firnamed the Divine, was
one of the moft illuftrious ornaments of the Greek
church in the fourth age. He w’as made bifhop of
Conftantinople in 397; but finding his eleftion con-
tefted by Timotheus, archbifhop of Alexandria, he
voluntarily refigned his dignity about 382, in the ge¬
neral council of Conftantinople. His works are ex¬
tant, in two volumes, printed at Paris in 1609. His
ftyle is faid to be equal to that of th,e moft celebrated
orators of ancient Greece.
Gregory (Theodorus), furnamed Thaumaturgus
on account of his miracles, was the fcholar of Origen;
and w’as defied bilhop of Neocasfarea, the place of
his birth, about the year 240, during his abfence.
He affifted at the council of Antioch, in 255, againft
Paulus Samofetanus ; and died in 270. He had the
fatisfa&ion of leaving only feventeen idolaters in his
diocefe, where there were but feventeen Chriftians
when he was ordained. There is ftill extant of his, A
gratulatory oration to Origen, A canonical epiftle,
and fome other works.
19 N
Gre.
G R E [ 3406 ] G R E
Gregory. Gregory, bifhop of Nyffa, one of the fathers of
" ‘ the church, and author of the Nicene creed, was born
•in Cappadocia, about the year 331. He was chofen
bilhop of Nyffa in 372, and banifhed by the empe¬
ror Valens for* adhering to the council of Nice. He
was neverthelefs afterwards employed by the bifhops
in feveral important affairs, and died in 396. He
wrote, Commentaries on the Scriptures ; Sermons on
the myfleries ; Moral difcourfes; Dogmatical trea-
tifes ; Panegyrics on the faints ; fome letters on church-
difcipline ; and other works. His ftyle is very allego¬
rical and affeffed:
Gregory of Tours, or Georgius Florentius Grego¬
rius, one of the mod illuftrious bifhops.and celebra¬
ted writers of the Gxth century, was defcended from
a noble family in Auvergne. He was educated by his
uncle Gallus, bifhop of Clermont; and diftinguifhed
himfelf fo much by his learning and virtue, that in
573 he was chofen bifhop of Tours. He afterwards
went to Rome to vifit the tomb of the apoftles, where
he cbntrafted a friendfhip with Gregory the Great,
and died in 595. This author was extremely credu¬
lous with regard to miracles. He wrote, 1. The hi-
ftory of France. 2. The lives of the faints ; and o-
ther works. The bed edition is that publifhed by Fa¬
ther Rumart, 1699.
Gregory (James), an eminent mathematical ge¬
nius of Scotland, was born at Aberdeen in 1639, and
educated at that univerfity. He made a good pro-
grefs in claffical learning : but being more delighted
with philofophical refearches, the works of Des Cartes
and Kepler were his principal dudy; and he began
early to make improvements on their difcoveries in
optics. The fird of thefe improvements was the in¬
vention of the refie&ing telefcope, which dill bears his
namei and which was fo happy a thought, that that
has given occadon to the mod confiderable improve¬
ments made in optics fince the invention of the tele¬
fcope.
He publifhed the conftru&ion of this indrument in
1663, at the age of 24; and coming next year or
the year after that to London, he became acquainted
with Mr John Collins, who recommended him to the
bed optic glafs grinders there, in order to have it
executed. But as this could not be done for want of
{kill in the artids to grind a plate of metal for the ob¬
ject fpeculum into a true parabolic concave, which the
defign required, he was much difcouraged thereby;
and after a few imperfedl trials made with an ill po-
lifhed fpherical one, which did not fucceed to his wifh,
he dropped the purfuit, and refolved to make the tour
of Italy, then the mart of mathematical learning, in
the view of profecuting his favourite dudy with greater
advantage.
He had not been long abroad, when the fame in¬
ventive genius which had before (hewed itfelf in prac¬
tical mathematics, carried him to fome new improve¬
ments in the fpeculative part. The fublimegeometry
on the dodtrine of curves was then hardly pad its in¬
fant date ; and the famed problem of fquaring the
circle dill continued a reproach to it, when our au¬
thor difcovered a new analytical method of fummiog
up an infinite converging feries, whereby the area of
the hyperbola, as well as of the circle, may be com¬
puted to any: degree of exaftnefs. He was then at
Padua; and getting a few copies of his invention Gregory.
printed there in 1667, he fent one to his friend Mr  
Collins, who communicated it to the Royal Society,
where it met with the commendations of lord Broun-
ker and Dr Wallis. Our author printed it at Venice, jl
and publifhed it the following year 1668 ; together
with another piece, wherein he fird of any one enter¬
tained the public with an account of the transforma¬
tion of curves. An account of this piece was alfo
read by Mr Collins before the Royal Society, of which
Mr Gregory, being returned from his travels, was
chofen a member, and communicated to them an ac¬
count of the controverfy in Italy about the motion of
the earth, which was denied by the famous adronomer
Riccioli and his followers.
I he fame year his quadrature of the circle being
attacked by the celebrated Mr Huygens, a contro¬
verfy arofe between thefe two eminent mathemati¬
cians, in which our author produced fome improve¬
ments of his feries.
In 1672, Sir Ifaac Newton, in his wonderful dif¬
coveries on the nature of light, having contrived a new
refledling telefcope, made feveral objections to Mr
Gregory’s. This gave occafion to a controverfy be¬
twixt thefe two philofophers, which was carried on
this and the following year in the mod amicable man¬
ner on each fide. Mr Gregory defended his own con-
drution, but gave his antagonid the whole honour of
having made the catoptric telefcopes preferable to the
dioptric ones'; fhewing that the imperfections in thefe
inltruments were not fo much owing to a defect in
the objeil; fpeculum, as to the different refrangibility
of the rays of light. In the courfe of this difpute
our author defcribed a burning concave mirror, which
was approved by Sir Ifaac, and is dill in good
edeem.
All this while he attended the proper birfinefs of
his profefforfhip with great diligence; which, taking
up the greated part of his time, efpecially in the win¬
ter feafon, hindered him in the purfuit of his proper
dudies. Thefe, however, led him to farther improve¬
ments in the invention of infinite feries, which he oc-
cafionally communicated to his friend and correfpon-
dent Mr Collins, who might have had the pleafure of
receiving many more, had not our profeflbr’s life been
cut fhort by a fever in December 1675, at age
36 years.
Befides the inventions already mentioned, he was
the fird who gave a geometrical demondration of lord
Brounker’s feries for fquaring the hyperbola, as it had
been explained by Mercator in his Logarithmotechnia.
He was likewife the fird who desnondrated the meri¬
dian line to be analogous to a fcale of logarithmic
tangents of the half complement of latitude. He alfo
invented, and dempndrated geometrically, by the help
of the hyperbola, a very fwift converging feries for
making the logarithms, and therefore recommended
by Dr Halley as very proper for pra&ice. He alfo
fent to Mr Collins the folution of the famous Keple-
rian problem by an infinite feries. He found out a
method of drawing tangents to curves geometrically,
without any previous calculations. He gave a rule for
the direft and inverfe method of tangents, which dands
upon the fame principle (of exhaultions) with the
fluxions, and differs not much from it in the method
o£
G R E [ 3407 ] G R E
:) Gregory, of application. He likewife gave a feries for the
length of the area of a circle from the tangent, and
vice verfa; as'alfo for the fecant and logarithmic tan¬
gent and fecant, and vice verfa. Thefe, with others
for certifying or meafuring the length of the elliptic
and hyperbolic curves, were fent to Mr Collins in re¬
turn for fome' received from him of Sir Ifaac Newton’s;
and their elegancy being admirable, above whatever
he had produced before, and after the manner of Sir
Ifaac Newton, gave room to think that he had im¬
proved himfelf greatly by that mailer, whofe example
he followed in giving his feries in fimple terms, inde¬
pendent of each other. Thefe feveral inventions are
contained, 1. In his Optica promota, &c. 410. edit.
1663. 2. Vera circuli <& hyperbola quadratura, Pa¬
dua 1667. 3. Geonietria pars univerfalis. See. 1667,
4to. 4. Several letters and papers printed in the Phi-
lofophical Tr vnfact ions ; the Journal des Scavans ; the
Commerc. epijhl. Jo. Collins 6" alior, 1715, 8vo. and
in the Appendix to the Englilh edition of Dr David
Gregory’s Elements of Optics, 1735, ^v0- by Dr De-
faguliers.
Gregory (David), nephew of the preceding, was
born June 24th, 1661, at the fame place, where he
alfo received the firft grounds of his learning ; but
was afterwards removed to Edinburgh, and took the
degree of mailer of arts in that univerfity. The great
advantage of his uncle’s papers induced his friends to
recommend the mathematics to him ; and he had a
natural fubtilty of genius, which particularly fitted
him for that ftudy, to which he applied with indefati¬
gable induftry; and fucceeded fo well, that he was
advanced to the mathematical chair at Edinburgh, at
the age of 35: and the fame year he publilhed a trea-
tife entitled, Exercitatio geometric a de dimenfone figu-
rarum, Edinb. 1684, 410.
He had already feen fome hints in his uncle’s papers
concerning Sir Ifaac Newton’s method, of which he
made the bed ufe he could, and the advantage he
found thereby raifed an ardent defire in him to fee
that method publilhed. Under this impatient ex¬
pectation, the Principia was no fooner out in 1687,
but our author took it in hand, and prefently made
himfelf fo much mailer of it as to be able to read his
profefibrial le&ures upon the philofophy contained in
it; and caufing his fcholars to perform their exercifes
for their degrees upon feveral branches of it, became
its firlt introducer into the fchools.
He continued at Edinburgh till the year 1691 ;
when hearing the\news of Dr Bernard’s intention to
refign the Savilian profefforlhip at Oxford, he left
Scotland, and, coming to London, was admitted a
member of the Royal Society. Proceeding to Ox¬
ford, he was eleCled allronomieal profeflbr there, hav¬
ing been firll admitted of Baliol-college, incorporated
mailer of arts, and created do&or of phyfic. He had
no relilh for the technical part of his profelfion, and
was feldom feen in the obfervatory. His genius lay
more to geometry, in which he diltinguilhed himfelf
both by nis Elements of Optics, and of Phyfical and
geometrical aflronomy. This lad is reckoned his mailer-
piece; and having finilhed it in 1702, he immediately
engaged in carrying on the noble delign of his prede-
ceflbr, Dr Bernard, to print all the works of the ancient
mathematicians; the firft fruits of which appeared in an
edition of Euclid’s works in Greek and Latin, in folio, Gregory
the following year; and, in the fame defign, he after-
wards joined with his colleague Dr Halley, in pre¬
paring an edition of Apollonius’s Conics. Dr Bernard
had the materials for the firft four books, which our
author undertook to complete, but was prevented by
his death, which happened 0<ft. 16. 1710.
Gregory (Dr John), profeffor of medicine in the
univerfity of Edinburgh, was born in May 1725. His
father was profeffor of medicine in the King’s-college,
Aberdeen ; and his grandfather was profelfor of ma¬
thematics, firft at St Andrews, and afterwards at
Edinburgh. Thus Dr Gregory was the third profeflbr
of his family in a lineal defeent. But it deferves to
be remarked, that from his great-grandfather David
Gregory, efq; of Kinairdy in Aberdeenlhire, he was
the 15th defeendant who had held a profeflbrlhip in a
Britilh univerfity.
Dr Gregory began the ftudy of medicine at Aber¬
deen ; which he afterwards profecuted, firft at Edin¬
burgh, next at Leyden, and then at Paris. In
the 20th year of his age he was eiefted profelfor of
philofophy in king’s-college, Aberdeen ; and had, at
the fame time, the degree of doftor of medicine con¬
ferred upon him. In the year 1756, upon the death
of his brother Dr James Gregory, who had fucceeded
his father as profelfor of medicine, he was eiefted to
that chair. But about the beginning of the year 1765,
he left Aberdeen, and came to Edinburgh. Soon after
this he was appointed profeflbr of the pradlice of me¬
dicine in the univerfity there, in the room of Dr Ru¬
therford, who refigned in his favour. The year fol¬
lowing, upon the death of Dr White, he was nomi¬
nated firft phyfician to his majefty for Scotland. Thus,
at the time of his death, befides very extenfive prac¬
tice, he enjoyed the higheft and moll important offices
in the way of his profeffion, which could be obtained
in his native country.
Thefediftinguilhing honours were univerfally allowed
to be the juft reward of fingular merit. Of this the
writings which he publifhed will bear ample teftimony
to future ages. His firft publication, which is en¬
titled, A comparative view of the faculties of man with
thofe of the animal world, made its appearance in 1765.
This produftion, while it demonftrates the author to
have been a philofopher whofe refleftions were juft
and original, at the fame time difplays a liberality of
fentiment feldom to be equalled. Such was the avidity
with which it was read, that in the fpace of two years
it went through four editions; and, while it was per-
ufed by all with peculiar pleafure, it was honoured by
thofe diitinguiihed for tafte and literature with high
approbation.
In the year 1770, a fecond work of Dr Gregory’s
made its appearance ; but without his confent, and
even contrary to his inclination. His preliminary
lectures on the praftice of phyfic were heard by his
pupils with univerfal fatisfaftion. From a copy of
thefe leftures taken down in (hort-hand, there was
publiffied a book entitled, “ Obfervations on the du¬
ties and office of a phyfician, and on the method of
profecuting inquiries in philofophy.” Although
thefe leftures were not intended for the prefs, and did
not pafs through the finiftiing hand of the author be¬
fore they were prefented to the public ; yet fuch was
Jp N 2 the
G R E
G R E [ 3408 ]
*»jegory. t}ie matter they contained, that, had they appeared
in a much worfe drefs, they could have done him no
dii'credit. In thefe ledlures, by the mod forcible ar¬
guments, he laboured to convince his pupils, that a
phylician who fludies the principles of his profefiion,
who has an extenlive acquaintance with every branch
of natural knowledge, and who properly applies his
knowledge, muft have an infinite advantage, as a prafti-
tioner, over one who is ignorant of the theory of medi-
ine, and of every fcience connected with it. He endea¬
voured to perfuade them, that genius and fenfe, which
indeed are the peculiar gifts of heaven, are yet cap¬
able of high improvement; and that, without im¬
provement, they can be but of little account either
to the public, or to an individual. In fhort, no ar¬
gument was ommitted which could prompt them to
ftudy medicine with attention and ardour, and after¬
wards to praftife it with prudence and humanity.—
Dr Gregory, however, was diffatisfied with the drefs
in which this work appeared. Soon after, therefore,
he publilhed an edition of it himfelf, in which his
former fentiments are fet off with all tire advantages
which can be derived from acorreft and elegant ftyle.
His latl publication, Elements of the praflice of phy-
Jic, was intended as a fyllabus to his ledtures; and in
it he meant to have comprehended all the difeafes of
which he ufually treated. But not having leifure to
finifh the whole, he'was obliged to Hop at thofe dif¬
eafes which are ufually reckoned febrile. Although
~ this work appears with all thofe difadvantages, un¬
der which every text muft labour; yet it fufficiently
fliews how the author thought and adfed in the exer-
cife of his profeffion. The world was deprived of
this excellent perfon in February 1774. Fie left be¬
hind him a fmall, but ineftimable produdlion, under
the title of /l father's legacy to his daughters, de-
figned for their private inftru&ions ; but rendered a
common bequeft by the benevolence of his eldeft fon,
who gave it to the public after his death. The max¬
ims and advices it contains, which are claffed under
the general topics—of religion, of conduct and beha¬
viour, of amufements, of friendihip, love, and mar¬
riage,— are as juft as they are important ; and appear
to be the di&ates of a mind which had long been in¬
violably attached to the interefts of virtue ; the refnlts
of an obfervation equally interefting, extenfive, and
mature. They are delivered in a ftyle which is fimple
and unadorned ; yet chaftifed wuth that elegance and
correftnefs which refult from the operations of a mind
habitually governed by a refined tafte, and the clear¬
ed judgement.
Had Dr Gregory lived to a more advanced age,
the world would probably have been favoured with
other works no lefs honourable to the author than ber
neficial to mankind. But his extenfive pra&ice, and
his zeal in his duty as a profeffor, occupied the great-
eft part of his time.
To pretend to enumerate the many advantages which
his pupils derived from him in the capacity of a teach¬
er, would exceed our limits. Let it fuffice to fay, that,
from the extent of his views, from the juftice and
importance of his obfervations, and from the force
and accuracy of his reafoning, every hearer obtained
the mod thorough convi&ion .of his abilities, and
retired from academical labours both pleafed and
inftrudled. Gre-lioum|
To conclude: Dr Gregory was not more eminent as If 1
a phyfician, than he was amiable and refpedlable as a rena j
man. With the mathematical genius of his family
he united a corredl tafte for the fine arts, and a high
relifti for every focial virtue. He poffeffed a clear and
vigorous underftanding ; a chafte artd lively imagina¬
tion ; and an affe&ionate and feeling heart: and while
he was diftinguifhed for paternal and conjugal attach¬
ment, he was a conftant friend to"poverty and diitrefs,
and an unwearied patron of fcience and virtue.
GRE-hound. See Canis.—Among a litter
of gre-hound puppies, the bed are always thofe
which are lighted. . Thefe will make the nimbleft
dogs as they grow up. The gre-hound is beft for
open countries where there is little covert. In thefe
places there will fometimes be a courfe after a hare of
two or three miles or more, and both the dogs and
the game in fight all the while. It is generally fup-
pofed that the gre-hound bitch will beat the dog in
running: but this feems to be an error; for the dog
is both longer-made, and confiderably ftronger, than
the bitch of the fame kind. In the breeding thefe
dogs the bitch is principally to be regarded; for it is
found by experience, that the bed dog and a bad bitch
will not get fo good puppies as an indifferent dog with
a good hitch. The dog and bitch (honld be as near-: • lU
ly as may be of the fame age ; and for the" breeding
of fine and perfect dogs, they fliould not be more If
than four years old. An old bitch may be ufed with
a young dog, but the puppies of a young bitch and
an old dog will never be good for any thing.
The general food for a gre-hound, ought to be
chippings or rafpings of bread, with foft bones and
griftles; and thofe chippings ought always to be foak-
ed in beef or mutton broth.
The proper exercife for a gre-hound is courfing him-
three times a-week, and rewarding him with bloody
which will animate him in the higbeft degree, and
encourage him to profecute his game. But the hare
alfo ihould ever have fair play. She fliould have the
law, as it is called ; that is, have leave to run about
twelve fcore yards before the dog is flipped at her,
that he may have fome difficulty in the courfe, and
not pick up the game too eafily. If he kills the
hare, he muft never be fuffered to tear herj but flie
mull be taken from him, his mouth cleaned of the . i jl
wool, and the liver and lights given him by way of
encouragement. Then he is to be led home, and his
feet waflied with butter and beer, and about an hour
after he is to be fed.
When the dog is to be taken out to courfe, he
fliould have nothing in the morning but a toaft and
butter, and then he is to be kennelled till taken.out
to the field. The kennelling thefe dogs is of great
ufe, always giving them fpirit and nimblenefs when,
they are let loofe: and the bed way of managing a;
fine gre-hound is,, never to let him ftir out of the-
kennel, except at the times of feeding, walking, or
courfing.
G.RENAD-A, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying-
in W. Long. 61. 40. N. Lat. 12. o. It is the la it
of the Windward Caribbees; and lies 30 leagues norths
of New Andalufia, on the continent. According too
fome, it is 24. leagues in com'pafs ; according to others*, ll 1
oa4j
G R E [ 3409 ] G R E
renada. only 22 ; anti it is faid to be 30 miles in length, and
~ in fame places 13; in breadth. The chief port is call¬
ed Lewis ; and (lands on the weft fide of the ifland,
in the middle of a large bay, with a fandy bottom.
It is pretended that 1000 barks, from 300 to 400
tons, may ride fecore from ftorms; and that too (hips, of
1000 tons each, may be moored in the harbour. A
large round bafon, which is parted from it by a bank
of land, would contain a confiderable number of (hips,
if the bank was cut through : but by reafon of it,
the large (hips are obliged to pafs within 80 paces of
one of the mountains lying at the mouth of the har¬
bour; the other mountain lying about half a mile di-
ftant. The ifland abounds with wild game and fi(h ;
it produces alfo very fine timber, but the cocoa-tree
is obferved not to thrive here fo well as in the other
ifinnds. A lake on a high mountain, about the
middle of the ifland, fupplies it with frefh-water
dreams. Several bays and harbours lie round the
ifland, fome of which might be fortified to great
advantage ; fo that it is very convenient for (hipping,
not being fubjeCl to hurricanes. The foil is capa¬
ble of producing tobacco, fugar, indigo, peafe, and
millet.
In 1638, M. Poincy, a Frenchman, attempted to
make a fettlement in Grenada ; but was driven off by
the Caribbeans, who reformed to this ifland in greater
numbers than to the neighbouring ones, probably on
account of the game with which it abounded. In 1650,
Monf. Parquet, governor of Martinico, carried over
from that ifland 200 men, furnilhed with prefents to
reconcile the favages to them; but with arms to fub-
due them, in cafe they fliould prove intractable. The
favages are faid to have been frightened into fubmif-
fion by the number of the Frenchmen • but, according
to fome French writers, the chief not only welcomed
the new-comers ; but in confideration of fome knives,
hatchets, fciffars, and other toys, yielded to Parquet
the fovereignty of the ifland, referving to therafelves
their own habitations. The Abbe Raynal informs us,
that thefe firft French colonifts, imagining they had
purchafed the ifland by thefe trifles, alfumed the fove-
reigaty, and foon a tied as tyrants. The Curibs, un¬
able to contend with them by force, took their ufual
method of murdering all thofe whom they found in a
defencelefs (late. This produced a war; and the
French fettlers having received a reinforcement of 300
men from Martinico, forced the favages to retire to a
mountain ; from whence, afterexhaulling all their ar¬
rows, they rolled down great logs of wood on their
enemies. Here they were joined by other favages
from the neighbouring iflands, and again attacked the
French, but were defeated anew ; and were at laft dri¬
ven to fuch defperation, that 40 of them, who had e-
fcaped from the (laughter, jumped from a precipice in¬
to the fea, where they all perilhed, rather than fall in¬
to the hands of their implacable enemies. From thence
the rock was called le morne des fauteurs, or “ the hill
of the leapers which name it dill retains. The
French then deftroyedthe habitations and all the pro-
vifions of the favages; but frefli fupplies of Carib¬
beans arriving, the war was renewed with great vigour,
and great numbers of the French were killed. Upon
this they rcfolved totally to exterminate the natives:
and having accordingly attacked the favages unawares,
they inhumanly put to death the women and children,
as well as the men ; burning alfo their boats and ca-.’
noes, to cut off all communication between the few
furvivors and the neighbouring iflands. Notwithftand-
ing all thefe barbarous precautions, however, the Ca-
ribbees proved the irreconcileable enemies ofthe French,
and their frequent infurredlions at laft obliged Par*
quet to fell all his property in the ifland to the Count
de Cerillac in 1657. The new proprietor, who pur¬
chafed Parquet’s property for 30,000 crowns, fent
thither a perfon of brutal manners to govern the if¬
land. He behaved with fuch infupportable tyranny,
that mod of the colonifts retired to Martinico ; and
the few whp remained condemned him to death, af¬
ter a formal trial. In the whole court of juftic* that
tried this mifcreant, there was only one man (called
jdrchahgeli) who could write. A farrier was the per¬
fon who impeached : and he, inftead of the fignatures,
fealed with a horfe-flioe ; and Archangeli,. who per¬
formed the office of clerk, wrote round it thefe words
in French, “ Mark of Mr de la Brie, council for the-
court.,,
It was apprehended that the court of France would
not ratify a fentence pafied with fuch unufual formali¬
ties; and therefore mod of the judges of the gover¬
nor’s crimes, and witneffes of his execution, difappear-
ed. Only thofe remained whofe obfcurity fcrecued
them from the purfuit of the laws. By an eftimate,
taken in 1700, there were at Grenada no more than
251 white people, 53 free favages or mulattoes, and
525 (laves. The ufeful animals were reduced to
64 horfes, and 5.69 head of horned cattle. The
whole culture confided of three plantations of fugar,
and 52 of indigo. The ifland had been fold in
1664 to the French Welt India company for 100,00a
livres.
This unfavourable Hate of the affairs of Grenada
was changed in 1714. The change was owing to the
flourifhing condition of Martinico. The richeft of
the (hips from that ifland were fent to the Spaniflt
coafts, and in their way touched at Grenada to take
in refreffiments. The trading privateers, who under¬
took this navigation, taught the people of that ifland
the value of their foil, which only required cultiva¬
tion. Some traders furnifhed the inhabitants with
(laves and utenfils to ereft fugar-plantations. An o-
pen account was eftablifhed between the two colonies.
Grenada was clearing its debts gradually by its rich pro¬
duce ; and the balance was on the point of being clofed,
when the war, in 1744, interrupted the communication
between the two iflands, and at the fame time (lopped
the progrefs of- the fugar-plantations. This lofs was
fupplied by the culture of coffee, which was purfued
during the hoftilities with all the adivity and eager-
nefs that induftry ccould infpire. —The peace of 1748
revived all the labours, and opened all the former four-
ces of wealth. In 1753 the population of Grenada
confided of 1262 white people, 175 free negroes,
and J 1,991 (laves. The cattle amounted to 2298
horfes or mules, 2456 head of horned cattle, 3278
Cheep, 902 goats, and 331 hogs. The cultivation
rofe to 83 fugar-plantations ; 2,725,600, coffee-trees;
150,300 cocoa-trees, and 800 cotton-plants. The
provilions confided of 5,740,450 trenches of caffada;
93.3,596 banana trees; and 143 fquares of potatoes
Grenada.
G R E
Grenada, and yams. The colony made a rapid progrefs.
proportion to the excellence of its foil; but in the
courfe of laft war, the illand was taken by the Bri-
tHh. At this time one of the mountains at the fide
oi Lewis harbour was flrongly fortified, and might
have made a good defence, but furrendtred without
firing a gun ; and, by the treaty concluded in
1763, the ifland was ceded to Britain. On this
cefiion, and the management of the colony after
that event, the Abbe Raynal has the following
remarks.'—“ This long train of evils [the ambition
and mifmanagement of his countrymen] has thrown
Grenada into the hands of the Englifh, who are in
poffefiion of this conqueft by the treaty of 1763. But
how long will they keep this colony ? Or, will it ne¬
ver again be reftored to France?—England has not
made a fortunate beginning. In the firft enthufiafm
raifed by an acquifition, of which the higheft opini-
n had been previoufly formed, every one was eager
1 3410 1
G R E
more than two leagues diftant from Gir t
lands, which ii
St Vincent.”
All thefe iflandshave lately been reduced again un¬
der the power of France, and the inhabitants treated
with inhumanity and injuftice.
GRENADINES, or Grenadillos. See the pre¬
ceding article.
GRENOBLE, a large, populous, and ancient
town of Dauphiny in France, wdth a biihop’s fee.
It contains a great number of handfome ftrudtures,
particularly the churches and convents. The leather
and gloves that are made here are highly efteem-
ed. It is feated on the river Ifere, over which there
are two bridges to pafs into that part called Per-
riere, a large ftreet on the other fide of the river. E.
Lon. 5. 49. N. Lat. 45. 12.
GRESHAM (Sir Thomas), an opulent merchant
of London, defeended from an ancient and honourable
„ family of Norfolk, was born in 1519. He was, as
to purchafe eliates there. They fold for much more his father had been before him, appointed king’s agent
than their real value. This caprice, by expelling old at Antwerp, for taking up money of the merchants;
colonifts, who were inured to the climate, has fent a
bout L. 1,553,000 out of the mother-country. This
imprudence has been followed by another. The new
proprietors, milled, no doubt, by national pride, have
fubllituted new methods to thofe of their predecefibrs.
and, in 1551, he removed to that city with his fam
This employment was fufpended on the accefiion oH
queen Mary; but, on proper reprefentations, was re^
ftored to him again. Queen Elizabeth conferred the
honour of knighthood upon him, and made him her
They have attempted to alter the mode of living a- agent in foreign parts. It was at this time he thought
mong their Haves. The negroes, who from their very
ignorance are more attached to their cuftoms than
other men, have revolted. It hath been found
necelfary to fend out troops, and to Ihed blood. The fide of Bilhopfgate-ftreet, afterwards known by the
whole colony was filled with fufpicions. The matters ^ . . .
who had laid themfelves under a neceflity of ufing vio¬
lent methods, were afraid of being burnt or maffa-
cred in their own plantations. The labours have de¬
clined, or been totally interrupted. Tranquillity has Thomas went beyond his father: he offered, if the
proper to provide him’felf with a manfion-houfe in
the city, fuitable to his ftation and dignity ; with
which intention he built that large houfe on the weft
name of Grejham-colkge. His father had propofed
building a houfe or exchange for the merchants to
meet in, inftead of walking in the open ftreet; but
this defign remained for the fon to accomplilh. Sir
at length been reftored. The number of Haves has
been increafed as far as 40,000, and the pr oduce has
been raifed to the treble of what it was under the
French government.
“ The plantations will ftill be improved by the
neighbourhood of a dozen of iflands, called the Gre¬
nadines or Grenadilloes, that are dependent on the co¬
lony. They are from three to eight leagues in cir¬
cumference, but do not afford a fingle fpring of wa¬
ter. The air is wholefome. The ground, covered only
with thin bufiies, has not been fereened from the fun.
It exhales none of thofe noxious vapours which are fa¬
tal to the hulbandman.
citizens would provide a proper piece of ground, to
build a houfe at his own expence; which being ac¬
cepted, he fulfilled his promife after the plan of the
exchange at Antwerp. When the new edifice was
opened, the queen (Jan. 29, 1570,) came and dined
with the founder; and caufed a herald with a trumpet
to proclaim it by the name of the Royal Exchange.
In purfuance alfo of a promife to endow a college for
the profeffion of the feven liberal fciences, he made a
teftamentary difpofition of his houfe, in London for
that purpofe; leaving one moiety of the royal ex¬
change to the corporation of London, and the other
to the mercer’s company, for the falaries of feven lec-
Cariacou, the only one of the Grenadines which turers in divinjty, law, phyfic, aftronomy, geometry,
the French have occupied, was at firft frequented by mufic, and rhetoric, at 50I. each per atm. He left
turtle fifltermen ; who, in the leifure afforded them by feveral other confiderabie benefadtions, and died in
fo eafy an occupation, employed themfelves in clearing 1579.—Thofe who have drawn Sir Thomas’s charac-
the ground. In procefs of time, their fmall number ter obferve, that he had the happinefs of a mind every
was increafed by the acceffion of fome of the inhabi- way fuited to his fortune, generous and benign; ready
tants of Guadalupe ; w’ho, finding that their planta- to perform any good aclions, and encourage them in
tions were deftroyed by a particular fort of ants, re- others. He was a great friend and patron of our ce-
moved to Cariacou. The ifland flouriflied from the lebrated martyrologift John Fox. He was well ac-
liberty that was enjoyed there. The inhabitants col- quainted with the ancient and feveral modern lan-
le&ed about 1200 Haves, by whofe labours they made guages; he had a very comprehenfive knowledge of
themfelves a revenue of near L. 20,000 a year in cot- all affairs relating to commerce, whether'foreign or
ton.—The other Grenadines do not afford a profpeft domeftic; and his fuccefs was not lefs, being in his
of the fame advantages, though the plantation of fu- time efteemed the higheft commoner in England. He
gar is begun there. It has fucceeded remarkably well tranfafted queen Elizabeth’s mercantile affairs fo con¬
st Becouya, the largeft and moft fertile of thefe if- ftantly, that he was called the royal merchant; and
his
G R E [ 3411 ] G R E
ffeville. his houfe was fometimes appointed for the reception
of foreign princes u(k>n their firit arrival at London.
GREV1LLE (Fulke) lord Brook, of Beauchamp’s
' Court in Warvvickfhire, a poet and mifcellaneous
jf- writer, was born intlie year J554, and defcended from
| the noble families of Beauchamps of Powick and Wil-
| loughby de Brook. In company with his couiin Sir
‘ Philip Sidney, he began his education at a fchool in
J Shrewfbury : thence he went to Oxford, where he
f remained for fome time a gentleman commoner, and
then removed to Trinity-college in Cambridge. Ha-
J|s ving left the univerfity ; he vilited foreign courts, and
thus added to his knowledge of the ancient languages
I' .a perfeft knowledge of the modern. On his return
to England he was introduced to queen Elizabeth by
his uncle Robert Greville, at that time in her ma-
jelly’s fervice; and by means of Sir Henry Sidney,
lord prefident of Wales, was nominated to fome lucra¬
tive employments in that principality.
In the year 1581, when the French commiffioners
who came to treat about the queen’s marriage with
the duke of Anjou were fumptuoufly entertained with
tilts and tournaments, Mr Greville, who was one of
the challengers, fo fignalized himfelf, as to “ win the
reputation of a mofl: valiant knight.” He continued
a conftant attendant at court, and a favourite with the
queen to the end of her rejgn, during which he ob¬
tained the office of treafurer of marine caiifes, alfo a
rant of the manor of Wedgnock, and likewife the
onour of knighthood. In this reign he was feveral
times eledted member for the county of Warwick ;
and from the journals of the houfe feems to have been
a man of bufinefs, as his name frequently appears in
committees.
On the acceffion of king James I. he was inftalled
knight of the Bath ; and foon after obtained a grant
of the ruinous caflles of Warwick, which he repaired
at a confiderable expence, and where he probably re-
fided during the former part of this reign: but in the
year 1614, the twelfth of James I. he was made
under-treafurer and chancellor of the exchequer, one
of the privy-council, and gentleman of the bed¬
chamber ; and, in -the 1620, was railed to the dignity
of a baron, by the title of lord Brook of Beauchamp’s
Court. He was alfo privy-counfellor to king Charles I.
in the beginning of whofe reign he founded a hiltory-
lefture in Cambridge.
Having thus attained the age of 74, through a life
of continued profperity, univerfally admired as a
gentleman and a feholar, he fell by the hand of an
affaffin, one of his own domeftics, who immediately
ftabbed himfelf with the fame weapon with which he
had murdered his mailer. This fellow’s name was
Haywood ; and the caufe is faid to have been a fevere
reprimand for his prefumption in upbraiding his
mailer for not providing for him after his death. It
feems he had been witnefs to lord Brook’s will, and
knew the contents. Some fay he llabbed him with
a knife in the back ; others, with a fword. This
affair happened at Brook-houfe in Holborn.—Lord
Brook was buried with great pomp, in St Mary’s
church at Warwick, in his own vault, over which he
had erefted a monument of black and white marble,
ordering at his death the following infcription to be
engraved upon the tomb. “ Fulke Greville, fervant to
queen Elizabeth, counfellor to king James, and Grew
friend to Sir Philip Sidney. Trophteum peccati." He II
wrote feveral works, both in verfe and profe ; among Grey'
which are, t. Two tragedies, Alaham and Multapha.
2. A treatife of human learning, &c. in verfe, folio.
3. The life of Sir Philip Sidney. 4. An inqujfitioa
upon fame and honour, in 86 ftanzas. 6. Ceelicay
a collection of 109 fongs. 7. His remains, conliiling
of political and philofophical poems.
GREW (Nehemiah), a learned Englifh writer in
the 17th cdntury, had a confiderable practice as a
phyfician in London, and fucceeded Mr Oldenburgh
in the office of fecretary to the royal fociety. In this
capacity, purfuant to an order of council, he drew up
a catalogue of the natural and artificial rarities be¬
longing to the fociety, under the title of Mufaum
Regalis Societatis, &c. 1681. He alfo wrote, be-
fides feveral pieces in the Philofophical Tranfadlions.
1. The comparative anatomy of the floroach and guts,
folio. 2. The anatomy of plants, folio. 3. Trattatus
de falls cathartici natura et ufit. 4. Cofmologia facrai
or a difcourfe of the univerfe as it is the creature and
kingdom of God; folio. He die dfuddenly in 1721.
GREWIA, in botany ; a genus of the polyandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants.
. Species. i.The occidentalis, with oval crenated leaves,
has long been preferved in many curious gardens both
in England and Holland. It is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, and grows to the height of ten or twelve
feet. The item and branches greatly refemble thofe
of the fmall-leaved elm, the bark being fmooth, and
of the fame colour with that when young. The leaves
are alfo very like thofe of the elm, and fall off in
autumn. The flowers are produced fingly along the
young branches from the wings of the leaves, and are
of a bright purple colour. 2. The Africana, with
oval fpear-fliaped ferrated leaves, is a native of Sene¬
gal in Africa, from whence its feeds were brought by
Mr Adanfon. In this country it rifeswith a fhrubby
ftalk five or fix feet high, fending out many lateral
branches, with a brown hairy bark, and garniflied
with fpear-fliaped, ferrated leaves; but the plants have
not flowered in Britain.
Culture and ufes. The firfl fort, though a native
of a warm climate, will bear the open air in this .coun¬
try ; only requiring to be flickered in a green-houfe
during the winter-time. It may be propagated by-
cuttings or layers planted in pots filled with foft loamy
earth. The fecond fort is tender, and mull be kept
conftantly in a warm bark-ftove. In fummer, they
require a large ihare of the free air to be admitted to
them, and fliould have water three or four times a-
week in warm weather ; but in the winter they mufl
be fparingly watered. - The negroes of Senegal highly
value a decoftion of the bark of this lall fpecies, and
ufe it as a never-failing remedy againlt venereal com¬
plaints.
GREY or Gray, a mixed colour, partaking of
the two extremes black and white. See Black, ii° 8,
9, 10.
Grey (Lady Jane), a mod illuftrious and unfor¬
tunate lady, defcended of the blood-royal of ,Eng¬
land by both parents, was the eldeft daughter of Hen¬
ry Grey marquis of Dorfet and Francis the daugh¬
ter of Charles Brandon lord Suffolk, by Mary the
dowger
G R E [ 34
‘Grey, dowager of Lewis XII. king of France, who was
‘ the youngeft daughter of Henry VII. king of Eng¬
land. She was born in the year 1537, at Broadgate,
her father’s feat in Leicefterfhire. She difcovered an
early propenfity to all kinds of good literature; and
having a fine genius, improved under the tuition of Mr
Elmer, fhe made a moft furprifing progrefs in the
languages, arts, and fcienees. She underftood per-
feftly both kinds of philofophy, and could exprefs
herfelf very properly at lead in the Latin and Greek
tongues; and we are informed by Sir Thomas Chalo-
ner (in Strype’s memorials, vol. iii. p. 93.) that flie
was well verfed in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French,
and Italian; “ and (he adds), flie played well on in-
ftrumental mulic, writ a corious hand, and was ex¬
cellent at the needle.” Chaloner alfo tells us, that (he
accompanied her mufical inftruments with a voice ex-
quifitely fweet in itfelf, afiifted by all the graces that
art could bellow.
In the year 1553, the dukes of Suffolk and Nor¬
thumberland, who were now, after the fall of Somer-
fet, arrived at the height of power, began, on the
decline of the king’s health, to think how to prevent
that reverfe of fortune which, as things then flood,
they forefaw muft happen upon Edward’s death. To
obtain this end, no other remedy was judged fuffici-
ent but a change in the fucceffion of the crown, and
transferring it into their own families, by rendering
Lady Jane queen. Thofe moft excellent and amiable
qualities which had rendered her dear to all who had
the happinefs to know her, joined to her near affinity
to the king, fubje&ed her to become the chief tool of
an ambition fo notorioully not her own. Upon this
very account Ihe was married to lord Guilford Dud¬
ley, fourth fon of the duke of Northumberland, with¬
out difcovering to her the real defign of the match;
which was celebrated with great pomp in the latter
end of May, fo much to the king’s fatisfadlion, that
he contributed bounteoufly to the expence of it from
the royal wardrobe. The young king Edward VI.
died in July following ; and our fair fcholar, with in¬
finite reluilance, overpowered by the folicitations of
her ambitious friends, allowed herfelf to be proclaim¬
ed queen of England, on the ftrength of a deed of
fettlement extorted from that prince by her father-in-
law the duke of Northumberland, which fet afide the
fucceffion of queen Mary, queen Elizabeth, and Mary
queen of Scots. Her regal pageantry continued but
a few days. Queen Mary’s undoubted right prevail¬
ed ; and the unfortunate lady Jane Grey and her
hufoand were committed to the tower, and on the
13 th of November arraigned andfound guilty of high
treafon. On the 12th of February following they
were both beheaded on Tower-hill. Her magnani¬
mity in this dreadful cataftrophe was aftonilhing. Im¬
mediately before her execution, fire addreffed herfelf
to the weeping multitude with amazing compofure
and coherency : fhe acknowledged the juttice of the
law, and died in charity with that wretched world
which file had ;fo much reafon to execrate. Thus
did the pious Mary begin her reign with the murder
of an innocent young creature of 18; who for fim-
plicity of manners, purity of heart, and extenfive
learning, was hardly ever equalled in any age or coun¬
try. But alas 1 Jane was an obftinate heretic.—A few
2 1 G R I
days before her execution, Fleckenham, the queen’s Grey,
chaplain, with a pious intention to refcue her poor Giihner.jl
foul from eternal mifery, paid her frequent vifits in l
the tower, and ufed every argument in his power to
convert her to the popifh religion : but he found her
fo much his fuperior in argument, that he gave up
the conteft ; refigning her body to the block, and her
foul to the devil.
Her writings are, 1. Four Latin epiftles ; three
to Bullenger, and one to her After lady Catharine. ;
The laft was written, the night before her execution,
in a blank leaf of a Greek Teftament. Printed in a
book entitled EptftoLe Helvetic# Reforma tor thus, vel j
ad eos fcript#, Sec. Tiguri, J 742, 8vo. 2. Her con- I
ference with Fleckenham. (Ballard). 3. A letter
to Dr Harding, her father’s chaplain. Printed in
the Phoenix, vol. ii. p, 28. 4. A prayer for her own
ufe during her confinement. In Fox’s a&s and monu¬
ments. 5. Four Latin verfes ; written in prifon with
a pin. They are as follows.
Non aliena putes, homini, qus obtingcre poflimt :
S irs hodierna xnihi, tunc eiit ilia tibi.
June Dudley.
Deojnvante, nil nocet livor malits :
Et nonjtivame, niljuvat labor gravis.
Port tenebras fpero Incem.
6- Her fpeech on the fcaffold. (Ballard). It be¬
gan thus: “ My Lords, and you good Chriftian
people who come to fee me die ; I am under a law,
and by that law, as a never-erring judge, I am con- J
demned to die: not for any thing I have offended the j
queen’s majefty ; for I will wafii my hands guiltlefs j
thereof, and deliver to my God a foul as pure from
fuch trefpafs as innocence from injuflice ; but only
for that I confented to the thing I was enforced un¬
to, conftraint making the law believe I did that
which I never underftood,” &c.—Holliufhed, Sir
Richard Baker, Bale, and Fox, tell us that (he wrote
feveral other things, but do not mention where they
are to be found.
Gv.v.'i-Hound. See G&'s.-Hound.
GRIB ALDUS (Matthew), a learned civilian of
Padua, left Italy in the 16th century, in order to
make a public profeffion of the Proteflant religion.
After having been for fome time profeffor of the ci¬
vil law at Tubingen, he was obliged to make his e-
fcape to avoid the punifiiment he would have incurred
had he been convi&ed of differing from Calvin with
refpefl to the doftrine of the Trinity : but he was
feized at Berne, where he would have met with very
fevere treatment had he not pretended t@ renounce his
opinions; but as he relapfed again, he would certain¬
ly have been put to death, had he not died of the plague
in 1664. He wrote De methodo ac ratione Jludendi }
in jure civili; and feveral other works which are e-
fteemed.
GRIBNER (Michael Henry,) a learned civilian
of Germany, was born at Leipfic in 1682. After
writing fome time in the journal of Leipfic, he was
made profeffor of law at Wittemberg; whence he
palled to Drefden, and was at laft recalled to Leipfic
to fucceed M» Mencke. He died in 1734. Beiidfcs
feveral academical differtations, he wrote, 1. Principid
proceffus judiciarii ; 2. Principia jurifprudentia na~
turalis,.*. fmall work much efteemed ; 3. Opufcula ju¬
ris
G R I [ 3413 ] G R I
Grief rjs publici tt privati.
II GRIEF, or Sorrow. The influence of this paf-
GrifSris- fion on the human mind is very great. It relaxes the
folids, flackens the motion of the fluids, and deftroys
the health ; it particularly weakens the Itomach and
inteftines, deftrpying all appetite and defire for food.
Opiates, if not given in large dofes, are good cor¬
dials in this cafe.
GRIERSON (Conftantia), born of poor parents
in the county of Kilkenny in Ireland, was one of the
moft learned women on record, though flie died at
the age of 27, in 1733. She was an excellent Greek
and Latin fcholar; and underftood hiftory, divinity,
philofophy, and mathematics. She proved her Ikill
in Latin by her dedication of the Dublin edition of
Tacitus to lord Carteret, and by that of Terence to
his fon ; to whom flie alfo addrefled a Greek epigram.
She wrote many elegant Englifh poems, feveral of
which were inferted by Mrs Barber among her own.
When lord Carteret was lord lieutenant of Ireland,
he obtained a patent for Mr Grierfon to be the king’s
printer; and to reward the uncommon merit of his
wife, caufed her life to be included in it.
GRIFFON, in heraldry, an imaginary animal,
feigned by the ancients to be half eagle and half lion.
By this form they intended to give an idea of ftrength
and fwiftnefs joined, together with an extraordinary
vigilance in guarding the things intruded to its care.
Thus the heathen naturalifls perfuaded the ignorant,
that gold mines were guarded by thefe creatures with
incredible, watchfulnefs and refolution.
GRIMSBY, a large fea-port town of Lincoln-
Ihire in England, which had formerly a caflle, and
two parifli-churches, with a commodious harbour,
now almofl choaked up. At prefent it has only one
church, which is a large handfome ftru&ure like a
cathedral. The town confifls of feveral flreets, whofe
houfes are well built; and is a corporation, and fends
two members to parliament. E. Long. o. 4. N. Lat.
53- 34-
GRINDING, the reducing hard fubdances to
powder.
Grinding Optic Glajfes. See Optics, the Me¬
chanical Part.
GRIPSWALD, a drong and confiderable town
of Pomerania in Germany; formerly imperial, but
now fubjecd to the Swedes, with a good harbour and
univerfity. E. long. 13. 53. N. lat. 54. 12,
GRISGRIS, a fuperdition greatly in vogue amongthe
negroes in the interior parts of Africa. Thegrifgris,ac-
cordingtoLeMaire,are certainjArabiccharadersmixed
with magical figures drawn by the Marabuts or prieds
upon paper. Labat affirms, that they are nothing elfe
than fcraps of the alcoran in Arabic ; but this is denied
by Barbot, who brought over one of thefe grifgris
to Europe, and fliewed it to a number of perfons
deeply Ikilled in oriental learning. None of thefe
could find the lead trace of any charafter they under¬
ftood. Yet, after all, this might be owing to the
badnefs of the hand-writing; and the words are pro¬
bably of the Mandingo language, though the cha-
raders are an attempt to imitate the Arabic. The
poored negro never goes to war without his Grifgris,
as a charm againd wounds; and if it proves ineffec¬
tual, the pried transfers the blame on the immorality
Vol. V.
of his condud. Thefe prieds invent grifgris againft G
all kinds of dangers, and in favour of all defires and G
appetites; by virtue of which the poffeffors may ob¬
tain or avoid whatever they like or diflike. They
defend them from dorms, enemies, difeafes, pains,
and misfortunes; and preferve health, long life, wealth,
honour, and merit, according to the Marabuts. No
clergy in the world are more honoured and revered
by the people, than thefe impodors are by the ne¬
groes ; nor are any people in the world more impo-
veriftied by their prieds than thefe negroes are, a
grifgris being frequently fold at three flaves and four or
five oxen. The grifgris intended for the head is made in
the form of a crofs, reaching from the forehead to the neck
behind, and from ear to ear; nor are the arms and fhoul-
ders negle&ed. Sometimes they are planted in their
bonnets in the form of horns; at other times, they
are made like ferpents, lizards, or fome other animals,
cut out of a kind of padeboard, fcc. There are not
wanting Europeans; and otherwife intelligent feamen
and merchants, who are in fome degree infeded with
this weaknefs of the country, and believe that the
negro forcerers have an adual communication with the
devil, and that they are filled with the malignant
influence of that evil fpirit, when they fee them
didort their features and mufcles, make horrid grima¬
ces, and at lad imitate 'all the appearance of epileptics.
GRISONS, a people fituated among the Alps, and
allies of the Swifs. Their country is bounded on the
north by the counties of Surgans and Bludenz, the
canton of Glaris, and the principality of Lichtendein ;
on the fouth by the canton’s Italian bailiwics, the
county of Chavenne, and the Valteline ; on the eaft
by the territories of Venice and Milan; and on the
wed by fome of the Italian bailiwics, and the canton
of Uri. It is divided into three leagues, viz. the
Grifon or grey league, the league of the houfe of God,
and that of the ten jurifdittions. The two fird lie to¬
wards the fouth, and the third towards the north.
The length of the whole is above 70 miles, and the
breadth about 60. The inhabitants are faid to have
had the name of Grifons from the grey coats they
wore in former times. This country, lying among
the Alps, is very mountainous; but the mountains
yield good pafture for cattle, flieep, and goats, with
fome rye and barley: in the valleys there is plenty of
grain, pulfe, fruits, and wine. This country alfo
abounds with hogs and wild-fowl; but there is a fcar-
city of fifh and fait, and their horfes are modly pur-
chafed of foreigners. The principal rivers are the
Rhine, the Inn, and the Adda. Here are alfo feveral
lakes, mod of which lie on the tops of the hills. The
language of the Grifons is either a corrupt Italian, or
the German. About two-thirds of the inhabitants
are Calvinids, and the reft Papifts ; the latter of whom,
in fpirituals, are under the biftiop of Coire, except a
few that are in the diocefe of Como. Each of the
leagues is fubdivided into feveral leffer communities,
which are fo many democracies; every male above 16
having a ftiare in the government of the community,
and a vote in the ele&ion of magiftrates. Deputies
from the feveral communities conftitute the general
diet of the Grifon leagues, which meets annually, and
alternately at the capital of each league ; but they
can conclude nothing without the confent of their
19 O conftituents.
G R O [ 3414 ] G R O
Cirifons conftituents. This country was anciently a part of
II Rhetia. After the extinction of the Roman empire
Groat- in the weft, it was fome time fubjeCt to its own dukes,
~ or thofe of Swabia. Then the bifliop of Coire, and
other petty princes, dependent on the emperors of
Germany, became mafters of great part of it: at
laft, by the extinction of fome, purchafe, voluntary
grants, and force, it got rid of all its lords, and ereCted
itfelf into three diftinCt republics, each of which, as
we obferved already, is fubdivided into a certain
number of communities, which are a fort of republics,
exercifing every branch of fovereignty, except that of
making peace or war, fending embaflies, concluding
alliances, and enaCting laws relating to the whole
country, which belong to the provincial diets of the
feveral leagues. The communities may be compared
to the cities of Holland, and the diets of the feveral
leagues to the provincial Hates. The particular diets
are compofed of a deputy from each community; and
both in them and the communities every thing is de¬
termined by a majority of votes. In the communi¬
ties, every male above 16 has a vote. Betides the
annual provincial diets for choofing the chiefs and other
officers, and deliberating on the affairs of the refpec-
tive leagues, there are general diets for what concerns
all the three leagues, or whole body. In both thefe,
the reprefentatives can do nothing of themfelves, but
are tied down to the inftruftions of their principals:
however, as all refolutious are decided by the plurality
of votes, and as the Proteftants are at leaft two-thirds
of the people, this republic n?ay be deemed a Proteftant
ftate. There is a general feal for all the three leagues;
and each particular league has a feparate feal. Betides
the ftated times of meeting, extraordinary diets are
fometimes fummoned, when either the domeftic affairs
of the ftate or any foreign minifter require it. In
the general diets, the Grey League has 28 votes; that
of the Honfe of God, 23 ; and that of the Ten Jurif-
di&ions, 15. Thefe leagues, at different times, have
entered into clofe alliances with the neighbouring can¬
tons, and their affociates. The bailiwics belonging in
common to the three leagues are thofe of the Val-
teline, Chieavene, Bormio, Meyenfeld, Malans, and
Jennins; the officers of which are nominated fuccef-
lively by the feveral communities, every two years.
The yearly revenue anting to the Grifons from their
bailiwics is faid to amount to about 13,500 florins.
The public revenues all together are but fmall, though
there are many private perfons in the country that are
rich. However, in cafe of any extraordinary emer¬
gency, they tax themfelves in proportion to the necef-
fity of the fervice, and the people’s abilities. They
have no regular troops, but a well-difciplined militia;
and upon occafion, it is faid, can bring a body of
30,000 fighting men into the field: but their chief
fecurity arifes from the narrow paffes and high moun¬
tains by which they are furrounded.
GRIST, in country affairs, denotes corn ground,
or ready for grinding.
GROAT, an Englifh money of account, equal to
four pence. Other nations, as the Dutch, Polanders,
Saxons, Bohemians, French, See. have likewife their
groats, groots, groches, gros, See. In the Saxon
times, no filver coin bigger than a penny was ftruck
in England, nor after the conqueft, till Edward III.
who, about the year 1351, coined groffes, i. e. groatst Groats
or great pieces, which went for qd. a-piece; and fo jl
the matter flood till the reign of Henry VIII. who, lngCr
in 1504, firft coined (hillings.
Groats, in country affairs, oats after the hulls are
off, or great oat-meal.
GROCERS, anciently were fuch perfons as en-
groffed all merchandize that was vendible ; but now
they are incorporated, and make one of the companies
of the city of London, which deals in fugar, foreign
fruits, fpices, &c.
GROENLAND, or Spitzbergen. See Green¬
land.
GROGRAM, a kind of fluff made of filk and
mohair.
GROIN, that part of the belly next the thigh.—
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions we have an account
of a remarkable cafe, where a peg of wood was ex-
tra&ed from the groin of a young woman of 21, after
it had remained 16 years in the (tomach and inteftines,
having been accidentally fwallowed when (he was about
five years of age. Vide Vol. LXV1I. p. 459.
GRONINGEN, the moft northerly of the Seven
United Provinces, is bounded on the north by the
German ocean; on the fouth, by the county of Drenthe;
on the eaft by the bilhopric of Munfter, and the prin¬
cipality of Eaft-Friefeland ; and on the weft by the
province of Friefeland, from which it is patted by the
river Lawers. Its greateft length from fouth-eaft to
north-weft is about 47 miles ; but its breadth is very
unequal, the greateft being about 33 miles. Here alfo
are rich paftures, large herds of great and fmall cattle,
plenty of fea and river fi(h, and of turf, with fome fo-
refts and corn-land. There are feveral rivers in the
province, of which the principal is the Hunfe; and
a great number of canals and dykes. The ftates
confift of the deputies of the town of Groningen, and
the Ommeland, or circumjacent country ; and hold
their affemblies always in the town of Groningen.
The province had anciently governors, under the title
of burgraves; but their power being limited, the peo¬
ple enjoyed great privileges. Afterwards, it became
fubjeft to the bifliop of Utrecht; but (hook off his
yoke at laft, and recovered its liberty. In 1536 it
fubmitted to Charles V. and in 1579 acceded to the
union of Utrecht. The colleges are much the fame
here as in the other provinces, viz. the provincial dates,
council of ftate, provincial tribunal, and chamber of
accounts. Six deputies are fent from hence to the
ftates-general. Of the eftabliftied clergy there are
160 minifters, which form feven claffes, whofe annual
fynod is held, by turns, at Groningen and Appin-
gedam.
Groningen, the capital of the province of that name,
is fituated about 12 miles from the neareft fliore of the
German ocean, at the conflux of feveral rivulets, which
form the Hunfe and Fivel. Shipsof confiderable burthen
can come up to the city, in confequence of which it
enjoys a pretty good trade. It was formerly very
ftrong, but its fortifications are now much neglected.
The univerfity here was founded in 1615, and is well
endowed out of the revenues of the ancient monafte- *
ries. The town, which was formerly one of the
Hanfe, and has (till great privileges, is large and po¬
pulous, being the feat of the high colleges, and con¬
taining
GKO [ 3415 ] G R O
Gronovliis taining three fpacious market-places, and 27 ftreets,
II. in which are many fine houfes, befideschurches and other
rotlus' public ftru&ures. By the river Five!, and the Eems, it
has a communication with Weftphalia. In 1672 it made
fuch a gallant refinance againft the bilhop of Munfter,
that he is faid to have loft ten thoufand men before it.
Rodolphus Agricola and Vefdius, two of the moft
learned men of the age in which they lived, were born
here. Under the jurifdi&ion of this city is a confi-
derable dillrift, called the Gorecht. E. Lon. 6. 25.
N. Lat. 53. 10.
GRONOVIUS (John Frederic), a very learned
critic, was born at Hamburgh in 1613; and having
travelled through Germany, Italy, and France, was
made profeffor of polite learning at Deventer, and af¬
terwards at Leyden, where he died in 1671. He
publiftied, 1. Diatribe in Statii, &c. 2. De fejlertiit.
3. Corredf editions of Seneca, Statius, T. Livy, Pliny’s
Natural Hiftory, Tacitus, Aldus Gellius, Phasdrus’s
Fables, &c. with notes; and other works.
Gronovius (James), fon of the preceding, and a
very learned man, was educated firft at Leyden, then
went over to England, where he vifited the univerfities,
confulted the curious MSS. and formed an acquain¬
tance with feveral learned men. He was chofen by
the grand duke to be profeflbr at Pifa, with a confi-
derable ftipend. He returned into Holland, after he
had refided two years in Tufcany, and confulted the
MSS. in the Medicean library. In 1679, he was in¬
vited by the curators of the univerfity to a profeffor-
fhip; and his inaugural diflertation was fo highly
approved of, that the curators added 400 florins to
his ftipend, and this augmentation continued to his
death in 1716. He refufed feveral honourable
and advantageous offers. His principal works are,
The treafure of Greek antiquities, in 13 vols. folio; and
a great number of differtations, and editions of ancient
authors He was compared to Schioppus for the vi¬
rulence of his ftyle ; and the feverity with which he
treated other great men who differed from him, ex-
pofed him to juft cenfure.
GROOM, a name particularly applied to feveral
fuperior officers belonging to the king’s houfehold, as
groom of the chamber, groom of the ftole. See Stole,
and Wardrobe.
Groom is more particularly ufed for a fervant ap¬
pointed to attend on horfes in the liable.—The word
is formed from the Fhrnifh grom, a boy.
GROOVE, among miners, is the fhaft or pit funk
into the earth, fomttimes in the vein, and fometimes
not.
Groove, among joiners, the channel made by their
plough in the edge of a moulding, ftyle, or rail, to put
their pannels in, in wainfcotting.
GROSS-beak, in ornithology; afpeciesof Loxia.
GROSSULARIA. See Ribes.
GROTESQUE, or Grotesk, in fculpture and
painting, fomething whimfical, extravagant, and mon-
ftrous ; confiding either of things that are merely
imaginary, and have no exiftence in nature; or of
things fo diftorted, as to raife furprife and ridicule.
GROTIUS (Hugo), or more properly Hugo de
Groot, one of the greateft men in Europe, was born at
Delft in 1583. He made fo rapid a progrefs in his ftu-
dies, that at the age of 15 he had attained a great know¬
ledge in philofophy, divinity, and civil law ; and a
yet greater proficiency in polite literature, as appeared
hy the commentary he had made at that age on Mar-
tianus Capella. In 1598, he accompanied the Dutch
ambaffador into France, and was honoured with feveral
marks of efteem by Henry IV. He took his degree
of do&or of laws in that kingdom; and at his return
to his native country, devoted himfelf to the bar, and
pleaded before he was 17 years of age. He was not
24 when he was appointed attorney-general. In 1613
he fettled in Rotterdam, and was nominated fyndic of
that city; but did not accept of the office, till a pro-
mife was made him, that he fhould not be removed
from it. This prudent precaution he took from his
forefeeing, that the quarrels of the divines on the doc¬
trine of grace, which had already given rife to many
faftions in the ftate, would occafion revolutions in the
chief cities. The fame year he was fent into England,
on account of the divifions that reigned between the
traders of the two nations, on the right of filhing in
the northern feas ; but he could obtain no fatisfadlion.
He was afterwards fent to England, as is it thought,
to perfuade the king and the principal divines to
favour the Arminians; and he had feveral con¬
ferences with king James on that fubjetl. On his
return to Holland, his attachment to Barnevelt in¬
volved him in great trouble ; for he was feized, and
fentenced to perpetual imprifonment in 1619, and to
forfeit all his goods and chattels. But after having been
treated with great rigour for above a year and a half
in his confinement, h6 was delivered by the advice and
artifice of his wife, who having obferved that his keepers
had often fatigued themfelves with fearching and exa¬
mining a great trunk-full of foul linen which ufcd to
be wafhedatGorkum, but now let it pafs without open¬
ing it, fire advifed him to bore holes in it to prevent his
being ftifled, and then to get into it. He complied
rvith this advice, and was carried to a friend’s houfe
in Gorkum ; where dreffing himfelf like a mafon, and
taking a rule and trowel, he paffed through the market¬
place, and ftepping into a boat went to Valvcc in
Brabant. Here he made himfelf known to fome Ar¬
minians, and hired a carriage to Antwerp. At firft
there was a defign of profecuting his wife, who ftaid
in the prifon ; and fome judges were of opinion that
fhe ought to be kept there in her hufband’s Head ; how¬
ever, fhe was releafed by a plurality of voices, and uni-
verfally applauded for her behaviour. He now retired
into France, where he met with a gracious recep¬
tion from that court, and Lewis XIII. fettled a pen-
fion upon him. Having refided there eleven years,
he returned to Holland, on his receiving a very kind
letter from Frederic Henry, prince of Orange : but
his enemies renewing their perfecution, he went to
Hamburgh; where, in 1634, queen Chriftina of
Sweden made him her counfellor, and fent him am-
baffor into France. After having difcharged the du¬
ties of this office above eleven years, he returned, in
order to give an account to queen Chriftina of his
embaffy ; when he took Holland in his way, and re¬
ceived many honours at Amfterdam. He was intro¬
duced to her Swedilh majefty at Stockholm; and
there begged that fire would grant his difmiffion, in
order that he might return to Holland. This he ob¬
tained with difficulty ; and the queen gave him many
19 O 2 marks
Grotfcaw
II
Grotto.
■]- See
Antifaros.
G R O [ 3416 ] G R O
marks of her efteem, though he had many enemies
at this court. As he was returning, the (hip in
_ which he embarked was caft away on the coaft of Po¬
merania; and being now fick, he continued his jour¬
ney by land; but was forced to (lop at Roftock, where
he died, on the 28th of Auguft 1645. His body
was carried to Delft, to be interred in the fepulchre
of his anceftors, Notwithftanding the embaffies in
which he was employed, he compofed a great num
ber of excellent works; the principal of which are,
1. A treatife Ds jure belli et pads, which is efteem-
ed a mafter-piece. 2. A treatife on the truth of the
Chriltian religion. 3. Commentaries on the holy
fcriptures. 4. The hiflory and annals of Holland.
5. A great number of letters. All which are writ¬
ten in Latin.
GROTSCAW, a town of Turky in Europe, in
in the province of Servia, where a battle was fought
between the Germans and Turks, in the year 1739,
in which the Germans were forced to retreat with
lofs. E. Lon. 21. o. N. Lat. 45.0.
GROTSKAW, a ftrong town of Germany, capital
of a province of the fame name in Silefia. It is very
agreeably feated, in a fruitful plain. E. Loh. 17. 35.
N. Lat. 50. 42.
GROTTO, a large deep cavern or den in a moun¬
tain or rock.
Of thefe there are feveral remarkable ones indifferent
parts of the world f. The mod celebrated one of our
own country, is that called Ookley-hole, on the fouth
fide of Mendip hills. Its length is about two hundred
yards, and its height various; being in fome places
very low, and in others eight fathoms.
Grotto is alfo ufed for a fmall artificial edifice
made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto.
The outfides of thefe grottos are ufually adorned
with ruftic architefture, and their infide with {hell-
work, coral, &c. and alfo furnifhed with various foun¬
tains and other ornaments.
Grotta del Cant, a little cavern near Pozzuoli,
four leagues from Naples, the deams whereof are of
a mephitical or noxious quality; whence alfo it is
called bocca venenofa, the poifonous mouth.
“ Two miles from Naples, fays Dr Mead, juft by
the Lago de Agnano, is a celebrated mofeta, com¬
monly called la Grotta del Cant, equally deftruftive
to all within the reach of its vapours.
“ It is a fmall grotto about eight feet high, twelve
long, and fix broad; from the ground arifes a thin,
fubtile, warm fume, vifible enough to a difcerning
eye, which does not fpring up in little parcels here
and there, but in one continued ftream, covering the
whole furface of the bottom of the cave : having this
remarkable difference from common vapours, that it
does not, like fmoke, difperfe itfelf into the air, but
quickly after its rife falls back again, and returns to
the earth, the colour of the fides of the grotto being
the meafure of its afcent; for fo far it is of a darkilh
green, but higher only common earth. And as I
myfelf found no inconveniency by {landing in it, fo
no animal, if its head be above this mark, is the leaft
injured. But when, as the manner is, a dog, or any
other creature, is forcibly kept below it, or by rea-
fon of its fmalinefs cannot hold its head above it, it
prefently lofes all motion, falls down as dead or in
a fwoan, the limbs convulfed and trembling, till at Grotto
laft no more figns of life appear, than a very weak
and almoft infenfible beating of the head and arteries ;
which, if the animal be left a little longer, quickly
ceafes too, and then the cafe is^ irrecoverable ; but if
fnatched out, and laid in the open air, foon comes
to life again, and fooner if thrown into the adjacent
lake.”
“ The fumes of the grotto, the fame author argues,
are no real poifon, but adt chiefly by their gravity ;
elferthe creatures could not recover fo foon ; or if they
did, fome fymptoms, as faintnefs, &c. would be the
xonfequence of it. He adds, that in creatures killed
therewith, when diffedled, no marks of infedlion ap¬
pear ; and that the attack proceeds from a want of
air, by which the circulation tends to an entire ftop-
page, and this fo much the more, as the animal in-
fpires a fluid of a quite different nature from the air,
and fo nowife fit to fupply its place.
“ Taking the animal out while alive, and throwing it
into the neighbouring lake, it recovers. This is owing
to the coldnefs of the water, which promotes the con-
tradlion of the fibres, and fo afiifts the retarded cir¬
culation. The fmall portion of the air which remains
in the veficulse, after every exfpiration, may be fuffi-
cient to drive out the noxious fluid. After the fam’e
manner, cold water ads in a deliquium animi: the
lake of Agnano has no other virtue in it more than
others.”
The fleam arifing in this grotto was for a long
time reckoned to be of a poifonous nature, and thought
to fuffocate the animals which breathed it. Dr Hales
imagined that it deftroyed the elafticity of the air,
caufed the veficles of the lungs to collapfe, and thus
occafioned fudden death.—It is now, however, found
that this fleam is nothing elfe than fixed air, which
from time immemorial hath iffued out of the earth in
that place in very great quantity, the caufes of which,
cannot yet be inveftigated from any of the modern
difcoveries concerning that fpecies of air. It proves
pernicious when breathed in too great quantity, by
rarefying the blood too much'; and hence the bell
method of recovering perfons apparently killed by fixed
air, is to apply a great degree of cold all over their
bodies, in order to condenfe the blood as much as
poffible. This is the reafon why the dogs recover
when thrown into the lake Agnanc, as above-mention¬
ed. See the articles Blood, Damps, and (the /«-
dex fubjoined to) Medicine.
Grotta del Serpi, is a fubterraneous cavern near
the village of Saffa, eight miles from the city of Brac-
cano in Italy, defcribed by Kircher thus :
“ The grotta del ferpi is big enough to hold two
perfons. It is perforated with feveral fiftular aper¬
tures, fomewhat in manned of a fieve ; out of which,
at the beginning'of the fpring feafon, iffues a nume¬
rous brood of young fnakes of divers colours, but all
free from any particular poifonous quality.
“ In this cave they expofe their lepers, paraly¬
tics, arthritics, and elephantiac patients, quite naked ;
where, the warmth of the fubterraneous fleams refol-
ving them into a fweat, and the ferpents clinging va-
rioufiy all around, licking and fucking them, they
become fo thoroughly freed of all their vitious hu¬
mours, that, upon repeating the operation for fome
G R O [ 34
Grove, time, they become perfe&ly reftored.”
  This cave Kircher vifited himfelf; and found it
warm, and every way agreeable to the defcription
given of it. He faw the holes, and heard a mur¬
muring hiffing noife in them. Though he miffed
feeing the ferpents, it not being the feafon of their
creeping out; yet he faw a great number of their
exuvise, or floughs, and an elm growing hard by
laden with them.
t Mufeum The difcovery of this cave, was by the cure of a
Worm, leper going from Rome to fome baths near this place.
Lofing his way, and being benighted, he happened
upon this cave. Finding it very warm, he pulled off
| his clothes; and being weary and fleepy, had the good
fortune not to feel the ferpents about him till they had
wrought his cure.
GROVE, in gardening, a fmall wood impervious
to the rays of the fun.
Groves are not only great ornaments to gardens ;
but are alfo the greateft relief againft the violent heats
of the fun, affording {hade to walk under in the hot-
teft parts of the day, when the other parts of the
garden are ufelefs; fo that every garden is defe&ive
which has not {hade.
Groves are of two forts, viz. either open or clofe.
Open groves are fuch as have large ffiady trees, which
(land at fuch diftances, as that their branches ap¬
proach fo near to each other as to prevent the rays
of the fun from penetrating through them.
Clofe groves have frequently large trees {landing in
them; but the ground under thefe are filled with
fhrubs or underwood : fo that the walks which are in
them are private, and fcreened from winds; by which
means they are rendered agreeable for walking, at
thofe times when the air is either too hot or too
cold in the more expofed parts of the garden.
Thefe are often contrived fo as to bound the open
groves, and frequently to hide the walls or other in*
clofures of the garden ; and when they are properly
laid out, with dry walks winding through them, and
on the fides of thefe fweet-fmelling {hrubs and flowers
irregularly planted, they have a charming effedt.
Grove (Henry), a learned and ingenious. Prelby-
terian divine, was born at Taunton in Somerfetfhire, in
1683. Having obtained a fufficient flock of claflical li¬
terature, he went through a courfe of academical learn¬
ing, under the reverend Mr Warren of Taunton, who
had a flourifhing academy. He then removed to Lon¬
don, and ftudied feme time under the Reverend Mr
Rowe, to whom he was nearly related. Here he
contradled a friendfliip with feveral perfons of merit,
and particularly with Dr Watts, which continued till
his death, though they were of different opinions in
feveral points warmly controverted among divines. Af¬
ter two years fpent under Mr Rowe, he returned into
the country, and began to preach with great reputa¬
tion ; when an exaft judgment, a lively imagination,
and a rational and amiable reprefentation of Chriftia-
nity, delivered in a fweet and well-governed voice,
rendered him generally admired ; and the fpirit of de¬
votion, which prevailed in his fermons, procured him
the efteem and friendfliip of Mrs Singer, afterwards
Mrs Rowe, which (he expreffed in a fine ode on death,
addreffed to Mr Grove. Soon after his beginning to
preach, he married; and on the death of Mr Warren,
17 ] G R O
was chofen to fucceed him in the academy at Taunton. Ground.
This obliging him to refide there, he preached for
eighteen years to two fmall congregations in the neigh¬
bourhood; and though his falary from both was lefs
than twenty pounds a-year, and he had a growing
family, he went through it cheerfully. In 1708, he
publifhed a piece, intitled The regulation of diverfons,
drawn up for the ufe of his pupils. About the fame
time, he entered into a private difpute by letter with
Dr Samuel Clarke: but they not being able to con¬
vince each other, the debate was dropped with expref-
fions of great mutual efteem. He next wrote feveral
papers printed in the Spe&ator, viz. Numb. 588.
601. 626. 635. The laft was republiftied, by the di-
redtion of Dr Gibfon bifhop of London, in the Evi¬
dences of the Chriftian Religion, by Jofeph Addifon,
Efq. In 1725, Mr James, his partner in the aca¬
demy, dying, he fucceeded him in his paftoral charge
at Fulwood, near Taunton, and engaged his nephew
to undertake the other parts of Mr James’s work as
tutor ; and in this fituation Mr Grove conntinued till
his death, which happened in 1738. His great con¬
cern with his pupils, was to infpire and cherilh in
them a prevailing love of truth, virtue, liberty, and
genuine religion, without violent attachments or pre¬
judices in favour of any party of Chriftians. He re-
prefented truth and virtue in a mod engaging light;
and though his income, both as a tutor and a minifler,
was infufficient to fupport his family, without break¬
ing into his paternal eftate, he knew not how to refufe
the call of charity. Befides the above pieces, he wrote,
1. An effay towards a demonftration of the foul’s im¬
mortality. 2. An effay on the terms of Chriflian
communion. 3. The evidence of our Saviour’s refur^
redlion confidered. 4. Some thoughts concerning the
proof of a future date from reafon. 5. A difcourfe
concerning the nature and defign of the Lord’s fup-
per. 6. Wifdom the firft fpring of adlion in the Dei¬
ty. 7. A difcourfe on faving faith. 8. Mifcellanies
in profe and verfe. 9. Many fermons, &c. After
his deceafe, his pofthumous works were publilhed by
fubfcription, in four volumes odtavo, with the names
of near 700 lubfcribers, among whom were fome of
the beft judges of merit in the eftablifhed church.
GROUND, in painting, the furface upon which
the figures and other objedls are reprefented.
The ground is properly underftood of fuch
parts of the piece, as have nothing painted on
them, but retain the original colour upon which-
the other colours are applied to make the reprefenta-
tions.
A building is faid to ferve as a ground to a figure,
when the figure is painted on the building.
The ground behind a pi&ure in miniature, is com¬
monly blue or crimfon, imitating a curtain of fattin
or velvet.
Ground, in etching, denotes a gummouscompofition
fineared over the furface of the metal to be etched, to
prevent the aquafortis from eating, except in fuch
places where this ground is cut through with the point
of a needle. See the article Etching.
Ground-^«^//«^, fifhing under water without a
float, only with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed
about nine inches from the hook; which is better;
becaufe it will roll on the ground. This method of fifti-
i»g>
Grouad
II
Growth.
O R O [33
ing is raoft proper in cold weather, when the' fifli fwim
very low.
The morning and evening are the chief feafons for
the ground-line in filhing for trout; but if the day
prove cloudy, or the water muddy, you may filh at
ground all day.
Ground-Tirc/f/f, a (hip’s anchors, cables, &c. and
in general whatever is necelfary to make her ride fafe
at anchor.
GaouND-Zuy, in botany. See Glechoma.
Ground-in botany. See Teucrium.
GROUNDSEL. See Senecio.
GROUP, in painting and fculpture, is an affem-
blage of two or more figures of men, beads, fruits, or
the like, which have fome apparent relation to each
other. See Painting.—The word is formed of the
Italian groppo, a knot.
The Groups, a duller of ifiands lately difcovered
i-n the fouth fea. They lie in about S. Lat. 18. 12.
and W. Lon. 142. 42. They are long narrow flips of
land, ranging in all direftions, fome of them ten miles
or upwards in length, but not more than a quarter of
a mile broad. They abound in trees, particularly
thofe of the cocoa-nut. They are inhabited by well-
made people, of a brown complexion. Mod of thlm
carried in their hands a flender pole about 14 feet in
length, pointed like a fpear; they had likewife fome-
thing fhaped like a paddle, about four feet long.
Their canoes were of different fizes, carrying from
three to fix or. feven people, and fome of them hoift-
ed a fail.
GROUSE, or Growse. See Tetrao.
GROWTH, the gradual increafe of bulk and ftature
that takes place, in animals or vegetables, to a certain
period.—The increafe of bulk in fuch bodies as have no
life, owing to fermentations excited in their fubltance,
or to other caufes, is called Expansion, Swelling,
&c.
The growth of animals, nay even of the human fpe-
cies, is fubje& to great variations. A remarkable
inftance in the laft was obferved in France in the year
1729. At this time the Academy of Sciences exa¬
mined a boy who was then only feven years old,
and who meafufed four feet eight inches and four lines
high, without his (hoes. His mother obferved the
figns of puberty on him at two years old, which con¬
tinued to increafe very quick, and foon arrived at the
ufual llandard. At four years old he was able to lift
and tofs the common bundles of hay in (tables into
the horfes racks; and at fix years old could lift as
much as a (lurdy fellow of twenty. But though he
thus inereafed in bodily ftrength, his underftanding
was no greater than is ufual with children of his age,
and their playthings were alfo his favourite amufcments.
Another boy, a native of the hamlet of Bouzqn-
quet, in the diocefe of Alais, though of a Itrong con-
ftitution, appeared to be knit and (tiff in his joints till
he was about four years and a half old. During this
time nothing farther was remarkable of him than an
extraordinary appetite, which was fatisfied no other-
wife than by giving him plenty of the common ali¬
ments of the inhabitants of the country, confiding
of rye-bread, chefnuts, bacon, and water ; but his
limbs foon becoming fupple and pliable, and his body
beginning to expand itfelf, he grew up in fo extraor-
18 ]
G R
O
dinary a manner, that at the age of five years he Growth,
meafured four feet three inches ; fome months after, he "
was four feet eleven inches ; and at fix, five feet, and
bulky in proportion. His growth was fo rapid, that
one might fancy he favv him grow : every month his
cloaths required to be made longer and wider; and
what was dill very extraordinary in his growth, it
was not preceded by any ficknefs, nor accompanied
with any pain in the groin or elfewhere. At the
age of five years his voice changed, his beard be¬
gan to appear, and at fix he had as much as a man of
thirty ; in (hort, all the unquedionable marks of pu¬
berty were vifible in him. It was not doubted in the
country but this child was, at five years old, or five
and a half, in a condition of begetting other children;
which induced the reftor of the parilh to recommend
to his mother that (lie would keep him from too fami¬
liar a converfation with children of the other fex. Tho’
his wit was riper than is commonly obfervable at the
age of five or fix years, yet its progrefs was not in
proportion to that of his body. His air and manner
(till retained fomething childifli, though by his bulk
and fiature he refembled a complete man, which at
fird fight produced a very Angular contrad. His voice
was drong and manly, and his grent drength render¬
ed him already fit for the labours of the country. At
the age of five years, he could carry to a good didance,
three meafures of rye, weighing eighty-four pounds;
when turned of fix, he could lift up eafily on his (boul¬
ders and carry loads of a hundred and fifty pounds
weight a good way off; and thefe exercifes were exhi¬
bited by him as often as the curious engaged him
thereto by fome liberality. Such beginnings made
people think that he would foon (hoot up into a
giant. A mountebank was already foliciting his pa¬
rents for him, and flattering them with hopes of put¬
ting him in a way of making a great fortune. But
all thefe hopes fuddenly vaniflied. His legs be¬
came crooked, his body (hrunk, his flrength diminilh-
ed, his voice grew fenfibly weaker, and he at lad funk
into a total imbecillity.
In the Paris Memoirs alfo there is an account of a
girl who had her menfes at three months of age.
When four years old, (lie was four feet fix inches in
height, and had her limbs well proportioned to that
height, her breads large and plump, and the parts
of generation like thofe of a girl of eighteen ; fo that
there is no doubt but that (he was marriageable at that
time, and capable of being a mother of children,
Thefe things are more Angular and marvellous in the
northern than in the fouthern climates, where the fe¬
males come fooner to maturity. In fome places of the
Eafl Indies, the girls have children at nine years of
age.
Many other indances of extraordinary growth might
be brought, but the particulars are not remarkably
different from thofe already related.—It is at fird fight
affonifhing that children of fuch early and prodigious
growth do not become giants: but when we confider
that the figns of puberty appear fo much fooner than
they ought, it feems evident that the whole is only a
more than ufually rapid expanfion of the parts, as in
hot climates ; and accordingly it is obferved that fuch
children, indead of becoming giants, always decay
and die apparently of old age, long before the natu-
G R U [ 3419 ] G R Y
Grub ral term of human life.
, II GRUB, in zoology, the Englilh name of the hex-
Grutcr* apode worms, produced from the eggs of beetles, and
which at length are transformed into winged infe&s of
the fame fpecies with their parents.
GRUBBING, in agriculture, the digging or pull¬
ing up of the flubs and roots of trees.
When the roots are large, this is a very trouble-
fome and laborious tafk ; but Mr Mortimer hath
fhewn how it may be accomplifhed in fuch a manner
as to fave great expence by a very Ample and eafy
method. He propofes a ftrong iron hook to be made
about two feet four inches long, with a large iron¬
ring faftened to the upper part of it. This hook
muft be put into a hole in the fide of the root, to
which it muft be faftened; and a lever being put into
the ring, three men, by means of this lever, may
wring out the root, and twift the fap-roots afunder.
Stubs of trees may alfo be taken up with the fame
hook, in which work it will fave a great deal of la¬
bour, though not fo much as in the other; becaufe
the ftubs muft be firft cleft with wedges, before the
N hook can enter the fides of them, to wrench them
out by pieces.
GRUBENHAGEN, a town andcaftle of theduchy
of Brunfwic, in Lower Saxony, remarkable for its
mines of filver, copper, iron, and lead. E. Lon. 9.
36. N.-Lat. 51. 45.
GRUBS, in medicine, certain undluous pimples a-
rifing in different parts of the face, but chiefly in
the alse of the nofe. The cure of thefe ought only
to be attempted by evacuations and cleanfers of the
blood.
GRUINALES, (from grtts, a crane) ; the name
of the fourteenth order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a
natural method, confiding of geranium, and a few
other genera which the author confiders as allied to
it in their habit and external ftrudlure.
GRUME, in medicine, denotes a concreted clot of
blood, milk, or other fubftance. Hence grumous
blood is that which approaches to the nature of grume,
and by its vifeidity and ftagnating in the capillary
vefiels produces feveral diforders.
GRUPPO, ox Turned Shake, a mufical grace, de¬
fined by Playford to confiil in the alternate prolation
of two tones in juxtapofition to each other, with a
clofe on the note immediately beneath the lower of
them. See Shake.
GRUS, in ornithology. See Ardea.
GRUTER (James), a learned philologer, and one
of the moft laborious writers of his time, was born
at Antwerp in 1560. He was but a child, when
his father and mother, being perfecuted for the Pro-
teftant religion by the duchefs Parma governefs of
the Netherlands, carried him into England. He im¬
bibed the elements of learning from his mother, who
was one of the moft learned women of the age, and
befides French, Italian, and Englifh, was a complete
miftrefs of Latin, and well flailed in Greek. He
fpent fome years in the univerfity of Cambridge ; af¬
ter which he went to that of Leyden, to ftudy the
civil law; but at laft applied himfelf wholly to polite
literature. After travelling much, he became profef-
for in the univerfity of Heidelburgh ; near which city
he died, in 1627. He wrote many works ; the moil Grovers
confiderable of which are, 1. A large collection of II
ancient infcriptions. 2. Thefaurus criticus. 3. Deli- GrVllotalPa
£7<e poetarum Gallerum, Italorum, et Belgarum, <&c.
GRUYERS, a town of Swiflerland, in the canton
of Friburgh, with a pretty good caftle.' It is famous
for its cheefe, which are all its riches. E. Lon. 7. 23.
N. Lat. 46. 35.
GRYLLUS, in zoology, the name of the cricket
and locuft kind ; which, together with the grafshop-
pers, make only one genus of infefts, belonging to
the order of hemiptera. The charafters are thefe : The
antennas are fetaceous and filiform ; the exterior wings
are membranaceous, narrow, and have much of the
appearance of the wings of fome of the fly-kind ; the
thorax is comprefled and angulated ; and the legs are
formed for leaping, See Plate CXV. CXL. and the
articles Grass hopper, Gryllotalpa, Locust, (and
Cricket in appendix.)
GRYLLOTALPA, the mole-cricket ; an infedt
very deftrudlive to gardens. Like the cricket, it makes
a noife in the evening; and like the mole, is perpetu-
'ally employed in digging belpw ground. It is an in-
fedt of a very unpleafant form. It is of the length
and thicknefs of a man’s little finger; and is of a brown
colour, which is darker in the male than in the female.
There are on each fide of the anus two hairy procef-
fes, refembling the tails of mice; its belly is compo-
fed of eight joints, and is covered with as many feales,
which are of a pale flefti-colour, and are covered with
fhort hair. The back is covered by a pair of pointed
wings, along each of which there runs a black ftreak
or line. Thefe wings fold any way at the creature’s
pleafure, and when fully expanded are very large. O-
ver thefe lie theantennse; which are variegated alfo with
black, and reach about half the length of the wings.
It has only four legs : the hinder pair are long and fit
for hopping; the anterior pair are ftiort, and furnifti-
ed with a fort of hands for digging in the manner of
the mole. The bread is covered with a cruftaceous
fubftance, which is blackilh and hairy on the outfide,
and fmooth and pale within. The eyes are very bright
and black, and are very hard ; and the mouth is wide,
and has two tonfils, and teeth in both jaws. This crea¬
ture lives under ground, and is principally found in
damp and boggy places. They come out in the dufle
of the evening, and make a very loud noife of the na¬
ture of that of the cricket.
The mole-cricket moves very flowly : and Goedar-
tiusis of opinion, that its wings were given it rather
as an ornament, than as a thing of ufe; or if they
have any real ufe, that it is the covering and defend¬
ing the, tender body of the creature, which is very
foft, and eafily liable to accidents ; and Mouffett fays,
that its flights are no more than long leaps. But we
have a very different account of the ufe this cteature
makes of its wings, in the German Ephemerides.
Mentzelius, in a paper there, declares this to be one
of the moft; mifehievous infefts of the creation. He
fays it is a kind of amphibious creature; and that it
lives equally well under ground, in the air, or under
water : that while it is under ground, it does infinite
mifehief, by burrowing under the beds of a garden,
and eating the roots of flowers; and that in the night
it
G U A [ 3420 ] G U A
Gryllotalpa jt comes out, and taking wing, fettles upon the fruit-
11 . trees, where it does no little emifchief: and all this the
U ver^111* autllor affirms from his own experience, in the gardens
 which he obferved.
This creature is very nice in the conftruftion of its
neft. This is always under ground, and it choofes a fo-
lid clay for the purpofe. All its precautions feem to
be neceflary to fecure its eggs from becoming a prey
to a kind of black fly, which conceals itfelf under
ground. The noife of this animal is varioufly account¬
ed for by naturalifts ; but it is mofl: probably effe&ed
by the play of organs in their belly, of a Angular
conftru&ion. This is certain, that if the head of the
animal be taken off, or if it be fevered in the middle,
it continues to live, and even to chirp, for fome confl-
derable time.
It is remarkable of this creature, that it can move
backward as fall as forward, and often does fo when
frightened.
GRYNiEUS (Simon), fon to a peafant of Sna-
bia, born in 1493, was Greek profefibr at Heidel¬
berg, in 1523. He took a tour into England, and
received great civility from the lord chancellor Sir
Thomas More, to whom Erafmus had recommended
him. He was a learned and laborious man, and did
great fervice to the commonwealth of letters. He
was the Arft who publifhed the Almageft of Ptolemy
in Greek. He alfo publiflied a Greek Euclid, and
Plato’s works, with fome commentaries of Proclus.
GRYPHIUS (Sebaftian), an eminent Swifs printer,
and accurate corredfor; on which account his Hebrew
and Latin Bibles are efteemed. He died in 1556.
GRYPHITES, in natural hiftory, in Englifli
crow’s stone, an oblong foffile (hell, very narrow at
the head, and becoming gradually wider to the extre¬
mity, where it ends in a circular limb ; the head or
beak of this is very hooked or bent inward.
They are frequently found in our gravel or clay-
pits, in many counties. There are three or four di-
ftindt fpecies of them ; fome are extremely rounded
and convex on the back, others lefs fo ; and the plates
of which they are compofed, are in fome fmaller and
thinner, in others thicker and larger, in fpecimens of
the fame bignefs.
GUADALAJARA, orGuADALAXARA, a town of
Spain, in New Caftile, and diftrid of Alcala, feated
on the river Herares, W. Lon. 2. 45. N. Lat. 40. 36.
Guadalajara, a conflderable town of North A-
merica, and capital of a rich and fertile province of
the fame name, with a biihop’s fee. W. Lon. 11 4.59.
N. Lat. 20. 20.
GUADALAVIAR, a river of Spain, which ri-
fes on the confines of Arragon and New Caftile, and,
running by Turvel in Arragon, crofles the kingdom
of Valencia, paffes by the town of the fame name,
and foon after falls into the Mediterranean fea, a little
below Valencia.
GUADALUPE, a handfome town in Spain, in
Eftramadura, with a celebrated convent, whofe ftruc-
ture is magniflcent, and is immenfely rich. It is feat¬
ed on a rivulet of the fame name. E. Lon. 3. 50.
N. Lat. 39. 15.
GUADALQUIVER, one of the moft famous ri¬
vers of Spain, rifes in AndaluAa, near the conAnes of
Granada, and running quite through AndaluAa, by
the towns of Baiza, Andaxar, Cordova, Seville, and Guadalupe
St Lucar, falls at laft into the Bay of Cadiz.  1!
GUADALUPE, one of the Caribbee iflands, be¬
longing to the French, the middle of which is feated
in about 16. 30. N. Lat. and 61. 20. W. Lon.
This ifland, which is of an irregular Agure, may be
about 80 leagues in circumference. It is divided into
two parts by a fmall arm of the fea, which is not a-
bove two leagues long, and from 15 to 40 fathom
broad. This canal, known by the name of the Salt
River, is navigable, but will only carry veflels of 50
tons burthen.
That part of the ifland which gives its name to the
whole colony, is, towards the centre, full of craggy rocks,
where the cold is fo intenfe, that nothing will grow upon
them but fern, and fomeufelefs ftirubs covered with mofs.
On the top of thefe rocks, a mountain called la Souphriere,
or the Brimjlone Mountain, rifes to an immenfe height.
It exhales, through various openings, a thick black I
fmoke, intermixed with fparks that are viflble by night.
From all thefe hills flow numberlefs fprings, which
fertilize the plains below, and moderate the burning
heat of the climate by a refrelhing ftream, fo celebra¬
ted, that the galleons which formerly ufed to touch at
the Windward Iflands, had orders to renew their pro-
vifion with this pure and falubrious water. Such is
that part of the ifland properly called Guadalupe. That
which is commonly called Grand Terre, has not been
fo much favoured by nature. It is indeed lefs rugged;
but it wants fprings and rivers. The foil is not lo fer¬
tile, or the climate fo wholefome or fo pleafant.
No European nation had yet taken pofieffion of this
ifland, when 550 Frenchmen, led on by two gentle¬
men named Loline and Duplejfis, arrived there from
Dieppe on the 28th of June 1635. They had been
very imprudent in their preparations. Their proviflons
were fo ill chofen, that they were fpoilt in the paflage ;
and they had (hipped fo few, that they were exhauft-
ed in two months. They were fupplied with none
from the mother-country. St Chriftopher’s, whether
from fcarcity or deftgn, refufed to fpare them any;
and the Arft attempts in hulbandry they made in the
country, could not as yet afford any thing. No re-
fource was left for the colony but from the favages;
but the fuperfluities of a people, who cultivate but lit¬
tle, and therefore had never laid up any (lores, could
not be very conflderable. The new comers, not con¬
tent with what the favages might freely and volunta¬
rily bring, came to a refolution to plunder them; and
hoftilities commenced on the 16th of January 1636.
The Caribs, not thinking themfelves in a condition
openly to refill an enemy who had fo much the ad¬
vantage from the fuperiority of their arms, dellroyed
their own proviflons and plantations, and retired to
Grand Terre, or to the neighbouring iflands. From
thence the moft defperate came over to the ifland from
which they had been driven, and concealed themfelves
in the thickeft parts of the forefts. In the day-time,
they (hot with their poifoned arrows, or knocked down
with their clubs, all the Frenchmen who were Matter¬
ed about for hunting or flftiing. InJ the night, they
burned the houfes and deftroyed the plantations of their
unjuft fpoilers.
A dreadful famine was the confequence of this kind J
of war. The colonifts were reduced to graze in the
flelde.
G U A [ 3421 ] G U A
iJnadiUipc. fields, to eat their own excrements, and to dig up dead
■j     bodies for their fubfittence. Many who had been flaves
at Algiers, held in abhorrence the hands that had bro¬
ken their fetters ; and all of them curfed their exift-
ence. It was in this manner that they atoned for the
crime of their invafion, till the government of Aubert
brought a peace with the favages at the end of the year
1640. The remembrance, however, of hardihips en-
I dured in an invaded ifland, proved a powerful incite¬
ment to the cultivation of all articles of immediate ne-
cefiity ; which afterwards induced an attention to thofe
of luxury confumed in the mother-country. The few
inhabitants who had efcaped the calamities they had
drawn upon themfelves, were foon joined by fome dif-
contented colonifts from St Chriftopher’s, by Europe¬
ans fond of novelty, by failors tired of navigation,
and by fome fea-captains, who prudently chofe to
commit to the care of a grateful foil the treafures they
| had faved from the dangers of the fea. But ftill the
profperity of Guadalupe was flopped or impeded by
obftacles arifing from its fituation.
The facility with which the pirates from the neigh¬
bouring iflands could carry off their cattle, their flaves,
their very crops, frequently brought them into a defpe-
rate fituation. Intefline broils, arifing from jealoufies of
I authority, often difturbed the quiet of the planters.
The adventurers who went over to the windward if¬
lands, difdaining a land that was fitter for agriculture
than for naval expeditions, were eafily drawn to Mar-
tinico, by the convenient roads it abounds with. The
proteftion of thofe intrepid pirates, brought to that
ifland all the traders who flattered themfelves that they
might buy up the fpoils of the enemy at ardow price,
and all the planters who thought they might fafely
give themfelves up to peaceful labours. This quick
population could not fail of introducing the civil and
military government of the Caribbee iflands into Mar-
tinrto. From that time, the French miniftry attend¬
ed more ferioufly to this than to the other colonies,
which were not fo immediately under their direction ;
and, hearing chiefly of this ifland, they turned all
their encouragements that way.
It was in confequence of this preference, that in
1700 the number of inhabitants in Guadalupe amount¬
ed only.to 3825 white people, 325 favages, free ne¬
groes, mulattoes, and 6725 flaves, many of whom
were Caribs. Her cultures were reduced to 60 fmall
plantations of fugar, 66 of indigo, a little cocoa, and
a confiderable quantity of cotton. The cattle amount¬
ed to 1620 horfes and mules, and 3699 head of horn¬
ed cattle; This was the -fruit of fixty years labour.
But her future progrefs was as rapid as her firft at¬
tempts had been flow.
At the end of the year 1755, the colony was peo¬
pled with 9,643 whites, 41,140 flaves of all ages and
of both fexes. Her faleable commodities were the
produce of 334 fugar-plantations, 15 plots of indigo,
46840 ftems of cocoa, 11700 of tobacco, 2,257,725
of coffee, 12,748,447 of cotton. For her provifions
Ihe had 29 fquares of rice or maize, and 1219 of
potatoes or yams, 2,028,520 banana trees, and
32,577,95° trenches of caffava. The cattle of Gua¬
dalupe confifted of 4946 horfes, 2924 mules,-125 af-
fes, 13,716 head of horned cattle, 11,162 fheep or
goats, 2444 hogs. Such was the ftate of Guadalupe
Vox. V.
when it was conquered by the Britifli in the month Guadalupe.
of April 1759.
France lamented this lofs; but the colony had rea-
fon to comfort themfelves for this difgra'ce. During
a fiege of three months, they had feen their planta¬
tions deftroyed, the buildings that ferved to carry on
their works burnt down, and fome of their flaves car¬
ried off. Had the enemy been forced to retreat after
all thefe devaftations, the ifland was ruined. Depri¬
ved of all affiftance from the mother-country, which
was not able to fend her any fuccours; and expefting
nothing from the Dutch, (who, on account of their
neutrality, came into her roads), becaufelhe had nothing
to offer them in exchange; (he could never have fubfifted
till the enfuing harveft.
The conquerors delivered them from thefe appre-
henfions. The Britifli, indeed, are no merchants in
their colonies. The proprietors of lands, who moflly
refide in Europe, fend to their reprefentatives whatever
they want, and draw the whole produce of the effate
by the return of their (hip. An agent fettled in fome
fea-port of Great Britain, is intrufted with the fur-
niftiing the plantation, and receiving the produce.
This was impra&icable at Guadalupe; and the con¬
querors in this refpeft were obliged to adopt the cu-
ftom of the conquered. The Britifli, informed of the
advantage the French made of their trade with the
colonies, haftened, in imitation of them, to fend their
fliips to the conquered ifland ; and fo multiplied their
expeditions, that they overftocked the market, and
funk the price of all European commodities. The co¬
lonifts bought them at a very low price, and, in con¬
fequence of this plenty, obtained long delays for the
payment.
To this credit, which was neceffary, was foon ad¬
ded anotherarifing from fpeculation, which enabled the
colony to fulfil its engagements. A great number of
negroes were carried thither, to haften the growth and
enhance the value of the plantations. It has been faid
in various memorials, all copied from each other, that
the Englifli had (locked Guadalupe with 30,000, du¬
ring the four years and three months that they remain¬
ed mailers of the ifland. The regifters of the cuftom-
houfes, which may be depended on, as there could be
no inducement for an impofition, atteft that the num¬
ber was no more than 18,721. This was fufficient to
give the nation well-grounded hopes of reaping great
advantages from their new conqueft. But their hope*
were fruftrated; and the colony, with its depen¬
dencies, was reftored to its former poffeffors, by the
treaty of peace in July 1763.
By the furvey taken in 1767, this ifland, including
the fmaller iflands, Defeada, St Bartholomew, Mari-
galante, and the Saints, dependent upon it, contains
11,863 white people of all ages, and of both fexes;
752 free blacks and mulattos; 72,761 flaves ; which
makes in all a population of 85,376 fouls. The cat¬
tle confifts of 5060 horfes, 4854 mules, 111 affes,
17,378 head of horned cattle, 14,895 (heep or goats,
and 2669 hogs. The provilion is 30,476,218 trench¬
es of caffava, 2,819,262 banana tres, 2118 fquares of
land planted with yams and potatoes. The planta¬
tions contain 72 arnotto trees, 327 of caflia, 13,29^
of cocoa, 5,881,176 of coffee, 12,156,769 of cot¬
ton, 21,474 fquares of land planted with fugar-canes.
19 P, The
G U A [ 3422 ] G U A
Cuadiana The woods occupy 22,097 fquares of land. There are
.1! 20,247 in meadows, and 6405 are uncultivated or
Gnajacum. forfa^en> Only 1582 plantations grow cotton, coffee,
and provifions. Sugar is made but in 401. Thefe
fugar-works- employ 140 water-mills, 263 turned by
oxen, and 11 wind-wills.
The produce of Guadalupe, including what is pour¬
ed in from the fmall iflands under her dominion, ought
to be very confiderable. But in 1768, it yielded to
the mother-country no more than 140,418 quintals of
fine fugar, 23,603 quintals of raw' fugar, 34,205
quintals of coffee, 11,955 qu>ntals of cotton, 456
quintals of cocoa, 1884 quintals of ginger, 2529
quintals of logwood, 24 chefls of fweetmeats, 165
ehells of liquors, 34 cafks of rum, and I2C2 undref-
fed fkins. All thefe commodities were fold in the co¬
lony only for 310,792 1. 188.3d. and the merchan-
dife it has received from France has coft but 197,919!.
J 8 s. 6 d.
GUADIANA, a large river of Spain, having its
v fource in New Caftile, and, palling crofs the high
mountains, falls down to the lakes called Ojoj of
Guadiana; from whence it runs to Calatrava, Medelin,
Merida, and Badajox in Eftremadura of Spain ; and
after having run for fome time in Alentejo in Portugal,
it paffes on to feparate the kingdom of Algarve from
Andalufia, and falls into the bay or gulph of Cadiz
between Caftro Marino and Agramonte.
GUADIX, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Garnada, with a bifhop’s fee. It was taken from the
Moors in 1253, who afterwards retook it, but the
Spaniards again got poffefiion of it in 1489. It is
feated in a fertile country, in W. Long. 2.12. N. Lat.
37- S'
GUAJACUM, Lignum Vit#., or Pockwood; a
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The officinale, or common lignum vi¬
tae ufed in medicine, is a native of the Weft India
iflands. There it becomes a large tree, having a hard,
brittle, browniih bark, not very thick. The wood
is firm, folid, ponderous, very refinous, of a blackifh
yellow colour in the middle, and of a hot aromatic
tafle. The fmaller branches have an afh-coloured
bark, and are garnifhed with leaves divided by pairs
of a bright green colour. The flow’ers are produced
in clufters at the end of the branches, and are compo-
fed of oval concave petals of a fine blue colour. 2.
The fanfhim, with many pairs of obtufe lobes, hath
many fmall lobes placed along the mid-rib by pairs of
a darker green colour than thofe of the foregoing fort.
The flowers are produced in loofe bunches towards
the end of the branches, and are of a fine blue co¬
lour, v/ith petals fringed on the edges. This fpe-
cies is alfo a native of the Weft India iflands, where
it is called baftard lignum vitae. 3. The Alpum
with many blunt-pointed leaves, is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope. The plants retain their leaves all
the year, but have never yet flowered in this country.
Culture. The firft fpecies can only be propagated
by feeds, which muft be procured from the countries
where it naturally grows. They muft be fown frefh
iis, pots, and plunged into a good hot-bed, where
they will come up in fix or eight weeks. While young,
they may be kept in a hot bed of tan-bark under a
frame during the fummer ; but in autumn, they muft Guajacum
be removed into the bark-ftove, where they fhould con- ‘ ■
ftafttly remain. The fecond fort may be propogated
the fame way ; but the third is to be propogated by
layers, and will live all the winter in a good green-
houfe.
UJes. The wood of the firft fpecies is of very con¬
fiderable ufe both in medicine and in the mechanical
arts. Ulric Hutten fays this wood was introduced into
Europe in 1517 ; but Brafiavolus fays, not until 1525.
It is bronght from the Weft Indies, in large pieces, each
weighing from four to five hundred weight : it is hard,
compact, and fo heavy as to fink in water: the outer
part is often of a pale yellowifli colour ; but the heart
is blacker, or of a deep brown. Sometimes it is
marbled with different colours. It has little or no
fmell, except when heated, and then a flight aroma¬
tic one is perceived. When chewed, it impreffes a
mild acrimony, biting the palate and fauces. Its
pungency refides in its refinous matter, which it gives
it out in fome degree to water by boiling, but fpirit
extrafts it wholly.
Of the bark of guaiac, there are two kinds, one
fmooth, the other unequal on the furface ; they are
both of them weaker than the wood.
The gum, or rather refin, exfudes from the tree ;
and is of a brown colour, partly reddifti, and often
greenifli, brittle, having a gloffy furface when broke,
of a pungent tafte,. affefting the tongue and palate
in the fame manner as is faid of the wood. The chief
of what is bronght to us is in irregular maffes, of a !
dufky green colour. There is a fort in drops, which
is the bell,“but is very rarely met with.
In the choice of the wood, that which is the freflieft,
moil ponderous, and of the darkeft colour, is the bell 1
the largell pieces are to be preferred too ; and the bell
method is to rafp them as wanted, for the finer parts
are apt to exhale when the rafpings or chips are kept
a while. In choofing the gum, prefer thofe pieces
which have flips of the bark adhering to them, and
that eafily feparate therefrom by a quick blow.
Neumann allures us, that a compofitton of colopho¬
ny and balfam of fulphur is impofed on the unwary
for true gum guaiacum ; but the cheat is eafily dete&ed
by expofing it to a due degree ofheat, by which the
odour of the falfe is perceived to be quite different from
that of the true.
The guaiac wood was firft introduced into Europe
as a remedy for the venereal difeafe. It is a goodalfif-
tant to mercury, as it warms and llimulates, and fb
promotes perfpiration and urine ; it alfo proves gent¬
ly purgative in a fomewhat increafed dofe: and thefe
feem to be its primary virtues. When the excretory
glands are obllrudled, the veffels lax and flaccid, the
habile replete with ferous humours, in many cutaneous
and catarrhous diferders, fome female weakneffes, in
gouty complaints, and rheumatic diforders, it pro¬
duces gogd effefls. The hedlic fever which fometimes
follows a falivation, gives way to a decodlion of the
woods.
A long ufe of this medicine hath been obferved ta
produce a yellownefs in the Ikin. In thin emaciated-
habits and an acrimonious Hate of the fluids, it often
does harm. It is alfo improper in hot biotis habits*
and where the fibres are very tenfe.
Three
G U A
G U A [ 3423 ]
Gualeor Three ounces of the wood, or four ounces of the Honours. GuarcL
II bark, may be boiled in 41b. of water to alb. and
Guar ' if a little liquorice is added at the latter end of the
boiling, or when the deco&ion is taken from the
fire, it will abate the difagreeable pungency of this,
medicine, which affe&s the throat very much in
fwajlowing it. Of this decocUon, at lead half a
pint fhotild be taken in a day. Of the gum, or
extraft, the dofe may be from gr. v. to g ii. which
lait purges pretty much. Thefe fllould be difiblved
by the mediation of egg, or the mucilage of gum
arabic; for otherwife they do not eafily mix the juices
in the ilomach.
A pound of guaiacum, wood, diftilled over an o-
pen fire, gave | iiifi of acid, which is called fpirit,
and ^ ifi. of empyreumatic oil.—An hard extradl of
guaiacum is accounted an excellent errhine.
The wood of this tree is fo hard, that it breaks the
tools which are employed in felling it; and is there¬
fore feldoiti ufed as firewood, but is of great ufe to
the fugar-planters for making wheels and cogs to the
fjugar-mill. It is alfo frequently wrought into bowls,
mortars, and other utenfils.
GUALEOR, a large town of Indoftan in Afia,
and capital of a province of the fame name, with a
ftrong fort. E. Long. 69. 5. N. Lat. 25. 45.
GUAM, the larged of the Ladrone iflands in the
South Sea, being about too miles in circumference.
The inhabitants are almoft all natives, but the Spa¬
niards have a garrifon which keeps them in awe. The
ifland abounds with. excellent fruits, and the air is
wholefome j notwithftanding which, the people are
fubjeft to the leprofy. E. Long. 139. 25. N. Lat.
13. 25.
GUAMANGA. a confiderable town of South A-
merica, and capital of a province of the fame name
in Peru, and in the audience of Lima, with, a bifhop’s
fee. It is remarkable for its fweetmeats, manufac¬
tures, and mines of gold, filver, loadftone, andquicfc-
filver. W. Long. 7. 5p. S. Lat. 130. >
GUANUCO, a rich and handfome town of S. A-
merica, and capital of a diftirdt of the fame name in
the audience of Lima. W. Long. 72. 55. S. Lat.
9. 55.
GUANZAVELCA, a town of South America,
in Peru, and in the audience of Lima. It abounds
in mines of quickfilver. W. Lon. 71. 59. S. Lat.
12. 40.
GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engage¬
ment of mediatorial or neutral ftates, whereby they
plight their faith that certain treaties fhall be invio¬
lably obferved, or that they will make war againft the
aggreffor.
GUARD, in a general fenfe, fignifies the defence
or prefervation of any thing; the adt of obferving
what pafles, in order to prevent furprize; or, the
care, precaution, and attention, we make ufe of to pre¬
vent any thing from happening contrary to our inten¬
tion or inclinations.
Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed
by a body of men, to fecure an army or place from
being furprifed by an enemy. In garrifon the guards
are relieved every day; hence it comes that every fol-
dier mounts guard once every three or four days in
time of peace, and much oftener in time of war. See
Advanced Guard, is a party of either horfe or
foot, that marches before a more confiderable body,
to give notice of any approaching danger. Thefe
guards are either made flronger or weaker, according
to fituation, the danger to be apprehended from the
enemy, or the nature of the country.
Van Guard. See Advanced Guard.
Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army
to fecure the artillery when in the field. Their corps
degarde is in the front of the artillery park, and their
centries difperfed round the fame. This is generally
a 48-hours guard; and upon a march, this guard
marches in the front and rear of the artillery, and
mull be fure to leave nothing behind: if a gun or
or waggon breaks down, the officer that commands
the guard is to leave a fufficient number of men
to afTift the gunners and matroffes in getting it up
again.
Artillery ^ar/ir-Guard, is frequently a non-com-*
miffioned officer’s, guard from the royal regiment of
artillery, whofe corps de garde is always in the front
of their incampment.
Artillery Rear-Gvconfifts in a corporal and fix
men, polled in the rear of the park.
Corps de Garde, are foldiers entrufted with the
guard of a poll, under the command of one or more
officers. This word alfo fignifies the place where the
guard mounts.
Grand Guard; three or four fquadrons of horfe,
commanded by a field-officer, polled at about a mile
or a mile and a half from the camp, on the right and
left wings, towards the enemy, for the better fecurity
of the camp.
Forage Guard, a detachment fent out to fecure
the foragers, and who are polled at all places, where ei¬
ther the enemy’s party may come to difturb the fo¬
ragers, or where they may be fpread too near the
enemy, fo as to be in danger of being taken. This
guard confifts both of horfe and foot, and muft re¬
main on their polls till the foragers are all come off
the ground.
Main Guard, is that from which all other guards
are detached. Thofe who are for mounting guard
affemble at their refpedlive captain’s quarters, and
march from thence to the parade in good order;
where, after the whole guard is drawn up, the fmall
guards are detached to their refpe&ive polls: then
the fubalterns throw lots for their guards, who are all
under the command of the captain of the main guard.
This guard mounts in garrifon at different hours, ac¬
cording as the governor pleafes.
Piquet Guard, a good number of horfe and foot,
always in readinefs in cafe of an alarm: the horfes
are generally faddled all the time, and the riders
booted.
The foot draw up at the head of the battalion,
frequently at the beating of the tat-too; but after¬
wards return to their tents, where they hold them-
felves in readinefs to march upon any iudden alarm.
This guard is to make refiftance in cafe of an attack,
until the army can get ready.
Baggage Guard, is always an officer’s guard, who
has the care of the baggage on a march. The wag¬
gons Ihould be. numbered by companies, and follow
19 P 2 one
G U A [ 3424 ] G U A
Guard, one another regularly: vigilance and attention in the
 paffage of hollow ways, woods, and thickets, muft be
liriftly obferved by this guard.
Quarter Guard, is a fmall guard commanded by a
fubaltern officer, polled in the front of each battalion,
at 222 feet before the front of the regiment.
Rear Guard, that part of the army which brings
up the rear on a march, generally compofed of all the
old grand guards of the camp. The rear-guard of
a party is frequently eight or ten horfe, about 500
paces behind the party. Hence the advance-guard
going out upon a party, form the rear-guard in their
retreat.
Rear Guard, is alfo a corporal’s guard placed in
the rear of a regiment, to keep good order in that part
of the camp.
Standard Guard, a fmall guard under a corporal,
out of each regiment of horfe, who mount on fo.ot in
the front of each regiment, at the diftance of 20 feet
from the ftreets, oppofite the main ilreet.
Trench Guard, only mounts in the time of a fiege,
and fometimes confifts of three, four, or fix battalions,
according to the importance of the fiege. This guard
muft oppofe the befieged when they fally out, protect
the workmen, &c.
Provoji Guard, is always an officer’s guard that
attends the provoit in his rounds, either to prevent de-
fertion, maroding, rioting, &c. See Provost.
Guard, in fencing, implies a pofture proper to
defend the body from the fword of the antagonift.
Ordinary Guards, fuch as are fixed during the
campaign, and relieved daily.
Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, which are
only commanded on particular occafions; either for
the further fecurity of the camp, to cover the foragers,
or for convoys, efcorts, or expeditions.
Guards, alfo imply the troops kept to guard the
king’s perfon, and confill both of horfe and foot.
Horfe Guards, in England, are gentlemen chofen
for their bravery, to be entrufted with the guard of
the king’s perfon ; and are divided into four troops,
called the \Ji, 2d, $d, and e^th troop of horfe-guards.
The firft troop was railed in the year 1660, and the
command given to lord Gerard; the fecond in 1659,
and the command given to Sir Philip Howard; the third
in 1665, and the command given to earl Feverlham;
the fourth in 1660, and the command given to earl
Newburgh. Each troop has one colonel, two lieute¬
nant-colonels, one cornet and major, one guidon and
major, four exempts and captains, four brigadiers and
lieutenants, one adjutant, four fub-brigadiers and cor¬
nets, and Co private men.
Horfe-Grenadier Guards, are divided into two
troops, called the. ijl and 2d troops of horfe-grenadier
guards. The firft troop was railed in 1693, anc^ t^ie
command given to lieutenant-general Cholmondeley ;
the fecond in 1702, and the command given to lord
Forbes. Each troop has one colonel, lieutenant-
colonel, one guidon or major, three exempts and cap¬
tains, three lieutenants, one adjutant, three cornets,
and 60 private men.
Teomen of the Guard, firft raifed by Henry VII.
in the year 1485. They are a kind of pompous foot-
uards to. the king’s perfon ; and are generally called
y a nickname, the beef-eaters. They were anciently
250 men of the firft rank under gentry; and of larger Guard,
ftature than ordinary, each being required to be fix  
feet high. At prefent there are but 100 in conftant
duty, and 70 more not on duty; and when any one
of the too dies, his place is fupplied out of the 70.
They go dreffed after the manner of king Henry VIIPs
time. Their firft commander or captain was the earl
of Oxford, and their pay is 2s. 6d. per day.
F^Z-'Guards, are regiments of foot appointed for
the guard of his majefty, and his palace. There are
three regiments of them, called the \Ji, 2d, and id
regiments of foot-guards. They were raifed in the
year 1660; and the command of the firft given to
colonel Ruffel, that of the fecond to general Monk,
and the third to the earl of Linlithgow. The firft
regiment is at prefent commanded by one colonel, one
lieutenant-colonel, three majors, 23 captains, one cap¬
tain-lieutenant, 31 lieutenants, and 24 enfigns; and
contains three battalions. The fecond regiment has
one colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, 14
captains^ one captain-lieutenant, 18 lieutenants, 16
enfigns; and contains only two battalions. The third
regiment is the fame as the fecond.-
The French Guards are divided into thofe within,
and thofe without, the palace.—The firft are the
gardes du corps, or body-guards; which confift of four
companies, the firft of which companies was anciently
Scots. See Scots Guards, infra.
The guards without are the Gens d'Amies, light
horfe, mufqueteers, and two other regiments, the one
of which is French, and the other Swifs.
Scots Guards ; a celebrated band, which formed the
firft company of the ancient gardes du corps ot France.
It happened from the ancient intercourfe between
France and Scotland, that the natives of the latter king¬
dom had often diftinguilhed themfelves in the fervice of
the former. On this foundation the company of Scots
guards, and the company of Scots gendarmes, were in-
ttituted.— Both of them owed their inftitution to
Charles V*II. of France, by whom the firft ftanding
army in Europe was formed, anno 1454 ; and their
fates cannot but be interefting to Scotfmen. See *
Gendarmes.
Valour, honour, and fidelity, muft have been very
confpicuous features of the national chara£ler of the
Scots, when fo great and civilized a people as the
French could be induced to choofe a body of them,
foreigners as they were, for guarding the perfons of
their fovereigns.—Of the particular occafion and rea-
fons of this predileftion, wehave a recital by LewisXII.
a fucceeding monarch. After fetting forth the fervices
which the Scots had performed for Charles VII. in
expelling the Englifh out of France, and reducing the
kingdom to his obedience, he adds—“ Since which
“ redu£lion, and for the fervice of the Scots upon that
“ occafion, and for the great loyalty and virtue which
“ he found in them, he felefted 200 of them for the
“ guard of his perfon, of whom he made an hundred
“ men at anjis, and an hundred life-guards : And
“ hundred men at arms are the hundred lances of our idfory of
“ the ancient ordinances ; and the life-guard men are h-e-wis XlL
“ thofe of our guard, who ftill are near and about ^ ni^a-
“ our perfon.”—As to their fidelity in this honour- fter of re-
able ftation ; the hiftorian, fpeaking of Scotland, quells to
fays, “ The French have fo ancient a friendlhip that prince*
and
G U A [ 3425 1 G U A
isfiuard. and alliance with the Scots, that of 400 men appoint-
“f ed for the king’s life-guard, there are an hundred of
the faid nation who are the neareft to his perfon, and
in the night keep the keys of the apartment where
he fleeps. There are, moreover, an hundred complete
lances and two hundred yeomen of the faid nation, be-
fides feveral that are difperfed through the companies:
And for fo long a time as they have ferved in France,
never hath there been one of them found, that hath
committed or done any fault againft the kings or their
date ; and they make ufe of them as of their own fub-
1 jefts.”
The ancient rights and privileges of the Scottiih
life-guards were very honourable ; efpecially of the
twenty-four firft. The author of the Ancient Alli¬
ance fays, “ On high holidays, at the ceremony of
the royal touch, the eredtion of knights of the king’s
order, the reception of extraordinary ambalfadors,
and the public entries of cities, there mull be fix of
their number next to the king’s perfon, three on each
fide ; and the body of the king muft be carried by
thefe only, wherefoever ceremony requires. They
have the keeping of the keys of the king’s lodging
at night, the keeping of the choir of the chapel, the
keeping the boats where the king pafies the rivers ;
and they have the honour of bearing the <white filk
fringe in their arms, which in France is the coron
colour. The keys of all the cities where the king
makes bis entry are given to their captain in waiting
or out of waiting. He has the privilege, in waiting
or out of waiting, at ceremonies, fuch as coronations,
marriages, and funerals of the kings, and at the bap-
tifm and marriage of their children, to take duty upon
him. The coronation-robe belongs to him: and
this company, by the death or change of a captain,
never changes its rank, as do the three others.”
This company’s firlt commander, who is recorded
as a perfon of great valour and military accomplilh-
ments, was Robert Patillock, a native of Dundee;
and the band, ever ardent to diftinguifh itfelf, conti¬
nued in great reputation till the year 1578. From
that period, the Scots guards were lefs attended to,
and their privileges came to be invaded. In the year
1612, they remonftrated to Lewis XIII. on the fub-
je& of the injultice they had fuffered, and fet before
him the fervices they had rendered to the crown of
France. Attempts were made to re-eftablifh them
on their ancient foundation; but no negociation for
this purpofe was eifedual. The troops of France
grew jealous of the honours paid them: the death
of Francis II. and the return of Mary to Scotland,
at a time when they had much to hope, were unfor¬
tunate circumftances to them: the change of reli¬
gion in Scotland, was an additional blow: and
the acceflion of James VI. to the throne of England,
difunited altogether the interefts of France and Scot¬
land. The Scots guards of France have now, there¬
fore, no conneftion with Scotland but the name.
GuARD-iJsw/, a boat appointed to row the rounds
amongft the ihips of war which are laid up in any
harbour, &c. to obf.rve that their officers keep a good
look-out, calling to the guard-boat as ihe paffes, and
not fuffering her crew to come on board, without ha¬
ving previoufly communicated the watch-word of the
night.
Guard-a veflel of war appointed to fuper- Guardian
intend the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and to II
fee that the fhips which are not commiffioned have uarga 3’
their proper watchward kept duly, by fending her
guard-boats around them every night. She is alfo to
receive feamen who are impreffed in the time of war.
GUARDIAN, in law, a perfon who has the charge
of any thing ; but more commonly it fignifies one who
has the cuftody and education of fuch perfons as have
not fufficient difcretion to take care of themfelves and
their own affairs, as children and ideots.
Their bufinefs is to take the profits of the minor’s
lands to his ufe, and to account for the fame: they
ought to fell all moveables within a reafonable time,
and to convert them into land or money, except the
minor is near of age, ?nd may want fuch things him-
felf; and they are to pay interefl for the money in
their hands, that might have been fo placed out; in
which cafe it will be prefumed that the guardians made
ufe of it themfelves. They are to fuftain the lands of
the heir, without making deftruftion of any thing
thereon, and to keep it fafely for him : if they com¬
mit wafte on the lands, it is a forfeiture of the guardi-
anfhip, 3 Edw. I. And where perfons, as guardians,
hold over any land, without the confent of the perfon
who is next intitled, they {hall be adjudged trefpaf-
fers, and fhall be accountable ; 6 Ann. cap xviii.
Guardian, or Warden, of the Cinque-ports, is an
officer who has the jurifdiftion of the Cinque-ports,
with all the power which the admiral of England has
in other places.
Guardian of the Spiritualities, the perfon to whom
the fpiritual jurifdiclion of any diocefe is committed,
during the time the fee is vacant. A guardian of the
fpiritualities may likewife be either fuch in law, as the
archbilhop is of any diocefe within his province ; or
by delegation, as he whom the archbifhop or vicar-
eneral for the time appoints. Any fuch guardian
as power to hold courts, grant licences, difpenfa-
tions, probates of wills, &c.
GUARINI (Battifta), a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Ferrara, in 1538. He was great-grandfon to
Guarino of Verona and was fecretary to Alphonfo ;
Duke of Ferrara, who entrufted him with feveral im¬
portant commiffions. After the death of that prince,
he was fucceffively fecretary to Vincenzio de Gonza-
ga, to Ferdinand de Medicis grand duke of Tufca-
ny, and to Francis Maria de Feltri duke of Urbino.
But the only advantages he reaped under thefe various
mafters, were great encomiums on his wit and compofi-
tions. He was well acquainted with polite literature ;
and acquired immortal reputation by his Italian poems,
efpecially by his Pajlor Fido,\\\z moft known and ad¬
mired of all his works, and of which there have been
innumerable editions and tranflations. He died in
1612.
GUARDIA, or Guarda, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Beira, with a bilhop’s fee. It con¬
tains about 2300 inhabitants, is fortified both by art
and nature, and has a ftattly cathedrah W. Lon. 5-
17. N. Lat. 40. 20.
Q,\3K%xs\K-Alferez, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the Contado-di-Molife, with a bi-
{hop’s fee. E. Lon. 15. 53. N. Lat. 51. 50.
GUARGALA, or Guerguela, a town of Af¬
rica,
CUB [34
Guadalla' rica, and capital of a fmall kingdom of the fame name,
II * in Biledulgerid, to the S. of Momit Atlas. E. Lon.
Gufaer- 9. 55. N. Lat. 28. o.
GUASTALLA, a ftrong town of Italy, in the
duchy of Mantua, with the title of a duchy, remark¬
able for a battle between the French and Imperialifts
in 1734. It was ceded to the duke of Parma in
174&, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is feated
near the river Po, in E. Lon. IO. 33. N. Lat 44. 55.
GUATIMALA, the Audience of, in North A-
merica, and in New Spain, is above 750 miles in
length, and 450 in breadth. It abounds in chocolate,
which they make ufe of inftead of money. It has 12
provinces under it : and the native Americans, under
the dominions of Spain, profefs Chriitianity ; but it
is mixed with great many of their own fuperftitions.
There is a great chain of high mountains, which; run
acrofs it from E. to W. .and it is fubjeft to earthquakes
and ftorms. It is however very fertile; and produces,
befides chocolate, great quantities of cochineal and
cotton.
Guatimala, a province of North America, in
New Spain, and in the Audience of the fame name ;
bounded on the W. by Soconjufco, on the N. by Ve-
rapaz and Honduras, on the E. by Nicaragua, and
on the S. by the fouth fea. St Jago de Guatimala is
the capital of the whole audience.
Guatimala, a large and rich town of North A-
merica, in New Spain ; and capital of a government
of the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee, and an univer-
fity. It carries on a great trade, efpecially in choco¬
late. W. Lon. 91. 30. N. Lat. 14. o.
Guatimala (the Volcano of), is a mountain, which
throws out fire and fmoke. St Jago de Guatimala
was almoft ruined by it in 1541. It was afterwards
rebuilt at a good diftance from this dreadful mountain.
A few years ago, however, it was again deftroyed,
with circumftances more terrible perhaps than any
mentioned in hiftory.
GUAXACA, a province of North America, in
New Spain, which is very fertile in wheat, Indian
corn, cochineal, and caflia. It is bounded by the
gulph of Mexico on the N. and by the fouth fea on
S. It contains mines of gold, filver, and cryflal.
Guaxaca is the capital town.
Guaxaca, a town of North America, in the Au¬
dience of Mexico, and capital of a province of the
fame name, with a biihop’s fee. It is without walls,
and does not contain above 2000 inhabitants ; but it
is rich, and they make very fine fweet-meats and cho¬
colate. It has feveral rich convents, both for men and
women. W. Lon. too. o. N. Lat. 17. 45.
GUAYRA, a didrift of the province of La Pla¬
ta, in South America, having Brafil on the E. and
Paraguay on the W.
GUBEN, a handfome town of Germany, in Low¬
er Lufatia, feated on the river Nidle, and belonging to
the houfe of Sax-Merfenburg. E. 14. 59. N. Lat.
51- 55-
GUBER, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland. It
is furrounded with high mountains ; and the villages,
which are many, are inhabited by people who are em¬
ployed in taking care of their cattle Iheep. There
are alfo abundance of artificers, and linen-weavers,
who fend their commodities to Tombuto. The whole
country is overflowed every year by the inundations of
26 ] G U.E.
the Niger, and at that time the inhabitants fow their Gubio
rice. There is one town, which contains almoft 6000 II
families, among whom are many merchants. Guelder
GUBIO, a town of Italy, in the territory of the and‘
church, and in the duchy of Urbino, with a biihop’s
fee. E. Lon. 12. 41. N. Lat. 43. 18.
GUDGEON, in ichthyology; a fpecies of cy-
prinus. See Cyprinus.
This fiih, though fanall, is of fo pleafant a tafte,
that it is very little inferior to fmelt. They fpawn
twice in the fummer-feafon; and their feeding is much
like the barbels in ftreams and on gravel, flighting all
manner of flies : but they are eafily taken with a fmall
red worm, fiflu’ngnesr the ground ; and being a leather¬
mouthed fiih, will not eafily get off the hook when
itruck.—The gudgeon may be fiihed for with float,
the hook being on the ground; or by hand, with a
running line on the ground, without cork or float.
But although the fmall red worm above-mentioned is
the beft bait for this fiih, yet wafps, gentles, and cad-
baits will do very well. You may alfo fifli for gudgeons
with, two or three hooks at once, and find very plea¬
fant fport, where they rife any thing large. When
you angle for them, ftir up the fand or gravel with a
long pole; this will make them gather to that place,
bite fafter, and with more eagernefs.
Sea-QwcvoK, Rock-fjb, or Black Goby. See Go-
BIUS.
GUELPHS, or Guelfs, a celebrated faftion in
Italy, antagonifts of the Gibelins. See Gibelin.
The Guelphs and Gibelins filled Italy with blood
and carnage for many years. The Guelphs flood for
the Pope, againft the emperor. Their rife is referred
by fotne to the time of Conrad III. in the twelfth
century; by others, to that of Frederic I. ; and by o-
thers, to that of his fucceifor Frederic II. in the thir¬
teenth century.
The name of Guelf is commonly faid to have been
formed from Welfe, or IVelfo, on the following occaiion :
the emperor Conrad III. having taken the duchy of
Bavaria from Welfe VI. brother of Henry duke of
Bavaria, Welfe, afiifted by the forces of Roger king
of Sicily, made war on Conrad, and thus gave birth
to the faftion of the Guelfs.
Others derive the name Guelfs from the German
Wolff, on account of the grievous evils committed by
that cruel faftion : others deduce the denomination
from that of a German called Guelfe, who lived at Pi-
ftoye; adding, that his brother, named Gibel, gave
his name to the Gibelins. See (Hiftory of) Italy.
GUELDERLAND, one of the united provinces,
bounded on the W. by Utrecht and Holland, on the
E. by the bilhoprick of Munfter and the dtichy of
Cleves, on the N. by the Zuyder fea and Overyfiel,
and on the S. it is feparated from Brabant by the
Maes. Its greateft extent from N. to S. is about 47
miles, and from W. to E. near as much ; but its figure
is very irregular. The air here is much healthier and
clearer than in the maritime provinces, the land lying
higher. Excepting fome part of what is called the
Velu’we, the foil is fruitful. It it watered by the Rhine,
and its three branches, the Wahal, the Yflel, and the
Leek, beiides lefler ftreams. In 1079, it was railed to a
county by the emperor Henry IV. and in 1339 to a
duchy by the emperor Lewis of Bavaria. It had
dukes of its own till 1528, when it was yielded up to
CUE [ 3427 ] G U E
■jOuerdm- the err.peror Charles V. In 1579, it acceded to the four horns, afid tlievamsfix ; but thefe are now become
lit P union of Utrecht. It is divided into three dlftri&s, very fcarce. Their black cattle are in fuch abundance,
■ juerniey. each of wh;cH l,as its ftates and diets. Thofe for the as not only to fupport their own ufes, but to furnifh alfo
whole province are held twice a-year at the capital a confiderable exportation ; and their horfes, though
towns. The province fends 19 deputies to the fiates- but little, are equally ftrong and hardy. The fea alfo
general. Here are computed 285 Calvinift minifters, '^urnilhes a prodigious variety as well as plenty of
14 Roman-Catholic congregations, 4 of the Lutheran fifh, more efpecially red and grey mullet, excellent
perfuafion, ^befides 3 others of Remonftrants and Ana- mackrel, and, above all, conger-eels. To thefe advan-
baptifts. The places of moft note are Nimeguen, tages we may add, the Angular privilege of being free
Zutphen, Arnheim, Harderwyk, Loo, & c. from all venomous creatures.
GUELDRES, a ftrong town of the Netherlands, “ There are in this ifland ten parifhes, each of which
in the duchy of the fame name. It was ceded to the is divided into fevcral vintons, for the more eafy ma¬
king of Pruflia by the peace of Utrecht, and is feat- nagement of affairs, civil, ecclefiaftical, a-nd military,
ed among marfties. E. Lon. 6. 21. N. Lat. 51. 30. and the choice of their refpeaive officers and magi-
GUERICKE, or Guericke-, (Otho), the moft ftrates. Though the country is very fully peopled,
celebrated mathematician of his time, was born in yet the houfes are fcattered up and down, according
R 1602. He was the inventor of the air-pump ; and to the humour or the conveniency of the inhabitants*;
author of feveral works in natural philofophy, the fo that there is, properly fpeaking, but one town in
chief of which is ExpsrirHenta Magdeburgica. He the ifland, which is likewife the only haven of any re¬
died in 1686. fort; though there are fome creeks on the north and
GUERNSEY, an ifland in the Englifti channel, weft fides of the ifland, fuch as Bazon, L’Aucreffe,
on the coaft of Normandy, fubjed to Britain ; but, (as Ferminer, St Sampfon, and the Weft Paffage. All
well as the adjacent iflands,) governed by its own law's, thefe ports aie in a ftate of nature ; but might be cer-
SeejERSEY.— Of this ifland, £)r Campbell gives thefol- tainly improved and fortified, which w'ould be pro-
lowing account. “ It lies 20 leagues fouth-weft from duftive of many advantages to the ifland ; as was long
Weymouth in Dorfetfliire, between eight and nine ago obferved and propofed to government by captain
leagues weft from the coaft of Normandy, 13 fouth of Yarranton. In the reign of king Charles II. when
Bretagne, feven north-weft from Jerfey, five fouth-weft the French formed an infidious defign of making them-
from Alderney, and two weft from Sarke. In length ' Elves matters of this ifle by treachery, it left fuch an
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, about twelve miles ; in impreffion on his majefly’s mind, that fome years after he
breadth, from fouth to north, about nine; in circum- fent over the lord Dartmouth, accompanied by certain
ference, upwardsof 30 ; containing 50 fquare miles, or engineers, who difeovered on the north-weft fide of
32,000 acres. The climate is mild and temperate; not the ifle, a deep bay, which, by the help of a mole,
| fubjedt to exceffive heats, much lefs to fevere cold ; might cover a numerous fquadron, even of (hips of the
fomewhat windy; but, taking all things together, line, under the protedf ion of what was alfo intended to
equally healthy and pleafant. The foil is, generally be built, a ftrong caftle: but his exchequer beino- ex-
fpeaking, rich and fertile; the country, though fuffi- haufted, this neceffary work was never carried intoexe-
ciently inclofed wdth ftone fences, yet more open than cution. As this port w'ouldlook full into the channel,
in Jerfey, and as capable of cultivation of every kind, it deferves confideration, how far it might be ufeful to
On the north fide, the coaft is commonly low and flat, us in the time of a French war, and of what infinite
rifing gradually, fo that on the fouth fide the cliffs detriment it might prove if this ifland (hould ever fall
are of a prodigious height. The face of the country into the hands of our enemies.
is variegated with hills and little eminences, and tole- The inhabitants are very induftrious in their re-
rably well watered with fprings and (harp gravelly fpe&ive employments ; naturally fober, frugal in their
ftiearns. _There was formerly a fine lake, about half manner of living, honeft in their dealings, fincere in
a league in extent, now filled up, and turned into a theirreligion.whichisthatofthechurchofEngland, and
meadow; bpt many gentlemen have ftill very beautiful loyal to their princes, as well as fteady to the Britiffiinte-
and convenient fiflr-ponds. . _ reft. They are, however, referved to a degree that makes
“ There are very-few countries in the world more them fometimesthought morofe; they arefomewhat fuf-
capable of improvement. Moft of the rifing grounds picious;and, which is their greateft error, they are, or at
afford a fhort thick grafs, equally beautiful to the leaft were, very litigious. They are goodhufbandmen in
eye, and fucculent as pafture. Roots and herbs it their own way, and manage the fea-wreck (which firft
produces of all k:-Is, efculent, medicinal, and aroma- ferves the poor people for fuel, and then its afties are
tic; with a profulion of flowers that grow wild, and employed by thofe in better circumftances for manure)
a‘e cxq11 i fit el y fragrant. All forts of fhrubs and fruit- with great Ikill, and under very prudent regulations,
trees flourifh here : and there is fome, though but The wreck is cut in fummer, and about the vernal e-
little timber; not through any defeift of foil or cli- quinox, by the proclamation of the magiftrates, and
mate, but becaufe they cannot conveniently afford it when dried, diftributed by their order. As for the
room. Grain they have of every fpecies we cultivate winter-wreck, which after ftorms is thrown in large
in Britain, but more efpecially wheat; and though quantities on the coaft; this is alfo eqnitably divided
they have not either lime, chalk, or marie, yet the and being ftrewed wet, and fo ploughed into the
ica-wreck anfwers all the intention of manure, fo well ground, renders it continually fertile. ‘ They have a
as to keep their ground in conftant heart. They have itronger turn, however, to grazing, than to' agricu’-
Jarge quantities of fheep, but fmall in fize; and had lure; and though they bring in annually fome coni,
-ormerly a very fingular breed, of which the ewes had yet in the fame fpace they fend out a few hundred
catttle.
Guernfey.
G U E [ 3428 ] GUI
Oiiernfey. cattle, They are ftill more inclined to orchards, which
" enables them to make many thoufand hogflieads of
cyder every year; of which, it being the common drink
of the people, they export but little. The woollen
is their principal manufafture, for the carrying on of
which they are allowed to import 2000 tons from Eng¬
land, which they work up chiefly in (lockings, waid-
coats, and breeches. They might certainly make their
fifhery turn to profit, more efpeeially as of late years
they have fet up falt-works ; and yet, except lobfters,
I never heard that any of their fifh went to a foreign
market. Our French and Portugal merchants have
large flocks of wine here, which th@y import as they
have occafion. As they are enabled, by this method,
to keep it to a proper age before they are obliged to
pay the duty, it feems to be a benefit to the mother-
country, by putting it in their power both to buy and
fell cheaper: as on the other hand, from the rent of
warehoufes, the fubfifting factors and their fervants,
the refort of (hips employed in this trade, it muft be
very advantageous to the inhabitants of this ifland. It
is a point of juftice to obferve, that this manner of
depofiting wines, has nothing at all to do with fmug-
glingj a prafitice equally injurious to the interefts of
-this country and to the people of Guernfey, as it
breeds few feamen, is carried on in very fmall vefiels,
and upon the whole is not only an infamous, but a
very unprofitable kind of traffic. Heretofore, mer¬
chants of this ifle traded to mod parts of Europe, and
had feveral flout (hips of their own ; and if this vile
practice was aboliflied, as it might eafily be, without
any violation of the liberties of the people, they would
foon find their account in it, by the revival of many
lucrative branches of commerce. As they take from
England fome of the neceflaries, and almoft all the
conveniencies, of life, fuch as corn, malt-liquor, fugars,
fpices, coals, houfehold-furniture, many fpecies of the
iron and leather manufactures, grocery, haberdafhery,
and hard-wares, the balance is greatly in our favour;
and muft continually increafe, in proportion as they
augment in number, and grow eafier in circumftances.
At prefent, upon a very moderate computation, there
are in Guernfey upwards of 15,000 fouls.
“ The feveral iflets and vaft chains of rocks that fur-
round this country on every fide, and caufe fuch a va¬
riety of tides and currents, add much to the fecurity
of the place, by rendering it equally difficult and dan¬
gerous for (hips to approach it, unlefs they have pilots
aboard extremely well acquainted with the coaft. On
the fouth fide, the cliffs are prqdigioufly high; fo that
the old writers fay, it looks like a park in the fea,
impaled with rocks. On the weft fide lie the Hanoys,
or, as the French write them, Hanovaux, which cover
that coaft fo effectually, that a defcent there is little to
be feared. At the north-weft extremity lies a little
ifland called the Hoiue; which would be a very conve¬
nient place for a falt-work, glafs-houfe, or manufac¬
tory of foap. At the north-eaft extremity we meet
with St Michael in the vale, a peninfula fome miles in
extent, connected with Guernfey by a very narrow
ifthmus, with bays that might be rendered ufeful on
both fides. This peninfula is likewife guarded by
rocks and iflets, the moft confiderable of which are
the Bryants, the Hummet, and the Hays. Somh-eaft
from the vale, lies the ifland of Harnet, or Arne, about
a league in compafs, formerly defart, but now culti- Guim.
vated. At a league fouth from thence lies Briehoe, *—
of lefs extent; and between both, the little ifland of
Gythau, or Jethau, wich ferves the governor for a
kind of park, or rather paddock.
GUIANA, a large country of South America, is
bounded on the eaft and north by the Atlantic ocean,
and the river Oroonoko ; on the fouth, by the river
of the Amazons ; and on the weft, by the provinces
of Grenada and New-Andalufia, in Terra-Firma, from
which it is feparated'both on the weft and north by
the river Oroonoko. It extends above 1200 miles
from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft, that is, from
the mouth of the river Oroonoko to the mouth of the
river of Amazons, and near 600 in the contrary di¬
rection.
Moft geographers divide it into two parts, calling
the country along the coaft Carihbeana Proper, and
the interior country Guiana Proper : the laft is alfo
ftyled El Dorado by the Spainards, on account of the
immenfe quantity of gold it is fuppofed to contain.
The Portuguefe, French, and Dutch, have all
fettlements along the coaft. What lies fouth of Cape
North belongs to the firft of thefe nations; the coaft
between Cape North and Cape Orange is poffeffed by
the natives ; French Guiana, Old Cayenne, or Equi-
no&ial France* extends from Cape Orange, about
240 miles along the coaft, to the river Marani; where
the Dutch territory begins, and extends to the mouth
of the Oroonoko.
Along the coaft, the land is low, marlhy, and fub-
jedl to inundations in the rainy feafon, from a multi¬
tude of rivers which defcend from the inland moun¬
tains. Hence it is, that the atmofphere is fuffocating
hot, moift, and unhealthful, efpecially where the
woods have not been cleared away. Indeed, the Eu¬
ropeans are forced to live in the moft difagreeable fi-
tuations, and fix their colonies at the mouths of the
rivers, amidft (linking marfhes, and the putrid ooze
of fait moraffes, for the conveniency of exportation
and importation.
“ Dutch Guiana (according to an account lately
publilhed by a gentleman who refided feveral years at
Surinam as a phyfician) was firft difcovered by Co¬
lumbus in 1498. It lies between the 70 of north,
and the 50 of fouth latitude, and between the 530 and
6o° of longitude weft from London. It.is bounded
on the north and eaft, by the Atlantic ; on the well,
by the rivers Oroonoko and Negroe ; and on the fouth,
by the river of Amazons.
“ It is now divided between the Spaniards, Dutch,
French, and Portuguefe; but except its fea-coaft,
and lands adjacent to its rivers, has-hitherto re¬
mained unknown to all but its original natives; and
even of thefe, it is only the Dutch territories that
foreigners have any knowledge of; for thofe'of the
Spaniards, French, and Portuguefe, are inacceffible
them.
“ This country, on account of the diverfity and fer¬
tility of its foil, and of its vicinity to the equator,
which paffes through it, affords almoft all the pro-
du&ions of the different American countries between
the tropics, befides a variety peculiar to itfelf.
“ Dutch Guiana was formerly the property of the
Englifh, who made fettlements at Surinam, where a
kind
GUI [ 3429 ] GUI
Guiana, kind of corrupt Englifh is ftill fpoken by the negroes.
The Dutch took it in the reign of Charles the Second;
and it was ceded to them by a treaty in 1674, in ex¬
change for what they had pofleffed in the province
now called New York.
The land for 50 miles up the country from the fea-
coaft is flat; and, during the rainy feafons, covered
two feet high with water. This renders it inconcei¬
vably fertile, the earth, for 12 inches deep, being a
ftratum of perfect manure : an attempt was once made
to carry fome of it to Barbadoes ; but the wood-ants
fo much injured the veffel, that it was never repeated
The exceffive richnefs of the foil is a difadvantage,
for the canes are too luxuriant to make good fugar ;
and, therefore, during the firft and fecond crop, are
converted into rum.
There are fome trees on this part; but they are
fmall and low, confiding chiefly of a fmall fpecies of
palm, intermixed with a leaf near 30 feet long and
three feet wide, which grows in clutters, called a
"Trotelie; and, at the edges of running-water, with
mangroves.
Farther inward the country rifes; and the foil,
though ftill fertile, is lefs durable. It is covered
with forefts of valuable timber, that are always green;
and there are fome fandy hills, though no mountains ;
in the French territories, however, there are moun¬
tains, according to the report of the Indians, for they
have never been vifited by any other people.
In this country the heat is feldom difagreeable :
the trade-winds by day, the land breezes in the even¬
ing, and the invariable length of the nights, with
gentle dews, refrefti the air, and render it temperate
and falubrious. There are two w'et feafons, and two
dry, of three months each, in every year; and, du¬
ring more than a month in each wet feafon, the rain
is inceflant. The dry feafons commence fix weeks
before the equinoxes, and continue fix weeks after.
The wet feafons are more wholefome than the dry,
becaufe the rains keep the waters that cover the low
lands, next the fea, frefti and in motion ; but during
the dry feafon it ftagnates, and, as it wattes, becomes
putrid, fending up very unwholefome exhalations.
Blofibms, green and ripe fruit, are to be found upon
the fame tree in every part of the year. There are
fome fine white and red agates in Guiana, which re¬
main untouched ; and mines of gold and filver, which
the Dutch will not fuffer to be wrought.
The inhabitants of Guiana are either natives, who
are of a reddilh brown; or negroes and Europeans; or
a mixed progeny of thefe in various combinations.
The natives are divided into different tribes, more or
lefs enlightened, and polifhed, as they are more or lefs
remote from the fettlements of the Europeans. They
allow polygamy, and have no divifion of lands. The
men go to war, hunt, and fifti; and the women look
after domeftic concerns, fpin, weave, in their fafhion,
and manage the planting ofcaffava andmanive, the only
things which in this country are cultivated by the
natives. Their arms are bows and arrows ; fhort poi-
foned arrows, blown through a reed, which they ufe
in hunting ; and clubs made of a heavy wood called
€ , iron-wood. They eat the dead bodies of thofe that
^ are flain in war, and fell for flaves thofe they take
prifoners; their wars being chiefly undertaken to fur-
Voi. V.
niih the European plantations. All the different tribes Guiana
go naked. On particular occafions they wear caps
of feathers; but, as cold is wholly unknown, they U1 u .
cover no part but that which diftinguifhes the fex.
They are chearful, humane, and friendly ; but timid,
except when heated by liquor, and drunkennefs is a
very common vice among them.
Their houfes confift of four flakes fet up in a qua¬
drangular form, with crofs poles, bound together by
flit nibbees, and covered with the large leaves called
troxlies. Their life is ambulatory ; and their houfe,
which is put up and taken down in a few hours, is
all they have to carry with them. When they remove
from place to place, which, as they inhabit the banks
of rivers, they do by water in fmall canoes, a few
veffels of clay made by the women, a flat ttone on
which they bake their bread, and a rough ttone on
which they grate the roots of the caffava, a hammock
and a hatchet, are all their furniture and utenfils;
moft of them, however, have a bit of looking-glafs
framed in paper, and a comb.
Their poifoned arrows are made of fplinters of a
hard heavy wood, called cacario : they are about 12
inches long, and fomewhat thicker than a coarfe knit¬
ting needle : one end is formed into a (harp point;
round the other is wound fome cotton, to make it fit
the bore of the reed through which it is to be blown.
They will blow thefe arrows 40 yards with abfolute
certainty of hitting the mark, and with force enough
to draw blood, which is certain and immediate death.
Againft this poifon no antidote is known. The In¬
dians never ufe thefe poifoned arrows in war, but in
hunting only, and chiefly againft the monkies; the
flefti of an animal thus killed may be fafely eaten, and
even the poifon itfelf fwallowed with impunity.
GUIAQUIL, a town, bay, and harbour of South
America, in Peru, and capital of an audience of the
fame name. W. Long. 76. 55. S. Lat. 2. o.
GUIARA, a fea-port town of South America,
and on the Caracca coaft. The Englifh attempted
to take it in 1749 and 1743 ; but they were repulfed
both times. W. Long. 66. 5. N. Lat. 10. 35.
GUICCIARDINI (Francifco), a celebrated hi-
ftorian, born at Florence in 1482. He profeffed the
civil law with reputation, and was employed in feve-
ral embaflies. Leo X. gave him the government of
Modena and Reggio, and Clement VII. that of Ro¬
magna and Bologna. Guicciardini was alfo lieute¬
nant-general of the pope’s army, and diftinguiffed
himfelf by his bravery on feveral occafions ; but Paul
III. having taken from him the government of Bo¬
logna, he retired to Florence, where he was made
counfellor of ftate, and was of great fervice to the
houfe of Medicis. He at length retired into the
country to write his Hiftory of Italy, which.he com-
pofed in Italian, and which comprehends what paf*
fed from the year 1494 to 1532. This hiftory is
greatly efteemed; and was continued by John Baptitl
Adriani, his frjend. He died in 1540.
Guicciardini (Lewis), his nephew, compofed a
hiftory of the Low Countries, and memoirs of the
affairs of Europe, from 1530 to 1560. He wrote
with great fpirit, againft the perfecution of the duke
d’Alva, for which he imprifoned him. Died in 1583.
GUIDI (Alexander), an eminent Italian poet,
19 CU b°ra
GUI [ 3430 ] GUI
Guido born at Pavia in 1650. Having a defne to fee Rome,
II . he there attracted the notice of queen Chriftina of
Guilandina.Sweden, who retained him at her court; he befide
obtained a confidcrable benefice from pope Inno- .
cent XI. and a penfion from the duke of Parma.
For a good office he did the ftate of Milan with prince
Eugene, he was enrolled among the nobles and de-
curions of that town; and died in T712. Nature had
been kinder to his intellefts than to his exterior form;
his body was fmall and crooked, his head was large,
and he was blind of his right eye. A colledtion of
his works was publifhed at Verona in 1726.
GUIDO (Reni), an illuftrious Italiau painter,
born at Bologna in 1575. In his early age he was
the difciple of Denis Calvert, a Flemifh mafter of
good reputation ; but afterwards entered himfelf in
the fchool of the Caracci. He firft imitated Ludo¬
vico Caracci; but fixed at lad in a peculiar ftile of
his own, that fecured him the applaufe of his own
time and the admiration of pofterity. He was much
honoured, and lived in fplendor : but an unhappy at¬
tachment to gaming ruined his circumftances; the
refleftion on which brought on a languiffiing diforder,
that put an end to his life in 1642. There are feve-
ral defigns of this great mafter in print, etched by
himfelf.
GUIENNE, thelargeft province of France, bound¬
ed on the north by Saintogne, Angoumois, and Li-
mofin ; on the eaft by Limofin, Auvergne, and Lan¬
guedoc ; on the fouth by the Pyrenees, Lower Na¬
varre, and Bearn ; and on the weft by the ocean.
It is about 225 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.
It is divided into the Upper and Lower. The Upper
comprehends Querci, Rouergue, Armagnac, the terri¬
tory of Comminges, and the county of Bigorre. The
Lower contains Bourdelois, Perigord, Agenois, Con-
domois, Bazadois, the Lander, Proper Gafcony, and the
diftridt of Labour. The principal rivers are, the
Garonne, the Adour, the Tarn, the Aveirou, and
the Lot. Bourdeaux is the capital town.
GUILANDINA, the nickar tree ; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria
clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The bonduc, or yellow nickar. 2. The
bonducella, or gray nickar. Thefeare climbing plants,
natives of the Weft Indies, where they rife to the height
of twelve or fourteen feet ■ the flowers come out at
the wings of the ftalks ; and are compofed of five con¬
cave yellow petals. They are fucceeded by pods
about three inches long and two broad, clofely armed
with flender fpines, opening with two valves, each
inclofing two hard feeds about the fize of children’s
marbles, of a yellowifh colour. 3. The moringa, or
morunga nickar, is a native of the ifland of Ceylon,
and fome places on the Malabar coaft. It rifes to the
height of 25 or 30 feet, having flowers produced in
loofe bunches from the fide of the branches, and com¬
pofed of an unequal number of petals-
Culture and UJes. Thefe plants being natives of
warm climates, require to be kept through the winter
in a ftove in this country. They are propagated by
feeds; but thofe of the firft fort are fo hard, that
unlefs they are foaked two or three days in water be¬
fore they are put into the ground, or placed under
the pots in the tan-bed to foften their covers, they
will remain for years without vegetating.—-The roots Guild
of the third fort are fcraped when young, and ufed .11
by the inhabitants of Ceylon and Malabar as thofe of Gninea'
horfe-radilh are in Europe. The wood dyes a beau¬
tiful blue colour.
GUILD, (from the Sfoxanguildan, to “pay”), fig-
nifies a fraternity or company, becaufe every one was
gildaret i. e. to pay fomething towards the charge
and fupport of the company. As to the original
of thefe guilds or companies, it was a Jaw amosg the
Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age
ffiould find fureties to keep the peace, or be commit¬
ted upon which the neighbours entered into an aflb-
ciation, and became bound for each other, either to
produce him-who committed any offence, or to make
fatisfa&ion to the injured party: im order to this,
they raifed a fum among themfelves, which they put
into a common ftock ; out of which they, upon occa-
fion, made a pecuniary compenfation according to
the quality of the offence committed. Thefe guilds
are now companies joined together, with laws and
orders made by themfelves, by the licence of the
prince.
Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is ftill
ufed for a company of merchants, tvho are freeipen of
the borough. See Borough.
Every royal borough has a dean of guild, who is
the next magiftrate below the bailiff. He judges of
controverfies among men concerning trade; difputes
between inhabitants touching buildings, lights, water-
courfes, and other nuifances; calls courts, at which
his brethren of the guild are bound to attend; ma¬
nages the common ftock of the guild; and amerces and
colledls fines.
Guild,. Gild, or Geld, is alfo ufed among our
ancient writers, for a compenfation, or muldl, for a
fault committed.
GuiLD-ifa//, the chief hall of the city of London,
for holding of courts, and for the meeting of the lord-
mayor and commonalty, in order to make laws and
ordinances for the welfare and regulation of the city.
Dean of Guild, in Scots law, a magiftrate of a royal
borough, who is head of the merchant-company.
See Law, N° clviii. 11.
GUILDFORD, orGuLDEroRD, a borough-town
of Surry, fituated on the river Wye, thirty-miles
fouth-weft of London. It fends two members to
parliament. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 51. 16.
GUILLEMOT, in ornithology. See Colvmbu<.
GUILLIM, (John), of WJfh extraction, was born
in Herefordlhire, about the year 1565. Having
completed his education at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford, he became a member of the college of arms in
London; and was made rouge croix purfuivant, in
which poft he died in 1621. He pubiiftied, in 1610,
a celebrated work, intitled the Difplay of Heraldry, folio,
which has gone through many editions. To the fifth,
which came out in 1679, was added A treatife of
honour civil and military, by captain John Loggan.
GUINEA, a large trail of country lying along
the weft fide of the continent of Africa. It is divided
into the upper and lower, the latter of which is alfo
called Congo. See Congo.—Thefe two together, rec¬
koning from Cape Togrin, near the mouth of the
river Sierra Leoni in N. Lat. 90 18', to Cape Ne-
gro
Gti!n«a.
Guinea;
GUI [ 343* ] GUI
gro in S. Lat. 160 45', extend about 2500 miles a-
"long the fea-coaft, and many more, if we reckon all
the turnings, windings, and bays. As for its inland
extent, it is not eafy to afcertain it.
As all this country lies between the tropics, the air
is exceffively hot,efpecially from the beginning of Sep*
tember to the end of March, vehich, with the coolnefs
of the nights, the frequent thick, (linking, fulphu-
reous mills, and the periodical rains, when the flat
country is overflowed, makes it very unhealthy, efpe-
cially to Europeans, to whom it is generally fatal.
The winds on the coaft of Guinea Proper fet from
well to eafl, dire&ly contrary to the trade-winds, ex¬
cept in the rainy feafon, between the vernal and au¬
tumnal equinox, when they have violent ftorms of
wind, with terrible thunder and lightning : and thefe
winds blowing from the fouth, the (hipping on the
coaft at this time are in great danger of being wreck¬
ed ; and, even in the calmed weather, there is always
fuch a furf beating upon the (hore, that it is very diffi¬
cult and dangerous landing. As to the face of thf
country, a variey of hills, valleys, woods, and plains,
are feen all along the coaft, intermixed with bogs and
morafles.
The animals of Guinea are the fame as thofe of
CaflFraria; but their grain is different. Here is no
wheat; but plenty of Guinea grain, rice, maiz, or
Indian corn. There are no grapes here; but the
palm-tree affords them wane, and their cocoa-nuts
a pleafant drink. Here are alfo oranges and lemons,
plantains, pomegranates, tamarinds, pine-apples, and
other tropical fruits.
Of foreft-trees they have a great variety, which
row to a prodigious height and bulk ; fome of them
eing excellent timber, and having a very beautiful
grain. _
Their metals are gold, copper, and iron. The
gold is found by the natives in the fands of their
rivulets in dull ; fometimes they meet with large
pieces, but there are no- gold mines open, and pof-
fibly there may be no mines of that metal. As it is
found walked down into the brooks and rivulets in
every place our people bring it from, it feems pro¬
bable that it lies pretty near the furface. There is
plenty of fait on the Guinea coaft ; which they make
by letting the falt-water into (hallow pans in the dry
feafons, and the fun exhaling the water, the fait is left
at bottom.
Befides gold, ivory, and (laves, this country affords
indigo, wax, gum-fenega, gum-tragacanth, and a va¬
riety of other gums and drugs. Thefe articles may
be had in mod parts of this extenfive coaft, but chiefly
in Proper Guinea.
Of mountains in Guinea, the mod remarkable are
thofe of Sierra Leoni. The principal capes are thofe
of Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, Cape Leon, Cape St.
Ann’s, Cape Palmas, and Cape Three-Points, Cape
Formofa, Cape Monte, Cape St. John, Cape Lopas,
Cape Lede, and Cape Negro. The chief bays are
the Cyprian or Cintra Bay, and the Bite of Guinea.
Of the rivers, the mod confiderable are thofe of
Coanzo and Ambrifi, the Zaara, the Lunde, the
Cameron, the Formofa, the Volta, the Sierra Leon,
and the Sherbro. All thefe run from eaft to weft,
(except the Volta, which runs from north to fouth),
and fall into the Atlantic.
The natives of Guinea, defcended from the original'
iilhabitants, are all negroes, well known by their flat
nofes, thick lips, and (hort woolly hair; though there
are among them many camps or villages of Arabs,
who are of a tawny complexion ; and there is a mixed
breed of Mulattoes, proceeding from the commerce
of the Portuguefe and natives, who are almoft as dark
as the negroes.
As to their habits, the common people have ge¬
nerally only a cloth about their middle ; but people
of condition have another over their (houlders, and are
adorned with abundance of rings, and bracelets of
gold, ivory, or copper: the arms, legs, and a great
part of the bodies of the men are naked; but the wo¬
men are veiled, when they go abroad.
The Eurropeans tell us, that the natives have ge¬
nerally more wit than honefty, frequently mixing
their gold with bafe metal: but there is reafon to
fufpeft, that the little tricks and cheats they ufe in
trade have been taught them by the Chriftians with
whom they traffic; and if the women are lewd, they
are not worfe than thofe that accufe them, who firft
tempt them to incontinence, and then reproach them
for it.
Every family almoft in Guinea make their own
tools and utenfils: they are all fmiths, carpenters, and
mafons ; building their own houfes or huts, which are,
indeed, of very flight materials ; and, till the Euro¬
peans brought them hammers, &c. one done ferved
them for an anvil, and another for a hammer. The
women manage all the hulbandry, as well as their
domeftic affairs : they dig, fow, plant, and bring in
the harveft, while the hulband looks on : fo that the
more wives a man has, the richer he is faid to be in
this country; and fome negroes on the coaft make
money by letting out their wives; and, indeed, they
make little difference between their wives and their
(laves.
The fmall-pox is as fatal to the negroes as the
plague, and worms are an epidemical diftemper; not
thofe in the ftomach and bowels; but a fpecies that
are found between the (kin and the flefh, and give the
patient extreme pain, till they are drawn out: which
is an operation that fometimes takes a month to per¬
form ; for, if they attempt to draw it out too haftily,
the worm breaks, and rots in the flefti, or breaks out
in another place. Some negroes have nine or ten of
thefe worms in their (kin at once, and the Europeans
are not entirely free from them. A greedy ravenous
appetite is alfo reckoned among the difeafes of the
Guinea negroes; and the venereal dileafe is often
fatal to them, having no effedlual methods of cure of
their own : nor are the wounds they receive in the
field of Mars lefs dangerous than the other, efpecially
if the bones are (battered ; for they can cure only or¬
dinary fldh-wounds, which they do by applying
poultices of herbs. The negroes are feldom long-
lived, though they are generally healthful while they
live.
The diftempers the Europeans are fubjedl to on
this coaft are fevers, fluxes, and colics, which are
occafioned by indifferent water and bad air; their
fettlements lying near the coaft, where the fogs and
(teams arifing from the ooze and falt-marfties, and
19 Q__2 the
GUI [ 3432 ] GUI
Guinea, the {linking fifli the natives dry on the beach, corrupt
~ the air, and render it fatal to the foreigners. The
moll temperate men find it difficult to preferve their
health ; but a great many hallen their death by their
intemperance, or negligence, expofing themfelves to
the cold air in the evening, after a very hot day.
This fudden change, from one extreme to the other,
has often very bad effefts in hot climates.
As to religion, the natives generally acknowledge
one Supreme Being, that .created the univerfe; and
yet pay him no manner of worffiip or adoration, never
praying to him, or giving him thanks for any thing
they enjoy. They believe he is too far exalted above
poor mortals to take notice of them ; and therefore
pray to a multitude of inferior deities, of which there
are fome common to whole nations, and yet every
man has a god of his own choofing befides.
In Guinea there are fome fovereign princes, whofe
dominions are very extenfive, rich, powerful, and
themfelves arbitrary, limited by no laws, or any other
rcftraint; and there are many others, to whom the
Dutch and other Europeans have given the name of
kings, whofe dominions do nol exceed the bounds of
an ordinary pariffi, and whofe power and revenues
are proportionably mean.
The country of Guinea-Proper extends from Cape
Palmas to the river Volta, about an hundred and fifty
leagues along the fea-coaft, which bounds it to the
foutb. The Europeans divide it into two parts, the
Tooth and the Gold Coaft ; the former extending from
Cape Palmas to the river Sueira da Cafta, 18 miles
weft of the river Mancha, by fome called Rio Cobre,
and Aukeber; and the latter from thence to the river
Volta.
The Tooth, Ivory, or Quaqua Coaft, is fo called
from the great plenty of elephants teeth found there.
According to Dapper, the inhabitants of this coaft,
though they feem the moft barbarous and favage peo¬
ple of all Guinea, are really the moft civilized and the
moft reafonable, and pafs for fuch among their neigh¬
bours. When they come to trade with any (hip, they
take fome water into their hands, and let a few drops
of it fall into their eyes ; which is a kind of oath, by
which they intimate, that they would rather lofe their
eye-fight than cheat thofe they trade with. They
are no lefs averfe to drunkennefs than to fraud; and
though their country produces numbers of palm-trees,
yet they drink no palm-wine, but only a certain li¬
quor, called bordon, or tombo-wine, which they mix
with water. Their chief manufactures and trade eon-
fift in cotton habits, which are called Shtaqua gowns,
and are made of five or fix breadths fewed together.
One of the fundamental laws of this country is, that
every one is obliged to continue all his life-time in the
condition in which he was born ; fo that one whofe fa¬
ther was a fiffierman, for inftance, can never become
any thing elfe but a fiiherman, and fo of all other trades
and profeffions.
The Gold-coaft had its name given it by the Portu-
guefe, from the immenfe quantity of that precious
metal it produces r the fame reafon has made all the
other nations of Europe retain the fame appellation.
According to the beft charts, the fituation of the Gold-
coaft is between 40 30' and 8° north latitude, and
16° and 8° 4' of longitude, beginning at the river
Ankobar, and extending to the Rio Volta, that is, Guinea,
about j 30 leagues from weft to eaft. The beginning
of the Gold-coaft, however, is placed by many at Rio
de Suiero da Cofta, near Ifnui, that being the firft
place where gold is found ; and the end at Lay, in
the country of Lampi, three or four leagues from Akra,
becaufe there the gold is procured but_ accidentally,
from a people called Amaho, inhabiting the more
diftant interior country.
This coaft contains a variety of different kingdoms
and ftates, viz. Adomir, called likewife Saku, and A-
vina: Axim, Ankobar, Adorn, likewife called Lit¬
tle Inkajfan, or Warjhes', Jabi, or Jabs; Commendo,
or Guaffo : Fetu, Sabo, Fantin, Ackron, Agonna,
or Anguirra; Amra, or Aquambus, Lubbade, and
Ningo, or Lampi. Each of the above divifions, pro¬
vinces, or kingdoms, have one, two, or more towns or
villages on the fea-coaft, between or under the Eu¬
ropean forts and fettlements. Eight of them are real
monarchies, having their own proper kings, who, be¬
fore the arrival of the Europeans, were cz\\e& captains',
the reft are republics, governed by magiftrates, who
are fubjeft to the laws, and periodical changes. Upon
the river Cobre or Ankbobar, and in the country of
that name, which is properly the firft country of the
Gold-coaft, there are a number of towns, in the three
provinces of Ankobar, Aborrel or Abocro, and E-
guira. The firft is a monarchy ; the two latter repu¬
blics. For a number of years the Dutch had a fort at
Eguira ; and their gold trade, befides what they drew
from the neighbouring countries, was very confidera-
ble, this canton having its own proper mines; but loft
all their footing in the country by a quarrel with the
negroes.
New Guinea, a long and narrow ifland of the
Eaft Indies, very imperfeftly known. It was fuppo-
fed to be connefted with New-Holland, until Captain
Cook difcovered the ftrait which feparates them. New
Guinea, including Papua, its porth-weftern part,
(which according to Bougainville’s conje&ure is fe-
parated from it by a {trait) reaches from the equator
to the twelfth degree of fouth latitude, and from 13 f
to 150 deg. eaft longitude ; in one part it does not ap-
per to be above fifty miles broad. It was firft vifi-
ted by an European (hip in 1529. Saavedra, a Por-
tuguefe, who made the difcovery of the north-weft
part of this country, called it Terra de Papuas or Pa¬
pas. Van Schouten, a Dutch difcoverer, afterwards
gave the name of New-Guinea to its fouth-weftern
part. Admiral Roggewain alfo touched here; and
before him Dampier, ift January 1700. Captain
Cook made the coaft of New-Guinea, in latitude 6
deg. 15. min. longitude 138. eaft, on the 3d of Sep¬
tember, and landed in the pinnace, accompanied by
Mr Banks, Doftor Solander, nine of the (hip’s crew*
and fervants well armed, and leaving two feamen to
take care of the boat advanced fome little way up
the country; but coming to the fldrts of a thick
wood, they judged it prudent to proceed no further;
left they ffiould fall into* an ambufcade of the natives,
and their retreat to the boat be cut off. Having ad¬
vanced about a quarter of a mile from the boat, three
Indians rufhed out of the wood with a hideous (hout?
they threw their darts, and {bowed fuch a hoftile dif-
pofition, that the party, to prevent the deftru&ion of
thefe
GUI [ 3433 ] G U L
tbefe people, returned to the boat, as they had no in¬
tention forcibly to invade their country, either to gra¬
tify their appetites or curiofity, and it was evident no¬
thing could be done upon friendly terms. When theygot
on board the boat, they rowed along the ftiore, and the
number of Indians affembled feemed to be between
fixty and a hundred. They made much the fame ap¬
pearance as the New-Hollanders, being ftark naked,
and their hair cropped fhort. All the while they were
Ihouting defiance, and throwing fomething out of their
hand which burnt exactly like gun-powder, but made
no report ; what thefe fires were, or for what purpofe
intended, could not be gneffed at; thofe who difchar-
ged them had in their hands a fhort piece of flick,
poffibly a hollow cane, which they fwung fidewife
from them, and immediately fire and fmoke iffued, ex¬
actly refembling the difcharge of a mufket, and of
no longer duration. This wonderful phsenomenon
was obferved from the fhip; and the deception was fo
great, that the people on board thought they had
fire-arms, and event in the boat, if they had not been
fo near as that, they mull have heard the report, if
there had been any, they fhould have thought they had
been firing volleys. After looking at them attentively
fome time, without making any notice of their flafh-
ing and vociferation, the failors fired fome mufkets o-
ver their heads. Upon hearing the balls rattle among
the trees, they walked leifurely away, and the boat
returned to the fhip. Upon examining fome weapons
which the natives had thrown, they were found to
be light darts, about four feet long, very ill made,
of a reed or bamboo cane, and pointed with hard
wood, in which there were many barbs. They were
difcharged with great, force, for at fixty yards dif-
tance they went beyond the party; but in what man¬
ner they were thrown could not be exadlly feen. • But
the general opinion was, that they were thrown with a
flick in the manner praftifed by the New-Hollan¬
ders.
The land here is very low, as is every other part of the
coafl; but it is covered with a luxuriance of wood and
herbage that can fcarcely be conceived. Here the
cocoa-nut, plantain, and bread-fruit, flourifh in the
highefl perfedlion.
Guinea is alfo the name of a Britifh gold coin,
value i 1. i fh. Sterling.
Guinea i7e«, in ornithology. See Numidia.
Guinea-P/p-, in zoology. See Mus.
GUIPUSCOA, the north-eafl divifion of the pro¬
vince of Bifcay in Spain, fituated on the confines of
Navarre.
GUISE, fmall town of France, in Picardy, and in
Tierache, with a very flrong callle, and the title of
a duchy. It is feated on the river Oufe, in E. Lon.
3- 42- N. Lat. 49. 54.
GUISE (Henry) of Lorrain, duke of Guife, (el-
dell fon of Francois of Lorrain duke of Guife) me¬
morable in the hiflory of France as a gallant officer;
but an imperious, turbulent, feditious fubjedt, who
placed himfelf at the head of an armed force, and cal¬
led his rebel band, The League. The plan was for¬
med by the cardinal, his younger brother ; and un¬
der the pretext of defending the Roman Catholic re¬
ligion, the king Henry III. and the freedom of the
ilate, again ft the defign of the Huguenots, or French
Proteflants, they carried on a civil war, maflacred the
Hugenots, and governed the king, who forbid his
appearance at Paris: but Guife now became an open,
rebel, entered the city againft the king’s exprefs or¬
der, and put to the fword all who oppofed him ; the
ftreets being barricadoed to prevent his progrefs,
this fatal day is called in the French hiftory, The
day of the barricades. Mailers of Paris, the policy
of the Guifes failed them : for they fuffered the king
to efcape to Blois, though he was deferted in his pa¬
lace at Paris by his very guards. At Blois, Hemy
convened an affembly of the Hates of France; the
duke of Guife had the boldnefs to appear to a fum-
mons fent him for that purpofe; a forced reconciiia^
tion took place between him and the king, by the
advice of this aflembly ; but it being accidentally dif-
covered, that Giiife had formed a plan to dethrone the
king, that weak monarch, inftead of refolutcly bring¬
ing him to juftice, had him privately affaffinated, De¬
cember 23, 1558, in the 38th year of his age. His
brother the cardinal Ihared the fame fate the next day.
GUITTAR, Guitarra, amufical inftrumentofthe
ftringed kind, with five double rowsof firings; of which
thofe that are bafs are in the middle, except it be for
the burthen, an o£lave lower than the fourth. This
inftrument was firft ufed in Spain, and by the Ita¬
lians. In the former country it is Hill greatly in vogue.
There are few of that nation who cannot play on the
guittar ; and with this inftrument they ferenade their
miftrefles at night. At Madrid, and other cities in
that country, it is common to meet in the ftreets young
men equipped with a guittar and a dark lanthorn,
who, taking their ftation under the windows, fing,
and accompany'their voices with this inftrument • and
there is fcarce an artificer or day-labourer in any of
the cities or principal towns, who does not entertain
himfelf with his guittar.
GULES, in heraldry, a corruption of the French
word ^ea/er, which in this fcience fignifies red, and
is reprefented in engraving by perpendicular lines. It
may ferve of itfelf to denote martial prowefs, bold¬
nefs, and hardinefs: for the ancients ufed this colour
to make themfelves terrible to their enemies, to ftir up
magnanimity, and to prevent the feeing of blood, by
the likenefs of the colours ; for which reafon perhaps
it is ufed by the Engliijh. But, according to G. Leigh,
if this tindlure is compounded with
Or. I f Defire.
Arg. | « I Envy.
Azu. I crq j Ardour.
Ver. 12.1 Strength.
Pur. | I5 I Juftice.
Sab. J l Wearinefs.
This colour is by the generality of the Engliffi he¬
ralds ranked before azure; but French heralds, N.
Upton and his followers, prefer azure to it.
GULL, in ichthyology. See Larus.
GULF, a broad and capacious bay comprehended be¬
tween two promontories, and fometimes taking the name
ofayftfwhenit is very extenfive; but particularly when it
only communicates with the fea by means of a ftreight.
Such are the Euxine or Black Sea, otherwife called
the Gulf of Conjlantimple;t the Adriatic Sea, called
alfo the Gulf of Venice; the gulf of Sidra near Bar¬
bary ; and the gulf of Lions near France. All thefe
Guitttar
Gulf.l
GUM [ 3434 ] GUM
Oum. gulfs are in the Mediterranean. There are, befides the
gulf of Mexico, the gulf of St Lawrence, and the
gulf of California, which are in North America.
There are alfo the gulf of Perfia, otherwife called the
Red Sea, between Perlia and Arabia ; the gulf of
Bengal in India ; and the gulfs of Cochinchina and
Kamtfchatka, near the countries of the fame name.
See 2d Plate CXVI.
The word comes from the French golfe, and that
from the Italian gol/o, which fignify the fame. Some
deduce thefe further from the Greek j/ox*®*; which
Guifhart again derives from the Hebrew Du
Cange derives them from the barbarous Latin gulfum,
or g.ulfus, which fignify the fame thing.
GUM (Gumma), in medicine, is a tumour arifingout
of the fubltance of a bone; it is fo foft as to yield to the
finger. When thefe tumours are harder they are called
tophs; when harder ftill, they receive the name of
nodes: but the hardeft tumours in bones are exoftofes.
In venereal patients fuch tumours often happen on the
head, and even in the middle of the molt folid bones.
They feem to be produced when the vefiels running
between the bony laminae, being either obftrudted or
inflamed, are dilated, and fo raife the incumbent la¬
minae. Perhaps the bone degenerates too into a mor¬
bid foftnefs. A foftnefs of the bones fometimes fuc-
ceeds abfcefles of the adjacent parts; and fometimes
the origin of the diforder is lodged in the fubftance of
the bone, efpecially in the lues venerea; gummata
have, however, been difcovered, when no fuch adequate
caufe could be obferved.
Gum (Gummi), is a concrete vegetable juice, of
no particular fmell or tafte, becoming vifcous and te¬
nacious when moiftened with water ; totally difiblving
in water into a liquid, more or lefs glutinous in pro¬
portion to the quantity of the gum; not diflblving in
vinous fpirits or in oils; burning in the fire to a black
coal, without melting or catching flame; fuffering no
diffipation in the heat of boiling water.
The true gums are gum arabic, gum tragacanth,
gum fenega, the gum of cherry and plum trees, and
fuch like. All elfe have more or lefs of refin in
them.
The virtues of gums are fimilar to all mucilaginous
fubilances in general, vegetable and animal; the more
tenacious, glutinous, vegetable produ&ions arc called
gums, thofe that are lefs fo are mucilages. The firft
diftil naturally from trees, the fecond are the produce
of art.
Gum Arabic, called alfo Gum Acanthinum, Gum
‘Thebaicum, Gum Serapionis, and the true Gum Acacia.
It exfudes from the Egyptian acacia, or thorn-tree,
whofe fruit affords the infpiffated juice of that name.
It is brought from Turkey in fmall irregular maffes,
of a clear whitilh, or very pale yellow colour.
The gum fenega is generally fold for it; but they
are thus diftinguilhed : the gum arabic is in whitilh
tranfparent pieces, and is dry and brittle; but the gum
fenega is clammy, tenacious, rougher, of a deeper co¬
lour, and in larger pieces.
The gum does not diffolve in fpirit, nor in oil: yet
when it is foftened with water into a mucilage, it iseafily
raifcible with both ; alfo with refins, and renders them
rnifcible with water. Dr Grew was ufed to mix effen-
t:al oil with water by means of gum arabic; and in
the Lond, Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. i. a variety of ex- Gum
periments are inferted, by which it appears that oils ■
both expreffed and diftilled, refins, balfams, &c. may ;
by the fame means be mixed uniformly with water or
with fpirit. Alkaline falls both fixed and volatile, i
though they render pure oil mifcible with water, pre¬
vent the mixture of gum with oil. Acids do not in
the leaft prevent the effcft of the gum in this parti- j
cular.
Animal glues have the general qualities of the ve- i
getable gums ; with this difference, that the former I
are more nutrimental, and apt to run into a putrid
Hate. Confidered as the fubjefts of chemiftry, their
difference is very great: thofe of the animal kind are
changed by fire into a volatile alkaline fait, and a
fetid oil; the vegetable into an acid liquor, and a very
minute portion of oily matter confiderably lefs fetid
than the former.
The medical chara&er of gnm arabic is its gluti- ;
nous quality, in confequence of which it ferves to in-
craffate and obtund thin acrid humours, fo proves
ufeful in tickling coughs, alvine fluxes, hoarfneffes, in
fluxes of the belly with gripes, and where the mucus
is abraded from the bowels or from the urethra. In
a dyfuria the true gum arabic is more cooling than j
the other Ample gums, fo fliould be preferred.
One ounce of gum arabic renders a pint of water
confiderably glutinous ; four ounces gives it a thick
fyrupy confidence ; but for mucilage, one part gum to
two parts water is required; and for fome purpofes
an equal proportion will be neceffary.
In Dr Percival’s Effays we have the following cu- Vol. L
rious account, by Mr Henry, of the faculty which this 3iPj ^
gum hath of diffolving and keeping fufpended in water
not only refinous but alfo other fubftances, which
ffioidd feem not likely to be at all affefted by it.
“ One fcruple of balfam of tolu, rubbed with half
an ounce of diftilled rain-water, added gradually to it,
for 15 minutes, formed a mixture, which on Handing
about a minute fubfided, but re-united by (baking :
being fet by a few days, the balfam became a concrete
mafs, not again mifcible by (baking up the bottle.
The fame quantity required more trituration to mix it
with common pump-water. One fcruple of the fame,
rubbed with 15 grains of gum arabic, was nearly as
long in perfe&ly uniting with half an ounce of diftilled
water, as that without the gum. This was perhaps
owing to the latter piece being more refinous ; how- ;
ever, though on long (landing there was a fmall fedi-
ment, it immediately reunited a week after by agita¬
tion. Fifteen grains of balfam capivi united very
fmoothly with half an ounce of diftilled water, by the
medium of three grains of gum arabic. Five grains of
the gum were not fo effe<5tual with pump-water. Bal¬
fam Peru ten drops, with gum arabic three grains,
diftilled water half an ounce, formed a neat white e-
mulfion, but with common water a very unequal mix¬
ture. Gum myrrh powdered, that there might be no
difference in the feveral quantities ufed, half a fcruple,
diffolved readily with gum arabic three grains, in both
kinds of water, and even mixed with them by longer
trituration without any medium, but more eafily with
diftilled than common fpring water. Olibanum, maf-
tich, gum guaiacum, andgalbanum, may likewife be
mixed with water by rubbing, without any gum ara-
GUM [ 3435 ] GUM
bic or egg. The fpring-water made life of in thefe
experiments was very aluminous.
“ In the making of all the faline preparations, when
any confiderable quantities of water are ufed, diftilled
or pure rain or river water is greatly to be preferred :
for the calcareous, aluminous, and felenitical matter,
which fo much abounds in moft fpfing water, will
render any fait diflbived in it very impure. •
“ The folution of .crude mercury with mucilage of
gum arabic being fo eafily accomplilhed ; and it being
very difagreeable to many patients, and to fome almoft
impoflible, to fwallow pills, bolufes, or eleftuaries; I
was induced to try whether calomel, cinnabar, and the
other heavy and metalline bodiescorrimonly adminifter-
ed only under thefe forms, might not by the fame
means be rendered mifcible with water, fo as to be gi¬
ven more agreeably in a liquid form. I accordingly
rubbed ten grains of cinnabar of antimony and a fcruple
of gum arabic, with a fufficient quantity of diftilled
water to form a mucilage, and added a drachm of Am¬
ple fyrup, and three drachms more of water. This
makes an agreeable little draught; and having flood
about half an hour without depofiting any fediment, I
added three drachms more of water to it; and notwith-
ftandingthe mucilage was rendered fo much more di¬
lute, very little of the cinnabar fubfided, even after it
had flood fome days.
“ Steel Amply prepared, and prepared tin, were both
mixed with water by their own weight of gum arabic,
and remained fufpended, except a very fmall portion of
each, which was not reduced to a fufficiently fine
powder.
“ Five grains of calomel were mixed with two
drachms of diftilled water, and half a drachm of fimple
fyrup, by means of five grains of gum arabic, which
kept it fufficiently fufpended: a double quantity of the
gum preferved the mixture uniform flill longer. In this
form it will be much more eafily given to children, than
in fyrups, conferves, &c. as a great part of it is gene¬
rally wafted, in forcing thofe vifcid vehicles into them;
and it may be joined with fcammony and other refinous
purgatives by the fame method, and of thefe perhaps
the gum arabic would be the bell corredlor.
“ Gum arabic likewife greatly abates the difagree¬
able tafte of the corrofive fublimate, mixed with water
inftead of brandy ; and (from the few trials I have
made) fits eafier on the ftomach, and will not be fo apt
to betray the patient by the fmell of the brandy.
Mr Plenck, who firft inllrudled us in the method
of mixing quickfilver with mucilage, obferves, (and
experience confirms the truth of it), that this prepa¬
ration is not fo apt to bring on a fpitting as the a^-
gent. viv. mixed by any other medium, or as the fa-
line and other mercurial preparations.—How far the
theory by which he accounts for it may be juft, is not
of much importance ; but it may perhaps be worth
while to inquire whether it would not be equally ef-
fedlual in preventing calomel, and the other prepara¬
tions of mercury, from affe&ing the mouth.—If fo, is
it not improper,twhere a falivation is intended, to give
emulfions with gum arabic and other mucilaginous li¬
quors for the patient’s common drink, as by that means
the fpitting may be retarded ? And on the contrary,
may it not be a ufeful medicine to diminilh the dif-
sharge when too copious ?
“ The following cafe may in fome meafure ferve to Gum.
confirm the above obfervation.—A gentleman, always
eafily affe&ed by mercurials, having taken about 26
grains of calomel in dofes from one to three grains, not-
withftanding he was purged every third day, was fud-
denlyfeized with a falivation. He fpat plentifully, his
breath was very fetid, teeth loofe, and his gums, fau¬
ces, and the margin of his tongue, greatly ulcerated
and inflamed. He was direfted to ufe the following
gargle. R. Gum. arab. femiunc. folve in aqua font,
bullient.-felib. <b adde mel. rofac. unc. unam. M. ft.
gargar. A nd to drink freely of a ptifan prepared with
aq. hard. lib. ij. gum. arabic. unc. ij. nitr. pur. drachm*
ij.facchar. alb. unc.j.
. “ His purgative was repeated the fucceeding morn¬
ing. The next day his gums were lefs inflamed; but
the floughs on his tongue, &c. were {till as foul: his
fpitting was much the fame: he had drank about a pint
of. the ptifan.—Some fpt. vitrioli was added to the
gargle.—From this day to the fourth, he was purged
every day without effeft—his falivation ftill continued,
—his mouth was no better—he had negledted the muci¬
laginous drink—This eveninghe was perfuaded to drink
about a pint of it which remained, and he had it re¬
peated, and drank very freely of it that night.—On
the fifth morning, the purgative was again repeated.
Though it operated very little, yet the change was
very furprifing ; his mouth was nearly well, and his
ptyalifm greatly decreafed-—The ptifan was repeated ;
and on the fixth day, being quite well, he was permitted
to go abroad.”
In Mr Haffelquift’s travels we have an inftance of
the extraordinary nutritive virtues of this gum. “ The
Abyffinians, (fays he), make a journey every year to
Cairo, to fell the products of their country. They mult
travel over terrible defarts, and their journey depends
as much on the weather as a voyage at fea : .confe-
quently they know as little as a feaman how long they
muft be on their journey ; and the neceffaries of life
may chance to fail them when the journey lafts too
long. This happened to the Abyflinian caravan in the
year 1740, their provifions being confumed when
they had ftill two months to travel. They were then
obliged to fearch for fomething among their merchan-
dife, wherewith they might fupport nature ; and found
nothing more proper than gum Arabic, of which they
had carried a confiderable quantity along with them.
This ferved to fupport above loop perfons for two
months; and the caravan at laft arrived at Cairo with¬
out any great bfs of people, either by hunger or
difeafes.”
Gum Seneca, is a gum extremely refembling gum
Arabic. It is brought to us from the country through
which the river Senega runs, in loofe or Angle drops y
but thefe are much larger than thofe of the gum ara¬
bic ufually are; fometimes it is of the bignefs of an
egg, and fometimes much larger: the furface is very
rough, or wrinkled ; and appears much lefs bright
than the inner fubftance, where the mafles are broken.
It. has no fmell, and fcarce any tafte. We are not ac¬
quainted with the tree which produces it. The vir¬
tues of it are the fame with the gum arabic ; but it is
rarely ufed in medicine, unlefs as mixed with the gum
arabic : the dyers and other, artificers confume the great
quantities of it that are annually imported hither. The
negroes*
GUM [ 3436 ] GUM
Gum negroes diffolve it in milk, and in that (late make it
I! a principal ingredient in many of their dirties, and of-
Gun‘ ten feed on it thus alone.
Gum Tragacantk, the gum of the tragacanth, a
thorny bufh growing in Crete, Alia, and Greece.
This gum is of a much ftronger body than either of
the foregoing, and does not fo perfectly diflblvein wa¬
ter. A dram of it will give the confiftence of a fy-
rup to a whole pint of water, which an ounce of gum
arabic will fcarce do. Hence it is ufed for forming
troches and the like purpofes, in preference to the o-
ther gums. In its general medicinal virtues, it agrees
with gum arabic.
Other fubftances known by the name of gums, are
as follow:
Gum Aloes, a preparation of aloes. See Pharma¬
cy, n° 613.
Gum Ammoniac. See Ammoniac.
Gum Elesni. See Elemi.
Gum Guaiacum. See Guaiacum.
Gum Lacca. See Lacca.
Gum, among gardeners, a kind of gangrene inci¬
dent to fruit-trees of the flone-kind, ariling from-a
corruption of the fap, which, by its vifcidity, not be¬
ing able to make its way through the fibres of the tree,
is, by the protrufion of other juice, made to extrava-
fate and ooze out upon the bark.
When the diftemper furrounds the branch, it admits
of no remedy 4 but when only on one part of a bough,
it fliould be taken off to the quick, and fome cow-
dung clapped on the wound, covered over with a lin-
nen cloth, and tied down. M. Quintinie direds to
cut off the morbid branch two or three inches below
the part affeded.
Gums in anatomy, the hard flefhly fubftance in ei¬
ther jaw, through which the teeth fpring from the
jawbone. See Anatomy, n° 26. g.
The gums are apt to become fpongy, and to fepa-
rate from the teeth ; but the caufe is frequently a Ito-
ny kind of cruft, which forms itfelf therein, which
when feparated, the gums foon return to their former
flate, efpecially if rubbed with a mixture of the infu-
lion of rofes four parts, and the tindure of myrrh one
part.—The fcurvy is another diforder which affeds
the gums'. This diforder, when not manifeft in any
other part, fometimes appears in this: indeed when a
fcorbutic diforder invades the whole habit, its firft
fymptom is a putrid ftate of the gums.
GUN, in the military art, a fire-arm, or weapon
of offence, which forcibly difcharges a ball or other
hard and folid matter through a cylindric tube, by
means of inflamed gun-powder. See Gra«-PowDER.
The word gun now includes moft of the fpecies of
fire-arms ; piftols and mortars being almoft the only
ones excepted from this denomination. They are di¬
vided into great and fmall guns ; the former including
all that we alfo call cannon, ordnance, or artillery ;
the latter includes mufquets, carabines, mufquetoons,
blunderbuffes, fowling-pieces, &c.
It is not known at what time thefe weapons were
firft invented. Though, comparatively fpeaking, the
introdu&ion of guns into the weftern part of the world
is but of a modern date; yet it is certain that in fome
parts of Afia they have been ufed, though in a very
rude and imperfeft manner, for many ages.—Philo-
ftratus fpeaks of a city near the river Hyphafis in the Glin-
Indies, which was faid to be impregnable, and that
its inhabitants were relations of the gods, becaufe they
threw thunder and lightning upon their enemies. Hence
fome imagine that guns were ufed by the eaftern na¬
tions even in the time of Alexander the Great; but
however this may be, many of our modern travellers
affert that? they were ufei in ■ hina as far back.as the
year of Chrift 85, and have continued in ufe ever
fince.
' The firft hint of the invention of guns in Europe,
is in the works of Roger Bacon, who flourifhed in the
13th century. In a -reatife wrote by him about the
year 1280, he propofes to apply the violent explofive
force of gun-powder, for the deftru&ion of armies.
In 1320, Bartholomew Schwartz, a German monk,
is commonly faid to have invented gun-powder; tho*
it is certainly known that this compofition is defcribed
by Bacon in- fome of his treatifes long before the time
of Schwartz. The following is faid to have been the
manner in which Schwartz invented gun-powder. Ha¬
ving pounded the materials for it in a mortar, which
he afterwards covered with a ftone ; a fpark of fire ac¬
cidentally fell into the mortar, and fet the mixture on
fire : upon which the explofion blew the ftone to a con-
fiderable diftance. Hence it is probable that Schwartz
might be taught the fimpleft method of applying it in
war; for Bacon feems rather to have conceived the
manner of ufing it to be by the violent effort of the
flame nnconfined, and which is indeed capable of pro¬
ducing aftonifhing effefts *. The figure and name of * See c,un~
mortars given to a fpecies of old artillery, and their ^ow‘ler'
employment (which was throwing great ftone-bullets
at an elevation) very much corroborates this conjec¬
ture.
Soon after the time of Schwartz, we find guns
commonly made ufe of as inftruments of war. Great
guns were firft ufed. They were originally made of
iron bars foldered together, and fortified with ftrong
iron-hoops; fome of which are ftill to be feen, viz.
one in the tower of London, two at Woolwich, and
one in the royal arfenal at Lifbon. Others were made
of thin flieets of iron rolled up together, and hoop¬
ed; and on emergencies they were made of leather,
with plates of iron or copper. Thefe pieces were made
in a rude and imperfeft manner, like the firft effays of
many new inventions. Stone balls were thrown out
of them, and a fmall quantity of powder ufed on ac¬
count of their weaknefs. Thefe pieces had no orna¬
ments, were placed on their carriages by rings, and
wereofa cylindrical form. When or by whom they were
made, is uncertain: the Venetians, however, ufed
cannon at the fiege of Claudia Jeffa, now called Chi-
oggia, in 1366, which -were brought thither by two
Germans, with fome powder and leaden balls ; as like-
wife in their wars with the Genoefe in 1379. King
Edward III. made ufe of cannon at the battle of Cref-
fy in 1346, and at the fiege of Calais in 1347. Cfan-
non were made ufe of by the Turks at the fiege of
Conftantinople, then in poffefiion of the Chriftians, in
1394, and in that of 1452, that threw a weight of
100 lb. but they generally burft, either the firft, fe-
cond, or third ftiot. Louis XII. had one caft at
Tours, of the fame fize, which threw a ball from the
Baftile to Charenton. One of thofe famous cannon
was
GUN [ 3437 ] GUN
was taken at the fiege of Dieu in 1546, by Don John
de Caftro ; and is in the caftle of St juihao da Barra,
10 miles from Lifbon : its length is 20 feet 7 inches,
diameter at the centre 6 feet 3 inches, and it difcharges
a ball of 100 lb. It has neither dolphins, rings, nor
button ; is of a curious kind of metal; and has a large
.Indoftan infcription upon it, which fays it was caft in
1400.
Formerly the cannon were dignified with uncommon
names; for, in 1503, Louis XII. had 12 brafs can¬
non caft, of an extraordinary fize, called after the
names of the 12 peers of France. The Spanifli and
Portuguefe called them after their faints. The empe¬
ror Charles V. when he marched before Tunis, found¬
ed the iz Apoftles. At Milan there is a 70 pounder,
called the Pimontelle { and one at Bois-le-duc, called
the Devil. A 60 pounder at Dover caftle, called
Queen Elizaleth's poclet-piftol. ’ An 80 pounder in
the tower of London, (formerly in Stirling caftle),
called Mounts-meg. An 80 pounder in the royal arfe-
nal at Berlin, called the Thunderer. An 80 pounder
at Malaga, called the Terrible. Two curious 60 poun¬
ders in the arfenal at Bremen, called the Mejfengers ef
bad news. And laftly, an uncommon 70 pounder in
the caftle of St Angelo at Rome, made of the nails
that faftened the copper-plates which covered the an¬
cient Pantheon, with this infcription upon it: Excla-
vis trabalibus portions /Igrippte.
In the beginning of the 15th century thefe uncom¬
mon names were generally abolifhed, and the follow¬
ing more univerfal ones took place, viz.
= 48
Pounders.
Cannon royal, or"?
carthoun 3
Baftard cannon, 7   n
or } carthoun 3 — ^
-y carthoun = 24
Whole culverins = 18
Demi culverins = 9
Falcon = 6
C loweft fort= 5
Sacker -^ordinary = 6
Gargeftfizc= 8
Bafililk = 48
Serpentine' = 4
Afpic = 2
Dragon == 6
Syren — 60
Falconet = 3,2,
Cwt.
about 90
79
€0
50
3°
25
*3
J5
Moyens, which carried a ball of 10 or 12 ounces,
Rabinet, which carried a ball of 16 ounces.
Thefe curious names of beafts and birds of prey
were adopted, on account of their fwiftnefs in mo¬
tion, or of their cruelty ; as the falconet, falcon, fac-
ker, and culverin, &c. for their fwiftnefs in flying;
the bafililk, ferpentine, afpike, dragon, fyren, &c.
for their cruelty.
At prefent cannon take their names from the weight
of the ball they difcharge. Thus a piece that difchar¬
ges a ball of 24 pounds, is called a 24 pounder; one
that caries a ball of 12 pounds, is called a 12 poun¬
der : and fo of the reft, divided into the following
forts, viz.
Vol. V.
Ship-guns, confiding in 42, 36, 32, 24, 18, 12,
9, 6, and 3 pounders.
Garrifon-guns, in 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6
pounders.
Battering-guns, in 24, t8, and 12 pounders.
Field-pieces, in 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 1^, 1, and J
pounders.
Mortars are thought to have been fully as ancient
as cannon. They were employed in the wars of Ita¬
ly, to throw balls of red-hot iron, Hones, 3cc. long
before the invention of (hells. Thefe laft are thought
to be of German invention, and the ufe of them in warto
have been taught by the following accident. A citizen
of Venlo, at a certain feftival celebrated in honour
of the duke of Cleves, threw a number of (hells, one
of which fell on a houfe and fet fire to it, by which
misfortune the greateft part of the town was reduced
to a(hes. The firft account of (hells ufed for military
purpofes is in 1435, when Naples wras befieged by
Charles VIII. Hiftory informs us with more certain¬
ty, that (hells were thrown out of mortars at the fiege
of Wachtendonk, in Guelderland, in 1588, by the
Earl of Mansfield. Mr Maker, an Englifh engineer,
firft taught the French the art of throwing (hells, which
they prattifed at the fiege of Motte in 1634. The
method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was
firft certainly put in pra&ice at the fiege of Stralfund
in 1675 by the eleftor of Brandenburg; though fome
fay in 1653 at the fiege of Bremen. For the proper
dimenfions of guns, their weight, the metal of which
they are formed, &c. fee the article Gunnery.
Mulkets were firft ufed at the fiege of Rhege in the
year 1 521. The Spaniards were the firft who armed
part of their foot with thefe weapons. At firft they
were very heavy, and could not be ufed without a reft.
They had match-locks, and did execution at a great
diftance. On their march, the foldiers carried only
the refts and ammunition, and had boys to bear their
muflcets after them. They were very (low in loading ;
not only by reafon of the unwkldinefs of their pieces,
and becaufe they carried the powder and ball feparate,
but from the time it took to prepare and adjuft the
match; fo that their fire was not near fo bride as ours
is now. Afterwards a lighter matchlock-mufquet
came in ufe : and they carried their ammunition in
bandeliers, to which were hung feveral little cafes of
wood, covered with leather, each containing a charge
of powder. The balls were carried loofe in a pouch,
and a priming horn hanging by their fide. The muf-
kets with refts were ufed as late as the beginning of
the civil wars in the time of Charles I. The lighter
kind fucceeded them, and continued till the beginning
of the prefent century, when they alfo wrere difufed,
and the troops throughout Europe armed with fire¬
locks.
GUNELLUS, in ichthyology. See Blennius.
GUNNER, an officer appointed for the fervice of
the cannon ; or one fldlled to fire the guns.
In the tower of London, and other garrifons, as
well as in the field, this officer carries a field ftaff, and
a large powder-horn in a firing over his left (houlder:
he marches by the guns ; and when there is any ap-
prehenfion of danger, his field-ftaff is armed with
match : his bufinefs is to lay the gua to pafs, and to
help to load and traverfe her.
19 R Mafter-
GUN [ 3438 ] GUN
Gunnery. Mafter Gunner, a patent-officer of the ordinance, gunners. To every fcholar he adminifters an oath. Gunnery.
who is appointed to teach all fuch as learn the art of not to ferve, without leave, any other prince or (late ; ■—
gunnery, and to certify to the n;after-general the abi- or teach any one the art of gunnery, but fuch as have
fity of any perfon recommended to be one of the king’s taken the faid oath.
GUNNERY,
IS the art of charging, diredHng, and exploding fire
arms, as cannons, mortars, muflcets, &c. to the
beft advantage.—As this art depends greatly-on ha¬
ving the guns and /hot of a proper fize and figure, and
well adapted to each other, it hence follows that the
proper dimenfions, &c. of cannon and fmall arms come
properly to be confidered under the prefent article.
Sect. I. Hijlcry of Gunnery.
The ancients, who knew not the ufe of gun-powder
and fire-arms, had, notwithfianding, machines which
were capable of difcharging (tones, darts, and arrows,
with great force. Thefe were a&uated chiefly by the
elaftic force of ropes, or of ftrong fprings, and re¬
quired a great number of men to work them ; for
which reafon, the explofion of gun-powder, as adting
inftantaneoufly, and feemingly with irrefiftible force,
feemed to be a moft proper fuccedaneum for all the
powers by which the military engines in former times
were adtuated. It foon appeared, however, that this
force was not very eafily applied. Though the expe¬
riment of Bartholomew Schwartz, mentioned under the
article Gun, had given a good hint towards this ap¬
plication in a fuccefsful manner, yet the violent re-
adlion of the inflamed powder on the containing ve/Tels
rendered them very apt to burft, to the great danger
of thofe who flood near them. The gun-powder in
thofe days, therefore, was much weaker than it is now
made ; tho’ this proved a very infufficient remedy for
the inconvenience abovementioned. It was alfo foon
difcovered, that iron bullets of muchlefs weight than
ftone ones would be more efficacious if impelled by
greater quantities of ttrbnger powder. This occa-
fioned an alteration in the matter and form of the
cannon, which were now caft of brafs. Thefe were
lighter and more manageable than the former, at the
fame time that they were ftronger in proportion to their
bore. Thus they were capable of enduring greater
charges of a better powder than what had been for¬
merly ufed ; and their iron bullets, (which were from
40 to 60 pounds weight, being impelled with greater
velocities, were more effeftual than the heaviefl ftones
could ever prove. This change took place about the
latter end of the 15th century.
By this means powder compounded in the man¬
ner now pradtifed over all Europe came firft in ufe.
But the change of the proportion of materials was not
the only improvement it received. The method of
graining it is undoubtedly a confiderable advantage. At
firft the powder was always in the form of fine meal,
fuch as it was reduced to by grinding the materials
together. It is doubtful whether the firft graining
of powder was intended to increafe its ftrength, or
only to render it more convenient for filling into fmall
charges and the charging of fmall arms, to which
alone it was applied for many years, whijft; meal-pow¬
der was ftill made ufe of for cannon. But at laft the
additional ftrength which the grained powder was
found to acquire from the free paflage of the air be¬
tween the grains, occafioned the meal-powder to be
entirely laid afide.
For the laft two hundred years, the formation of
cannon hath been very little improved ; the beft; pieces
of modern artillery differing little in their proportions
from thofe ufed in the time of Charles V. Indeed
lighter and (horter pieces have been often propofed
and effayed ; but though they have their advantages
in particular cafes, yet it feems now to be agreed
that they are altogether infufficient for general fervice.
But though the proportions of the pieces have not
been much varied within that period, yet their ufe and
application have undergone confiderable alterations;
the fame ends being now accompli/hed by fmaller
pieces than what were formerly thought neceffary.
Thus the battering cannon now univerfally approved
of are thofe formerly called dej?ti-camwns, carrying
a ball of 24 pounds weight ; it being found by expe¬
rience, that their ftroke, though lefs violent than that
of larger pieces, is yet fufficiently adapted to the
ftrength of the ufual profiles of fortification ; and that
the facility of their carriage and management, and
the ammunition they fpare, give them great advanta¬
ges beyond the whole cannons formerly employed in
making breaches. The method alfo of making a
breach, by firft cutting off the whole wall as low as
poffible before its upper part is attempted to be beat
down, feems alfo to be a confiderable modern improve¬
ment in the practical part of gunnery. But the moft
confiderable improvement in the practice is the method
of firing with fmall quantities of powder, and eleva¬
ting the piece fo that the bullet may juft go clear of
the parapet of the enemy, and drop into their works.
By this means the bullet, coming to the ground at a
fmall angle and with a fmall velocity, does not bury
itfelf, but bounds or rolls along in the dire&ion in
which it was fired : and therefore, if the piece be pla¬
ced in a line with the battery it is intended to filence,
or the front it is to fweep, each (hot rakes the whole
length of that battery or front ; and has thereby a
much greater ohance of difabling the defendants, and
difmounting their cannon, than it would have if fired
in the common manner. This method was invented
by Vauban, and was by him ftyled Batterie a Ri¬
cochet. It was firft put in praftice in the year
1692 at the fiege of Aeth.—Something fimilar
to this was put in pra&ice by the king of Pruffia at
the battle of Rofbach in 1757. He had feveral fix-
inch mortars, made with trunnions and mounted on
travelling carriages, which fired obliquely on the ene¬
my’s lines and amongft their horfe.. They were
charged with eight ounces of powder, and elevated at
an angle of one degree fifteen minutes, and did great
execution 5 for the ftiells rolling along the lines with
burn-
Sea.:
Theory.
Theory of
gunnery
nrft at¬
tempted by
Tartalea.
inents by
different
perfons on
the ranges
of artillery.
[I. GUNN
burning fufes made the ftoutefi: of the enemy not wait
for their burfting.
Sect. II. Theory of Gunnery.
The ufe of fire-arms had been known for a long
time before any theory concerning them was at¬
tempted. The firft author who wrote profeffedly on
the flight of cannon-lhot was Tartalea. In 1537 he
publifhed a book, at Venice, entitled Nova Scientia;
and afterwards another, entitled gfucefiti et Inventioni
diverji, printed at the lame place in 1546, in which
he treats profcfledly on thefe motions. His difcove-
ries were but few, on account of the imperfeA Hate
of mechanical knowledge at that time. However, he
determined, that the greateft range of cannon was with
an elevation of 45 degrees. He likewife determined,
(contrary to the opinion of pra&itioners), that no part
of the track defcribed by a bullet was a right line;
although the curvature was in fome cafes fo little, that
it was not attended to. He compared it to the fur-
face of the fea ; which, though it appears to be a
plane, is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre
of the earth. He alfo afiumes to himfelf the inven¬
tion of the gunner’s quadrant, and often gave fhrewd
gueffes at the event of fome untried methods. But as
he had not opportunities of being converfant in the
pradlice, and founded his opinions only on fpeculation,
he was condemned by moft of the fucceeding writers,
though often without any fufficient reafon. The phi-
lofophers of thofe times alio intermeddled in the quef-
tions hence arifing ; and many difputes on motion
were fet on foot (efpecially in Italy), which continued
till the time of Galileo, and probably gave rife to his
celebrated Dialogues on motion. Thefe were pub-
lilhed in the year 1638 ; but in this interval, and be¬
fore Galileo’s dodhine was thoroughly eftablilhed,
many theories of the motion of military proje&iles,
and many tables of their comparative ranges at differ¬
ent elevations, were publilhed ; all of them egregioully
fallacious, and utterly irreconcileable with the mo¬
tions of thefe bodies. Very few of the ancients in¬
deed refrained from indulging themfelves in fpecula-
tions concerning the difference betwixt natural, vio¬
lent, and mixed motions ; although fcarce any two of
them could agree in their theories.
It is ftrange, however, that, during all thefe con-
tefts, fo few of thofe who were intruded with the
charge of artillery thought it worth while to bring
thefe theories to the tell of experiment. Mr Robins
informs us, in his Preface to the Neon Principles of
Gunnery, that he had met with no more than four
authors who had treated on this fubjed. The firft
of thefe is Collado, who has given the ranges of a fal¬
conet carrying a three-pound fhot to each point of the
gunner’s quadrant. But from his numbers it is ma-
nifeft, that the piece was not charged with its cufto-
mary allotment of gun-powder. The refults of his
trials were, that the point-blank fhot, or that in which
the path of the ball did not fenfibly deviate from a
right line, extended 268 paces. At an elevation of
one point (or 7°4-of the gunner’s quadrant) the range
was 594 paces; at an elevation of two points, 794
paces; at three points, 954 paces; at four, 1010;
at five, 1040; and at fix, 1053 paces. At the fe-
venth point, the range fell between thofe of the third
E R Y* 3439
and fourth ; at the eighth point, it fell between the Theory*
ranges of the fecond and third ; at the ninth point,  
it fell between the ranges of the firft and fecond; at
the tenth point, it fell between the point-blank di-
ftance and that of the firft point; and at the eleventh
point, it fell very near the piece. —The paces fpoke
of by this author are not geometrical ones, but com¬
mon fteps.
The year after Collado’s treatife, another appeared
on the fame fubjed by one Bourne an Englifhman.
His elevations were not regulated by the points of
the gunner’s quadrant, but by degrees ; and he afcer-
tains the proportions between the ranges at different
elevations and the extent of point-blank fhot. Ac¬
cording to him, if the extent of the point-blank fhot
be reprefented by 1, the range at 50 elevation will be
2£, at io° it will be 3^, at 150 it will be 4-f,
at 200 it will be 4I-, and the greateft random will be
5t- This laft, he tells us, is in a calm day when the
piece is elevated to 420; but according to the ftrength.
of the wind, and as it favours or oppofes the flight
of the fhot, it may be from 450 to 36°.—He hath not
informed us with what piece he made his trials ; tho’
by his proportions it feems to have been a fmall one.
This however ought to have been attended to, as the
relation between the extent of different ranges varies
extremely according to the velocity and denfity of the
bullet.
After him Eldred and Anderfon, both Englifhmen,
publifhed treatifes on this fubje<5t. The firft pub¬
lifhed his treatife in 1646, and has given the a&ual
ranges of different pieces of artillery at fmall elevations
all under ten degrees. His principles were not rigo-
roufly true, though not liable to very confiderable
errors ; yet, in confequence of their deviation from the
truth, he found it impoflible to make fome of his expe¬
riments agree with his principles. 4
In 1638, Galileo printed his dialogues on motion. Galileo’s
In thefe he pointed out the general laws obferved by ttKory•
nature in the production and compofition of motion ;
and was the firft who defcribed the a&ion and effcdts
of gravity on falling bodies. On thefe principles he
determined, that the flight of a cannon fhot, or any
other projedtile, would be in the curve of a parabola,
except in as far as it was diverted from that track by
the refiftance of the air. He has alfo propofed the
means of examining the inequalities which arife from
thence, and of difcovering what fenfible effefts that
refiftance would produce in the motion of a bullet at
fome given diftance from the piece.
Though Galileo had thus (hewn, that, independent
of the refiftance of the air, all projectiles would, in
their flight, defcribe the curve of a parabola ; yet
thofe who came after him, feem never to have imagi¬
ned that it was neceffary to confider how far the ope¬
rations of gunnery were affected by this refiftance.
The fubfequent writers indeed boldly afferted, without
making the experiment, that no confiderable variation
could arife from the refiftance of the air in the flight
of fhells or cannon-fhot. In this perfuafion they fup-
ported themfelves chiefly by confidering the extreme
rarity of the air, compared with thofe denfe and
ponderous bodies; and at laft it became an almoft ge¬
nerally eftablifhed maxim, that the flight of thefe bo¬
dies was nearly in the curve of a parabola.
19 R 2 In
3440
Theory.
New theo¬
ry by An*
elerfon.
6
I.aws of
the air’s re-
fiftance laid
down by
Newton.
Erroneous
in military
projeililes.
GUNNERY.
Sed. II.
In 1674., Mr Anderfon above-mentioned publifh-
ed his treatife on the nature and efFefts of the gun ; in
which he proceeds on the principles of Galileo, and
ftrenuonfly aflerts, that the flight of all bullets is in
the curve of a parabola ; undertaking to anfwer all
objections that.could be brought to the contrary. The
fame thing was alfo undertaken by Mr Blondel, in a
treatife publifhed at Paris in 1683 ; where, after long
difcufiion, the author concludes, that the variations
from the air’s refiflance are fo flight as fcarce to merit
notice. The fame fubjedl is treated of in the Philofo-
phical Tranfactions, N° 216. p. 68. by Dr Halley:
and he alfo, fwayed by the very great difproportion be¬
tween the denfity of the air, and that ef iron or lead,
thinks it reafonable to believe, that the oppofition of
the air to large metal-fhot is fcarcely difeernible ; al¬
though in fmall and light fliot he owns that it muft be
accounted for.
But though this hypothefis went on fmoothly in
{peculation; yet Anderfon, who made a great number
of trials, found it impoffible to fupport it without fome
new modification. For, though it does not appear
that he ever examined the comparative ranges of either
cannon or mufquet (hot, when fired with their ufual
velocities, yet his experiments on the ranges of (hells
thrown with fmall velocities (in comparifon of thofe
above-mentioned), convinced him that their whole
tradf was not parabolical. But inflead of making
the proper inferences from hence, and concluding the
refiftance of the air to be of confiderable efficacy, he
framed a new hypothefis; which was, that the (hellor
bullet, at its firfi: difcharge, flew to a certain diftance
in a right line, from the end of which line only it be¬
gan to defcribe a parabola. And this right line,
which he calls the //'we of the imptilfe of the fire, he
fuppofes to be the fame in all elevations. Thus, by
affigning a proper length to this line of impulfe, it was
always in his power to reconcile any two (hots made
at different angles, let them differ as widely as we
pleafe to fuppofe. But this he could not have done with
three (hots; nor indeed doth he ever tell us the event
of his experiments when three ranges were tried at
one time.
When Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia was publifhed,
; he particularly confidered the refiftance of the air to
projeftiles which moved with fmall velocities; but as
he never had an opportunity of making experiments
on thofe which move with fuch- prodigious fwiftnefs,
he did not imagine that a difference in velocity could
make fuch differences in the refiftance as are now found
to take place. Sir Ifaac found, that, in fmall velocities,
the refiftance was increafed in the duplicate proportion
of the fwiftnefs with which the body moved ; that is,
a body moving with twice the velocity of another of
equal magnitude, would meet with four times as much
refiftance as the firft, with thrice the velocity it would
meet with nine times the refiftance, &c.—This prin¬
ciple itfelf is now found to be erroneous with regard to
military proje&iles ; though, if it had been properly
attended to, the refiftance of the air might even from
thence have been reckoned much more confiderable
than was commonly done. So far, however, were
thofe who treated this fubjeft fcientifically, from gi¬
ving a proper allowance for the refiftance of the atmo-
fphere, that their theories differed moft egregioufly
from the truth. Huygens alone feems to have at-Theory*
tended to this principle: for, in the year 1690, he
publiftied a treatife on Gravity, in which he gave an ,
account of fome experiments tending to prove, that the
track of all projeftiles moving with Very fwift mo¬
tions was widely different from that of a parabola.
All the reft of the learned acquiefced in the juftnefs of
Galileo’s doftrine, and very erroneous calculations
concerning the ranges of cannon were accordingly
given. Nor was any notice taken of thefe errors till the
year 1716. At that time Mr Redons, a French offi- 3
cer of artillery, diftinguifhed by the number of fieges 'I16*®
at which he had ferved, by his high military rank, and ^jdeiy dif-
by his abilities in his profeffion, gave in a memoir to ferent from
the Royal Academy, of which he was a member, im- the truth,
porting, that, “ although it was agreed, that theory
joined with pradlice did conftitute the perfedfion of
every art; yet experience had taught him, that theory ,
was of very little fervice in the ufe of mortars : That
the works of M. Blondel had juftly enough defcribed
the feveral parabolic lines, according to the different
degrees of the elevation of the piece ; but that prac¬
tice had convinced him, there was no theory in the ef-
fedf of gunpowder ; for having endeavoured, with the
greateft precifion, to point a mortar agreebly to thefe
calculations, he had never been able to eftablifh any
folid foundation upon them.”
From thehiftory of the academy, it doth not appear
that the fentiments of Mr Reffon’s were at any time
controverted, or any reafon offered for the failure of
the theory of projeftiles wdien applied to ufe. Nothing
farther, however, was done till the time of Benjamin
Robins, who in 1742 publifhed 3 treatife, entitled, Mr j^o!);ns ■
New Principles of Gunnery, in which he hath treated firft intro- h
particularly not only of the refiftance of the atmo-duces a true J
fphere, but almoft every thing elfe relating to the flight tlieory-
of military projeftiles, and indeed advanced the theory
of gunnery much nearer perfeftion than ever it was
before.
The firft thing confidered by Mr Robins, and which His method J
is indeed the foundation of all other particulars rela- of determi- j
live to gunnery, is the explcfive force of gunpowder, rung the j
This he determined to be owing to an elaftic fluid fi- ;
milar to our atmofphere, having its elaftic force greatly ^er.
increafed by the heat. “ If a red-hot iron (fays be)
be included in a receiver, and the receiver be exhauft-
ed, and gunpowder be then let fall on the iron, the pow¬
der will take fire, and the mercurial gage will fuddenly
defcend upon the explofion ; and though it immedi¬
ately afcends again, it will never rife to the height it
firft flood at, but will continue depreffed by a fpace
proportioned to the quantity of powder which was let
fall on the iron.—The fame produftion likewife takes
place when gunpowder is fired in the air: for if a fmall
quantity of powder is placed in the upper part of a
glafs tube, the lower part of which is immerfed in wa¬
ter, and the fluid be made to rife fo near the top, that
only a fmall portion of air is left in that part where
the gunpowder is placed ; if in this fituation the com¬
munication of the upper part of the tube with the ex¬
ternal air is clofed, and the gunpowder fired, which
may be ealily done by means of a burning-glafs, the
water will in this experiment defcend on the explofion,.
as the quickfilver did in the laft ; and will always con¬
tinue depreffed below the place at which it flood be-
Sea. IT. G U N I
Theory, fore the explofion. The quantity of this depreffion
' will be greater if the quantity of powder be increafed,
or the diameter of the tube be diminilhed.
“ When any conliderable quantity of gunpowder
is fired in an exhaufted receiver, by being let fall on a
red-hot iron, the mercurial gage inftantly defcends
upon the explofion, and as fuddenly afcends again.
After a few vibrations, none of which except the firft
are-of any great extent, it fecmingly fixes at a point-
lower than where it hood before the explofion. But
even when the gage has acquired this point of appa¬
rent reft, it ftill continues riling for a confiderable
time, although by fuch imperceptible degrees, that it
can only be difcovered by comparing its place at di-
ftant intervals : however, it will not always continue
to afcend ; but will rife flower and flower, till at laft it
will be abfolutely fixed at a point lower than where the
mercury ftood before the explofion. The fame cir-
cumftances nearly happen, when powder is fired in the
upper part of an unexhaufted tube, whofe lower part
isimmerfed in water.
“ That the elafticity or preflure of the fluid produ¬
ced by the firing of gunpowder is, cateris paribus, di¬
rectly as its denfity, may be proved from hence, that
if in the fame receiver a double quantity of powder be
let fall, the mercury will fubfide twice as much as in
the firing of a fingle quantity. Alfo the defcents of
the mercury, when equal quantities of powder are fired
in different receivers, are reciprocally as the capacities
of thofe receivers, and confequently as the denfity of
produced fluid in each. But as, in the ufual method of
trying this experiment, the quantities of powder are
fo very fmall that it is difficult to afcertain thefe pro¬
portions with the requifite degree of exaCinefs, I took
a large receiver containing about 520 inches, and let¬
ting fall at once on the red-hot iron one drachm or the
fixteenth part of an ounce avoirdupois of powder, the
receiver being firft nearly exhaufted : the mercury, after
the explofion, was fubfided two inches exadfly, and all
the powder had taken fire. Then heating the iron a
fecond time, and exhaufting the receiver as before, two
drachms were let down at once, which funk the mer-.
cury three inches and three quarters ; and a fmall part
of the powder had fallen befide the iron, which (the
bottom of the receiver being wet) did not fire, and the
quantity which thus efcaped did appear to be nearly
fufficient, had it fallen on the iron, to have funk the
mercury a quarter of an inch more; in which cafe the
two defcents, viz. two inches and four inches, would
have been accurately in the proportion of the refpec-
tive quantities of powder ; from which proportion, as
was, they very little varied.
“ As different kinds of gunpowder produce diffe¬
rent quantities of this fluid, in proportion to their dif¬
ferent degrees of goodnefs, before any definite deter¬
mination of this kind can take place, it is neceffary to
afcertain the particular fpecies of p owder that is pro-
pofed to be ufed. (Here Mr Robins determines in
all his experiments to make ufe of government-powder,
as confifting of a certain and invariable proportion of
materials, and therefore preferable to fuch kinds as
are made according to the fancy of private perfons.)
“ This being fettled, we mull; further premife thefe
two principles: 1. That the elaftity of this fluid in-
creafes by heat and diminilhes by cold, in the fame
J E R Y. 3441
manner as that of the air; 2. That the denfity oTTheory.
this fluid, and confequently its weight, is the fame ’
with the weight of an equal bulk of air, having the
fame elafticity and the fame temperature. Now from
the laft experiment it appears, that of an ounce a-
voirdupoife or about 27 grains Troy of powder, funk
the gage, on its explofion, two inches ; and the mercury
in the barometer ftanding at near 30 inches, 41-^8 of
an ounce avoirdupois, or 4 to grains Troy, would have
filled the receiver with a fluid whofe elafticity would
have been equal to the whole preffure of the atmo-
fphere, or the fame with the elafticity of the air we
breathe ; and the content of the receiver being about
520 cubic inches, it follows, that 44t^s of an ounce of
powder will produce 520 cubic inches of a fluid poffef-
fing the fame degree of elafticity with the common air;
whence, an ounce of powder will produce near 575 cu¬
bic inches of fuch a fluid.
“ But in order to afcertain the denfity of this fluid,
we mull confider what part of its elafticity, at the time
of this determination, was owing to the heat it recei¬
ved from the included hot-iron and the warm receiver.
Now the general heat of the receiver being manifeftly
lefs than that of boiling water, which is known to in-
creafe the elafticity of the air to fomewhat more than
of its augmented quantity ; I colleft from hence and
other circumftances, that the augmentation of elaftici¬
ty from this caufe was about of the whole : that is,
if the fluid arifing from the explofion had been reduced
to the temperature of the external air, the defeent of
the mercurial gage, infteadof two inches, would have
been only ij- inch; whence 575, reduced in the propor¬
tion of five to four, becomes 460 ; and this laft number
reprefents the cubic inches of an elaftic fluid equal in
denfityand elafticity with common air, which are produ¬
ced from the explofion of 1 ounce avoirdupoife of gun¬
powder; the weight of which quantity of fluid, accord-
ding to the ufual eftimation of the weight of air, is 131
grains; whence the weight of this fluid is£44 or-^ths
nearly of the weight of the generating powder. Th«
ratio of the bulk of gunpowder to the bulk of this fluid
may be determined from confidering that 17 drams a-
voirdupoife of powder fill two cubic inches, if the
powder be well (hook together: therefore, augmenting
the number laft found in the proportion of 16 to 17,
the refulting term 488^ is the number of cubic inches of
an elaftic fluid, equal in denfity with the air produced
from two cubic inches of powder : whence the ratio of
the refpeftive bulk of the powder, and of the fluid pro¬
duced from it, is in round numbers as 1 to 244.”—
This calculation was afterwards juftified by experi¬
ments.
“ If this fluid, inftead of expanding when the pow¬
der was fired, had been confined in the fame fpace which
the powder filled before the explofion ; then it would
have had, in that confined ftate, a degree of elafticity
244 times greater than that of common air; and this
independent of the great augmentation this elafticity
would receive from the a&ion of the fire in that in-
ftant.
“ Hence, then, we are certain, that any quantity of
powder fired in a confined fpace, which it adequately
fills, exerts, at the inftant of its explofion, againft the
fides of the veffel containing it, and the bodies it im¬
pels before it, a force at leaft 244 times greater than
the
3442
'F H E O R Y .
GUNNERY. Sea. II.
the elafticity of the common air, or, which is the fame round numbers 1000 times greater than that of the Theory,
thing, than the preffure of the atmofphere ; and this atmofphere, and fince common air by its elafticity "
without confidering the great addition which this force exerts a preffure on any given furface equal to the
will receive from the violent degree of heat with which weight of the incumbent atmofphere with which it
it is affe&ed at that time. is in equilibrio, the preffure exerted by fired powder
“ To determine how far the elafticity of air isaug- before it dilated itfelf is 1000 times greater than the
mented when heated to the extremeft degree of red- preflure of the atmofphere: and confequently the ir
hot iron, I took a piece of a mufquet-barrel about fix quantity of this force, on a furface of an inch fquare, Prodig ous
inches in length, and ordered one end to be clofed up .amounts to above fix ton weight; which force, how- power of
entirely ; but the other end was drawn out conically, ever, diminilhes as the fluid dilates itfelf. Povv'
and finiflied in an aperture of about -g- of an inch *n “ But though we have here fuppofed that the heat a ’
diameter. The tube thus fitted, was heated to the ex- of gunpowder, when fired in any confiderable quan-
tremity of a red heat in a fmith’s forge ; and was then tity, is the fame with iron heated to the extremity of
immerged with its aperture downwards in a bucket of red heat, or to the beginning of a white heat, yet it
water, and kept there till it was cool.; after which it cannot be doubted but that the fire produced in the
was taken out carefully, and the water which had en- explofion is fomewhat varied (like all other fires) by
tered it in cooling was exaftly weighed. The heat gi- a greater or lefier quantity of fuel; and it may be
ven to the tube at each time, was the beginning of prefumed, that, according to the quantity of powder
what workmen call a white heat ; and to prevent the fired together, the flame may have all the different de-
vufhing in of the aqueous vapour at the immerfion, grees, from a languid red heat, to that fufficient for
which would otherwife drive out great part of the air, the vitrification of metals. But as the quantity of
and render the experiment fallacious, I had an iron wire powder requifite for the produ&ion of this laft men-
filed tapering, fo as to fit the aperture of the tube, and tioned heat, is certainly greater than what is ever fired
with this I always flopped it up before it was taken together for any military purpofe, we cannot be far from,
from the fire, letting the wire remain in till the whole ourfeope, if we fuppofe the heat of fuch quantities as
was cool, when, removing it, the due quantity of wa- areufually fired to be nearly the fame with that of red-
ter would enter. The weight of the water thus taken hot iron ; allowing a gradual augmentation to this
in at three different trials was 600 grains, 595 grains, heat in larger quantities, and diminifhing it when the
and 600 grains, refpedfively. The content of the whole quantities are very fmall.” n
cavity of the tube was 796 grains of water ; whence Having thus determined the force of the gunpow- R°*
the fpaces remaining unfilled in thefe three experi- der, Mr Robins next proceeds to determine the velo- thojS0f
ments were 186, 201, and 196 grains refpectively. city with which the ball is difeharged. The folution termining
Thefe fpaces undoubtedly contained all the air which, of this problem depends on the two following prin- the veloci-
when the tube was red-hot, extended thro’ its whole ciples. 1. That the action of the powder on the tiesof bafts*
concavity ; confequently the elafticity of the air, when bullet ceafes as foon as the bullet is got out of the
heated to the extreme heat of red-hot iron, was to the piece. 2. That all the powder of the charge is fired
elafticity of the fame air, when reduced to the tempe- and converted into elaftic fluid before the bullet is
rature of the ambient atmofphere, as the whole capacity fenfibly moved from its place.
of the tube to the refpe6tive fpaces taken up by the “ The firft of thefe (fays Mr Robins) will appear
cooled air; that is, 33796 to 186, 201, 196 ; or, ta- manifeft when it is confidered how fuddenly the flame
king the medium of thefe three trials, 35796 to igq-f. will extend itfelf on every fide, by its own elafticity,
“ As air and this fluid appear to be equally affefted when it is once got out of the mouth of the piece ;
by heat and cold, and confequently have their elaftici- for by this means its force will then be diffipated, and
ties equally augmented by the addition of equal degrees the bullet no longer fenfibly affefited by it.
of heat to each ; if we fuppofe the heat with which “ The fecond principle is indeed lefs obvious, be-
the flame of fired powder is endowed, to be the fame ing contrary to the general opinion of almoft all writers
with that of the extreme heat of red-hot iron, then on this fubjeft. It might however be fufficient for the Inftantane-
the elafticity of the generated fluid will be greater at the proof of this pofition, to obferve the prodigious com- °“s firing
time of the explofion than afterwards, when it is re- preffion of the flame in the chamber of the ' piece. ol powder‘
duced to the temperature of the ambient air, in the Thofe who attend to this circumftance, and to the ea-
ratio of 796 to 194-y nearly. It being allowed then, fy paffage of the flame through the intervals of the
(which furely is very reafonable), that the flame of grains, may foon fatisfy themfelves, that no one grain
gunpowder is not lefs hot than red-hot iron, and the contained in that chamber can continue for any time
elafticity of the air, and confequently of the fluid uninflamed, when thus furrounded and preffed by fuch
generated by the explofion, being augmented in the an a&ive five. However, not to rely on mere fpecu-
extremity of this heat in the ratio of I94y to 796, lation in a matter of fo much confequence, I confi-
it follows, that if 244 be augmented in this ratio, the dered, that if part only of the powder is fired, and
refulting number which is 999-3-, will determine how that fucceffively; then by laying a greater weight be-
many times the elafticity of the flame of fired powder fore the charge, (fuppofe two or three bullets inftead
exceeds the elafticity of common air, fuppofing it to of one), a greater quantity of powder would neceffarily
be confined in the fame fpace which the powder filed' be fired, fince a heavier weight would be a longer time
before it was fired.— Hence then the abfolute quanti- in palling through the barrel. Whence it Ihould fol-
ty of the preffure exerted by gunpowder at the mo- low, that two or three bullets would be impelled by a
ment of its explofion may be afligned ; for, fince the much greater force than one only. But the contrary
fluid then generated has an elafticity of 999-3-, or in to this appears by experiment; for firing one, two.
Sea. II.
Theory, and three bullets laid contiguous to each other with
the fame charge refpeftively, I have found that their
velocities were not much different from the reciprocal
of their fubduplicate quantities of matter; that is, if
a given charge would communicate to one bullet a ve¬
locity of 1700 feet in a fecond, the fame charge
would communicate to two bullets a velocity from
1250 to T300 feet in a fecond, and to three bullets a
velocity from 1050 to 1110 feet in the fame time.
From hence it appears, that, whether a piece is loaded
with a greater or lefs weight of bullet, the adiion is
nearly the fame ; fince all mathematicians know, that
if bodies containing different quantities of matter are
fucceffively impelled through the fame fpace by the
fame power adting with a determined force at each
point of that fpace ; then the velocities given to thefe
different bodies will be reciprocally in the fubduplicate
ratio of their quantities of matter. The excefs of the
velocities of the two and three bullets above what they
ought to have been by this rule, (which are that of
1200 and 980 feet in a fecond) undoubtedly arifes
from the flame, which, cfcaping by the fide of the firft
bullet, adls on the furfacc of the fecond and third.
WhIfome “ t^lis exce^s has in many experiments been
powder is imperceptible, and the velocities have been reciprocally
blown out in the fubduplicate ratios of the number of bullets,
of the to fufficient exadbiefs ; and where this error has been
mouth of greater> ;t has never arifen to an eighth part of the
without be- whole t but, if the common opinion was true, that a
ing fired, fmail part only of the powder fires at firft:, and other
parts of it fucceflively as the bullet paffes through the
barrel, and that a confiderable part of it is often blown
out of the piece without firing at all; then the velocity
which three bullets received from the explofion ought
to have been much greater than we have found it to
be.—But the truth of this fecond poftulate more fully
appears from thofe experiments, by which it is {hewn,
that the velocities of bullets may be afcertained to the
fame exadtnefs when they are adled on through a bar¬
rel of four inches in length only, as^when they are dif-
charged from one of four feet.
“ With refpedltothegrainsofpowderwbichare often
blown out unfired, and which are always urged as a
proof of the gradual firing of the charge, I believe
Diego Uffano, a perfon of great experience in the art
of gunnery, has given the true reafon for this accident;
•which is, that fome fmall part of the charge is often
not rammed up with the reft, but is left in the piece
before the wad, and is by this means expelled by the
blaft of air before the fire can reach it. I muft add,
that, in the charging of cannon and fmall arms, efpe-
cially after the firft time, this is fcarcely to be avoided
by any method I have yet feen pra&ifed. Perhaps,
too, there may be fome few grains in the beft powder,
of fuch an heterogeneous compofition as to be lefs fuf-
ceptible of firing ; which, I think, I have myfelf ob-
ferved : and thefe, though they are furrounded by the
flame, may be driven out unfired.
Demonftra- “ Thefe poftulates being now allowed to be juft, let
tion of the AB reprefent the axis of any piece of artillery, A the
force of fi- breech, and B the muzzle; DC the diameter of its
orfthe balT ^ore> anc^ DEGC a part of its cavity filled with pow-
Plate der. Suppofe the ball that is to be impelled to lie
CXLIV. with its hinder furface at the line GE; then the pref-
% 4> fure exerted at the explofion on the circle of which
3443
GE is the diameter, or, which is the fame thing, the Theory
preflure exerted in the direftion FB on the furface of “
the ball, is eafily known from the known dimenfions of
that circle. Draw any line FH perpendicular to FB,
and AT parallel to FH ; and through the point H,
to the afymptotes IA and AB, defcribe the hyperbola
KHNQj^ then, if FH reprefents the force impelling
the ball at the point F, the force impelling the ball at
any other point as at M, will be reprefented by the
line MN, the ordinate to the hyperbola at that point.
For when the fluid impelling the body along has di¬
lated itfelf to M, its denfity will be then to its origi¬
nal denfity in the fpace DEGC reciprocally as the
fpaces through which it is extended ; that is, as FA
to MA, or as MN to FFI; but it has been fhewn,
that the impelling force or elafticity of this fluid is di-
reflly as its denfity; therefore, if FH reprefents the
force at the point F, MN will reprefent the like force
at the point M.
Since the abfolute quantity of the force impelling
the ball at the point F is known, and the weight of
the ball is alfo known, the proportion between the
force with which the ball is impelled and its own gra¬
vity is known. In this proportion take FH to FL,
and draw LP parallel to FB ; then, MN the ordinate
to the hyperbola in any point will be to its part MR,
cut off by the line LP, as the impelling force of the
powder in that point M to the gravity of the ball; and
confequently the line LP will determine a line propor¬
tional to the uniform force of gravity in every point;
whilft the hyperbola HNQjletermines in like manner
fuch ordinates as are proportional to the impelling
force of the powder in every point; whence by the
39th Prop, of lib. i. of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia,
the areas FLPB and FHQB are in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the velocities which the ball would acquire
when a£ed upon by its own gravity through .the fpace
FB, and when impelled through the fame fpace by the
force of the powder. But fince the ratio of AF to
AB and the ratio of FH to FL are known, the ratio
of the area FLPB to the area FHQB is known; and
thence its fubduplicate. And fince the line FB is gi¬
ven in magnitude, the velocity which a heavy body
would acquire when impelled through this line by its
own gravity is known ; being no other than the velo¬
city it would acquire by falling through a fpace equal
to that line: find then another velocity to which this
laft mentioned velocity bears the given ratio of the fub¬
duplicate of the area FLPB to the area FHQB ; and
this velocity thus found is the velocity the ball will ac¬
quire when impelled thro’ the fpace FB by the adtion
of the inflamed powder.
“ Now to give an example of this : Let us fuppofe
AB, the length of the cylinder, to be 45 inches; its dia¬
meter DC, or rather the diameter of the ball, to be ^ of
an inch ; and AF, the extent of the powder, to be 2-^
inches; to determine the velocity which will be commu¬
nicated to a leaden bullet by the explofion, fuppofing
the bullet to be laid at firft with its furface contiguous
to the powder.
“ By the theory we have laid down, it appea'rs,
that at the firft inftant of the explofion the flame will
exert, on the bullet lying clofe to it, a force 1000
times greater than the preffure of the atmofphere. The
medium preffure of the atmofphere is reckoned equal
tc*
GUNNERY.
.3444
Theory
GUNNERY. Seft. II.
. to a column of water 33 feet in height ; whence, lead that cavity filled with powder; and inverfely, as the Theory.
‘ being to water as 11,345 to 1, this preffure will be diameter of the bore, or rather of the bullet; likewife
equal to that of a column of lead 34,9 inches in height, direftly as AF. the height of the cavity left behind
Multiplying this by 1000, therefore, a column of lead the bullet. Confequently the velocity being compu-
34900 inches (upwards of half a mile) in height, ted as above, for a bullet of a determined diameter,
would produce a preffure on the bullet equal to what placed in a piece of a given length, and impelled by
is exerted by the powder in the firft inftant of the ex- a given quantity of powder, occupying a given cavi-
plofion ; and the leaden ball being ^ of an inch in dia- ty behind that bullet; it follows, that, by means of
meter, and confequently equal to a cylinder of lead ot thefe ratios* the velocity of any other bullet may be
the fame bafehalf an inch in height, the preffure at firft thence deduced ; the neceffary circumftances of its po-
afting on it will be equal to 34900X2, or 69860 times fition, quantity of powder, &c. being given. Where
its weight : whence FL to FH as 1 to 69800; and FB note, That in the inftance of this fuppofition, we have
to FA as 45 — 2|-; or42!-to 2^ ; that is, as 339 to 21 ; fuppofed the diameter of the ball to be ± of an inch ;
whence the reftangleFLPB is to the rcflangle AFHS whence the diameter of the bore will be fomething
as 339 to 21X69800, that is, as I to 4324—And from more, and the quantity of powder contained in the
the known application of the logarithms to the men- fpacc DEGC, will amount exa&ly to twelve penny-
furation of the hyperbolic fpaces it follows, that the weight, a fmall wad of tow included,
tedfangle AFHS is to the area FHQB as 43,429, &c. “ In order to compare the velocities communicated
. AB . f s to bullets by the explofion, with the velocities refult-
js to the tabular logarithm of ; that is, of Vr Jng from the theory by computation ; it is neceffary
which is 1,2340579; whence the ratio of the rec- t^iat t*ie a&ual velocities with which bullets move v,
tangle FLPB to the hyperbolic area FHQB is com- ft01111* be difcovered. The only methods hitherto
pounded of the ratios of 1 to 4324— and bf ,43429, pradifed for this purpofe, have been either by obfervmg
&c. to 1,2340579; which together make up the ratio of ^ t‘me °f ^e flight of a fhot through a given
1 to 12262, the fubduplicate of which is the ratio of fPa«b or by meafuring the range of a fhot at a given
1 to 110,7"; and in this ratio is the velocity which the elevation ; and thence computing, on the parabolic
bullet would acquire by gravity in falling thro* a fpace hypothefis, what degree of velocity would produce
equal to FB, to the velocity the bullet will acquire lbis range.—The firft method labours under this in-
from the adion of the powder impelling it thro’ FB. fnrmountable difficulty, that the velocities of thefe bo-
But the fpace FB being 42I-inches, the velocity a hea- dies are often fo fwift, and confequently the time ob-
vy body will aquire in falling through fuch a fpace is ^rved is fo fhort, that an imperceptible error in that
known to be what would carry it nearly at the rate of time, may occafion an error in the velocity thus found
15.07 feet in a fecond; whence the velocity to which 2> 3> 4> 5> of ^oo feet, in a fecond. The other
this has the ratio of 1 to 110,7 is a velocity which would method is fo fallacious, by reafon of the refiftance of
carry the ball at the rate of 1668 feet in one fecond. the atmofphere (to which inequality the firft is alfo
And this is the velocity which, according to the theo- liable), that the velocities thus affigned may not per¬
ry, the bullet in the prefent circumftances would ac- baps be the tenth part of the adual velocities fought,
quire from the adion of the powder during the time of . “ The fimpleft_ method of determining this velocity
its dilatation. is by means of the inftrument reprefented Plate CXLII.
“ Now this velocity being once computed for one % 5- where ABQD reprefents the body of the ma- I(j ;
cafe, is eafily applied to any other ; for if the cavity chine compofed of the three poles B, C, D, fpreadmg Machine
DEGC left behind the bullet be only in part filled at bottom, ar.d joining together at the top A ; being the j
with powder, then the line HF, and eonfequenlty the fame with what is vulgarly ufed in lifting and weighing ties of 5ul. j
area FHQB will be diminiffied in the proportion of the very heavy bodies, and is called by workmenthe triangles, lets. j
whole cavity to the part filled. If the diameter of the On two of thefe poles, towards their tops, are ferewed
bore be varied, the lengths AB and AF remaining the on the fockets RS ; and on thefe focketsthe pendulum
fame, then the quantity of powder and the furface of EFGHIK is hung by means of its crofs - piece EF,
the bullet which it ads on, will be varied in the du- which becomes its axis of fufpenfion, and on which it
plicate proportion of the diameter, but the weight of muft be made to vibrate with great freedom. The bo-
the bullet will vary in the triplicate proportion of the dy of this pendulum is made of iron, having a broad
diameter; wherefore the line FH, which is diredlly part at bottom, and its lower part is covered with a
as the abfolute impelling force of the powder, and re- thick piece of wood GK1H, which is faftened to the
ciprocally as the gravity of the bullet, will change in iron by ferews. Something lower than the bottom of
the reciprocal proportion of the diameter of the bul- the pendulum there is a brace OP, joining the two
let. If AF, the heighth of the cavity left behind the poles to which the pendulum is fufpended ; and to this
bullet, be increafed or diminiftied, the re&angle of the brace there is faftened a contrivance MNU, made with
hyperbola, and confequently the area correfponding to two edges of fteel, bearing on each other in the line
ordinates in anygiven ratio, will be increafed ordiminilh- UN, fopiething in the manner of a drawing-pen; the
ed in the fame proportion. From all which it follows, ftrength with which thefe edges prefs on each other
that the area FHQB, which is in the duplicate pro- being diminiftied or increafed at pleafure by means of
portion of the velocity of the impelled body, will be di- a ferew Z going through the upper piece. There is
AB r , faftened to the bottom of the pendulum a narrow rib-
redlly as the logarithm (where AB reprefents the ^on which pafles between thefe ftecl edges, and
length of the barrel, and AF the length of the cavi- which afterwards, by means of an opening cut in the
ty left behind the bullet) ; alfo dire&ly as the part of lower piece of fteel, hangs loofely down, as at W.
Sea. II.
Theory. “ This inftrument thus fitted, if the weight of thepen-
' dulum be known, and likewife the refpeftive diftances
Method of 'ts cetltre gravity, and of its centre of ofcillation
tifing the from its axis of fufpenfion, it will thence be known,
machine, what motion will be communicated to this pendulum
by the percufiion of a body of a known weight moving
with a known degree of celerity, and ftriking it in a
given point; that is, if the pendulum be fuppofed at
reft before the percuffion, it will be known what vi¬
bration it ought to make in confequence of fuch a de¬
termined blow; and, on the contrary, if the pendulum,
being at reft, is ftruck by a body of a kno^vn weight,
and the vibration, which the pendulum makes after the
blow, is known, the velocity of the ftriking body may
from thence be determined.
“ Hence then, if a bullet of a known weight firikes
the pendulum, and the vibration, which the pendulum
makes in conrequence of the ftroke, be afcertained ;
the velocity, with which the ball moved, is thence to
be known.
“ Now the extent of the vibration, made by the pen¬
dulum after the blow, may be meafured to great ac¬
curacy by the ribbon LN. For let the preffure of the
edges UN on the ribbon be fo regulated by the fcrew
Z, that the motion of the ribbon between them may
be free and eafy, though with fome minute refiltance;
then fettling the pendulum at reft, let the part LN be¬
tween the pendulum and the edges be drawn ftrait,
but not ftrained, and fix a pin in that part of the rib¬
bon which is then contiguous to the edges : let now a
ball impinge on the pendulum ; then the pendulum
Twinging back will draw out the ribbon to the juft ex¬
tent of its vibration, which will confequently be deter¬
mined by the interval on the ribbon between the edges
UN and the place of the pin.
“ The weight of the whole pendulum, wood and all,
was 56 ft». 3 oz. its centre of gravity was 52 inches
diftant from its axis of fufpenfion, and 200 of its fmall
fwings were performed in the time of 253 feconds ;
whence its centre of ofcillation (determined from hence)
is 62\ inches diftant from that axis. The centre of
the piece of wood GKIH is diftant from the fame axis
66 inches.
“ In the compound ratio of 66 to 62^, and 66 to 52,
take the quantity of matter of the pendulum to a 4th
quantity, which will be 42 lb. £'oz. Now geometers
will know, that if the blow be ftruck on the centre of
the piece of wood GKIH, the pendulum will refift to
the ftroke in the fame manner as if this laft quantity
of matter only (42 lb. ^oz.) was concentrated in that
point, and the reft of the pendulum was taken away :
whence, fuppofing the weight of the -bullet impin¬
ging in that point to be the yV. of a pound, or the-y-^-
of this quantity of matter nearly, the velocity of the
point of ofcillation after the ftroke will, by the laws
obferved in the congrefs of fuch bodies as rebound not
from each other, be the TiT of the velocity the bullet
moved with before the ftroke ; whence the velocity of
this point of ofcillation after the ftroke being afcertain¬
ed, that multiplied by 505 will give the velocity with
which the ball impinged.
“ But the velocity of the point of ofcillation after the
ftroke is eafily deduced from the chord of the arch,
through which it afcends by the blow; for it is a well-
known propofition, that all pendulous bodies afcend
Voi. V.
3445
to the fame height by their vibratory motion as they Thkor y.
would do, if they were projefted diredlly upwards
from their loweft point, with the fame velocity they
have in that point : wherefore, if the verfed line of
the afcending arch be found, (which is eatily deter¬
mined from the chord and radius being given), this ver-
led fine is the perpendicular height, to which a body
projedled upwards with the velocity of the point of
ofeillation would atife; and, confequently, what that
velocity is, can be eafily computed by the common
theory of falling bodies.
“ For inftanee, the chord of the arch, defcribed by
the afcent of the pendulum after the ftroke meafured
on the ribbon, has been fometimes 17^ inches; tbedi-
ftance of the ribbon from the axis of fufpenfion is 71-^
inches; whence reducing 17^- in the ratio of 71to 66,
the refulting number,, which is nearly 16 inches, will'
be the chord of the arch through which the centre of
the board GKIH afcended after the ftroke : now the
verfed fine of the arch, whofe chord is 16 inches, and
its radius 66, is 1-93939; and the velocity, which
would carry a body to this height, or, which is the
fame thing, the velocity which a body would acquire
by defcending through this fpace, is nearly that of 3^
feet in 1".
“ To determine then the velocity with which the bul¬
let impinged on the centre of the wood, when the
chord of the arch defcribed by the afcent of the pen¬
dulum, in confequence of the blow, was 17^ inches
meafured on the ribbon, no more is neceffary than to
multiply 3^ by 505, and the refulting number 1641
will bethe feet which the bullet would defcribe in 1",
if it moved with the velocity it had at the moment of
its percuffion: for the velocity of the point of the pen¬
dulum, on which the bullet ftruck, we have juft now
determined to be that of 3^ feet in 1" ; and we have
before fhewn, that this is the of the velocity of
the bullet. If then a bullet weighing ^ of a pound
ftrikes the pendulum in the centre of the wood GKIH,
and the ribbon be drawn out 17^- inches by the blow ;
the velocity of the bullet is that of 1641 feet in 1".
And fince the length the ribbon is drawn is always
nearly the chord of the arch defcribed by the afcent, (it
being placed fo as to differ infenfibly from thofe chords
which moft frequently occur), and thefe chords are
known to be in the proportion of the velocities of the
pendulum acquired from the ftroke; it follows, that the
proportion between the lengths of ribbon drawn out at
different times, will be the fame with that of the velo¬
cities of the impinging bullets ; and confequently, by
the proportion of thefe lengths of ribbon to 17I-, the
proportion of the velocity with which the bullets im¬
pinge to the known velocity of 1641 feet in 1", will be
determined. i8
“ Hence then is ihewn,in general, how the velocities Cautions to
of bullets of all kinds may be found out by means of be obferved
this inftrument; but that thofe who maybe difpofedin making
to try thefe experiments may not have unforefeen dif-4efe e*Pe‘
Acuities to ftruggle with, we lhall here fubjoin a fe\vrUnCntS'
obfervations, which it will be neceffary for them to at¬
tend to, both to fecure fuccefs to their trials, and fafe-
ty to their perfons.
“ And firft, that they may not conceive the piece of
wood GKIH to be an unneceffary part of the ma¬
chine, we muft inform them, that if a bullet impelled
19 S by
GUNNERY.
3446 GUNNERY. Sett. II.
Theory, by a full charge of powder fhonld ftfike dire&ly on the
“ iron, the bullet would be beaten into ihivers by the
ftroke, and thefe fliivers will rebound back with fuch
violence, as to bury themfelves in any wood they
chance to light on, as I have found by hazardous ex¬
perience; and befides the danger, the pendulum will
not in this inftance afcertain the velocity of the bullet,
becaufe the velocity with which the parts of it re¬
bound is unknown.
“ The weight of the pendulum, andthe thicknefs of
the wood, mult be in fome meafure proportioned to
the fize of the bullets which are ufed. A pendulum
of the weight here defcribed will do very well for all
bullets under three or four ounces, if the thicknefs of
the board be increafed to feven or eight inches for the
heaviell bullets ; beech is the toughed and propered
wood for this purpofe.
“ It is hazardous danding on the fide of the pendu¬
lum, unlefs the board be fo thick, that the greated
part of the bullet’s force is lod before it comes at the
iron ; for if it drikes the iron with violence, the Ihivers
of had, which cannot return back thro’ the wood, will
force themfelves out between the wood and iron, and
will fly to a eonfiderable didance.
“ As there is no effectual way of fadeningthe wood
to the iron but by fcrews, the heads of which 'mud
come through the board; the bullets will fometimes
light on thofe fcrews, from whence the fhivers will dif-
perfe themfelves on every fide.
“ When in thefe experiments fo fmall a quantity of
powder is ufed, as will not give to the bullet a velocity
of more than 400 or 500 feet in 1"; the bullet will
not dick in the wood, but wiU rebound from it entire,
and (if the wood be of a very hard texture) with a very
confiderable velocity. Indeed I have never examined
any of the bullets which have thus rebounded; but I
have found them indented 4by the bodies they have
ftruck againd in their rebound.
“ To avoid then thefe dangers, to the braving of
which in philofophical refearches no honour is annex¬
ed ; it will be convenient to fix whatfoever barrel is
ufed, on a drong heavy carriage, and to fire it with a
little flow match. Let the barrel too be very well for¬
tified in all its length; for no barrel (I fpeak of muf-
ket barrels) forged with the ufual dimenfions will
bear many of the experiments without hurfiing. The
barrel I have mod relied onr and which I procu¬
red to be made on purpofe, is nearly as thick at
the muzzel as at the breech ; that is, it has in each
place nearly the diameter of its bore in thicknefs of
metal.
“ The powder ufed in thefe experiments (hould be
exa&ly weighed : and that no part of it be fcattered
in the barrel, the piece mud be charged with a ladle
in the fame manner as is pra&ifed with cannon; the
wad fhould be of tow, of the fame weight each time,
and no more than is jud necefiary to confine the pow¬
der in its proper place: the length of the cavity left
behind the ball fliould be determined each time with
exa&nefs ; for the increafing or dimini filing that fpace
will vary the velocity of the fhot, although the bullet
and quantity of powder be not changed. The didance
of the mouth of the piece from the pendulum ought to
be fuch, that the impulfe of the flame may not aft on
the pendulum y this- will be prevented in a common
barrel charged with i an ounce of powder, if it be at Theory.
the didance of 16 or 18 feet: in larger charges the ‘
impulfe is fenfible farther off, I have found it to ex¬
tend to above 25 feet; however, between 25 and 18
feet is the didanc6 I have ufually chofen.” 19
With this indrument, or others fimilar to it, "Mr Acconnt of
Robins made a great number of experiments on bar- £fnrs^"°x-
rels of different lengths, and with different charges ofper;ments.
powder. He hath given us the refults of 61 of thefe;
and having compared the adtual velocities with the
computed ones, his theory appears to have come as
near the truth as could well be expe&ed. In feven of
the experiments there was a perfeft coincidence; the
charges of powder being fix or twelve pennyweights ;
the barrels 45, 24.312, and 7.06 inches in length.
The diameter of the fird (marked A) was 4 of an
inch ; of the fecond (B) was the fame; and of D, 83
of an inch. In the red of the experiments, another
barrel (C) was ufed, whofe length was 12.375 inches,
and the diameter of its bore ^ inches.---In 14 more
of the experiments, the difference between the length
of the chord of the pendulum’s arch (hewn by the the¬
ory and the a&ual experiment was one-tenth of an
inch over or under. This (hewed an error in the the¬
ory varying according to the different lengths of the
chord from ,4s- to TV 0f the whole; the charges of
powder were the fame as in the Iad.---In 16 other
experiments, the error was two-tenths of an inch, va¬
rying from to 4T of the whole ; the charges of
powder were &, 8, 9, or 12 pennyweights.—-In fe¬
ven other experiments, the error was three-tenths of
an inch, varying from ^ to 4r the whole ; the
charges of powder fix, or twelve, pennyweights. In
eight experiments, the difference was four-tenths of an
inch, indicating an error from the whole;
the charges being 6, 9, 12, and 24 pennyweights of
powder. In three experiments, the error was five-
tenths, varying from to of the whole; the
charges 8 and 12 pennyweights of powder.---In two
experiments the error was fix-tenths, in one cafe a-
mounting to fomething lefs than Ty> ,n the other to
iV of the whole; the charges 12 and 36 penny¬
weights of powder. By one experiment the error was
feven, and by another eight, tenths ; the fird amount¬
ing to -rg- nearly, the latter to almod £ of the
whole: the charges of powder 6 or 12 pennyweights.
The lad error, however, Mr Robins afcribes to the
wind. The two remaining experiments varied from the
theory by 1.3 inches, fomewhat more than 4 the
whole : the charges of powder were 12 pennyweights
in each; and Mr Robins afcribes the error to the
dampnefs of the powder. In another cafe, he afcribes
an error of fix-tenths to the blad of the powder on the
pendulum. H!s *®ncju
From thefe experiments Mr Robins deduces the fol- flons £ron^.
lowing conclufions. “ The variety of thefe experi- them/
ments, and the accuracy with which they correfpond
to the theory, leave us no room to doubt of its cer¬
tainty.^—This theory, as here eflabliflied, fuppofes,
that, in the firing of gunpowder, about ^ of its fub-
dance is converted by the fudden inflammation into a
permanently eladic fluid, whofe eladicity, in propor¬
tion to its heat and dcnfity, is the fame with that of
common air in the like circumdances ; it farther fup¬
pofes, that all the force everted by gunpowder in its
moil:
Sea. II. GUN
Theory, mod violent operations, is no more than the a&ion of
*   the elafticity of the fluid thus generated ; and thefe
principles enable us to determine the velocities of bul¬
lets impelled from fire-arms of all kinds, and are fully
fufficient for all purpofes where the force of gunpow¬
der is to be ellimated.
“ From this theory many deductions may be made, of
the greated confequence to the pradtical part of gun¬
nery. From hence the thicknefs of apiece, which
will enable it to confine, without burfting, any given
charge of powder, is eafily determined, fince the effort
of the powder is known. From hence appears the
inconclufivenefs of what fome modern authors have ad¬
vanced, relating to the advantages of particular forms
of chambers for mortars and cannon ; for all their la¬
boured fpeculations on this head art evidently founded
on very erroneous opinions about the adtion of fired
powder. From this theory too we are taught the ne-
ceflity of leaving the fame fpace behind the bullet
when we would, by the fame quantity of powder,
communicate to it an equal degree of velocity; fince,
on the principles already laid down, it follows, that the
fame powder has a greater or lefs degree of elafticity,
according to the different fpaces it occupies. The
method which I have always pradtifed for this pur-
pofe has been by marking the rammer; and this is
a maxim which ought not to be difpenfed with when
cannon are fired at an elevation, particularly in thofe
called by' the French batteries a ricochet.
“ From the continued adtion of the powder, and its
manner of expanding defcribed in this theory, and the
length and weight of the piece, one of the moft effen-
tial circumftances in the well diredting of artillery
may be eafily afcertained. Alfpradtitioners are agreed,
that no ■fhot can be depended on, unlefs the piece be
placed on a folid platform: for if the platform fhakes
with the firft impulfe of the powder, it is impofiible
but the piece muff alfo fliake; which will alter its di-
redtton, and render the ftiot uncertain. To prevent
this accident, the platform is ufually made extreme¬
ly firm to a confiderable depth backwards; fo that
the piece is not only well fupported in the begin¬
ning of its motion, but likewife through a great part
of its recoil. However, it is fufficiently obvious,
that when the bullet is feparated from the piece, it can
be no longer affedted by the trembling of the piece or
platform; and, by a very eafy computation, it will be
found, that the bullet will be out of the piece before
the latter hath recoiled half an inch : whence, if the
platform be fufficiently folid at the beginning of the
recoil, the remaining part of it may be much (lighter;
and hence a more compendious method of conftrudting
platforms may be found out.
“ From this theory alfo it appears how greatly
thefe authors have been miftaken, who have attributed
the force of gunpowder, or at lead a confiderable part
of it, to the adtion of the air contained either in the
powder, or between the intervals of the grains: for
they have fuppofed that air to exift in its natural ela-
ftic ftate, and to receive all its-addition of force from
the heat of the explofion. But from what hath been
already delivered concerning the increafe of the air’s
elafticity by heat, we may conclude that the heat of
the explofion cannot augment this elafticity to five
times its common quantity; confequently the force
N E R Y. 3447
arifing from this caufe only canhot amount to more Theory.
than the 200th part of the real force exerted on the 
occafion.
“ If the whole fubftance of the powder was con¬
verted into an elaftic fluid at the inftant of the explo¬
fion, then from the known elafticity of this fluid af-
figned by our theory, and its known deniity, we could
eafily determine the velocity with which it would be¬
gin to expand, and could thence trace out its future
augmentations in its progrefs through the barrel: but
as we have (hewn that the elaftic fluid, in which the
adlivity of the gunpowder confifts, is onlyof the
fubftance of the powder, the remaining T7^ will, in the
explofion, be mixed with the elaftic part, and will by
its weight retard the activity of the explofion ; and
yet they will not be fo completely united as to move
with one common motion; but the unelaftic part will
be lefs accelerated than the reft, and fome will not
even be carried out of the barrel, as appears by the
confiderable quantity of un&uous matter which ad¬
heres to the infide of all fire-arms after they have been
ufed.—Thefe inequalities in the expanfive motion of
the flame oblige us to recur to experiments for its ac¬
curate determination. ' 2r
“ The experiments made ufe of for this'purpofe were .ExPCT1-
of two kinds. The firft was made by charging the aetermi-0'
barrel A with 12 penny-weights of powder, and a ning the
fmall wad of tow only; and then placing its mouth velocity of
19 inches from the centre of the pendulum. On firing feed guri-
it in this fituation, the impulfe of the flame made it poW er*
afeend through an arch whofe chord was 13.7
inches ; whence, if the whole fubftance of the powder
was fuppofed to ftrike againft the pendulum, and each
part to ftrike with the fame velocity, that common
velocity muft have been at the rate of about 2650 feet
in a fecond.—But as fome part of the velocity of the
flame was loft in paffing through 19 inches of air; I
made the remaining experiments in a manner not liable
to this inconvenience.
“ I fixed the barrel A on the pendulum, fo that its
axis might be both horizontal, and alfo perpendicular
to the plane HK; or, which is the fame thing, that
it might be in the plane of the pendulum’s vibration:
the height of the axis of the piece above the centre of
the pendulum was fix inches; and the weight of the
piece, and of the iron that faftened it, &c. was 124-lb,
The barrel in this fituation being charged with 12
penny-weights of powder, without either ball or wad,
only put together with the rammer ; on the difeharge
the pendulum afeended through an arch whofe chord
was 10 inches, or reduced to an equivalent blow in
the centre of the pendulum, fuppofing the barrel a-
way, it would be 14.4 inches nearly. -The fame ex¬
periment being repeated, the chord of the afeending
arch was 10.1 inches, which, reduced to the. centre,
is 14.6 inches.
“ To determine what difference of velocity there
was in the different parts of the vapour, I loaded
the piece again with 12 penny-weights of powder,
and rammed it down with a wad of tow, weighing
one penny-weight. Now, I conceived that this wad
being very light, would prefently acquire that veloeL-
ty with which the elaftic part of the fluid would ex¬
pand itfelf when uncompreffed; and I acordingly
found, that the chord of the afeending arch was by
19 S 2 this
3448 GUNNERY. Sett. II.
Treor y.this means increafed to 12 inches, or at the centre to
17.3 : whence, as the medium of the other two expe¬
riments is 14.5, the pendulum afcended through an
arch 2.8 inches longer, by the additional motion of
one penny-weight of matter, moving with the velo¬
city of the fwifteft part of the vapour; and confe-
quently the velocity with which this penny-weight of
matter moved, was that of about 7000 feet in a fe-
cond.
“ It will perhaps be obje&ed to this determina¬
tion, that the augmentation of the arch through which
the pendulum vibrated in this cafe was not all of it
owing to the quantity of motion given to the wad,
but part of it was produced by the confinement of the
powder, and the greater quantity thereby fired. But
if it were true that a part only of the powder fired
when there was no wad, it would not happen that in
firing different quantities of powder without a wad
the chord would increafe and decreafe nearly in the
ratio of thefe quantities; which yet I have found it to
do: for with nine pennyweights that chord was 7.3
inches, which with 12 pennyweights we have feen
was only 10, and 10.1 inches ; and even with three
pennyweights the chord was two inches; deficient
from this proportion by .5 only; for which defefl; too
other valid reafons are to be affigned.
“ And there is ftill a more convincing proof that
all the powder is fired, although no wad be placed be¬
fore the charge, which is, that the part of the recoil
arifing from the expanfion of powder alone, is found to
be no greater when it impels a leaden bullet before it,
than when the fame quantity is fired without any wad to
confine it. We have feen that the chord of the arch
through which the pendulum rofe from the expandve
force of the powder alone is 10, or 10.1 ; and the
chord of that arch, when the piece was charged in the
cuftomary manner with a bullet and wad, 1 found to
be the firft time 22|, and the fecond 22^, or at a
medium 22.56. Now the impulfe of the ball and
wad, if they were fuppofed to ftrike the pendulum in
the fame place in which the barrel was fufpended, with
the velocity they had acquired at the mouth-of the
piece, would drive it through an arch whole chord
would be about 12.3; as is known from the weight
of the pendulum, the weight and pofition of the bar¬
rel, and the velocity of the bullet determined by our
former experiments; whence, fubtracling this'num¬
ber 12.3 from 22.56, the remainder 10.26 is near¬
ly the chord of the arch which the pendulum would
have afcended through from the expanfion of the
powder alone with a bullet laid before it. And this
number, 10.26, differs but little from lo.i, which
we have above found to be the chord of the afeending
arch, when the fame quantity of powder expanded
itfelf freely without either bullet or wad before it.
“ Again, that this velocity of 7000 feet in a fe¬
cond is not much beyond what the moft a&ive part
of the flame acquires in expanding, is evinced from
hence, that in fome experiments a ball has been found
to be difeharged with a velocity of 2400 feet in a fe¬
cond ; and yet it appeared not that the action of the
powder was at all diminifliedon account of this immenfe
celerity t confequently the degree of fwiftnefs with
which, in this inltance, the powder followed the ball
without lofing any part of its preflure, mull have been
much Ihort of what the powder alone would have ex-THEOItY-
panded with, had not the ball been there.
From thefe determinations may be deduced the
force of petards ; fince their adlion depends entirely
on the impulfe of the flame : and it appears that a
quantity of powder properly -difpofed in fuch a ma¬
chine, may produce as violent an effort as a bullet of
twice itsweight, moving with a velocity of I400or 1500
feet in a fecond. 12
“ In many of the experiments already recited, the
ball was not laid immediately contiguous to the pow- w'ith tlie
der, but at a fmall diftance, amounting, at the ut- gre.ueft ve-
moft, only to an inch and a half. In thefe cafes the locitywhen
theory agreed very well with the experiments. But laid at a di-
if a bullet is placed at a greater diftance from the
powder, fuppofe at 12, 18, or 24 inches, we cannot
then apply to this ball the fame principles which may
be applied to thofelaid in contact, or nearly fo, with
the powder ; for when the furface of the fired powder
is not confined by a heavy body, the flame dilates it¬
felf with a velocity far exceeding that which it catf
communicate to a bullet by its continued preffure : con¬
fequently, as at the diftance of 12, 18, or 24 inches,
the powder will have acquired a confiderable degree
of this velocity of expanfion, the firft motion of the
ball will not be produced by the continued preffure
of the powder, but by the a&ual percuffion of the
the flame ; and it will therefore begin to move with a
quantity of motion proportioned to the quantity of
this flame, and the velocities of its refpedlive parts.
“ From hence then it follows, that the velocity of
the bullet, laid at a confiderable diftance before the
charge, ought to be greater than what would becom-
municated to it by the preffure of the powder a&ing
in the manner already mentioned : and this dedu&ion
from our theory we have confirmed by manifold expe¬
rience ; by which we .have found, that a ball laid in
the barrel A, with its hinder part i,i|- inches from its
breech, and impelled by twelve pennyweights of pow¬
der, has acquired a velocity of about 1400 feet in a
fecond ; when, if it had been afted on by the preffure
of the flame only, it would not have acquired a velocity
of 1200 feet ip a fecond. The fame we have found
to hold true in all other greater diftances, (and alfo
in leffer, though not in the fame degree), and in all
quantities of powder : and vve have likewife found,
that thefe effe&s nearly correfpohd with what has been
already laid down about the velocity of expanfion
and the elaftic and unelaftic parts of the flame.
“ From hence too arifes another confideration of
great confequence in the praflice of gunnery ; which
is, that no bullet ftiould at any time be placed at a
confiderable diftance before the charge, unlefs the piece
is extremely well fortified : for a moderate charge of
powder, when it has expanded itfelf through the va¬
cant fpace, and reaches the ball, will, by the velocity
each part has acquired, accumulate itfelf behind the
ball, and thereby be condenfed prodigioufly ; whence*
if the barrel be not extremely firm in that part, it
muft, by means of this re-inforced elafticity, infal¬
libly burft. The truth of this reafoning I have ex¬
perienced in an exceeding good Tower-mufl<et, forged
of very tough iron ; for, charging it with twelve pen¬
nyweights of powder, and placing the ball 16 inches
from the breech,, on firing it, the part of the barrel
Sed. II.
GUNNERY.
The or y. juft behind the bullet was fwelled out to double its
diameter like a blown bladder, and two large pieces
of two inches long were burft out of it.
“ Having feen that the entire motion of a bullet
laid at a confiderable diftance from the charge, is ac¬
quired by two different methods in which the powder
acffs on it ; the firft being the percuffion of the parts
of the flame with the velocity they had refpedftively
acquired by expanding, the fecond the continued
preffure of the flame through the remaining part of
the barrel ; I endeavoured to feparate thefe different
actions, and to retain that only which arofe from the
continued preffure of the flame. For this purpofe I
no longer placed the powder at the breech, from whence
it would have full fcope for its expanfion ; but I fcat-
tered it as uniformly as I could through the whole
cavity left behind the bullet ; imagining that by this
means the progreflive velocity of the flame in each
part would be prevented by the expanfion of the neigh¬
bouring parts: and I found, that the ball being laid
11^ inches from the breech, its velocity, intlead of
1400 feet in a fecond, which it acquired in the laft
experiments, was now no more than 1100 feet in the
fecond, which is 100 feet fliort of what according to
the theory ihould arife from the continued preffure of
the powder only.
“ The reafon of this deficiency was, doubtlefs, the
inteftine motion of the flame : for the accenfioo of the
powder thus diftributed through fc/ much larger a
fpace than it could fill, muft have produced many re¬
verberations and pulfations of the flame ; and from thefe
internal agitations of the fluid, its preffure on the
containing furface will (as is the cafe of alt other
fluids) be confiderably diminiflied ; and in order to
avoid this irregularity, in all other experiments I took
care to have the powder clofely confined in as fmall a
fpace as pofiible, even when the bullet lay at fome
Of the re <^^ance from it"
fiftance of* “ With regard to the refiftance of the aft, which
the air to f° remarkably affedls all military projedfiles, it is ne-
the motion ceffary to premife, that the greateft part of authors
of bullets, have eftabliftied it as a certain rule, that while the fame
body moves in the fame medium, it is always refifted
in the duplicate proportion of its velocity ; that is,
if the refitted body move in one part of its track with
three times the velocity with which it moved in fome
other part, then its refiftanee to the greater velocity
will be nine times the refiftance to the leffer. If the
velocity in one place be four times greater than in
another, the refiftance of the fluid will be id times
greater in the firft than in the fecond, &c. This rule,
however, though pretty near the truth when the ve¬
locities are confined within certain limits, is exceflive-
ly erroneous when applied to military projedliles, where
fuch refiftances often occur as could fcarcely be effeft-
ed, on the commonly received principles, even by a
treble augmentation of its denfity.
“ By means of the machine already deferibed, I
have it in my power to determine the velocity with
which a ball moves in apy part of its track, provided
I can direift the piece in fuch a manner as to caufe the
bullet to impinge on the pendulum placed in that part:
and therefore, charging a mufket-barrel three times
fuccefiively with a lead?n ball of an inch in diame¬
ter, and about half its weight of powder; and taking
fuch precaution in wtighirtg of the powder and placing Th:
it, that I was affured, by many previous trials, that
the velocity of the ball could not differ by 20 feet in .
a fecond from its medium quantity ; I fired it againft
the penduluiq placed at 25, 75, and 125 feet diftance
from the mouth of the piece refpeftively ; and I found
that it impinged againft the pendulum, in the firft cafe,
with a velocity of 1670 feet in a fecond; in the fe¬
cond cafe, with a velocity of 1550 feet in a fecond ;
and in the third cafe, with a velocity of 1425 feet in
a fecond: fo that, in pafling through 50 feet of air,
the bullet loft a velocity of 120'or 125 feet in a fe¬
cond ; and the time of its paffing through that fpace
being about TJTd or y^th of a fecond, the medium
quantity of refiftance muft, in thefe inftances, have
been about 120 times the weight of the ball p which
(as the ball was nearly T’Tth of a pound) amounts to
about 10 ft avoirdupoife.
“ Now, if a computation be made according to the
method laid down for compreffed fluids in the 38th
propofition of Newton’s Principia, fuppofing the
weight of water to that of air as 850 to 1, it will
be found, that the refiftance to a globe of \ of an
inch diameter, moving with a velocity of about 1600
feet in a fecond, will not, on thefe principles, amount
to any more than 4^ ft) avoirdupoife ; whence, as we
know that the rules contained in that propofition are
very accurate with regard to flow motions, we may
hence conclude, that the refiftance of the air in flow
mqjtions is lefs than that in fwift motions, in the ratio
of 4y to 10; a proportion between that of 1 to 2,
and 1 to 3.
“ Again, I charged the fame piece a number of
times with equal quantities of powder, and balls of
the fame weight, taking all poflxble care to give to
every (hot an equal velocity; and, firing three times a-
gainft the pendulum placed only 25 feet from the mouth
of the piece, the medium of the velocities with which
the bail impinged was nearly that of 1690 feet in a
fecond: then removing the piece 175 feet from the
pendulum, I found, taking the medium of five Ihots,
that the velocity with which the ball impinged at this
diftance, was 1300 feet in a fecond ; whence the ball,
in pafling through 150 feet of air, loft a velocity of
about 390 feet in a fecond; and the refiftance compu¬
ted from thefe numbers, comes out fomething more
than in the preceding inftance, it amounting here to
between 11 and 12 pounds avoirdupoife; whence, ad-
cording to thefe experiments, the refilling power of
the air to fwift motions is greater than to flow ones, in
a ratio w’bich approaches nearer to that of 3 to 1
than in the preceding experiments.
“ Having thus examined the refiftance to a veloci¬
ty of 1700 feet in a fecond, I next examined the re¬
fiftance to fmaller velocities: and for this purpofe, I
charged the fame barrel with balls of the fame diame¬
ter, but with lefs powder, and placing the pendulum
at 25 feet diftance from the piece, I fired againft it
five times with an equal charge each time : the medi¬
um velocity with which the ball impinged, was that
of 1180 feet in a fecond ; ‘then, removing the pendu¬
lum to the diftance of 250 feet, the medium velocity
of five Ihots, made at this diftance, was that of 95a
feet in a fecond : whence the ball, in pafling through
225 feet of air, loft a velocity of 230 feet in a fecond ;
345°
Theory.
Plate
CXLII.
fig. <5.
GUNNERY.
Sed. II.
and as it patted through that interval in about ^th of
a fecond, the refiftance to the middle velocity will come
out to be near 33T times the gravity of the ball, or
2tb. iooz. avoirdupoife. Now, the refiftance to the
fame velocity, according to the laws obferved in flow¬
er motions, amounts to ^ of the fame quantity ;
whence, in a velocity of 1065 feet in a fecond, the re¬
filling power of the air is augmented in no greater a
proportion than that of 7 to 11; whereas we Jiave feen
in the former experiments, that to ftill greater degrees
of velocity the augmentation approached very near
the ratio of one to three.
“ But farther, I fired three fhot, of the fame fize
and weight with thofe already mentioned, over a large
piece of water ; fo that their dropping into the water
Being very difcernible, both the diftance and time of
their flight might be accurately afcertained. Each
fhot was difcharged with a velocity of 400 feet in a
fecond ; and I had fatisfied myfelf by many previous
trials of the fame charge with the pendulum, that I
could rely on this velocity to ten feet in a fecond. The
firil fhot flew 313 yards in four feconds ^nd a quarter,
the fecond flew 319 yards in four feconds, and the third
373 yards in five feconds and an half. According to
the theory of refiftance eftablilhed for flow motions,
the firft fhot ought to have fpent no more than 3.2
feconds in its flight, the fecond 3.28, and the third
4 feconds : whence it is evident that every fhot was
retarded confiderably more than it ought to have been
h^d that theory taken place in its motion ; confequent-
ly the refiftance of the air is very fenfibly increafed,
even in fuch a fmall velocity as that of 400 feet in a
fecond.
“ As no large fhot are ever projected in pra&ice
with velocities exceeding that of 1700 feet in a fecond,
it will befufficient for the purpofes of a praftical gun¬
ner to determine the refiftance to all letter velocities,
which may be thus exhibited. Let AB be taken to
AC, in the ratio of 1700 feet in a fecond to the gi¬
ven velocity to which the refilling power of the air is
required. Continue the line AB to D, fo that BD
may be to AD, as the refilling power of the air to
flow motions is to its refilling power to a velocity of
1700 feet in a fecond ; then fhall CD be to AD, as
the refilling power of the air to flow motions is to its
refilling power to the given velocity reprefented by
AC.
“ From the computations and experiments already
mentioned, it plainly appears, that a leaden ball of ^
of an inch diameter, and weighing nearly lyoz. avoir¬
dupoife, if it be fired from a barrel of 45 inches in
length, with half its weight of powder, will iffue from
that piece with a velocity which, if it were uniform¬
ly continued, would carry it near 1700 feet in a fe¬
cond If, inftead of a leaden ball, an iron one, of an
equal diameter, was placed in the fame fituation in the
fame piece, and was impelled by an equal quantity of
powder, the velocity of fuch an iron-bullet would be
greater than that of the leaden one in the fubdupli-
cate ratio of the fpecific gravities of lead and iron ;
and fuppofing that ratio to be as three to two, and
computing on the principles already laid down, it
will appear, that an iron-bullet of 241b. weight, fhot
from a piece of ten feet in length, with 16 lb. of pow¬
der, will acquire from the explofion a velocity which, Theory.
if uniformly continued, would carry it nearly 1650   
feet in a fecond.
“ This is the velocity, which, according to our
theory, a cannon-ball of 24 lb weight is difchargcd
with when it is impelled by a full charge of powder ;
but if, inftead of a quantity of powder weighing two
thirds of the ball, we fuppofe the charge to be only
half the weight of it, then its velocity will on the fame
principles be po more than 1490 feet in a fecond. The
fame would be the velocities of every letter bullet fired
with the fame proportions of powder, if the lengths of
all pieces were conftantly in the fame ratio with the
diameters of their bore : and although, according to
the ufual dimenfionS of the froaller pieces of artillery,
this proportion does not always hold, yet the diffe¬
rence is not great enough to occafion a very great va¬
riation from the velocities here afiigned; as will be ob¬
vious to any one who fhall make a computation there¬
on. But in thefe determinations we fuppofe the win¬
dage to be no more than is juft fufificient for putting
down the bullet eafjly ; whereas in real fervice, either
through negligence or unfkilfulnefs, it often happens,
that the diameter of the bore fo much exceeds the dia¬
meter of the bullet, that great part of the inflamed
fluid efcapes by its fide; whence the velocity of the
fhot in this cafe may be confiderably lefs than what we
have afligned. However, this perhaps may becompen-
fated by the greater heat which in all probability
attends the firing of thefe large quantities of -pow¬
der.
“ From this great velocity of cannon-fhot we may Solution
clear up the difficulty concerning the point-blank fhot of thediffi-
which occafioned the invention of Anderfon’s flrange cuhy con-
hypothefis *. Here our author was deceived by hiscei!n'n& .
, ... , . , point-blank
not knowing how greatly the primitive velocity of the
heavieft fhot fs diminifhed in the courfe of its flight by k
the refiftance of the air. And the received opinion of ee n
practical*gdnners is not more difficult to account for;
fince, when they agree that every fhot flies in a ftraight
line to a certain diftance from the piece, which imagi¬
nary diftance they have called the extent of the point-
blank fhot, we need only fuppofe, that, within that di-
flance which they thus determine, the deviation of the
path of the fhot from a ftraight line is not very percep¬
tible in their method of pointing. Now, as a fhot of
24 lb. fired with two thirds of its weight of powder
will, at the diftance of 5od yards from the piece, be
feparated from the line of its original direflion by an
angle of little more than half a degree ; thofe who are
acquainted with the inaccurate methods often ufed in
the direfting of cannon will eafily allow, that fo fmall
an aberration may not be attended to by the generali¬
ty of pratftitioners, and the path of the fhot may con-
fequently be deemed a ftraight line ; efpecially as o-
ther caufes of error will often intervene much greater
than what arifes from the incurvation of this line by
gravity. ^
“ We have now determined the velocity of the fhot, iDcrea.
both when fired with two thirds of its weight andfmgthe
with half its weight of powder refpeftively ; and on quantity of
this occafion I muft remark, that on the principles of ^
our theory, the rncreafing the charge of powder will tj,e(hot will
increafe the velocity of the fhot, till the powder ar- not conti-
rives uually in¬
creafe.
Sedl. IT.
GUNNERY.
Plate
CXLI1.
% 6.
Exceeding
great re¬
finance of
Common
maxims
concerning
the motion
rives at a certain quantity 5 after which, if the powder
be increafed, the velocity of the fhot will diminifh.
The quantity producing the greatetl velocity and the
proportion between that gveateft velocity, and the
velocity communicated by greater and leffer charges,
may be thus affigned. Let AB reprefent the axis of
the piece; draw AC perpendicular to it, and to the a-
fymptotes AC and AB draw any hyperbola LF, and
draw BF parallel to AC ; find out now the point D,
where the reftangle ADEG is equal to the hyperbo*
lie area DEFB; then will AD reprefent that height
of the charge which communicates the greatetl veloci¬
ty to the fhot : whence AD being to AB as 1 to
2.71828, as appears by the table of logarithms, from
the length of the line AD thus determined, and the
diameter of the bore, the quantity of pow'der contain¬
ed in this charge is eafily known. If, in (lead of this
charge, any other filling the cylinder to the height AI
be ufed, draw IH parallel to AC, and thro’ the point
H, to the fame afymptotes AC and AB deferibe the
hyperbola HK; then the greateft velocity wall be to
the velocity communicated by the charge AI,- in the
fubduplicate proportion of the reftangle AE to the
fame redtangle diminithed by thetrilinear fpace KKE.
“ It hath been already thewn, that the refiftance of
the air on the furface of a bullet of of an inch dia¬
meter moving with a velocity of 1670 feet in a fecond,
amounted to about 10 lb. It hath alfo been thewn,
that an iron bullet weighing 24 lb. if fired with 16 lb.
of powder (which is ufually elteemed its proper bat¬
tering charge) acquires a velocity of about j 650 feet
in a fecond, fcarcely differing from the other : whence,
as the furface of this laft bullet is more than 54 times
greater than the furface of a bullet of ^ of an inch dia¬
meter, and their velocities are nearly the fame, it
follows, that the refiftance on the larger bullet will a-
mount to more than 540 lb. which is near 23 times its
own weight.
“ The two laft propofitions are principally aimed
againft thofe theorifts who have generally agreed in
fuppofing the flight of fhot and (hells to be nearly in
the curve of a parabola. The reafon given by thofe
authors for their opinion is the fuppofed inconfiderable
refiftance of the air; fince, as it is agreed on all fides
that the track of proje6lil,es would be a perfect parabo¬
la if there was no refiftance, it has from thence been
too rafhly concluded, that the interruption which the
ponderous bodies of (hells and bullets wmidd receive
from fuel) a rare medium as air would be Tcarcely fen-
fible, and confequently that their parabolic flight would
be hereby fcarcely affefted.
“ Now the prodigious refiftance of the air to a bul¬
let of 24 lb. weight, fuch as we have here eftablifhed
it, fufficiently confutes this reafoning ; for how erro¬
neous muft that hypothefis be, which negle&s, as in¬
confiderable, a force amounting to more than 20 times
the weight of the moving body ?” But here it is necef-
fary to affume a few particulars, the demonftrations of
which, on the commonly received principles, may be
feen under the article Projectiles.
“ 1. If the refiftance of the air be fo fmall, that the
motion of a proje&ed body is in the curve of a para¬
bola ; then the axis of that parabola will be perpendi¬
cular to the horizon ; and confequently the part of the
curve in which the body afeends will be equal and fimi-
lar to that in which it defeends.
“ 2. If the parabola in which the body moves, be
terminated on a horizontal plane; jhen the vertex of
the parabola will be equally diftant fx-om its two ex¬
tremities.
“ 3. Alfo the moving body will fall on that horizons
tal plane in the fame angle, and with the fame velocity
with which it was firft projefled.
“ 4. If a body be projeAed in different angles, but
with the fame velocity; then its greateft horizontal
range will be when it is projedled in an angle of 45
with the horizon.
“ 5. If the velocity with which the body is proje&ed
be known, then this greateft horizontal range may be
thus found. Compute, according to the common
theory of gravity, what fpace the prqje&ed body
ought to fall through to acquire the velocity with
which it is proje&ed : then twice that fpace will be
the greateft horizontal range, or the horizontal range
when the body is projedted in an angle of 450 with the
horizon.
“ 6. The horizontal ranges of a body, when projec¬
ted with the fame Velocity at different angles, will be
between themfelves as the fines of twice the angle
in which the line of proje&ion is inclined to the
horizon.
“ 7. If a body is proje&ed in the fame angle with
the horizon, but with different velocities; the horizon¬
tal ranges will be in the duplicate proportion of thofe
velocities.
“ Thefe poftulates which contain the principles of
the modern art of gunnery, are all of them falfe : for
it hath been already (hewn, that a mulket-ball ^ of an
inch in diameter, fired with half its weight of pow¬
der, from a piece 45 inches long, moves with a velo¬
city of near 1700 feet in a fecond. Now, if this ball
flew in the curve of a parabola, its horizontal range
at 450 would be found by the fifth poftulate to be
about 17 miles. But all the pradlical writers affure
us, that this range is really (hort of half a mile.
Diego Ufano affigns to an arquebufs, four feet in
length, and carrying a leaden ball of oz. weight
(which is very near our dimenfions), an horizontal
range of 797 common paces, when it is elevated be¬
tween 40 and 50 degrees, and charged with a quan¬
tity of fine powder equal in weight to the ball. Mer-
fennus alfo tells us, that he found the horizontal range
of an arquebufs at 450 to be lefs than 400 fathom,
or 800 yards; whence, as either of thefe ranges are
(hort of half anEnglifli mile, it follows, that a mulket
(hot, when fired with a reafonable charge of pow.der at
theelevation of 450, flies not ^partof thediftanceit
ought to do if it moved in a parabola. Nor is this
great contra&ion of the horizontal range to be won¬
dered at, when it is confidered, that the refiftance of
this bullet, when it firft iffues from the piece, amounts-
to 120 times its gravity, as hath been experimentally
demonftrated, n° 23.
“ To prevent objeflions, our next inftance (hall
be in an iron bullet of 24 tb weight, which is the
heavieft in common ufe for land-fervice. Such a bul¬
let fired from a piece of the common dimenfions with
its greateft allotment of powder hath a velocity of
1650 feet in fecond, as already (hewn. Now, if the
horizontal range of this (hot, at 450, be computeti
on>
3451
Theory.
a8
Prodigious
errors of
the corn-
theory.
3452 GUNNERY. Se£t. II’
Theory, on the parabolic hypothefis by the fifth poftulate, it
^ ^ will come out to be about 16 miles, which is between
five and fix times its real quantity ; for the praftical
writers all agree in making it lefs than three miles.
“ But farther, it is not only when projedtiles move
'with thefe very great velocities, that their flight fen-
fibly varies from the curve of a parabola ; the fame
aberration often takes place in fuch as move flow e-
nough to have their motion traced out by the eye :
for there are few projectiles that can be thus exami¬
ned, which do not vitibly difagree with the firft, fe-
cond, and third poftulate ; obvioufly defcending thro’
a curve, which is fhorter and lefs inclined to the ho¬
rizon than that in which they afcended. Alfo the
higheft point of their flight, or the vertex of the
curve, is much nearer the place where they fall to the
ground than to that from whence they were at firft
difcharged.
“ I have found too by experience; that the fifth,
fixth, and feventh poftulates are exceffively erroneous,
when applied to the motions of bullets moving with
fmall velocities. A leaden bullet4 of an inch in dia¬
meter, difcharged with a velocity of about 400 feet
in a fecond, and in an angle of 190 5' with the ho¬
rizon, ranged on the horizontal plane no more than
448 yards: whereas its greateft horizontal range, being
found by the fifth poftulate, to be atleaft 1700 yards,
the range at 190 5' ought by the fixth poftulate to
have been 1050 yards; whence, in this experiment,
the range was not \ of what it muft have been, had
tip the commonly received theory been true.”
Rotatory From this and other experiments it is clearly
Provec^» t^iat t^ie track defcribed by the flight even of
great fource t^ie heavieft (hot, is neither a parabola, nor approach-
of deflec- ing to a parabola, except when they are proje&ed with
tion. very fmall velocities. The nature of the curve really
defcribed by them is explained under the article Pro¬
jectiles. But as a fpecimen of the great compli¬
cation of that fubjedl, we (hall here infert an account
of a very extraordinary circumftance which frequently
takes place therein.
“ As gravity adts perpendicularly to the horizon,
it is evident, that if no other power but gravity de-
fledfed a projedfed body from its courfe, its motion
would be conftantly performed in a plane perpendi¬
cular to the horizon, palling through the line of its
original diredlion : but we have found, that the body
in its motion often deviates from this plane ; fome-
times to the right hand, and at other times to the
left ; and this in an incurvated line, which is convex
towards that plane : fo that the motion of a bullet is
frequently in a line having a double curvature, it be¬
ing bent towards the horizon by the force of gravi¬
ty, and again bent out of its original diredlion to
the right or left by fome other force: in this cafe no
part of the motion of the bullet is performed in the
fame plane, but its track will lie in the furface of a
kind of cylinder, whofe axis is perpendicular to the
horizon.
“ This propofition may be indifputably proved by
the experience of every one in the leaft converfant
with the practice of gunnery. The fame piece which
will carry its bullet within an inch of the intended
mark at 10 yards diftance, cannot be relied on to
to inches in too yards, much lefs to 30 inches in
300 yards. Now this inequality can only arife from Theory.
the traft of the bullet being incurvated fideways as well ‘
as downwards: for by this means the diftance between
that incurvated line and the line of direction will in-
creafe in a much greater ratio than that of the di¬
ftance; thefe lines being coincident at the mouth of
the piece, and afterwards feparating in the manner of
a curve and its tangent, if the mouth of the piece be con-
(idered as the point of contaft.—To put this matter
out of all doubt, however, I took a barrel carrying a
ball ^ of an inch diameter, and fixing it on a heavy
carriage, I fatisfied myfelf of the fteadinefs and truth
of its dire&ion, by firing at a board 14- feet fquare,
which was placed at 180 feet diftance ; for I found,
that in 16 fucceflive (hot I miffed the mark but once.
Now, the fame barrel being fixed on the fame carriage,
and fired with a fmaller quantity of powder, fo that
the (hock on the difeharge would be much lefs, and
confequently the dire&ion lefs changed, I found,, that
at 760 yards diftance, the ball flew fometimes 100
yards to the right of the line it was pointed on, and
fometimes as much to the left. I found too, that
its diredtion in the perpendicular line was not lefs un¬
certain, it falling one time above 200 yards (hort of
what it did at another; although, by the niceft exami¬
nation of the piece after the difeharge, it did not ap¬
pear to have ftarted in the leaft from the pofition it
was placed in.
“ The reality of this doubly curvated traft being
thus demonftrated, it may perhaps be afked. What can
be the caufe of a motion fo different from what has been
hitherto fuppofed ? And to this I anfwer, that the
defledtion in queftion muft be owing to fome power
afting obliquely to the progreflive motion of the bo¬
dy ; which power can be no other than the refiftance
of the air. If it be farther afleed, How the refiftance
of the air can ever come to be oblique to the progref-
five motion of the body ? I farther reply, that it may
fometimes arife from inequalities in the refilled fur-
face ; but that its general caufe isdoubtlefs a whirling
motion acquired by the bullet about its axis: for by
this motion of rotation, combined with the progref-
five motion, each part of the bullet’s furface will ftrike
the air very differently from what it would do if there
was no fuch whirl; and the obliquity of the adtion of
the air arifing from this caufe, will be greater as the
motion of the bullet is greater in proportion to its pro¬
greflive one.
“ This whirling motion undoubtedly arifes from the
fridlion of the bullet againft the fides of the piece:
and as the rotatory motion will in fome part of its re¬
volution confpire with the progreflive one, and in ano¬
ther part be equally oppofed to it; the refiftance of
the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby
affedled, and will be increafed in that part where the
whirling motion confpires with the progrefiive one, and
diminKhed where it is oppofed to it: and by this
means, the whole effort of the refiftance, inftead of
being oppofite to the dircdlion of the body, will
become oblique thereto, and will produce thofe ef-
fedls already mentioned. If it was pofiible to pre-
didt the pofition of the axis round -which the bul¬
let (liould whir!, and if that axis was unchangeable
during the whole flight of the bullet, then the aber¬
ration of the bullet by this oblique force would be in
a
Sea. II. GUNNERY.
Theory, a given dire&ion ; and the incurvation produced there- turns,jwhat time is taken up by one revolution of the ’
' by, would regularly extend the fame way from one body P: then taking off the body P and the weight'
end of its track to the other. For inftance, if the M, let it be examined what fmaller weight will make
axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon, the arm GH revolve in the fame time as when P was
then the incurvation would be to the right or left. If fixed to it: this fmaller weight being taken from M,
that axis was horizontal, and perpendicular to the di- the remainder is obvioufly equal in effort to the refifl-
reftitm of the bullet, then the incurvation would be ance of the revolving body P ; and this remainder be-
upwards or downwards. But as the fiifl pofition of ing reduced in the ratio of the length of the arm to
this axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually fhift the femidiameter of the barrel, will then become equal
in the courfe of the bullet’s flight; the deviation of to the abfolute quantity of the refiftance. And as the
the bullet is not neceflarily either in one certain di- time of one revolution is known, and confequently the
region, or tending to the fame fide in one part of its velocity of the revolving body, there is hereby difco-
track that it does in another, but more ufually is con- vered the abfolute quantity of the refiftance to the gi-
tinually changing the tendency of its defleftion, as the ven body P moving with a given degree of celerity,
axis round which it whirls muft frequently fhift its “ Here, to avoid all obje&ions, I have generally
pofition to the progreffive motion by many inevitable chofe, when the body P was removed, to fix in its
accidents. ftead a thin piece of lead of the fame weight, placed
“ That a bullet generally acquires fuch a rotatory horizontally ; fo that the weight which was to turn
motion, as here defcribed, is, I think, demonftrable ; round the arm GH, without the body P, did alfocar-
however, to leave no room for doubt or difpute, I ry round this piece of lead. But mathematicians will
confirmed it, as well as fome other parts of my theory, eafily allow that there was no neceffity for this precau-
by the following experiments. tion.—The diameter of the barrel BCDE, and of the
“ I caufed the machine to be made, reprefented, filk firing wound round it, was 2.06 inches. The
Plate CXLII. fig. 7. BCDE, is a brafs-barrel, moveable length of the arm GH, meafured from the axis to the
on its axis, andfo adjufted by means of fridion-wheels, furface of the globe P, was 49.5 inches. The body
not reprefented in the figure, as to have no fri&ion P, the globe made ufe of, was of pafteboard ; its fur-
worth attending to. The frame in which this barrel face very neatly coated with marbled-paper. It was
is fixed is fo placed, that its axis may be perpendicu- not much diftant from the fize of a 12lb. fhot, being
lar to tho horizon. The axis itfelf is continued above in diameter 4.5 inches, fo that the radius of the circle
the upper plate of the frame, and has faftened on it a defcribed by the centre of the globe was 5T.75 inches,
light hollow cone, AEG. From the lower part of When this globe was fixed at the end of the arm, and
this cone, there is extended a long arm of wood, GH, a weight of half a pound was hung at the end of the
which is very thin, and cut feather-edged. At its ex- " ' ”
tremity, there is a contrivance for fixing on the body,
whofe refiftance is to be inveftigated, (as here the
globe P); and to prevent the arm GH from fwaying
out of its horizontal pofition by the weight of the an¬
nexed body P, there is a brace, AH, of fine wire,
faftened to the top of the cone which fupports the end
of the arm.
“ Round the barrel BCDE, there is wound a fine
filk line, the turns of which appear in the figure; and
after this line hath taken a fufficient number of turns,
Machine
for meafur-
ing the air’s
refinance.
firing at M, it was examined how foon the motion of
the defcending weight M, and of the revolving body
P, would become equable as to fenfe. With this view,
three revolutions being fuffered to elapfe, it was found
that the next 10 were performed in 2/'^, 20 in lefs
than 55v, and 30 in 82"4 » fo that the firft ten were per¬
formed in 27"!, the fecond in 27"^, and the third in
27"i-
“ Thefe experiments fufficiently evince, that even
with half a pound, the fmalleft weight made ufe of,
the motion of the machine was fufficiently equable af-
it is conduced’nearly in a horizontal dire&ion to the ter the firft three revolutions.
pully L over which it is palled, and then a proper
weight M is hung to its extremity. If this weight
be left at liberty, it is obvious that it will defcend by
its own gravity, and will, by its defcent, turn round
“ The globe above-mentioned being now fixed at
the end of the arm, there was hung on at M a weight
of 31:1b; and ten revolutions being fuffered to elapfe,
the fucceeding 20 were performed in 2i"4. Then the
the barrel BCDE, together with the arm GH, and globe being taken off, and a thin plate of lead, equal
the body P faftened to it. And whilft the refiftance on to it in weight, placed in its room ; it was found, that
the arm GH and on the body P is lefs than the weight inftead of 3|-lb. a weight of one pound would make
M. tW wplarhr will ncrelrrate its motion : and there, it revolve in lefs time than it did before; performing
now 20 revolutions after xo were elapfed, in the fpace
of 19".
Hence then it follows, that from the 3Jib. firft:
M, that weight will accelerate its motion ; and there¬
by the motion of GH and P will increafe, and con¬
fequently their refiftance will increafe, till at laft this
refiftance and the weight M become nearly equal to . _ ^  
each other. The motion with which M defcends, hung on, there is lefs than 1 lb. to be deducted for
and with which P revolves, will not then fenfibly dif¬
fer from an equable one. Whence, it is not difficult
to conceive, that, by proper obfervations made with
the refiftance on the arm ; and confequently the refift¬
ance on the globe itfelf is not lefs than the effort of
z^lb. in the fituation M; and it appearing from the for-
this machine, the refiftance of the body P may be de- mer meafures, that the radius of the barrel is nearly
. :„„.4 tu.- —a  0f rac|jus 0f the circle, defcribed by the centre
of tW globe ; it follows, that the abfolute refiftance
of the globe, when it revolves 20 times in 21 "4-, (a-
termined. The moft natural method of proceeding in
this inveftigation, is as follows : Let the machine firft
have acquired its equable motion, whicl) it will ufual¬
ly do in about five or fix turns from the beginning; bout 25 feet in a fecond), is not lefs than the fiftieth
and then let it be obferved, by counting a number of part of two pounds and a quarter, or of 36 ounces ;
Vol. V. 19 T and
3453
fHEOR Y.
34:" 4 G U N Is
Thcory. and this being confiderably more than half an ounce,
anj gio^g nearly the fize of a twelve-pound (hot,
it irrefragrably confirms a propofition I had formerly
laid down from theory, that the refiftance of the air
to a twelve-pound iron (hot, moving with a velocity
of 25 feet in a fecond, is not lefs than half an ounce.
“ The reft of the experiments were made, in order
to confirm another propofition, namely, that the re¬
fiftance of the air within certain limits is nearly in the
duplicate proportion of the velocity of the refifted bo¬
dy. To inveftigate this point, there were fucceffively
hung on at M, weights in the proportion of the num¬
bers 1, 4, 9, 16; and letting 10 revolutions firft e-
lapfe, the following obfervations were made on the
reft.—With 4-lb. the globe went 20 turns in 54"4»
with 2 lb. it went 20 turns in 27"i> with 44 lb. it
went 30 turns in 274-, and with 8 lb. it went 40 turns
in 274-.— Hence it appears, that to refiftances pro¬
portioned to the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, there corre-
fpond velocities of the refitted body in the proportion
of the numbers r, 2, 3, 4: which proves, with great
nicety, the propofition above-mentioned.
“ With regard to the rotatory motion, the firft ex¬
periment was to evince, that the whirling motion of a
ball combining with its progreffive motion, would pro¬
duce fuch an oblique rdfiftance and defle&ive power
as already mentioned. For this purpofe a wooden
ball of 44 inches diameter was fufpended by a double
firing, about eight or nine feet long. Now, by turn¬
ing round the ball and twilling the double ftring, the
ball when left to itfelf would have a revolving motion
given it from the untwifting of the ftriiig again. And
if, when the ftring was twilled, the ball was drawn
to a confiderable dillance from the perpendicular, and
there let go; it would at firft, before it had acquired
its revolving motion, vibrate fteadily enough in the
fame vertical plane in which it firft began to move :
but when, by the untwifting of the ftring, it had ac¬
quired a fufficient degree of its whirling motion, it
conllantly defledted to the right or left of its firft
track ; and fometimes proceeded fo far as to have its
diredlion at right angles to that in which it began its
motion ; and this deviation was not produced by the
ftring itfelf, but appeared to be entirely owing to the
refiftance being greater on the one part of the leading
furface of the globe, than the other. For the devia¬
tion continued when the firing was totally untwifted;
and even during the time that the ftring, by the mo¬
tion the globe had received, was twilling the contrary
way. And it was always eafy to predidl before the
ball was let go, which way it would defledl, only by
confidering on which fide the whirl would be com¬
bined with the progreflive motion ; for on that fide
always the defledlive power adled, as the refiftance was
greater here than on the fide where the whirl and pro¬
greffive motion were oppofed to one another.”
Though Mr Robins confidered this experiment as
an inconteftable proof of the truth of his theory, he
undertook to give ocular demonftration of this de-
ikdlion of mulket-bullets even in the Ihort fpace of
100 yards.
“ As all projedliles,” fays he, “ in their flight, are
adled upon by the power of gravity, the defledlion of
a bullet from its primary diredlion, fuppofes that de¬
flexion to be upwards or downwards in a vertical
I E R Y. Se£t. II.
plane; becaufe, in the vertical plane, the aXion ofTheorv.
gravity is compounded and entangled with the de- 
fleXive force. And for this reafon my experiments
have been principally direXed to the examination of
that defleXion which carries the bullet to the right
or left of that plane in which it began to move. For
if it appears at any time that the bullet has fliifted
from that vertical plane in which the motion began,
this will be an inconteftable proof of what we have
advanced.—Now, by means of fcreens of exceeding
thin paper, placed parallel to each other at proper di-
ftances, this deflexion in queftion may be many ways
inveftigated. For by firing bullets which (hall tra-
verfe thefe' fcreens, the flight of the bullet may be
traced ; and it may eafily appear whether they do or
do not keep invariably to one vertical plane. This
examination may proceed on three different principles,
which I fliall here feparately explain.
“ For firft, an exaXly vertical plane may be traced
out upon all thefe fcreens, by which the deviation of
any Angle bullet may be more readily inveftigated,
only by meafuring the horizontal diftance of its trace
from the vertical plane thus delineated ; and by this
means the abfolute quantity of its aberration may be
known. Or if the defeription of fuch a vertical plane
(hould be efteemed a matter of difficulty and nicety,
a fecond method may be followed ; which is that of
retting the piece in fume fixed notch or focket, fothat
though the piece may have fome little play to the
right and left, yet all the lines in which the bullet
can be direXed (hall interfeX each other in the centre
of that fixed focket : by this means, if two different
(hot are fired from the piece thus fituated, the horU
zontal diftances made by the two bullets on any two
fcreens ought to be in the fame proportion to each
other as the refpedtive diftances of the fcreens from
the focket in which the piece was laid. And if thefe
horizontal diftances differ from that proportion, then
it is certain that one of the (hot at lead hath deviated
from a vertical plane, although the abfolute quantity
of that deviation cannot hfnee be affigned ; becaufe
it cannot be known what part of it is to be imputed
to one bullet, and what to the other.
“ But if the conftant and invariable pofition of the
notch or focket in which the piece was placed, be
thought too hard an hypothefis in this very nice affair
the third method, and which is the fimpleft of all,
requires no more than that two (hot be fired through
three fcreens without any regard to the pofition of the
piece each time: for in this cafe, if the (hots diverge
from each other, and both keep to a vertical plane,
then if the horizontal dillanees of their traces on the
firft fereen be taken from the like horizontal diftances
on the fecond and third, the two remainders wifi be
in the fame proportion with the diftances of the fe¬
cond and third fereen from the firft. And if they
are not in this proportion, then it will be certain that
one of them at lead hath been defleXed from the
vertical plane; though here, as in the laft cafe, the
quantity of that deflexion in each will not be known.
“ All thefe three methods I have myfelf made ufe Renuirk-
of at different times, and have ever found'the fuccefs able devia-
agreeable to my expeXation. But the mod eligible tioils of
method feemed to be a compound of the two laft.
The apparatus was as follows.—Two fcreens were anil
fet.
Sea.
Theory
IT. GUN
• fet up in the large walk in the charter-houfe garden;
the firft of them at 250 feet diftance from the wall,
which was to ferve for a third fcreen; and the fecond
200 feet from the fame wall. At 50 feet before the
firlt fcreen, or at 300 feet from the wall, there .was
placed a large block weighing about 200 lb. weight,
and having fixed into it an iron bar with a focket at
its extremity, in which the piece was to beiaid. The
piece itfelf was of a common length, and bored for
an ounce ball. It was each time loaded with a ball
of 17 to the pound; fo that the wipdage was extreme¬
ly finall, and with a quarter of an ounce of good
powder. The fcreens were made of the thinneft iffue
paperj and the refiftance they gave to the bullet,
(and confequently their probability of defle&ing it)
was fo fmall, that a bullet lighting one time near the
extremity of one of the fcreens, left a fine thin frag¬
ment of it towards the edge entire, which was fo
very weak that it was difficult to handle it without
breaking. Thefe things ;thus prepared, five (hot
yvere made with the piece refted in the notch above-
mentioned ; and the horizontal diftances between
the firft (hot, which was taken as a ftandard, and the
four fucceeding ones, both on the firft and fecond
fcreen and on the wall, meafured in inches, were as
follows:
1 ft Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
1 to 2 1,75 R. 3,15 R. 16,7 R.
3 10 L. 15,6 L. 69,25 L.
4 1^,25 L. 4,5 L. 15,0 L.
5 2,15 L. 5,1 L. 19,0 L.
“ Here the letters R and L denote that thefhotin
queftion went either to the right or left of the firft.
“ If the poiition of the focket in w’hich the piece
was placed be fuppofed fixed, then the horizontal di¬
ftances meafured above on the firft and fecond fcreen,
and on the wall, ought to be in proportion to the di¬
ftances of the firft fcreen, the fecond fcreen, and the
wall from the focket. But by only looking over thefe
mumbers, it appears, that none of them are in that pro¬
portion ; the horizontal diftance of-the firft and third,
for inftance, on the wall being above nine inches more
than it fliould be by this analogy.
“ If, without fuppofing the invariable pofition of
the focket, we examine the comparative horizontal di¬
ftances according to the third method deferibed above,
we (hall in this cafe difeover divarications (till more ex¬
traordinary ; for, by the numbers fet down, it appears,
that the horizontal diftances of the fecond and third
fliot on the two fcreens, and on the wall, are as under.
1 ft Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
1 f-75 . 18.75 . 83.95
Here, if, according to the rule given above, the di¬
ftance on the firft fcreen be taken from the diftances on
the other two, the remainder will be 7, and 74.2 : and
thefe numbers, if each (hot kept to a vertical plane,
ought to be in the proportion of 1 to 5; that being
the proportion of the diftances of the fecond fcreen
and of the wall from the firft : but the laft number
74.2 exceeds what it ought to be by this analogy by
-39.2 ; fo that between them there is a deviation from
the vertical plane of above 39 inches, and this too in
a tranfit of little more than 80 yards.
“ But farther, to (hew that thefe irregularities do
aot depend on any accidental circumftance of the balls
N E R Y. 3455
fitting or not fitting the piece, there were five (hotsTHEORY.
more made with the fame quantity of powder as be-
fore ; but with fmaller bullets, which ran much loofer
in the piece. And the horizontal diftances being
meafured in inches from the trace of the firft bullet to
each of the fucceeding ones, the numbers were as under.
1 ft Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
1 to 2 15.6 R. 31.1 R. 94 0 R.
3 6.4 L. 12.75 L. 23.0 L.
4 4.7 R. 8.5 R. 15.5 R.
5 12.6 R. 24.0 R. 63.5 R.
Here, again, on the fuppofed fixed pofition of the
piece, the horizontal diftance on the wall between the
firft and third will be found above 15 inches lefs than
it (hould be if each kept to a vertical plane ; and like
irregularities, though fmaller, occur in every other ex¬
periment. And if they are examined according to the
third method fet down above, and the horizontal di¬
ftances of the third and fourth, for inftance, are com¬
pared, thofe on the firft and fecond fcreen, and on the
wall, appear to be thus,
ill Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
it.i. _ 21.25. 38.5.
And if the horizontal diftance on the firft fcreen bo
taken from the other two, the remainders will be
10.15, and 27.4; where the lead of them, inftead of
being five times the firft, as it ought to be, is 23.35
(hort of it; fo that here is a deviation of 23 inches.
“ From all thefe experiments, the defledion in que¬
ftion feems to be inconteftably evinced. But to give
fome farther light to this fubjedl, I took a barrel of
the fame bore with that hitherto ufed; and bent it at
about three or four inches from its muzzle to the left,
the bend making an angle of three or four degrees with
the axis of the piece. This piece thus bent was fired
with a loofe ball, and the fame quantity of powder
hitherto ufed, the fcreens of the laft experiment being
dill continued. It was natural to expefl, that if this
piece was pointed by the general dire&idn of its axis,
the ball would be canted to the left of that dire&ion
by the bend near its mouth. But as the bullet, in
palling through that bent part, would, as I conceived,
be forced to roll upon the right-hand fide of the bar¬
rel, and thereby its left fide would turn up againft the
air, and would increafe the refiftance on that fide; I
predicted to the company then prefent, that if the
axis, on which the bullet whirled, did not drift its po¬
fition after it was feparated from the piece ; then, not-
withftanding the bend of the piece to the left, the bul¬
let itfelf might be expe&ed to incurvate towards the
right; and this, upon trial, did moft remarkably hap¬
pen. For, one of the bullets fired from this bent piece,
palfed through the firft fcreen about 1-^ inch diftant
from the trace of one of the (hot fired from the ftraight
piece in the laft fet of experiments. On the fecond
fcreen, the traces of the fame bullets wvere'about three
inches diftant; the bullet from the crooked piece paf-
fing on both fcreens to the left of the other : but, com¬
paring the places of thefc bullets on the wall, it ap¬
peared, that the bullet from the crooked piece, though
it diverged from the track on the two fcreens, had now
crofted that track, and was defle&ed confiderably to
the right of it; fo that it waa^obvious, that though,
the bullet from the crooked piece might firft be canted
to the left, and had diverged from the track of the
19 ^ 2 othe*
3456
GUNNERY.
Sed. n.
Theory, othtr bullet with which it was compared, yet by de-
grees it deviated again to the right, and a little be¬
yond the fecond fcreen crofled that track from which
it before diverged, and on the wall was defle&ed 14
inches, as I remember, on the contrary fide. And
this experiment is not only the moft convincing proof
of the reality of this defleftion here contended for; but
is likewife the ftrongeft confirmation that it is brought
about in the very manner and by the very circum-
ftances which we have all along defcribed.
“ I have only now to add, that as I fufpe&ed the
eonfideration of the revolving motion of the bullet,
compounded with its progreffive one, might be confi-
dered as a fubjedt of mathematical fpeculation, and
that the reality of any defle&ing force thence arifing
might perhaps be denied by fome computifts upon the
principles hitherto received of the adtion of fluids ; I
thought proper to annex a few experiments, with a
view of evincing the' ftrange deficiency of all theories
of this fort hitherto eftablilhed, and the unexpefted
and wonderful varieties which occur in thefe matters:
The propofition which I advanced for this purpofe be¬
ing, That two equal furfaces meeting the air with the
fame degree of obliquity, may be fo differently refill¬
ed, that though in one of them the refillance is lefs
than that of a perpendicular furface meeting the fame
quantity of air, yet in another it fliall be confiderably
3» greater.
Strange ^ a T0 make out this propofition, 1 made ufe of the
the refill-111 mac^*ne already defcribed: and having prepared a
anee of the pafteboard pyramid, whofe bafe was four inches fquare,
air. and whofe planes made angles of 450 with the plane of
its bafe ; and alfo a parallellogram four inches in
breadth, and y-J- in length, which was equal to the fur-
face of the pyramid, the globe P was taken off from
the machine, and the pyramid was firfl fixed on ; and
2 lb. being hung at M, and the pyramid fo fitted as to
^ move with its vertex forwards, it performed 20 revo¬
lutions after the firft ten were elapfed, in 33". Then
the pyramid being turned, fo that its bafe, which was
a plane of four inches fquare, went foremoft, it now
performed 20 revolutions with the fame weight in
38'g:.—After this, taking off the pyramid, and fixing
on the parallellogram with its longer fide perpendicu¬
lar to the arm, and placing its furface in an angle of
450 with the horizon by a quadrant, the parallello¬
gram, with the fame weight, performed 20 revolutions
in 43 "t*
“ Now here this parallellogram and the furface of
the pyramid are equal to each other, and each of them
met the air in an angle of 450; and yet one of them
made 20 revolutions in 33", whilft the other took up
43!-. And at the fame time it appears, that a flat
fnrface, fuch as the bafe of a pyramid, which meets
the fame quantity of air perpendicularly, makes 20 re¬
volutions in which is the medium between the
other two.
“ But to give another, and ftill more Ample, proof
of this principle; there was taken a parallellogram
four inches broad, and 8J long. This being fixed at the
end of the arm, with its long fide perpendicular there¬
to, and being placed in an angle of 450 with the ho¬
rizon, there was a weight hung on at M of 3^ lb. with
which the parallellogram made 20 revolutions in 40"^.
But after this, the poiition of the parallellogram was
Ihifted, and it was placed with its fhorter fide perpen- Theory.
dicular to the arm, though its furface was ftill inclined ~~
to an angle of 450 with the horizon; and now, inftead
of going flower, as might be expe&ed from the greater
extent of part of its furface from the axis of the ma¬
chine, it went round much fafter: for in this laft fi-
tuation it made 20 revolutions in 35"^, fo that there
were 5" difference in the time of 20 revolutions ; and
this from no other change of circimiftance than as the
larger or fhorter fide of the oblique plane was perpen¬
dicular to the line of its direftion.” 33
Thefe are the principal experiments made by Mr w,iy tlie
Robins, in confirmation of his theory, and which hot
only far exceed everything that had been formerly done, become -
but even bid fair for advancing the art of gunnery to its perfect.
ne plus ultra. It muft be obferved, however, that in
this art it is impoflible we fhould ever arrive at abfolutc
perfe&Ion; that is, it can never be expected that a gun¬
ner, by any method of calculation whatever, could be
enabled to point his guns in fuch a manner, that the
fhoc would hit the mark if placed any where within its
range. Aberrations which can by no means be either
forefeen or prevented, will take place from a great
number of different caufes. A variation in the denfi-
ty of the atmofphere, in the dampnefs of the powder,
or in the figure of the (hot, will caufe variations in the
range of the bullet, which cannot by any means be re¬
duced to rules, and confequently muft render the event
of each fhot very precarious. The refiftance of the at¬
mofphere fimply confidered, without any of thofe ano¬
malies arifing from its denfity at different times, is a
problem, which, notwithftanding the labours of Mr Ro¬
bins and others, hath not been completely folved :
and indeed, if we confider the matter in a phyfical
light, we fliall find, that without fome other data than
thofe which are yet obtained, an exaft folution of it
is impoffible. 34
It is an obje&km that hath been made to the mathe- air
matical philofophy, and to which in many cafes it is;'ga^°,gj
moft certainly liable, that it confiders the rejijlance of as well as a
matter more than its capacity of giving motion to o- refitting
ther matter. Hence, if in any cafe matter a£ts both one*
as a refilling and a moving power, and the mathemati¬
cian overlooks its effort towards motion, founding his
demonftrations only upon its property of refilling,
thefe demonftrations will certainly be falfe, tho’ they
fhould be fupported by all the powers of geometry. It
is to an error of this kind that we are to attribute the
great differences already taken notice of between the
calculations of Sir Ifaac Newton, with regard to the
refilling force of fluids, and what actually takes place
upon trial. Thefe calculations were made upon the
fuppofition that the fluid through which a body moved
could do nothing elfe but refill it; yet it is certain, that
the air (the fluid with which we have to do at prefent)
proves a fource of motion, as well as refiftance, to all bo¬
dies which move in it.
To underlland this matter fully, let ABC reprefent
a crooked tube made of any folid matter, and a, b, two ^ g
piltons which exaftly fill the cavity. If the fpace be¬
tween thefe piftons is full of air, it is plain they cannot
come into contafl with each other on account of the
elallicity of the included air, but will remain at fome
certain diftance as reprefented in the figure. If thepi-
fton b is drawn up, the air which preffes in the direc¬
tion
Sea. ii. gun:
Theory, tion Cb afls as a refifting power, and the pifton will
* not be drawn up with fuch eafe as if the whole was in
vacuo. But though the column of air preffing in the
direftion Qb a£ts as a refilling power on the pifton b,
the column prefling in the direAion Aa will act as a
moving power upon the pifton a. It is therefore plain,
that if b is moved upwards till it comes to the place
marked d, the other will defcend to that marked c.
Now if we fuppofe the pifton a to be removed, it is
plain, that when b is pulled upwards tod, the air de-
fcending through the leg A«CB will prefs on the under
fide of the pifton b, as ftrongly as it would have done
upon the upper fide of the pifton a, had it been pre-
fent. Therefore, though the air prefling down thro’
the leg CB refills the motion of -the pifton b when
drawn upwards, the air prefling down through the leg
AB forwards it as much ; and accordingly the pifton
b may be drawn up or pufhed down at pleafure, and
with very little trouble. But if the orifice at A is
flopped, fo that the air can only exert its refilling
power on the pifton b, it will require a confiderable de¬
gree of ftrength to move the pifton from b to d.
If now we fuppofe the tube to be entirely removed
(which indeed anfwers no other purpofe than to ren¬
der the action of the air more evident), it is plain, that
if the pifton is moved either up or down, or in any o-
ther direction we can imagine, the air prefles as much
upon the back part of it, as it refills it on the fore
part; and of confequence, a ball moving through the
air with any degree of velocity, ought to be as much
accelerated by the aftion of the air behind, as it is re-,
tarded by the adlion of that before.—Here then it is
natural to alk, If the air accelerates a moving body as
much as it retards it, how comes it to make any re¬
finance at all ? yet certain it is, that this fluid doth
refill, and that very confiderably. To this it may be
anfwered, that the air is always kept in fome certain
ftate or conftitution by another power which rules all
its motions, and it is this power undoubtedly which
gives the refiftance. It is not to our purpofe at pre-
fent to inquire what that power is ; but we fee that
the air is often in very different Hates : one day, for
inftance, its parts are violently agitated by a llorm ;
and another, perhaps, they are comparatively at reft
in a calm. In the firll cafe, nobody hefitates to own,
that the ftorm is occafioned by fome caufe or other,
which violently refills any other power that would pre¬
vent the agitation of the air. In a calm, the cafe is the
fame ; for it would require the fame exertion of power
to excite a temped in a calm day, as to allay a tempeft
in a flormy one. Now it is evident, that all projedliles,
by their motion, agitate the atmofphere in an unnatu¬
ral manner; and confequently are refilled by that pow¬
er, whatever it is, which tends to reftore the equilibr
rium, or bring back the atmofphere to its former ftate.
If no other power befides that above-mentioned ac¬
ted upon projedliles, it is probable, that all refiftance
to their motion would be in the duplicate proportion
of their velocities; and accordingly, as long as the ve¬
locity is final]; we find it generally is fo. But when
the velocity comes to be exceedingly great, other foun-
ees of refiftance arife. One of thefe, is a fubtradlion
of part of the moving power ; which though not pro¬
perly a rejifiance, or oppofing another power to it, is
an equivalent thereto. This, fubtradion arifes from
E R Y. 3457
the following caufe. The air, as we have already cb- Theory-
ferved, prefi'es upon the hinder part of the moving bo-  
dy by its gravity, as much as it refills the forepart
of it by the fame property. Neverthelefs, the velocity
with which the air preffes upon anybody by means of
its gravity, is limited; and it is poflible that a body
may change its place with fo great velocity that the
airftiath not time to rulh in upon the back part of it,
in order to aflill its progreflive motion. When this
happens to be the cafe, there is in the firft place a de¬
ficiency of the moving power equivalent to 15 pounds
on every fquare inch of furface ; at the fame time that
there is a pofitive refiftance of as much more on the
forepart, owing to the gravity of the atmofphere,
which mull be overcome before the body can move
forward.
This deficiency of moving power, and increafe of
refiftance, do not only take place when the body moves
with a very great degree of velocity, but in all motions
whatever. It is not in all cafes perceptible, becaufe the
velocity with which the body moves, frequently bears
but a very final] proportion to the velocity with which
the air prefles in behind it. Thus, fuppofing the velo¬
city with which the air rulhes into a vacuum to be 1200
feet in a fecond, if a body moves with a velocity of 30,
40, or 50 feet in a fecond, the force with which the
air preffes on the back part is but at the utmoft lefs
than that which refills on the forepart of it, which will
not be perceptible: but if, as in the cafe of bullets,
the velocity of the projedile comes to have a confider¬
able proportion to the velocity wherewith the air rulhes
in behind it; then a very perceptible, and otherwife un¬
accountable refiftance is obferved, as we feen in the
experiments already related by Mr Robins. Thus, if
the air preffes in with a velocity of 1200 feet in a fecond,
if the body.changes its place with a velocity of 600 feet
in the fame time, there is a refiftance of 15 pounds on the
fore part, and a preffure of only 7^, on the back part.
The refillance therefore not only overcomes the moving
power of the air by 7^ pounds, but there is a deficien¬
cy of other 7^ pounds owing to the want of half the
preffure of the atmofphere on the back part, and thus
the whole lofs of the moving power is equivalent to 15
pounds ;. and hence the exceeding great increafe of re¬
fiftance obferved by Mr Robins beyond what it ought
to be according to the common computations The
velocity with which the air rulhes into a vacuum is
therefore a defideratum in gunnery. Mr Robin’s fup-
pofes that it is the fame with the velocity of found; and
that when a bullet moves with a velocity greater than
that of 1200 feet in a fecond, it leaves a perfed va¬
cuum behind it. Hence he accounts for the great in¬
creafe of refiftance'tobullets moving with fuch velocities;
but as he doth not take notice of the lofs of the air’s
moving power, the anomalies of all leffer velocities are
inexplicable on his principles. Nay, he even tell us,
that Sir Ifaac Newton’s rule for computing refinances
may be applied in all velocities lefs than 1 too or 1200
feet in a iecond, though this is exprefsly contradided
by his own experiments mentioned n °23. , 35
Though for thefe reafons it is evident how great %
difficulties mull occur in attempting to calculate the
refiftance of the air to military projediles, we have not g^ity.35
even yet difcovered all the fources of refiftance to thefe °
bodies when moving with immenfe velocities. An'o-
346°
Practice fcnbedj and perhaps fomewhat of this kind, fays Mr
Robins, tho’ not in the manner now pradtifed, would be
of all others the moft perfeft method for the conftruc-
tion of thefekinds of barrels.
From the whirling motion communicated by the
rifles, it happens, that when the piece is fired, that
indented zone of the bullet follows the fweep of the
rifles; and thereby, befides its progreflive motion, ac¬
quires a circular motion round the axis of the piece;
which circular motion will be continued to the bullet
after its reparation from the piece; and thus a bullet t
difeharged from a rifled barrel is conftantly made to
whirl round an axis which is coincident with the line
of its flight. By this whirling on its axis, the aber¬
ration of the bullet which proves fo prejudicial to all
operations in gunnery, is almoft totally prevented.
The reafon of this may be eafily underftood from con-
fidering the flow motion of an arrow through the air.
For example, if a bent arrow, with its wings not placed
in fome degree in a fpiral pofition, fo as to make it
revolve round its axis as it flies through the air, were
fliot at a mark with a true dire&ion, it would con-
fiantly deviate from it, in confequence of being
prefled to one fide by the convex part oppofing the
air obliquely. Let us now fuppofe this defle&ion in
a flight of 100 yards to be equal to to yards. Now,
if the Came bent arrow were made to revolve round its
axis once every two yards of its flight, its greateft de¬
viation would take place when it had proceeded only
one yard, or made half a revolution; fince at the end
of the next half revolution it would again return to
the fame dire&ion it had at firft; the convex fide of
the arrow having been once in oppofite pofitions. In
this manner it would proceed during the whole courfe
of its flight, conftantly returning to the true path at
the end of every two yards; and when it reached the
irfark, the greateft defleftion to either fide that could
happen would be equal to what it makes in proceed¬
ing one yard, equal tc^-i4^th part of the former, or
3.6 inches, a very fmall deflexion when compared
with the former one. In the fame manner, a cannon¬
ball which turns not round its. axis, deviates greatly
from the true path, on account of the inequalities on
its furface; which, although fmall, caufe great devia¬
tions by reafon of the refiftanee of the air, at the fame
time that the ball acquires a motion round its axis in
fome uncertain diredlion occafioned by the fridfion
againft its fides. But by the motion acquired from
the rifles, the error is perpetually corredied in the
manner juft now deferibed; and accordingly fuch
pieces are much more to be depended on, and will
do execution at a much greater diftance, than the
others.
The reafons commonly alleged for the fuperiority
of rifle-barrels over common ones, are, either that the
inflammation of the powder is greater, by the refifi¬
ance which the bullet makes by being thus forced into
the barrel, and that hereby it receives a much greater
impulfe ; or that the bullet by the compounding of
its circular and revolving motions, did as it were bore
the air, and thereby flew to a much greater diftance
than it would'otherwife have have done; or that by
the fame boring motion it made its way through all
folic! fubftances, and penetrated into them much deeper
than when fired in the common manner. But Mr
Robins hath proved thefe reafons to be altogether
Se&. III.
errpneous, by a great number of experiments made Practic
with rifle-barrelled pieces. “In thefe experiments,” fays
he, “ I have found that the velocity of the bullet fired
from a rifled barrel was ufually lefs than that of the
bullet fired from a common piece with the fame pro¬
portion of powder. Indeed it is but reafonable to
expe& that this fliould be the cafe ; for if the rifles
are very deep, and the bullet is large enough to fill
them up, the fridtion bears a very confiderable pro¬
portion to the effort of the powder. And that in this
cafe the fri&ion is of confequence enough to have its .
effedts obferved, I have difeovered by the continued
ufe of the fame barrel. For the metal of the barrel
being foft, and wearing away apace, its bore by half
a year’s ufe wasconfiderably enlarged, and confequent-
ly the depth of its rifles diminiftied ; and then I found
that the fame quantity of powder would give to the
bullet a velocity near a tenth part greater than what
it had done at firft. And as the velocity of the bul¬
let is not inoreafed by the ufe of rifled barrels, fo nei¬
ther is the diftance to wdiieh it flies, nor the depth of
its penetration into folid fubftances. Indeed thefe two
laft fuppofitions feem at firft fight too chimerical to
deferve a formafl confutation. But I cannot help ob-
ferving that thofe who have been habituated to the
ufe of rifled pieces are very excufable in giving way to
thefe prepofleflions. For they conftantly found, that
with them they could.fire at a mark with tolerable
fuccefs, though it were placed at three or four times
the diftance to which the ordinary pieces were fup-
pofed to reach. And therefore, as they were ignoiant
of the true caufe of this variety, and did not know
that it arofe only from preventing the defle&ion of the
ball; it was not unnatural for them to imagine that
the fuperiority of effeft in the rifled piece was owing
either to a more violent impulfe at firft, or to a more
eafy pafiage through the air.
“ In order to confirm the foregoing theory of rifle-
barrelled pieces, I made fome experiments by which
it might be feen whether one fide of the ball difeharged
from them uniformly keeps foremoft during the whole
courfe. To examine this particular, I took a rifled
barrel carrying a bullet of fix to the pound ; but in-
ftead of its leaden bullet I ufed a wooden one of the
fame fize, made of a foft fpringy wood, which bent
itfelf eafily into the rifles without breaking. And fi¬
ring the piece thus loaded againft a wall at fuch a di¬
ftance as the bullet might not be ftiivered by the blow,
I always found, that the fame furface which lay fore¬
moft in the piece continued foremoft without any fen-
fible deflexion during the time of its flight. And this
w>as eafily to be obferved, by examining the bullet;
as both the marks of the rifles, and the part that im¬
pinged on the wall, were fufficiently apparent. Now,
as thefe wooden bullets were but the i6th part of the
weight of the leaden ones; I conclude, that if there
had been any unequal refiftance or defle&ive power,
its effects muft have been extremely fenfible upon this
light body, and confequently in fome of the trials
I made the furface which came foremoft from the
piece muft have been turned round into another fuu-
ation.
“ But again, I took the fame piece, and, loading it
now with a leaden ball, I fet it nearly upright, Hoping it
only three or four degrees from the perpendicular in the
direction of the wind; and firing it in this lituation, the
bullet
GUNNERY.
Sea. III.
Pr act i eg buJlet generally continued about half a minute in the air,
it rifing by computation to near three quarters of a mile
perpendicular height. In thefe trials I found that the
bullet commonly came to the ground to the leeward
of the piece, and at fuch a diftance from it, as nearly
correfpomled to the angle of its inclination, and to the
effort of the wind; it ufually falling not nearer to the
piece than loo, nor farther from it than 150, yards.
And this is a ftrong confirmation of the almoft fteady
flight of this bullet, for about a mile and a half: for
were the fame trial made with a common piece, I
doubt not but the deviation would often amount to
half a mile, or. perhaps confiderably more; though
this experiment would be a very difficult one to exa¬
mine, on account of the little chance there would be
37 of difeovering where the ball fell,
fealls from << It muft be obferved, however, that though the
rifled pieces ijU]]et impelled from a rifle-barrelled piece keeps for a
length de- t'me t0 ‘ls regu'ar track with fufficient nicety ; yet if
vbte from its flight be fo far extended that the track becomes
their true confiderably incurvatcd, it will then undergo confi-
courfe. derable defleftions. This, according to my expe¬
riments, arifes from the angle at lail made by the
axis on which the bullet turns, and the dire&ion in
which it flies: for that axis continuing nearly parallel
_ *».r.Ac it. .fi- rr.... 11 r   ... T—11 r-io />£*
GUNNERY. • 3461
itfelf in different trials, than when fired from a com- Practice
mon piece.—This, as I conceive, is owing to the great ~
quantity of fri&ion, and’the impoffibility of rendering
it equal in each experiment. Indeed, if the rifles are
not deeply cut, and if the bullet is nicely fitted to the
piece, fo as not to require a great force to drive it
down, and if leather or fuftain well greafed is made
ufe of bet ween the bullet and barrel, perhaps, by a
careful attention to all thefe particulars, great part of
the inequality in the velocity of the bullet may be pre¬
vented, and the difficulty in queflion be in fome mea-
fure obviated : blit, till this be done, it cannot be
doubted, that the range of the fame piece, at an
elevation, will vary confiderably in every trial; al¬
though the charge be each time the fame. And this
I have myfelf experienced, in a number of diverfified
trials, with a rifle-barrelled piece loaded at the breech
in the Englifh manner. For here the rifles being in¬
dented very deep, and the bullet fo large as to fill them
up completely ; I found, that though it flew with fuf¬
ficient exa&nefs to the diftance of four orfive hundred
yards; yet, when it was raifed to an angle of about 12
degrees, (at which angle, being fired with one-fifth of
its weight in powder, its medium range is nearly 1000
yards}; in this cafe, I fay, I found that its range
to itfelf, it muft neceffarily diverge from the line of was variable, although the greateft care was taken to
the flight of the bullet, when that line is bent from
its original direction; and when it once happens that
the bullet whirls on an axis which no longer coincides
with the line of its flight, then the unequal refiftance
formerly deferibed will take place, and the defletting
power hence arifing will perpetually increafe as the
track of the bullet by having its range extended be¬
comes more and more incurvated.— This matter I have
experienced in a fmall rifle-barrelled piece, carrying a
leaden ball of near half an ounce weight. For this
piece, charged with one drachm of powder, ranged
about 550 yards at an angle of 12 degrees with fuffi-
•cient regularity; but being afterwards elevated to an
angle of 24 degrees, it then ranged very irregularly,
generally deviating from the line of its dire&ion to the
left, and in one cafe not lefs than too yards. This
apparently arofe from the caufe above-mentioned, as
was confirmed from the conftant deviation of the bullet
to the left; for by confidering how the revolving mo¬
tion was continued with the progrtffive one, it ap¬
peared that a deviation that way was to be expe&ed.
“ The heft remedy I can think of for this defeft, is
the making ufe of bullets of an egg-like form inftead
of fpherical ones. For if fuch a bullet hath its fhorter
axis made to fit the piece, and it be placed in the bar¬
rel with its fmaller end downwards ; then it will ac¬
quire by the rifles a rotation round its larger axis; and
its centre of gravity lying nearer to its fore than its
hinder part, its longer axis will be conftantly forced
by the refiftance of the air into the line of its flight;
as we fee, that by the fame means arrows conftantly
lie in the line of their dire&ion, however that line be
incurvated.
“ But, befides this, there is another circumftance
in the ufe of thefe pieces, which renders the flight of
their bullets uncertain when fired at a confiderable
elevation. For I find by my experiments, that the
velocity of a bullet fired with the fame quantity of
powder from a rifled barrel, varies much more from
Vol. V.
prevent any inequalities in the quantity of powder, or
in the manner of charging. And as, in this cafe, the
angle was too fiflall for the firft-mentioned irregularity
to produce the obferved effefts; they can only be im¬
puted to the different velocities which the bullet each
time received by the unequal action of the fri&ion.”
Thus we fee, that it is-in a manner impoflible en¬
tirely to correct the aberrations arifing from the re¬
fiftance of the atmofphere; as even the rifle-barrelled
pieces cannot be depended upon for more than one
half of their a&ual rang: at any confiderable elevation.
It becomes therefore a problem very difficult of folu-
tion, to know, even within a very confiderable diftance,
how far a piece will carry its ball with any probabi¬
lity of hitting its mark, or doing any execution. The
beft rules hitherto laid down on this fubjeft, are thofe
of Mr Robins. The foundation of all his calculations,
is the velocity with which the bullet flies off from the
mouth of the piece. Mr Robins himfelf had not op¬
portunities of making many experiments on the velo¬
cities of cannon-balls, and the calculations from fmaller
ones cannot always be depended upon. In the 68th
volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr Hutton hath recited a jvrr^ut.
number of experiments made on cannon carrying balls ton’s expe-
from one to three pounds weight. His machine for riments on
difeovering the velocities of thefe balls was the fame ,^’e velocity
with that of Mr Robins, only of a larger fize. H>3 bInCs3nn0n'
charges of powder were two, four, and eight ounces;
and the refults of 15 experiments which feem to have
been the moft accurate, are as follow.
Velocity with two Velocity with Velocity with
two ounces. four ounces. eight ounces.
701 feet in 1" 1068 feet in i" 1419 feet in 1"
5)3507
Mean velocities 701
19 U
Sea. nr.
3462
Pk ACT ICE
GUNNERY.
In another courfe, the mean velocities, with the fame
charges of powder, were 613, 873, 1162. “ The mean
velocities of the balls in the firft courfe of experiments,
fays Mr Hutton, with two, four, and eight ounces of
powder, are as the numbers 1, 1.414, and 1.993; ^ut
the fubduplicate ratio of the weights (two, four, and
eight) give the numbers 1, 1.414, and 2, to which the
others are fufficiently near. It is obvious, however,
that the greateft difference lies in the laft number,
which anfwers to the greateft velocity. It will ftill be
a little more in defedf if we make the allowance for the
weights of the balls ; for the mean weights of the balls
with the two and four ounces is 18^ ounces, but of
the eight ounces it is i8|-; diminifhing therefore the
number 1.993 t^le reciprocal fubduplicate ratio of
l8|- to 18^, it becomes 1.985, which falls fhort of the
number 2 by .015, or the 133d part of itfelf. A li-
railar defeft was obferved in the other courfe of expe¬
riments ; and both are owing to three evident caufes,
viz. 1. The lefs length of cylinder through which the
ball was impelled; for with the eight-ounce charge, it
lay three or four inches nearer to the muzzle of the
piece than with the others. 2. The greater quantity
of elaftic fluid which efcaped in this cafe than in the
others by the windage. This happens from its mo¬
ving with a greater velocity; in confequence of which,
a greater quantity efcapes by the vent and windage
than in fmaller velocities. 3. The greater quantity of
powder blown out unfired in this cafe than in that of
the leffer velocities; for the ball which was impelled
with the greater velocity, would be fooner out of the
piece than tire others, and the more fo as it had a lefs
length of the bore to move through; and if powder
fire in time, which cannot be denied, though indeed
that time is manifeftly very Ihort, a greater quantity of
it muft; remain unfired when the ball with the greater
velocity iflues from the piece, than when that which
has the lefs velocity goes out, and ftill the more fo as
the bulk of powder which was at firft; to be inflamed
in the one cafe fo much exceeded that in the others.
“ Let us now compare the correfponding velocities
in both cafes. In the one they are, 701, 993, 1397;
in the other, 613, 873, 1162. Now the ratio of the
firft two numbers, or the velocities with two ounces of
powder, is that of 1 to 1.1436, the ratio of the next
two is that of 1 to 1.1375, and the ratio of the laft
is that of 1 to 1.2022. But the mean weight of the
fhot for two and four ounces of powder, was aS-j-oun-
ces in the firft courfe, and 18^ in this; and for eight
ounces of powder, it was 28^ in the firft, and 18f in this.
Taking therefore the reciprocal fubduplicate ratios of
thefe weights of (hot, we obtain the ratio of 1 to 1.224
for that of theballs which were fired with two ounces ^nd
four ounces of powder, and the ratio of 1 to 1.241 for
the balls which were fired with eight ounces. But the
real ratios above found are not greatly different from
thefe; and the variation of the adluai velocities from
this law of the weights of (hot, inclines the fame way in
both courfes of experiments. We may now colledl
into one view the principal inferences that have re-
fulted from thefe experiments. *
1. “ It is evident from them, that powder fires almoft
inftantaneoufly.
2. “ The velocities communicated to balls or (hot
of the fame weight with different quantities of powder,
are nearly in the fubduplicate ratio of thefe quantities ;
a very fmall variation in defedi taking place when the
quantities of powder become great. Practice
3. “ When (hot of different weights are fired with "*
the fame quantity of powder, the velocities communi¬
cated to them are nearly in the reciprocal fubduplicate
ratio of their weights.
4. “ Shot which are of different weights, and im¬
pelled by different quantities of powder, acquire velo¬
cities which are diredtly as the fquare roots of the
quantities of powder, and inverfely as the fquare roots
of the weights of the fhot nearly.”
The velocities of the bullets being thus found as Wr Ro-
nearly as poflible, the ranges may be found by the fol-
lowing rules laid down by Mr Robins. fin-ling the
1. “ Till the velocity of theprojeftile furpaffes that ranges of
of 1100 feet in a fecond, the refiftance may be reckon- bullets,
ed to be in the duplicate proportion of the velocity,
and its mean quantity may be reckoned about half an
ounce avoirdupoife on a i2rpound fhot moving with a
velocity of about 25 or 26 feet in a fccond.
2. “ If the velocity be greater than that of 1100 or
1200 feet in a fecond, then the abfolute quantity of
the refiftance in thefe greater velocities will be near
three times as great as it fhould be by a comparifon
with the fmaller velocities.—Hence then it appears,
that if a projedfile begins to move with a velocity lefs
than that of 1100 feet in 1", its whole motion may
be fuppofed to be confidered on the hypothefis of a
refiftance in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. And
if it begins to move with a velocity greater than this
laft mentioned, yet if the firft part of its motion, till
its velocity be reduced to near 1 too feet in 1", be con¬
fidered feparately from the remaining part in which
the velocity is lefs than 1 too feet in 1" ; it is evident,
that both parts may be truly afligned on the fame
hypothefis ; only the abfolute quantity of the refift¬
ance is three times greater in the firft part than in the
laft. Wherefore, if the motion of a projedile on
the hypothefis of a refiftance in the duplicate ratio
of the velocity be truly and generally afligned, the
aftual motions of refilled bodies may be thereby
determined, notwithftanding the increafed refiftances
in the great velocities. And, to avoid the diviiion of
the motion into two, I fhall (how how to compute
the whole at one operation with little more trouble
than if no fuch increafed refiftance took place.
“ To avoid frequent circumlocutions, the diftance
to which any projedile would range in a vacuum oa
the horizontal plain at 450 of elevation, I lhall call
the potential random of that proje&ile ; the diftance
to which the projedile would range in vacuo on the
horizontal plane at any angle different from 450, I
ftiall call the potential range of the projedile at that
angle; and the diftance to which a projedile really
ranges, I fhall call its adual range.
“ If the velocity with which a projedile begins to
move is known, its potential random and its potential
range at any given angle are eafily determined from
the common theory of projediles * ; or more gene- * see Pro- 1
rally, if either its original velocity, its potential ran-jeftik. ’
dom, or its potential range, at a given angle, areknown,.
the other two are eafily found out.
“To facilitate thecomputation of refifted bodies, it in
neceffary, in the confideration of each refifted body,
to affign a certain quantity, which I lhall denominate
F, adapted to the refiftance of that particular projec¬
tile. To find this quantity F to any projedile given,,
we may proceed thus : Firft find, from the principles
we
Sea. III.
GUNNERY.
34^3
Pract
ice already delivered, with what velocity the projeflile muft
move, fo that its refiftance may be equal to its gravi¬
ty. Then the height, from whence a body muft de-
fcend in a vacuum to acquire this velocity, is the mag¬
nitude of F fought. But the concifeft way of finding
this quantity F to any (hell or bullet is this : If it be
of i'olid iron, multiply its diameter meafuredin inches
by 300, the product will be the magnitude of F ex-
preffed in yards. If, inftead of a folid iron-bullet, it
is a (hell or a bullet of fome other fubftance; then, As
the fpecific gravity of iron is to the fpecific gravity of
the (hell or bullet given, fo is the F correfponding to
an iron bullet of the fame diameter, to the proper F
for the (hell or bullet given. The quantity F being
thus afiigned, the neceffary computations of thefe re¬
lifted motions may be difpatched by the three follow¬
ing propofitions, always remembering that thefe pro-
pofnions proceed on the hypotbefis of the refiftancce
being in the duplicate proportion of the velocity of
the refilled body. How to apply this principle, when
the velocity is fo great as to have its refiftance aug¬
mented beyond this rate, (hall be (hewn in a corollary
to be annexed to the firft propofition.
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,1
0,12
0,14
0,15
0,2
0,25
o.3
0.35
0,4
o,45
o,5
o.55
0,6
0,65
o,7
o,75
0,8
0,85
0,9
o,95
1,0
1,05
prefiWlinF.
0,0100
0,0201
0,0405
0,0612
0,0822
0,1034
0,1249
0,1468
0,1578
0,2 140
0,2722
0,3324
0-3947
0,4591
0,5258
0,5949
0,6664
0,7404
0,8170
0,8964
0,9787
1,0638
l,l521
1,2436
1,4366
',5384
1,6439
*,7534
1,8669
1,5845
2,1066
2,2332
2,3646
2,5008
2,64221
2,7890)
2,94*3
3,0994
3,2635
3,4338
3,6107
3,7944
3,985*
4,*833
4,3890
4,6028
4,8249
5,0557
5,2955
5,5446
5,8036
6,6728
6,3526
6,6435
6,9460
7,2605
7,5875
7,9276
8,2813
8,6492
9,03*9
9,4300
9,8442
10,2752
10,7237
11,1904
11,6761
12,1816
12,7078
3.25
3-3
3*35
3.4
3.45
3.5
3.55
3.6
3>65
3>7
3.75
3.85
3>9
3.95
4»°
4»°5
4,1
4,*5
4>2
4.25
4.3
4,35
4.4
4.45
4.5
4.55
4.6
4>65
4.7
4.75
4.8
4.85
4.9
4.95
5,o
Correfpond¬
ing potential
13,2556
13,8258
14,4195
15,0377
15,6814
*6,35*7
17,0497
17,7768
*8,534*
19,3229
20,1446
21,0006
21,8925
22,8218
23,7901
24,7991
25,8506
26,9465
28,0887
29,2792
30,5202
31,8138
33,1625
34,5686
36,0346
37,5632
39>*57*
40,8193
42,4527
44,3605
46,2460
48,2127
50,2641
52,4040
54,6363
56,9653
“ PROP. I. Given theaftualrange of agiven (hell or Practice
bullet at any fmall angle not exceeding 8ff or io°,
to determine its potential range, and confequently its
potential random and original velocity.
“ Sol. Let the a&ual range given be divided by the
F correfponding to the given proje&ile, and find the
quote in the firft column of the preceding Table. Then
the correfponding number in the fecond column multipli¬
ed into F, will be the potential range fought; and thence,
by the methods already explained, the potential ran¬
dom and the original velocity of the prcjedtile is
given.
“ Exam. An 18 pounder, the diameter of whofe (hot
is about 5 inches, when loaded with 2lb. of powder,
ranged at an elevation of 30 30', to the diftance of
975 rards-
“The F correfponding to this bullet is 1500 yards,
and the quote of the adiual range by this number is
65 ; correfponding to which, in the fecond column, is
,817; whence, 817 F, or 1225 yards, is the potential
range fought; and this, augmented in the ratio of the
fine of twice the angle of elevation to the radius,
gives 10050 yards for the potential random ; whence
it will be found, that the velocity of this projedlile
was that of 984 feet in a fecond.
“Cor. ift. If the converfe of this propofition be de-
fired ; that is, if the potential range in a fmall angle
be given, and thence the actual range be fought; this
may be folved with the fame facility by the fame table.
For if the given potential range be divided by its cor-
refpondent F, then oppofite to the quote fought in
the fecond column, there will be found in the firft co¬
lumn a number, which multiplied into F will give the
adtual range required. And from hence it follows,
that, if the adlual range be given at one angle, it may
be found at every other angle not exceeding 8° or io°,
“ Cor. 2d. If the adtual range at a given fmall angle
be given, and another adtual range be given, to which
the angle is fought; this will be determined by find¬
ing the potential ranges correfponding to the two gi¬
ven adtual ranges ; then the angle correfponding to
one of thefe potential ranges being known, the angle
correfponding to the other will be found by the com¬
mon theory of projedtiles.
“Cor. 3d. If the potential random deduced from the
adtual range by this propofition exceeds 13000yards;
then the original velocity of the projedlile was fo great
as to be affedted by the treble refiftance deferibed a-
bove ; and confequently the real potential random will
be greater than what is here determined. However,
in this cafe, the true potential random may be thus
nearly affigned. Take a 4th continued proportional
to 13000 yards, and the potential random found by
this propofition, and the 4th proportional thus found
may be afiumed for the true-potential random fought.
In like manner, when the true potential random is gi¬
ven greater than 13000 yards, we muft take two mean
proportionals between 13000 and this random*: and • Theope-
the firft of thefe mean -proportionals muft be affumed radons di-
inftead of the random given, in every operation de-j^^Hj
feribed in thefe propofitions and their corollaries. And |Jy j°ebcft
this method will nearly allow for the increafed refift- performed
ance in large velocities, the difference only amounting by the table
to a few minutes in the angle of dire&ion of the pro- losa-
je&ed body, which, provided that angle exceeds twor,! rns,
19 U 2 or
3464 GUNNERY. Se&.IIL
Practice or three degrees, isufually fcarce worth attending to.
Of this procefs take the following example.
“A 24 pounder fired with 12 pounds ofpowder, when
elevated at 70 15', ranged about 2500 yards. Here
the F being near 1700 yards, the quote to be fought
in the firlt column is 147, to which the number cor-
refponding in the fecond column is 2,556; whence the
potential range is near 4350 yards, and the potential
random thence refulting 17400. But this being more
than 13.000, we muft, to get the true potential ran¬
dom, take a 4th continued proportional to 13000
and 17400; and this 4th proportional, which is a-
bout 31000 yards, is to be efteemed the true po¬
tential random fought; whence the velocity is nearly
that of 1730 feet in a lecond.
“ Scholium. This propofition is confined to fmall
angles, not exceeding 8° or io°. In all polfible cafes
of pra&ice, this approximation, thus limited, will not
differ from the moft rigorous folution by fo much as
what will often intervene from the variation of the den-
fity of the atmofphere in a few hours time ; fo that
the errors of the approximation are much fhort of o-
ther inevitable errors, which arife from the nature of
this fubjeft.
“ PROP. II. Given the a&ual range of a given (hell
or bullet, at any angle not exceeding 450, to deter¬
mine its potential range at the fame angle ; and thence
its potential random and original velocity.
“ Sol. Diminifli the F corrcfponding to the (hell or
bullet given in the proportion of the radius to the co¬
fine of £ of the angle of elevation. Then, by means
of the preceding table, operate with this reduced F
in the fame manner as is preferibed in the folution of
the laft propofition, and the refult wdll be the potential
range fought; w'hence the potential random, and the
original velocity, are eafily determined.
“ Exam. A mortar for fea-fervice, charged with 3otb
of powder, has fometimes thrown its fhell, of 12^
inches diameter, and of 231 lb. weight, to the diftance
ef 2 miles, or 5450 yards. This at an elevation of 450.
“ The F to this fhell, if it were folid, is 3825 yards ;
but as the fhell is only of a folid globe, the true F
is no more than 3060 yards. This, diminifhed in the
ratio of the radius to the cofine of of the angle of
elevation, becomes 2544. The quote of the poten¬
tial range by this diminifhed F is 1,384 ; which fought
in the firft column of the preceding table gives 2,280
£br the correfponding number in the fecond column ;
and this multiplied into the reduced F, produces 5800
yards for the potential range fought, which, as the
angle of elevation was 450, is alfo the potential ran¬
dom : and hence the original velocity of this fhell ap¬
pears to be that of about 748 feet in a fecond.
“ Cor, The converfe of this propofition, that is, the
determination of the aSual range from the potential
range given, is eafily deduced from hence by means of
the quote of the potential range divided by the redu¬
ced F ; for this quote fearched out in the fecond column
will give a correfponding number in the firft column,
which multiplied into the reduced F, will be the ac¬
tual range fought.
Alfo, if the potential random of a projeftile be
given, or its affual range at a given angle of eleva¬
tion ; its adtual range at any other angle of elevation,
not greater than 450, may hence be known. For the
potential random will afiign the potential range at any Practice
given angle; and thence, by the method of this eorol- '
lary, the adtual range may be found.
“ Exam. A fit mufquet-bullet fired from a piece of
the ftandard dimenfions, with {- of its weight in good
powder, acquires a velocity of near 900 feet in a fe¬
cond; that is, it has a potential random of near 8400
yards. If now the aftual range of this bullet at 150
was fought, we muft proceed thus :
“ From the given potential random it follows, that the
potential range at 15® is 4200 yards ; the diameter of
the bullet is of an inch ; and thence, as it is of lead,
its proper F is 337,5 yards, which, reduced in the
ratio of the radius to the cofine of \ of 15°, becomes
331 yards. The quote of 4200 by this number is
12,7 nearly; which, being fought in the fecond co¬
lumn, gives 3,2 nearly for the correfponding number
in the firft column ; and this multiplied into 331 yards
(the reduced F) makes 1059 yards fur the adtua!range
fought.
“ Exam. II. The fame bullet, fired with its whole
weight in powder, acquires a velocity of about 2100
feet in a fecand, to which there correfponds a potential
random of about 45700 yards. But this number
greatly exceeding 13,000 yards, it muft be reduced
by the method deferibed in the third corollary of the
firft propofition, w’hen it becomes 19700 yards. If
now the adtual range of this bullet at 150 was requi¬
red, we (hall from hence find, that the potential range
at 15° is 9850 yards; which, divided by the reduced
F of the laft example, gives for a quote 2975 : and
thence following the fteps preferibed above, the adtual
range of this bullet comes out 1396 yards, exceeding
the former range by no more than 337 yards; where¬
as the difference between the. two potential ranges is
above ten miles. Of fuch prodigious efficacy is the
refiftance of the air, which hath been hitherto treated
as too infignificant a power to be attended to in laying
dowrn the theory of projectiles!
“ Schol. I muftbere obferve, that as the denfity of
the atmofphere perpetually varies, increafing and di-
minilhing often by part, and fometimes more, in
a few hours ; for that reafon I have not been over ri¬
gorous in forming thefe rules, but have confidered
them as fufficiently exaCt when the errors of the ap¬
proximation do not exceed the inequalities which
would take place by a change of ^ part in the den¬
fity of the atmofphere. With this reftri&lon, the
rules of this propofuion may be fafely applied in all
poffible cafes of pradbice. That is to fay, they will
exhibit the true motions of all kinds of fhells andcan-
non-ftiot, as far as 450 of elevation, and of all muf-
ket-bullets fired with their largeft cuftomary charges,,
if not devated more than 30°. Indeed, if experi¬
ments are made with extraordinary quantities ofpow¬
der, producing potential randoms greatly furpaffing
the ufual rate ; then in large angles fome farther mo¬
difications may be neceffary. And though, as thefe
cafes are beyond the limits of all prafticc, it may be
thought unneceffary to confider them ; yet, to enable
thofe who are fo difpofed to examine thefe uncommon
cafes, I ftiall here infert a propofition, which will de¬
termine the aftual motion of a proje&ile at 45°, how
enormous foever its original velocity may be. But as
this propofition will rather relate to fpeculative than
praftical
Sea. III. GUNN
Practice practical cafes, in (lead of fuppofing the actual range
' known, thence to aflign the potential random, I fhall
now fuppofe the potential random given, and the ac¬
tual range to he thence inveftigated.
“ PROP. III. Given the potential random of a gi¬
ven (hell or bullet, to determine its aftual range at 45°.
Sol. Divide the given potential random by the F
correfponding to the (hell or bullet given, and call the
quotient q, and let 1 be the difference between the ta¬
bular logarithms of 25 and of q, the logarithm of 10
being fuppofed unity ; then the.adlual range fought is
3,4 F -j-zlF — j^F, where the double fine of 2IF is
to be thus underftood ; that if q be lefs than 25, it
mud be — 2IF ; if it be greater, then it mult be -f*
2IF. In this folution, q may be any number not lefs
than 3, nor more than 2500.
“ Cor. Computing in the manner here laid down, we
fiiail find the relation between the potential randoms,,
and the actual range at 450, within the limits of this
propofition, to be as exprcffed in the following table.
Potential Randorm Aduaf Range at 450.,
3 F      " 1.5 F
6 F    
E R Y.
I,25 F ~
1.5 F _
1,75 F -
2,0 F —
2.5
3465
10 F
20 F
30 F
40 F
50 F
100 F
200 F
500 F
1000 F
2500 F
1 F
2.6 F
3>2 F
3.6 F
3.8 F
4>° F
4.6 F
5’1 F
5.8 F
6,4 F
7,0 F
3.o
3>5
4,0
4.5
5»o
6,0
6.5
7,o
7>5
8,0
8.5
9,0
9.5
10,0
11,0
13,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30.0
40,0
50,0
' ,860
.9/8
1,083
I>179
1’349
1 >495
1,624
1,738
1,840
1,930
2,015
2,097
2,169
2,237
2,300
2>359
2,414
2.467
2,511
2,564
2,65.
2,804
2.937
3,196
3.396
3.557
3,809
3,998
Whence it appears, that, when the potential ran¬
dom is increafed from 3F to 2500F, the adual range
is only increafed from i4- F to 7 F, fo that an increafe
of 2497F in the potential random produces no great¬
er an increafe in the a&ual range than yiF, which is
not its part; and this will again be greatly dimi-
nifhed on account of the increafed: refiftance, which
takes place in great velocities.. So extraordinary are
the effeds of this refiftance, which we have been hi¬
therto taught to regard as inconfiderable.
“ That the juftnefs of the approximations laid down
in the 2d and 3d propofitions may be eafierexamined;
inferti
We have now only to confider that part of pradical Of tne dif-
gunnery which relates to the proportions of the diffe- ferent parts
rent parts of cannon, the metal of which they are ^'nj^por”
made, &c. ■ guns.
Formerly the guns were made of a very great length,
and were on that account extremely troublefome and
unmanageable. The error here was firft difcovered by
accident ; for fome cannon, having been call by miftake
two feet and an half (horter than the common ftandard,
were found to be equally efficacious in fervice with the
common ones, and much more manageable. This foon
produced very confiderable alterations in the form of
the artillery throughout Europe; but in no country
have greater improvements in this refped been made
than in our own. For a long time brafs, or rather a
kind of bell-metal, was thought preferable to caft iron
for making of cannon. The compofition of this metal
is generally kept a fecret by each particular founder. 4,
The author of the Military Didionary gives the fol- Compofi-
lnP> a lowing proportions as the moft common, viz. “ To fion for
n.nwh -• - . .. - _ brafs guns.
I (hall conclude thefe computations by -- ,0w,ng proportions as tne mou common, v,z. •• 10
table of the adual ranges at 450 of a projed.le, which ]b> of meta] fit for c.;fti tl t 68 ]b., of co
is refifted in the duphcate proportion of its veloc.ty. lb. 0f hrafs, and 12 lb. of tin. To 4200 lb.
This table is computed by methods different from thofe of metal flt for cafting the Germans put 36874I- lb. of
hitherto defcnbed, and is fuffieiently exad to ferve as 204-ff lb. of‘brafs, and 307#!-lb. of tin. O-
a ftandard with which the refult of our other rules thers ufe IOO,b> ofC0pper, 61b. of brafs, and 9 lb. of
may be compared. And finee whatever errors occur t;n . vvhile fome make ufe 0f I00lb. 0f copper, 10 lb.
in the application of the preceding propofitions, they ofbrafs> and I5 lb. 0f tin. This compofition was both
will be moll fenfible at 450 of elevation, it follows, found tQ be VCry expenfive, and alfo liable to great in-
that hereby the utmoft limits of thofe errors may be conven;cncies in the ufing. A few years ago, there-
affigned. <• ^ r °
Adual Range at 450.
  >0963 F
  ,2282 F
  ,4203 F
—- ,5868 F
  ,7323 F
fore, a propofal was made by Mr Muller for ufing iron
guns of a lighter conftrudion than the brafs ones, by
which he fuppofed that a very great faving would be. 42
made in the expence; and likewise, that the guns of the Mr Mnl-
nevv conftrudion would be more manageable, and even ler’s propo-
efficacious, than the old ones. “ The redudion of the {or re'
expence (fays Mr Muller) of the very large artillery ne- ^
cefrary for fca and land fervice, is to be confidered un- gUn5.
der.
3466
PRACTIC£
GUNN
der two heads : the one, To diminifh the weight; and
the other, Not to ufe any brafs field-artillery, but only
iron, to leffen the great burden of our (hips of war,
and to carry larger calibers than thofe of other nations
of the fame rate. If the weights of our guns are di-
miniftied, they will require fewer hands to manage
them, and of confequence a fmaller number will be ex-
pofed to danger at a time : and if we carry larger ca¬
libers, our rates will be a match for larger (hips.
“ The advantage of ufing iron guns in the field in-
flead of brafs, will be that the expences are leffened in
proportion to the coft of brafs to that of iron, whjich
is as 8 to i.
“ The only objeftion againft iron is, its pretended
brittlenefs: but as we abound in iron that is ftronger
and tougher than any brafs, this objedion is invalid.
This I can affert; having feen fome that cannot be
broke by any force, and will flatten like hammered
iron : if then we ufe fuch iron, there can be no danger
of the guns burfting in the moft fevere aftion.
“ Though brafs guns are not liable to burft, yet
they are fooner rendered unferviceable in a&ion than
iron. For by the foftnefs of the metal, the vent
E R Y.
Length and Weight of Battering Pieces.
Sea. III.
DifF. 72.
“ That thefe guns are fufficiently ftrong, is evident
from the former trial ; befides, there are feveral 32
pounders of the fame dimenfions and weight noyv exiit-
dens fo foon, and they are fo liable to bend at the ';ng an(j ferviceable, though call in king Charles the
muzzle, that it would be dangerous to fire them; as Second’s time.
we found by experience at Belleifle, and where we ]}_ Thefe battering pieces may ferve in gar-
were obliged to take guns from the (hips to finifti the r;fon3.
fiege. _ “It appears from thefe tables, that no proportion
“ Thefe being undeniable fads, no poffible reafon has been obferved in any guns hitherto made, in refped
can be afligned againft ufing iron guns in both fea t0 tbeir length or weight, but merely by guefs.
and land fervice, and thereby lefien the expences of
artillery fo confiderably as will appear by the follow¬
ing tables.
Lengths and Weights of Iron Ship-Guns.
OLD PIECES. NEW PIECES.
Calib. Length.
Ft. In.
4 6
9 6
55
Length.
Ft. In.
3 6
I 48
7 6
60
“ Guns of this conftrudion appear fufficiently ftrong
from the proof of two three-pounders made for Lord
Egmont, and they even may be made lighter and of
■equal fervice.
Some Examples to Jbeiv •what may be faved by this
Scheme,
The Royal George carries 100 brafs guns, which
weigh together 218.2 tons ; the toncoftsxjo pounds,
workmanlhip included.
The expence of thefe guns is then 28366 pounds
A fet of the iron guns of the fame
number and calibers, according
to my conftrudion, weighs - 127.8 tons
The ton cofts 16 pounds, and the
whole fet - - - 2044.8 pounds
The Royal George carries then
90.4 tons more than is neceflary,
and the difference between the
expence is - - 26321.2 pounds
That is, 12.5 times more than the new iron fet cofts:
or 12 (hips of the fame rate may be fitted out at
lefs charge.
a r-f *4
The difference between the weight
of the old and new is - 76.610ns
The difference between the expence
is then - - 1225.6 pound*
A fet of brafs battering pieces weighs 11.36 tons
A ton cofts 130 pounds, and the fet 1476.8 pounds
A fet of the new weighs - 7.55 tons
The ton cofts 16 pounds, and the fet 117.8 pounds
That is, the old fet cofts 11 times, and 632 over,
more than the new fet; or eleven fets of the new
could be made at lefs expence than one of the old.
“ This table (hews what may be faved in the navy ;
and if we add thofe on board (loops, the different gar-
rifons, and the field-train, with the great expence of
their
Sea. III.
GUNNERY.
3467
Practice their carriage in the field, it may be found pretty near
■“ as much more.
OIJ.
100 4367
9°: 353,7
80,3108
741I°9I
70,2997
642543
60,2177
50,1881
44*i365
4°:1234
26 063
32 956
28, 593
24’ 53i
20! 421
2556
2001
1827
1840
1796
l3°5
1185
1035
705
3'2
450
435
285
255
191
o 1536
04287
2 jl250
;2oo
^258
972
846
660
922
5T3
521
308
276
230
9058
3827
9014
40016
2005
28485
29782
16078
5284
8298
3596
14602
7095
3321
3453
Difference between the weights
Expences of the > of ‘7 firft 7'
103918 3
203918 15
43109 5
We get L. 237018 o o
This and other propofals for reducing the weight
and expence of guns have been greatly attended to of
late ; and the Carron-company in Scotland have not
only greatly improved thofe of the old conftru&ion,
but a gun of a new conftruftion hath been invented
by Mr Charles Gafcoigne direflorof that work, which
43 promifes to be of more effe&ual fervice than any hi-
dons°r&c t^ert0 lT,a^e ufe of. •Fig. 9. reprefents the form
of the guns an<^ proportions of the guns made at Carron, and
made at which ferve for thofe of all fizes, from v poun-
Carron. ders and upwards. The proportions are meafured by
the diameters of the caliber, or bore of the gun, di¬
vided into 16 equal parts, as reprefented in the figure.
The following are the names of the different parts of a
cannon.
A B, the length of the cannon.
A E, the firft reinforce.
E F, the fecond reinforce.
F B, the chafe.
H B, the muzzle.
A o, the cafcabel, or pomiglion.
A C, the breech.
C D, the vent-field.
F I, the chafe-girdle,
rs, the bafe-ring and ogee,
t, the vent-aftragal and fillets,
p q, the firft reinforce-ring and ogee,
v w, the fecond reinforce ring and ogee,
x, the chafe-aftragal and fillets.^
z, the muzzle-aftragal and fillets,
n, *the muzzle-mouldings,
m, the fwelling of the muzzle.
A i, the breech-mouldings.
T T, the trunnions.
The dotted lines along the middle of the piece fbew
the dimenfions of the calibre* and the dotted circle
fhews the fize of the ball. Fig. 10. fhews a cohorn Practice
made alfo at Carron, and which may be meafured by~
the fame feale. 44
As the breech of the cannon receives an equal im- ufe andde-
pulfe with the bullet from the ad!ion of the inflamed Icription of
gunpowder, it thence follows, that, at the moment jhe carria8es*
bullet flies off, the piece itfelf pufhes backward with
very great force. This is called the recoil of the can¬
non ; and if the piece is not of a very cenfiderable
weight, it would fly upwards, or to a fide, with ex¬
treme violence. If again it was firmly faftened down,
fo that it could not move in the leaft, it would be very
apt to burft, on account of the extreme violence wdth
which the powder would then adf upon it. For this
reafon it hath been found neceffary to allow the recoil
to take place, and confequently all large pieces of
artillery are mounted upon carriages with wheels,
which allow them to recoil freely; and thus they may
be fired wjthout any danger. There are feveral forts
of carriages for ordnance, viz. baftard carriages, with
low wheels and high wheels; fea-carriages, made in
imitation of thofe for fhip-guns ; and carriages for
field-pieces, of which there are two kinds. The car¬
riages muft be proportioned to the pieces mounted on
them. The ordinary proportion is for the carriage to
have once and a half the length of the gun, the wheels
to be half the length of the piece in height. Four
times the diameter or caliber gives the deptli of the
planks in the fore end- in the middle, 34-. 4J
Fig. 11. fhews Mr Gafcoigne’s newly-invented Defcriptiom
gun called z carronade; and which, in June 1779, of the Cat-
was by the king and council inftituted a ftan- rona<le*
dard navy-gun, and 10 of them appointed to be
added to each fhip of war, from a firft-rate to a
(loop. Of this gun the Carron Company have pub-
lifhed the following accounts
“ The carronade is made fo fhort, that it is worked
with its carriage in the fhip’s port; the trunnions ly¬
ing immediately over the fill of the port: it is cor-
redly bored; and the (hot, being perfedly round, fills
the caliber with fuch exadnefs, that the leaft poffible
of the impulfe of the powder efcapes, upon explofion,
between the cylinder and the (hot; which laft alfo is
thereby more truly direded in its flight. The bottom
of the cylinder is a hcmifphere, to which the end of
the cartridge is not liable to ftick, and in which the
fmalleft charge of powder envelopes the fhot, exhauft-
ing nearly the whole of its impelling force upon it:
the trunnions are placed fo as to leffen the recoil, and
that the gun cannot reft againft the fides of the car¬
riage, and is balanced with the utmoft facility. There
are views caft upon the vent and muzzle, to point the
gun quickly to an objed at 250 and 500 yards di-
ttance. There is an handle A fixed upon the pommel-
end of the gun, by which it is horizontally ranged
and pointed ; and there is a ring caft upon the caf¬
cabel, through which the breechin rope is reeved, the
only rope ufed about thefe guns.
“ The carronade is mounted upon a carriage B, with a
perfedly fmooth bottom of ftrong plank, without
trucks; inftead of which there is fixed on the bottom
of the carriage, perpendicular from the trunnions, a
gudgeon C of proper ftrength, with an iron wafher
I) and pin E at the lower end thereof. This gudgeon
is let into a correfponding groove F, cut in a fecond
carriage
3468 GUNNERY. Se£t III.
Practice carriage G, called a Jlide-carrlage ; the wafher fup-
ported by the pin over-reaching the under-edges of
the groove H. This flide-carriage is made with a
fmooth upper furface, upon which the gun-carriage
is moved, and by the gudgeon always kept in its right
ftation to the port ; the groove in the flide-carriage
being of a fufficient length to allow the gun to recoil,
and be loaded within board. The flide-carriage, the
groove included, is equally broad with the fore-part of
the gun-carriage, and about four times the length;
the fore-part of the flide-carriage is fixed by hinge-
bolts I, to the quick-work of the (hip below the port,
the end lying over the fill, clofe to the outfide plank,
and the groove reaching to the fore end ; the gudgeon
of the gun-carriage, and confequently the trunnions
of the gun, are over the fill of the port, when the gun
is run out; and the port is made of fuch breadth,
with its Tides bevelled off within board, that the gun
and carriage may range from bow to quarter. The
flide-carriage is fupported from the deck at the hinder
end, by a wedge K, or flep-flool; which being altered
at pleafure, and the fore-end turning upon the hinge-
bolts, the carriage can be conftantly kept upon an
horizontal plane, for the more eafy and quick working
of the gun when the fhip lies along.
“ The gun and carriages being in their places, the
breechin rope, which mull be itrong and limber, is
'reeved through the ring on the breech, then led thro’
an eye-bolt drove downwards, the eye (landing up¬
right upon the upper edge of each cheek of the gun-
carriage; from thefe eye-bolts the ends of the breechin
rope are feized down as ufual to an eye-bolt driven
into the quick-wurk on each fide, in a line with the
lower furface of the flide-carriage.
“ The gun being mounted and ready for a&ion, is
loaded with -Vth part of the weight of its ball in fer-
vice charge of powder put into a woollen cartridge,
and the end tied up with a worded yarn, and placed
next to the (hot; and with a Tingle ball, well rammed
home upon the powder, without a wadding between
them: the gun being then run out in the port, is
ranged and elevated with great facility, by means of
the handle on the pommel; and, by the views, very
quickly pointed.—Upon difcharge, the gun attempts
to kick upwards, which being prevented by the W'alher
of the gudgeon bearing hard againfl the under part of
the flide-carriage, the recoil takes place ; and the
gudgeon Aiding backwards in the groove, (the waflier
Hill bearing againft an iron plate on the under edge
of the groove,) till the gun is brought up by the
breechin rope, as much re-adlion fucceeds as flackens
tile rope, fo that the gun and carriage may be in-
jVahtly turned fore and aft by the handle, and loaded
again.
“This gun has many lingular advantages over the
others of light conftruftion.—It is fo extremely light,
that the fmallell Ihips can carry aimoft any weight of
Ihot, (the 12-pounder weighing under 500 wt. and
the other calibers in proportion,)*and that without
being attended with the inconveniencies imputed ge¬
nerally to light guns, fince it cannot injure its carriage,
or jump out of its Hation in the jtort upon recoil; and
it will never heat.
“ It can be eafily managed and worked of all calibers,
from the 12-pounders downwards with two hands,
and the 18 and 24-pounders with three hands. It Practice
may be readily ranged, pointed, and difcharged, twice
in three minutes, which doubles the llrength of the
(hip againll an enemy of equal force. It is wrought
upon an horizontal plane to windward or to leeward,
how much foever the fliip lies along under a preffure
of fail; and therefore, befides being hampered with
no tackles or other ropes, except the breechin rope, it
may be worked with as much eafe and expedition in
chace or in a gale of wind, as in lying to for adlion.
— It can be ranged from bow to quarter, fo as to
bring a broadfide to bear in a circuit of above 10
points of the compafs on each Tide.—It is no more
expenfive in ammunition than the old guns of two-
thirds lefs weight of Ihot; and it requires very few
hands above the compliment neceffary for navigating
merchant-lhips ; and increafes the llrength of priva¬
teers crews, by expofing few hands at the guns, and
augmenting the number at fmall arms.
“Though the carronade cannot, ftri&ly fpeaking,
throw' its Ihot to an equal diftance with a longer gun;
yet, from the fitnefs of the (hot to its cylinder, the
powers of this gun will greatly furpafs the expe&a-
tions of fuch as are not intimately acquainfed with the
effe&s of the elallic force of fired powder, fince, with a
-rVth part of the weight of its ball, at very fmall ele¬
vations, it will range its Ihot to triple the diltance at
which Ihips generally engage, with fufficient velocity
for the greatell execution, and vvith all the accuracy in
itsdiredion that can be attained from guns of greater
lengths. 4(J ;
“ There have been two feeming difadvantages im- objeftioirs 'j
puted to this gun, which it does not merit, viz. tbetoitsufe |
nicety of fitting the Ihot to the bore of the gun, and anfwered. J
its incapacity to hold more than two Ihot at one
charge. But, as feamen have few opportunities of i
confirming themfelves in jull opinions by experiments
made on fhore, and cannot, in that cafe, be fully
converfant with the fubjed ; the following loofe
hints may not be inept towards removing thefe ob-
jedions.
“ It is an axiom in projediles, That a (hot cannot be
impelled from a gun to anydiftance in a diredion truly
parallel to the axis of the cylinder of the piece, or what
is commonly called point-blank, arxhng from feveral well-
known caufes: for, however jull may be the cylinder,
and however perfed and fmooth may be the fphere of
its correfponding Ihot, and admitting that the im-
milfe of the powder ads through the centre of gravity
of the Ihot, and alfo that the Ihot confequently leaves
the piece in a direftwn parallel to the axis of its cylin¬
der; yet is the Ihot no fooner difcharged, but it be¬
comes more or lei's infleded by its gravity, and de-
fleded, according to its velocity, by the rejiflance of
the air and 'wind.
“ Thefe irregularities are of little importance in clofe
fea-fights, and, being the effed of natural caufes, are
common to all. Befides thefe, the deviation of a Ihot
from its true diredion, is further augmented by the
windage between the cylinder and its (hot; but the
greatell uncertainty in the flight of a Ihot, making
allowance for the adion of its gravity, and the air’s
refillance, fprings from the defeds of the Ihot itfelf.
Round-lhot for (hip-guns, are feldom nicely examined;
■and, unlefs they are call folid and truly globular, and
(Irx^'FJiy
L'Ltfe CXLI.
(OrTUd/c
(s7le’t/d/-z/i^
'vttnnrtm/
nurfid
Os//n\
C 3 j%,ff//%a?/</'sy~
O'ssmet/ir
//////S/fiS
^fr////,'// oo>or/Srt/,
t'j/t’/sr/W/?
C,oT?/‘oJ<//
('%7/n. t. * Sit A:
Sea. III. GUNN
Practice free of all hollows, roughnefs, and other outfide ble-
' ~~ nvifhes, and well fitted to the gun, it cannot even be
difcharged inthe direflion of the axis of the piece ; to the
difappointment of thofe that ufe fuch, and to the dif-
credit of the gun-founder, however juftly the piece is
viewed, or difparted; but, being impelled againit the
furface of the cylinder, bounds and rebounds from fide
to fide, acquires a rotatory motion, and when caft
hollow withal, and breaking within the cylinder be¬
fore difcharge, (which fometimes happens, efpecially
with double charges) never fails to injure; and, when
often repeated, may, at laft, burft the very bed guns.
— Round-(hot (hould not be taken on board a ihip,
without being examined as to its fhape and furface,
gaged for its fize to the caliber of the gun, and
weighed that it be not above or below the ftandard
more than half an ounce in the pound of its refpe&ive
caliber: good (hot then, being of the fame importance
to all guns, removes the firft objeftion.
“ If the dire&ion of the flight of a (hot to its ob-
jedl is affe&ed by fo many feeming trivial caufes, how
much more uncertain muft it be, when two or more
(hot are difcharged together from one gun ? for the
(hot next the powder being impelled with more cele¬
rity than that immediately before it, (trikes againft it
E R Y. 3469
is often the cafe. However frightful abroadfide with Practice
double charges may appear at fea, more confufion is
created by them, and more time loft, ’within board,
by the (train and exceffive recoil, than real damage
done ’without board by the additional charge : for,
upon a trial on (hove, where the effedt can be traced,
it will be found, that, at too yards diftance, more
(hot will take place within a fmall compafs by Angle
than by double charges ; and the charges will be
oftener repeated in a given time, without heating the
gun: and thefe fadts being eftabliftied, remove alfo
the fecpnd objedtion.”
The following account of the proof of one of thefe
guns will perhaps ftrve to give a more adequate idea
of the great ufefulnefs of them, than any description :
“ On Monday, 0&. 4, 1779, there was an experi¬
ment made at Carron, before the earl of Dunmore,
&c. &c. with a 68-pounder Carronade, nearly of the
weight ofaiBritifti navy 12-pounder gun, and charged
with the fame quantity (viz. 61b.) of powder. 
The carronade was mounted, on its proper carriages,
into a port of the dimenfions of a 74 gun (hip’s lower-
deck port; was pointed without elevation, at a centre-
of eight inches diameter, marked on a bulk’s head of
the thicknefs of two feet five inches foil’d wood, at 163
after difcharge, and fometimes (hivers itfelf to pieces, yards diftance; behind which, at 168 yards, there
and never faiis to change obliquely the direftion of another bulk’s head of two feet four inches thick; and
both ; and this happens with round and double-headed,
&c. and all double charges ; and which, from their
various figures, cannot reach an obje£t at the fame
elevations with the round-(hot; efpecially when thefe
other (hots are of greater weight than the round, which
ift (hot (truck 1 foot 7 inches below the horizontal line,
2d ditto ditto 2 feet ditto ditto,
3d d°. dc. through the horizontal line
4th d°. d°. ditto   —
5th d°. d°. ditto   —
6th dQ. d°. 2 inches below    —
7th d°. d°. touched the lower part of ditto
8th d°. d°. 2 inches below   —
9th d°. d°. 2 feet below   —
toth d°. da. 3 inches below   •—
‘ The Carronade was laid each time by the view's
without an inftrument; and the (hot were all to the
behind that again, at 170 yards diftance, a bank of
earth. The (hot pierced the bulk’s heads each time,
and was buried from three to four feet into the bank,
and the fplinters were thrown about to a confiderable
diftance on all fides.
and 5 feet —— from the mark.
and 2 ditto   from ditto.
and 3 d°. 4 inches from
and 2 d°. 4 ditto from
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
2d0. 10 d°. from
  10 d°. from
 7 d°. from
  10 d°. from
foot 9 d°» from
  3 d°. from
uth proper inftruments; but for the method of do¬
ing this, and of boring the ordinary pieces, fee the
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
d°.
left of the mark, owing to a fmall error in difparting articles Ordnance and Rifle.
the views ; the third, fourth, and fifth (hot, made one
fradture, as did alfo fixth, feventh, and eighth, and the
fixlh and eighth ftruck the fame fpot.
“ The Carronade was eafily worked with four men,
and may be readily worked and difcharged on board
a (hip twice a-minute with fix men.—With fix pound
weight of powder the (hot was impelled with a velo¬
city of 1400 feet a fecond.”
Defcnption i>ave already feen of how much confequence
of rifled rifle-barrels are in order to bring the art' of gunnery
ordnance, to perfeftion ; as they enlarge the fpace in which the
ball will fly without any lateral defleftion to three or
four times its ufual quantity. This improvement,
however, till very lately, only took place in mufleet-
barrels. But in the beginning of the year 1774, •^r
Lind, andCaptain Alexander Biair of the 69th regi¬
ment of foot, invented a fpecies of rifled field-pieces.
They are made of caft iron; and a^e not bored like the
common pieces, but have the rifles moulded on the
core, after which they are cleaned out and finiihed
Voil. V.
Guns of this conftruftion, which are intended for
the field, ought never to be made to carry a ball of
above one or two pounds weight at mod;; a leaden
bullet of that weight being fufficient to deftroy
either man or horfe.—A pound-gun, of this con-
ftru&ion, of good nhetal, fuch as is now made by
the Carron company, need not to weigh above an
hundred pounds weight, and its carriage about ano¬
ther hundred. It can, therefore, be eafily tranfported
from place to place, by a few men ; and a couple of
good horfes may tranfport fix of thefe guns and their
carriages, if put into a cart.
But, for making experiments, in order to determine
the refiftance which bodies moving with great veloci¬
ties meet with from the air, a circumftance to which
thefe guns are particularly well adapted, or for an¬
noying an enemy’s fappers that are carrying on their
approaches towards a befieged place, a larger caliber
may be ufed.
The length of the gun being divided into feven
X equal
347°
Practice
Pig.
12.
GUNNERY.
Sea. nr.
equal parts, the length of the firfl reinforce AB is
two of thefe parts; the fecond BC, one and of the
diameter of the caliber ; the chafe CD, four wanting
of the diameter of the caliber.
The dillance from the hind-part of the bafe-ring A,
to the beginning of the bore, is one caliber and
a caliber. The trunnions TT are each a caliber in
breadth, and the fame in length ; their centres are
placed three-fevenths of the gun's length from the
hind part of the bafe-ring, in fuch a manner, that
the axis of the trunnions paffes through the centre
line of the bore, which prevents the gun from kick¬
ing, and breaking its carriage. The length of the
cafcable is one caliber and of a caliber.
The caliber of the gun being divided into 16 equal
parts ;
The thicknefs of metal at the bafe-ring A from
the bore, is - - - - 18,5
At the end of the firft reinforce ring B 17
At the fame place, for the beginning of the
fecond reinforce - - - 17
At the end of the fecond reinforce C 15
At the lame place, for the beginning of the
chafe c - - - - 13,75
At the end of the chafe or muzzle, the mould¬
ings a D excluded - - - 9
At the fwelling of the muzzle b - 12
At the muzzle-fillet c - - 9,5
At the extreme moulding D - 8
Bafe-ring .... 5,5
Ogee next the bafe-ring d - 5,5
The aftragal or half-round - 4,75
Its fillet - - 1
Total aftragal and fillets at the ventfield e 4
Firft reinforce ring B - 4,5
Second reinforce ring C - 3,5
Its ogee ” * 3
Its aftragal - - 1,5
And its fillet - - 1
The muzzle aftragal, and fillet « - 4
Breadth of the fillet at the bafe-ring 1
Diftance of the fillet at the button from the
fillet at the bafe-ring - - 5
Breadth of the fillet at the button x
Diameter of the fillet at the button 18
Diftance of the centre of the button from
its fillet - - 12
Diameter of the button E - 18
Diameter of its neck 10,5
The vent (hould be placed about half an inch from
the bottom of the chamber or bore, that the cartridge
may be pricked, left fome of the bottoms of the
cartridges thould be left in when the gun is fponged,
a circumftance which might retard the firing till the
fhot be again drawn (which is no eafy matter), and
the gun be cleaned out. From fome experiments of
colonel Defaguliers and Mr Muller, it has been ima¬
gined, that the powder never has fo ftrong an effeft
as when it is fired clofe to the bottom of the bore ;
yet it is found, by the experiments of Count de la
Lippe, to have the greateft effedl when fired near to
the middle of the charge. This he proved by firing
it with tubes, introduced at a vent bored through the
button and breech of the gun, of different lengths,
o as to reach the different parts of the powder. In Practice
the fame manner, a mufket or fowling-piece is found '
to pufh more when the touch-hole is placed at fome
little diftance from the bottom of the bore ; which
arifes from nothing but the powder’s afting with
more force, by being inflamed to greater advantage ;
confequently, in this cafe, the fame quantity of pow¬
der will have a greater effeift, than when the touch-
hole is placed at the bottom of the bore, which may
be of fome ufe in hufbanding the powder.
The above dimenfions are taken from fome elegant
4- pound guns, which w'ere made for the prince of
Afturias by the Carron company.
The rifles make one fpiral turn in the length of the
bore ; but go no nearer to the breech, in their full
fize, than two calibers; and then terminate with a gentle
flope in half a caliber more, fo as not to prevent the
cartridge with the powder from being eafily fent home
to the bottom of the gun, which would otherwifc
conftantly happen with the flannel cartridges, and
even fometimes with paper ones, if not made to enter
very loofely. The fliape of the rifles is femicircular,
their breadth being equal to the diameter, which
is of a caliber, and their depth equal to the femi-
diameter, or 4-|- of a caliber.
The bullets, fig. 13. are of lead, having fix knobs
call on them to fit the rifles of the gun. Being thus
made of foft metal, they do not injure the rifles; and
may alfo fave an army the trouble of carrying a great
quantity of fhot about with them, fince a fupply of
lead may be had in moft countries from roofs, &c.
which can be caft into balls as occafion requires.
Lead likewife being of greater fpecific gravity than
call-iron, flies to a much greater diftance.
Rifled ordnance of any caliber might be made to
carry iron (hot, for battering or for other purpofes ;
provided holes, that are a little wider at their bottoms
than at their upper parts, be caft in a zone round
the ball, for receiving afterwards leaden knobs to fit
the rifles of the cannon ; by which means, the iron
fhot will have its intended line of diredtion preferved,
without injuring the rifles more than if the whole ball
was of lead, the rotatory motion round its axis, in
the line of its direftion, (which corre&s the aberra¬
tion), being communicated to it by the leaden knobs,
following the fpiral turn of the rifles in its progrefs
out of the gun. It is particularly to be obferved,
that the balls mull be made to go eafily down into
the piece, fo that the cartridge with the powder and
the bullet may be both fent home together, with a
fingie pufh of the hand, without any wadding above
either powder or ball ; by which means, the gun is
quickly loaded, and the ball flies farther than when
it is forcibly driven into the gun, as was found from
many experiments. The only reafon why, in com¬
mon rifled mufkets, the bullets are rammed in forci¬
bly, is this, that the zone of the ball which is conti¬
guous to the infide of the bore may have the figure of
the rifles impreffed upon it, in fuch a manner as to be¬
come part of a male fcrew, exa&ly fitting the indents
of the rifle, which is not at all neceffary in the prefent
cafe, the figure of the rifles being originally caft upon
the ball. Thefe knobs retard the flight of the bullet
in fome degree ; but this fmall difadvantage is fully,
made up by the eafe with which the gun is loaded.
Seam. GUNNERY. 347
Practice its fervicc being nearly as quick as that of a common
 field-piece; and the retardation and quantity of the
whirling motion which- is communicated to the bullet
being conftantly the fame, it will not in the lead af-
fedl the experiments made with them, in order to de-
4g. termine the reliftance of the air.
Seftor and In order to hit the mark with greater certainty
telefcope tjlan can be done in the common random method,
ofthis ^ t^ie^e 8uns are furn‘^e^ w‘t^ a fe<^or> t^'e principal
kind of parts of which are, i. The limb, which is divided in
ordnance, fuch a manner as to (hew elevations to 15 or 20 de¬
grees. The length of the radius is five inches and an
half, and its nonius is fo divided as to (hew minutes
of a degree. 2. The telefcope, AB, fig. 14. an a-
chromatic refraftor, is feven inches in length, (fuch
ns is ufed on Hadley’s quadrants, that are fitted for
taking diftances of the moon from the fun or ftars, in
order to obtain the longitude at fea), having crofs hairs
in it. 3. The parallel cylindric bar, CD, is tV
an inch in diameter, having two Ve&angular ends EF,
each half an inch fquare and an inch long. On one
fide of the end next the limb of the feftor, is a mark
correfponding to a fimilar one on the hinder cock of
the gun, with which it muft always coincide when
placed on the gun. The length of the parallel bar,
together with its ends, is 7 inches. This bar is fixed
to the fe&or by means of two hollow cylinders, G, H,
which allow the feftor a motion round the bar. There
is a finger-fcrew, a, upon the hollow cylinder G,
which is (lit, in order to tighten it at pleafure upon
the bar. 4. The circular level I, fig. 14. and 15. for
fetting the plane of the feftor always perpendicular
when placed upon the gun, is | of an inch in diame¬
ter. There is a fmall fcrew, d, to adjuft the level at
right angles to the plane of the feftor. 5. The fin¬
ger fcrew, b, for fixing the index of the fedor at any
particular degree of elevation propofed.
The line of collimation (that is, the line of vifion
cut by the interfeding point of the two crofs hairs in
the telefcope) mull be adjufted truly parallel to the
bar of the fedor when at o degrees. This is done by
placing the fedor fo that the vertical hair may exadly
cover fome very dillant perpendicular line. If it again
covers it when the fedor is inverted, by turning it
half round upon the bar, which has all the while been
kept fteady and firm, that hair is corred ; if not, cor-
red half the error by means of the fmall ferews, c d e,
fig. 14. and 16. at the eye-end of the telefcope, and
the other half by moving the bar ; place it again to
cover the perpendicular line, and repeat the above
operation till the hair covers it in both pofitions of
the fedor. Then turn the fedor, till the horizontal
hair cover the fame perpendicular line ; and turning
the fedor half round on its bar, corred it, if wrong,
in the fame manner as you did the vertical hair.
N. B. Of the four fmall ferews at the eye-end of
the telefcope, thofe at the right and left hand move
whatever hair is vertical, and thofe at top or under¬
neath move whatever hair is horizontal.
On the fide of the gun upon the firft reinforce,
are call two knobs, F, fig. 12. and 17. having their
middle part diftant from each other fix inches, for
fixing on the brafs (cocks, A, fig. 17. and 18. which
cejve the redangular ends of the parallel cylindric bar
of the fedor, when placed on the gun.
The next adjuftment is to make the parallel bar, Pract
and line of collimation of the telefcope, when fet at o
degrees, parallel to the bore of the gun, and confe-
quently to the diredion of the (hot. The gun being
loaded, the cartridge pricked, and the gun primed,
place the fedor in the cocks of the gun; and having
firft fet the fedor to what elevation you judge necef-
fary, bring the interfedlion of the crofs-hairs in the
telefcope, upon the center of the mark, the limb
of the fedor being fet vertical by means of the
circular level, and then take oft' the fedor without
moving the gun. Fire the gun ; and if the bullet hits
any where in the perpendicular line, palling through
the centre of the mark, the line of collimation of
the telefcope and diredion of the (hot agree. But if
it hit to the right of the mark, fo much do they
differ. In order to corred which, bring the gun
into the fame pofitioa it was in before firing, and
fecure it there. Then file away as much of the fore¬
cock, on the fide next the gun, as will let the inter-
fedion of the crofs-hair fall fomewhere on the line
pafiing perpendicularly through the point where
the (hot fell ; and it is then adjufted in that pofi-
tion, fo much being filed off the fide of the cock
at a, fig. 17. and 18. as will allow the fide b to be
ferewed clofer, that the ends of the parallel bar may
have no (hake in the cocks. To corred it in the other
pofition, and fo to find the true o degrees of the gun,
that is, to bring the line of collimation of the tele¬
fcope, parallel-bar, and bore of the gun, truly pa¬
rallel to each other, repeat the above with the trun¬
nions perpendicular to the horizon, the fedor being
turned a quarter round upon its bar, fo as to bring
its plane vertical. The deviation of the (hot found in
this way js correded by deepening one of the cocks,
fo that the vertical hair of the telefcope may be brought
to cover the line pafiing perpendicularly through the
point where the bullet hits ; the gun being placed iu
the fame pofition it was in before it was fired. This
adjuftment being repeated two or three times, and
any error that remains being correded, the gun is fit
to be mounted on its carriage for fervice. It is to
be obferved, that this fedor will fit any gun, if the
cocks and redangular ends, &c. of the parallel bar be
of the above dimenfions, and will be equally appli¬
cable to all fuch pieces whofe cocks have been adjufted,
as if it had been adjufted feparately with each of them.
And if the fedor be fet at any degree of elevation,
and the gun moved fo as to bring the interfedion of
the crofs-hairs on the objed to be fired at (the limb
of the fedor being vertical), the bore of the gun will
have the fame elevation above it, in the true diredion
of the (hot, whatever pofition the carriage of the gun
is (landing in. A telefcope with crofs-hairs, fixed
to a common rifled irmlket, and adjufted to the di¬
redion of the (hot, will make any perfon, with a
very little pradice, hit an objed with more precifion
than the moft experienced markfman.
For garrifon,-fervice, or for batteries, the (hip or Their ear
garrifon carriage, with two iron ftaples on each fide riages.
to put through a couple of poles to carry thefe guns
from place to place with 'more difpatch, are as
proper as any. But, for the field, a carriage like
that at fig. 19. where the (hafts pu(h in upon taking
out the iron pins a b, and moving the crofs bar A,
X 2 upon
3472 GUN
Practice upon which the breech of the gun refts, as far down
as the /hafts were pu/hed in, is the propereft, fince
the whole can then be carried like a hand-barrow,
over ditches, walls, or rough ground, all which may¬
be ea/ily underftood from the figure.
The principal advantage that will accrue from the
ufe of rifled ordnance, is the great certainty with
which any object may be hit when fired at with them,
fince the /hot deviates but little from its intended line
of diredfion, and the gun is capable of being brought
to bear upon the objedl, with great exadtnefs, by
JO means of the telefcope and crofs-hairs.
Mortars de- The other pieces of artillery commonly made ufe of
fcribed. are mortars, howitzers, and royals. The mortars are
a kind of/hort cannon of a large bore, with chambers
for the powder, and are made of brafs or iron. Their
life is to throw hollow /hells filled with powder, which
falling on any building, or into the works of a forti¬
fication, bur/l, and with their fragments deflroy every
thing near them. Carcafes are alfo thrown out of them ;
which are a fort of /hells with five holes, filled with
pitch and other materials, in order to fet buildings on
tire; and fometimes ba/kets full of ftones, of the lize
of a man’s fill, are thrown out of them upon an enemy
placed in the covert-way in the time cl a fiege. Of
late the ingenious General Defaguliers has contrived
to throw bags.filled with grape-ftiot, containing in each
bag from 400 to 600 /hot cf different dimenfions, out
of mortars. The effed of thefe is tremendous to troops
forming the line of battle, palling a defile, or landing,
&c. the /hot pouring down like a /bower of hail on a
circumference of above 300 feet.
Mortars are chiefly diftingul/hed by the dimen¬
fions of their bore; for example, a 13-inch mortar is
one the diameter of whofe bore is 13 inches, &c.—
The land-mortars are thofe ufed in fieges, and of late
in battLs. They are mounted on beds, and both
mortar and bed are tranfported on block carriages.
There is likewife a kind of land-mortars mounted on
travelling carriages, invented by count Buckeburg,
which may be elevated to any degree; whereas all the
Engli/h mortars are fixed to an angle of 450. This
cuftom, however, does not appear to have any founda¬
tion in reafon. In a fiege, /hells fhould never be
thrown with an angle of 45 degrees, excepting one
cafe only; that is, when the battery is fo far off, that
they cannot otherwife reach the works : for when
/hells are thrown out of the trenches into the works
of a fortification, or from the town into the trenches,
they /hould have as little elevation as poffible, in order
not to bury themfelves, but to roll along the ground,
whereby they do much more damage, and occafion a
much greater confternation among the troops, than if
they funk into the ground. On the contrary, when
/hells are thrown upon magazines, or any other build¬
ings, the mortars /hould be elevated as high as poffible,
that the /hells may acquire a greater force in their fall,
and confequently do more execution.
There are other kinds of mortars, called partridge-
mortars', han i-mortars, and firelock-mortars ; which
laft are alfo called bombards. The partridge-mortar
is a common one, furrou&led with 13 other Little mor¬
tars bored round its circumference, in the body of the
metal ;«the middle one is loaded with a /hell, and the
others with grenades. The vent of the large mortar
N E R Y. Sedl. III.
being fired, communicates its fire to the reft; fo that Practice
both the /hell and grenades go off at once. Hand- “
mortars were frequently ufed before the invention of
cohorns. They were fixed at the end of a ftaff four
feet and a half long, the other end being /hod with
iron to /lick in the ground; and while the bombardier
with one hand elevated it at pleafure, he fired it with
the other. The firelock-mortars, or bombards, are
fma’l mortars fixed to the end of a firelock. They
are loaded as all common firelocks are; and the gre¬
nade, placed in the mortar at the end of the barrel,
is difcharged by a flint’ lock. To prevent the recoil
hurting the bombardier, the bombard refts on a kind
of halberd made for that purpofe.
The chamber in mortars is the place where the
powder is lodged. They are of different forms, and
made varioufly by different nations; but the cylindric
feems to be preferable to any other form. ^
The howitz is a kind of mortar mounted on a field- Howiues
carriage like a gun: it differs from the common mor- and royals,
tars in having the trunnions in the middle, whereas
thofe of the mortar are at the end. The contlrndtion
of howitzes is as various and uncertain as that of
mortars, excepting that the chambers are all cylindric.
They are didingui/hed by the diameter of their bore;
for inftance, a 10-inch howitz is that which has a
bore of to inches diameter, and fo of others. They
were much more lately invented than mortars, and in¬
deed are plainly derived from them.
Royals are a kind of fmall mortars, which carry a
/hell whofe diameter is 5.5 inches. 'Hiey are mounted
on beds in the fame way as other mortars.
Fig. 20. reprefents a mortar; and the names ofpart5ofa
its parts are as follow. - . • mortar.
AB, the whole length of the mortar.
AC, the muzzle.
CD, chace.
DE, reinforce.
EF, breech.
GH, trunnions.
a, vent.
b, dolphins.
c d, vent-aftragal and fillets.
d e, breech-ring and ogee.
fig, reinforce-ring and ogee.
gh, reinforce-aftragal and fillets.
i k, muzzle-aftragal and fillets.
k l, muzzle ring and ogee.
Im, muzzle mouldings.
71, /houlders.
Interior parts.
0, chamber.
p, bore.
q, mouth.
r, vent.
The mortar-beds are formed of very folid tim¬
ber, and placed upon very ftrong wooden frames,
fixed in fuch a manner, that the bed may turn
round. The fore-part of thefe beds is an arc of a
circle deferibed from the centre on which the whole
turns.
There are feveral inftruments employed in the ]n^r^
loading of cannon. The names of thefe are as fol- irie,,ts HfC(|
low : in loading
1. The lantern or ladle, which ferves to carry the cannon.
powder
Sea. III.
Practice powder into the piece, and which confifts of two parts,
viz. of a wooden box, appropriated to the caliber of
the piece for which it is intended, and of a caliber and
a half in length with its vent; and of a piece of cop¬
per nailed to the box, at the height of a half caliber.—
This lantern mu ft have three calibers and a half in
length, and two calibers in breadth, being rounded at
the end to load the ordinary pieces.
2. The rammer is a round piece of wood, commonly
Called a lox, faftened to a ftick 12 foot long, for the
piecegJrom 12 to 33 pounders; and 10 for the 8 and
4 pounders ; which ferve to drive home the powder and
ball to the breech.
3. The fpunge is a long ftaff or rammer, with a
piece of flieep or lamb-ikin wound about its cud, to
ferve for fcouring the cannon when difcharged, before
it be charged with frtfh powder; to prevent any (park
of fire from remaining in her, which would endanger
the life vof him who fiiotdd load her again.
4. Wad-fcrew confifts of two points of iron turned
ferpent-wife, to, ext raft the wad out of the pieces
when one wants to unload them, or the dirt which had
chanced to enter into it.
5. The botefeux are fticks two or three feet long,
and an inch thick, fplit at one end, to hold an end of
the match twifted round it, to fire the cannon.
6. The priming-iron is a pointed iron rod, to clear
the touch-hole of the pieces of powder or dirt ; and
alfo to pierce the cartridge, that it may fooner take
fire.
7. The primer, which muft contain a pound of pow¬
der at lead, to prime the pieces.
8. The quoin of mire, which are pieces of wood
with a notch on the fide to put the fingers on, to draw
them back or pufh them forward when the gunner
points his piece. They are placed on the foie of the
carriage.
9. Leaden-plates, which are ufed to cover the touch-
hole, when the piece is charged, left fome dirt fhould
enter it and flop it.
Method of Before charging the piece, it is well fpunged, to
managing clean it of all filth and dirt within-fide ; then the
them. proper weight of gunpowder is put in and rammed
down ; care being taken that the powder be not bruifed
in ramming, which weakens its effedt; it is then run
over by a little quantity of paper, hay, or the like; and
laftly, the ball is thrown in. ^
To point, level, or direft the piece, fo as to play
againft any certain point, is done by the help of a qua¬
drant with a plummet: which quadrant confifts of two
branches made of brafs or wood ; one about a foot long,
eight lines broad, ami one line in thicknefs ; the other
four inches long, and the fame thicknefs and breadth as
the former. Between thefe branches is a quadrant,
divided into 90 degrees, beginning from the fherter
branch, and furnifhed with thread and plummet.
The longeft branch of this inftrument is placed in the
cannon’s mouth, and elevated or lowered til! the thread
cuts the degree neceffary to hit the propofed objeft.
Which done, the cannon is primed, and then fet fire to.
The method by the fe&or however, propofed by Dr
Lind, is certainly in all cafes to be preferred.
A 24 pounder may very well fire 90 or 100 fliots,
every day in fummer ; and 60 or 75 in winter. In cafe
of necefllty, it may fire more. And fome French of-
3473
fleers cf artillery affure, that they have caufed fuch a Practice
piece to fire every day 150 fhotsin a fiege.—A 16 and “
a 12 pounder fire a little more, becaufe they are eafier
ferved. There have even been fome occafions, where
200 fhots have been fired from thefe pieces in the fpace
of nine hours, and 138 in the fpace of five. In quick
firing, tubes are made ufe of. They are made of tin,
and their diameter is two tenths of an inch, being juft
fufficient to enter into the vent of the piece. They are
about fix inches long, with a cap above, and cut flant-
ing below, in the form of a pen ; the point is ftrength-
ened with fome folder, that it may pierce the cartridge
without bending. Through this tube is drawn a quick-
match, the cap being fitted with mealed powder moi-
Jtened with fpirits of wine. To prevent the mealed
powder from falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or
flannel ifteeped in fpirits of wine is tied over it. To
range pieces in a battery, care muft be taken to reco-
noitre well the ground where it is to be placed, and the
avenues to it. The pieces muft be armed, each with two
lanterns or laddies, a rammer, a fpunge, and two pri¬
ming-irons. The battery muft alfo be provided with
carriages, and other implements, neceffary to remount
the pieces which the e'nemy fhould chance to dif-
rhount.
To ferve expeditioufly and fafely a piece in a bat¬
tery, it is neceffary to have to each a fack of leather,
large enough to contain about 20 pounds of powder
to charge the lanterns or ladles, without carrying them
to the magazine; and to avoid thereby making thofe
trains of powder in bringing back the lantern from
the magazit -, and the accidents which frequently hap¬
pen thereby.
A battery of three pieces muft have 30 gabions, be¬
caufe fix are employed on each of the two fides or
epaulments, which make 12, and nine for each of the
two merlons.
There ought to be two gunners and fix foldiers to
each piece, and four officers of artillery.
The gunner, polled on the right of the piece, tmifl
take care to have always a pouch-full of powder, and
two priming irons; his office is to prime the piece, and
load it with pow'der. The gunner on the left fetches
the powder from the little magazine, and fills the lan¬
tern or ladle which his comrade holds ; after which, he
takes care that the match be very well lighted, and
ready to fet fire to the piece at the firft command of the
officer.
There are three foldiers on the right, and three
on the left of the piece. The two firft take care to
ram and fpunge the piece, each on his fide. The ram¬
mer and fpunge are placed on the left, and the lan¬
tern or ladle on the right. After having rammed well
the wad put over the powder, and that put over the
bullet, they then take each a handfpike, which they
pafs between the foremoft fpokes of the wheel, the
ends whereof will pafs under the head of the carriage,
to make the wheel turn round, leaning on the other
end of the handfpike, towards the embrafure.
It is the office of the fecond foldieronthe right, to
provide wad, and to put it into the piece, as well over
the powder as over the bullet; and that of his com¬
rade on the left, to provide 50 bullets, and, every time
the piece is to be charged, to fetch one of them and
put it into the piece after the powder has been ram¬
med.
GUNNERY.
3474 GUNNERY. Sed. III.
Practice med. Then they both take each an handfpike, which
they pafs under the hind part of the wheel, to pulh it
in battery.
The officer of artillery muft take care to have the
piece diligently ferved.
In the night he muft employ the gunners and fol-
diers, who fhail relieve thofe who have ferved 24 hours
to repair the embrafures.
If there be no water near the battery, care muft be
taken to have a cafk filled with it, in which to dip the
fpunges and cool the pieces every 10 or 12 rounds.
The carriage for a mortar of t2 inches of diameter
mutt be 6 foot long, the flafks 12 inches long and 10
thick. The trunnions are placed in the middle of the
carriage.
The carriage of an 18 inch mortar muft be 4 foot long;
and the flafks 11 inches high, and 6 thick.
To mount the mortars of new invention, they ufe
ss carriages of call iron.
Method of In Germany, to mount mortars from 8 to 9 inches,
managing and carry them into the field, and execute them hori-
mortars. zontally as a piece of cannon, they make ufe of a piece
of wood 8 feet 2 inches long, with a hole in the middle
to lodge the body of the mortar and its trunnions as
far as their half diameter, and mounted on two wheels
four feet high, to which they join a vantrain propor¬
tioned to it, and made like thofe which fcrve to the
carriages of cannons.
Having mounted the mortar on its carriage, the next
thing is to caliber the bomb, by means of a great ca¬
liber, the two branches whereof embrace the whole
circumference of the bomb : thefe two branches are
brought on a rule where the different calibers are mark¬
ed, among which that of the bomb is found.
If no defeft be found in the bomb, its cavity is filled,
by means of a funnel, with whole gunpowder j a little
fpace or liberty is left, that when a fufee or wooden
tube, of the figure of a truncated cone, is driven thro’
the aperture, (with a wooden mallet, notan iron one,
for fear of accident), and faftened with a cement made
of quick-lime, afhes, brick-duft, and fteel-filings work¬
ed together in a glutinous water, or of four parts of
pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of
wax, the powder may not be bruifed. This tube is
filled with a combuftible matter, made of two ounces
of nitre, one of fulphur, and three or more of gunpow¬
der dull well rammed. See Fuze.
This fufee fet on fire, burns flowlytill it reaches the
gunpowder^ which goes off at once, burfting the fhell
to pieces with incredible violence. Special care, how¬
ever, muft be taken, that the fufee be fo proportioned,
ns that the gunpowder do not take fire ere the fliell
arrives at the deftined place; to prevent which, the
fufee is frequently wound round with a wet clammy
thread.
Batteries confift,—1. Of an epaulment to fhelter the
mortars from the fire of the enemy. 2. Of platforms on
which the mortars are placed. 3. Of fmall magazines
of powder. 4. Of a boyau which leads to the great
magazine. 5. Of ways which lead from the battery
to the magazine of bombs. 6. Of a great ditch be¬
fore the epaulment. 7. Of a berm or retraite.
The platforms for mortars of 12 inches muft have 9
Feet in length, and 6 in breadth.—The lambourds for
common mortars muft be four inches thick ; thofe of a Practice
concave chamber of 8 lb. of powder, 5 inches; thofe of —
t 2 lb. 6 inches; thofe of 18 lb. 7 inches, or thereabouts.
Their length vs at difcretion, provided there be enough
to make the platforms 9 feet long.—The forepart of
the platform will be fituated at two foot diftance from
the epaulment of the battery.—The bombardiers, to
fhelter themfelves in their battery, and not be feen from
the town befieged, raife an epaulment of 7 foot or
more high, which epaulment has no embrafures.
To ferve expediiioufly a mortar in battery, there are
required,— five ftrong handfpikes; a dame or rammer, of
the caliber of the conic chamber, to ram the wad and
the earth ; a wooden knife a foot long, to place the
earth round the bomb; an iron fcraper two feet long,
one end whereof muft be four inches broad and round-
wife, to clean the bore and the chamber of the mor¬
tar, and the other end made in form of a fpoon to clean
the little chamber; a kind of brancard to carry the
bomb, a fhovel, and pick-ax.
The officer who is to mind the fervice of the mor¬
tar, muft have a quadrant to give the degrees of eleva¬
tion.
Five bombardiers, or others, are employed in that
fervice; the firft muft take care to fetch the powder to
charge the chamber of the mortar, putting his pri¬
ming-iron in the touch-hole before he charges the
chamber; and never going to fetch the powder before
he has afked his officer at what quantity of powder he
defigns to charge, becaufe more or lefs powder is want¬
ed according to the diftance where it is fired ; the
fame will take care to ram the wad and earth, which
another foldier puts in the chamber.
The foldier on the right will put again two fhovels
full of earth in the bottom of the bore, which fhould
belikewife very well rammed down.
This done, the rammer or dame is returned into its
place, againft the epaulment on the right of the mor¬
tar : he takes an handfpike in the fame place to poft
himfelf behind the carriage of the mortar, in order to
help to pufh it into battery: having laid down his
handfpike, he takes out his priming-iron, and primes
the touch-hole with fine powder.
The fecond foldier on the right and left will have
by that time brought the bomb ready loaded, which
muft be received into the mortar by the firft foldier,
and placed very ftrait in the bore or chafe of the mor¬
tar.
The firft, on the right, will furnifh him with earth
to put round the bomb, which he muft take care to
ram clofe with the knife given him by the fecond on
the left.
This done, each (hall take a handfpike, which the
two firft, on the right and left, (hall put under the pegs
of retreat of the forepart, and the two behind under
thofe of the hind-part; and they together pu(h the
mortar in battery.
Afterwards the officer points or dire&s the mor¬
tar.
During that time, the firft foldier takes care to
prime the touch-hole of the mortar, without ramming
the powder; and the laft on the right, muft have the
match ready to fet fire to the fufee of the bomb on
the right, while the firft is ready with his on the left,
to
Sea. III. GUNN
Practice to fet fire to the touch-bole of the mortar; which he
ought not to do till he fees the fufee well lighted.
The foremoft foldiers will have their handfpikes rea¬
dy to raife the mortar upright, as foon as it has dif-
charged; while the hindmoll on the left fhall, with the
fcraper, clean the bore and chamber of the mortar.
The magazine of powder for the fervice of the bat¬
tery, fhall be fituated 15 or 20 paces behind, and co¬
vered with boards, and earth over it.—The loaded
bombs are on the fide of the faid magazine, at five or
fix paces diftance.
The officer who commands the fervice of the mor¬
tar, mufl take care to difcover, as much as poffible,
with the eye, the diftance of the place where be in¬
tends to throw his bomb, giving the mortar the de¬
gree of elevation, according to the judgment he has
formed of the diftance. Having thrown the firft bomb,
he muft diminifh or increafe the degrees of elevation,
according to the place upon which it {hall fall. Se¬
veral make ufe of tables to difcover the different di-
ftances according to the differences of the elevations
of the mortar, efpecially the degrees of the quadrant
from 1 to 45; but thefe, from the principles already
S7 laid down, muft be fallacious.
Of the pe- The petard is the next piece of artillery which de-
eard. ferves our attention, and is a kind of engine of me¬
tal, fomewhat in fhape of a high-crowned hat, fer-
ving to break down gates, barricades, draw-bridges,
or the like works, which are intended to be furprized,
It is very fhort, narrow at the breech, and wide at the
muzzle, made of copper mixed with a little brafs, or
of lead with tin.
The petards are not always of the fame height and
bignefs; they are commonly 10 inches high, 7 inches
of diameter a-top, and to inches at bottom. They
weigh commonly 40, 45, and 50 pounds.
- The madrier, on which the petard is placed, and
where it is tied with iron circles, is of two feet for its
greateft width, and of 18 inches on the fides, and no
thicker than a common madrier. Under the madrier
are two iron-bars paffed croffwife, with a hook, which
ferves to fix the petard.
To charge a petard 15 inches high, and 6 or 7
inches of caliber or diameter at the bore, the infide
muft be firft very well cleaned and heated, fo that the
hand may bear the heat; then take the beft powder
that may be found, throw over it fome fpirit of wine,
and expofe it to the fun, or put it in a frying-pan ;
and when it is well dried, 5 or 6 lb. of this powder
is put into the petard, which reaches within three fin¬
gers of the mouth : the vacancies are filled with tow,
and flopped with a wooden tampion ; the mouth being
ftrongly bound up with cloth tied very tight with ropes;
then it is fixed on the madrier, that has a cavity cut
in it to receive the mouth of the petard, and fattened
down with ropes.
E R Y. 3475
Some, inftead of gun-powder for the charge, ufePKAcucE
one of the following compofition, viz. gun-powder ——
feven pounds, mercury fublimate one ounce, camphor
eight ounces; or gun-powder fix pounds, mercu¬
ry fublimate three ounces, and fulphur three; or
gun-powder fix, beaten glafs 4 an ounce, and cam¬
phor 4.
Before any of th^fe pieces are appropriated for fer¬
vice, it is neceffary to have each undergo a particular
trial of its foundnefs, which is called a proof, to be
made by or before one authorifed for the purpofe, call¬
ed the proof mafler.
To make a proof of the piece, a proper place is
chofen, which is to be terminated by a mount of earth
very thick to receive the bullets fired againft it, that
none of them may run through it. The piece is laid
on the ground, fupported only in the middle by a block
of wood. It is fired three times : the firft with pow¬
der of the weight of the bullet, and the two others
with 4 of the weight; after which a little more pow¬
der is put in to finge the piece ; and after this,, water,
which is impreffed with a fpunge, putting the finger
on the touch-hole, to difcover if there be any cracks;
which done, they are examined with the cat, which is
a piece of iron with three grafps, difpofed in the form
of a triangle, and of the caliber of the piece ; then it
is vifited with a wax-candle, but it is of very little fer¬
vice in the fmall pieces, becaufe if they be a little long,
the fmoke extinguifhes it immediately. See Plate cxli. sg
Befides the large pieces already mentioned, in- of fmall
vented for the deftru&ion of mankind, there are o* arms,
thers called fmall guns, viz. mufkets of ramparts,
common mufkets, fufils, carabines, mufketoons, and
piftols.
A mufket, or mufquet, is a fire-arm borne on the
fhoulder, and ufed in war, formerly fired by the applica¬
tion of a lighted match, but at prefent with a flint and
lock. The common mufket is of the caliber of 20 leaden
balls to the pound, and receives balls from 22 to 24:
its length is fixed to 3 feet 8 inches from the muzzle
to the touch-pan.
A fufil, or fire-lock, has the fame length and cali¬
ber ; and ferves at prefent inftead of a mufket.
A carabine is a fmall fort of fire-arm, fhorter than
a fufil, and carrying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by
the light-horfe, hanging at a belt over the left fhoul¬
der. This piece is a kind of medium between the pi-
ftol and the mufket; and bears a near affinity to the
arquebufs, only that its bore is fmaller. It was for¬
merly made with a match-lock, but of late only with a
flint-lock.
The mufquetoon is of the fame length of the
carabine, the barrel polifhed, and clean within. It
carries five ounces of iron, or feven and a half of
lead, with an equal quantity of powder.
The barrel of a piftol is generally 14 inches long.
GUN
GUN-powder, a 'compofition of faltpetre, ful¬
phur, and charcoal, mixed together, and ufually gra¬
nulated ; which eafily takes fire, and, when fired, ra-
rifies, or expands with great vehemence, by means of
its elaftic force.
It is to this powder wc owe all the a&ion and effedt
GUN.’
of guns, ordnance, &c. fo that the modern military
art, fortification, &c. in a great meafure depend'
thereon.
Invention o/'Gun-powder. See Gun.
Method of making Gun-powder. Dr Shaw’s re¬
ceipt for this purpcfe is as followsTake four ounce*
of
Gun¬
powder.
GUN [ 3476 ] GUN
of refined faltpetre, an ounce of brimftone, and fix
drams of fmall-coal: reduce thefe to a fine powder,
and continue beating them for fome time in a ftone
mortar, with a wooden peftle, wetting the mixture
between whiles with water, fo as to form the whole
into an uniform pafie, which is reduced to grains, by
paffing it through a wire-fieve fit for the purpofe ; and
in this form being carefully dried, it becomes the com¬
mon gun-powder.
For greater quantities, mills are ufually provided ;
by means of which more work may be performed in
one day, than a man can do in a hundred.
The nitre or faltpetre is refined thus: Diflblve four
pounds of rough nitre as it comes to us from the In¬
dies, by boiling it in as much water as will commodi-
oufly fuffiee for that purpofe : then let it (hoot for two
or three days in a covered veffel of earth, with (licks
laid acrofs for the cryftals to adhere to. Thefe cry-
fials being taken out, are drained and dried in the o-
pen air.
In order to reduce this fait to powder, they difiblve
a large quantity of it in as fmall a proportion of wa¬
ter as poffible ; then keep it conflantly (tirring over
the fire, till the water exhales, and a white dry pow¬
der is left behind.
In order to purify the brimftone employed, they dif-
folve it with a very gentle heat; then fcum and pafs
it through a double drainer. If the brimftone (hould
happen to take fire in the melting, they have an iron
cover that fits oq clofe to the melting veffel, and damps
the flame. The brimftone is judged to be fufficiently
refined if it melts, without yielding any fetid odour,
between two hot iron-plates, into a kind of red fub-
ftance.
The coal for the making of gun-powder is either
that of willow, or hazel, well charred in the ufual
manner, and reduced to powder. And thus the ingre¬
dients are prepared for making this commodity : but
as thefe ingredients require to be intimately mixed, and
as there would be danger of their firing if beat in a
dry form, the method is to keep them continually moiftj
either with water, urine, or a folution of fal ammoni¬
ac : they continue thus (lamping them together for
twenty-four hours, after which the mafs is fit for cor¬
ning and drying in the fun, or otherwife, fo as fedu-
loufly to prevent its firing.
Different kinds of Gun-powder. The three ingre¬
dients of gun-powder are mixed in various proportions
according as the powder is intended for mufkets, great
guns, or mortars : though thefe proportions feem not
to be perfeftly adjufted or fettled by competent ex¬
perience.
Semienowitz, for mortars, diredls an hundred pounds
of faltpetre, twenty-five of fulphur, and as many of
charcoal; for great guns, an hundred pounds of falt¬
petre, fifteen pound of fulphur, and eighteen pound
of charcoal ; for muikets and piftols, an hundfed
pound of faltpetre, eight pound of fulphur, and ten
pound of charcoal. Miethius extols the proportion of
one pound of faltpetre to three ounces of charcoal,
and two or two-and-a-quarter of fulphur ; than which,
he affirms, no gun-powder can poffibly be ftronger.
He adds, that the .ufual pradlice of making the gun¬
powder weaker for mortars than guns, is without
any foundation, and renders the expence needlefly much
greater: for whereas to load a large mortar, twenty-
four pound of common powder is required, and confe-
quently, to load it ten times, two hundred and forty
pound, he (hews, by calculation, that the fame effeft
would be had by one hundred and fifty pound of the
ftrong powder.
To increafe the ftrength of powder, Dr Shaw thinks
it proper to make the grains confiderably large, and to
have it well fiftcd from the fmall duft. We fee that
gun-powder, reduced to duft, has little explofive force ;
but when the grains are large, the flame of one grain
has a ready paffage to another, fo that the whole" par¬
cel may thus take fire nearly at the fame time, other-
wife much force may be loft, or many of the grains
go away as (hot unfired.
It (liould alfo feem that there are other ways of in-
creafing the ftrength of powder, particularly by the
mixture of fait of tartar ; but perhaps, adds the lad-
mentioned author, it were improper to divulge any
thing of this kind, as gun-powder feems already fuf¬
ficiently deftru&ive.
Method of frying and Examining Gun- p own e r. There
are two general methods of examining gun-powder ;
one with regard to its purity, the other with regard to
its ftrength. Its purity is known by laying two or
three little heaps near each other upon white paper,
and firing one of them. For if this takes fire readily,
and the fmoke rifes upright, without leaving anv drofs
or feculent matter behind, and without burning the
paper, or firing the other heaps, it is efteemed a fign
that the fulphur and nitre were well purified, that the
coal was good, and that the three ingredients were
thoroughly incorporated together: but if the other
heaps alfo take fire at the fame' time, it is prefumed,
that either common fait was mixed with the nitre, or
that the coal was not well ground, or the whole mafs
not well beat, and mixed together; and if cither the
nitre or fulphur be not well purified, the paper will
be black or fpotted.
In order to try the ftrength of gun-powder, there
are two kinds of inftruments in ufe; but neither of
them appear fo exacl as the common method of try¬
ing with what velocity a certain weight of powder will
throw a ball from a mu(ket.
There has been much talk of a white powder, which,
if it aufwered the chara&er given it, might be a dan¬
gerous compofition ; for they pretend that this white
powder will throw a ball as far as the black, yet with¬
out making a report: but none of the white powder
we have feen, fays Dr Shaw, anfwers to this charac¬
ter; being, as we apprehend, commonly made either
with touchwood or camphor, inftead of coal.
Under the article Gunnery, the phyfical caufe of
the explofion of powder, and the force wherewith it
expands, have been fo fully confidered, that it would
be fuperfluous to add any thing here concerning them.
Only we may obferve, that though it is commonly
made ufc of for military purpofes only in fmall quan¬
tities, and confined in certain veffels ; yet when large
quantities are fired at once, even when unconfined, in
the open air, it is capable of producing terrible de-
ftru&ion. The accounts of damage done by the blowing
up of magazines, po,wder-mills, &c. are too numerous
and well-known to be here taken notice of. The fol¬
lowing is a relation of what even a moderate quantity
of
Gun¬
powder.
GUN [ 3477 ] GUN
Gun- of powder will accotnplifh, when fired in the open air.
Gunter* ** r^'^e ^avarre t00^ Monfegur. Captain
1 Milon inclofed 500 pounds of powder in a bag, which
he found means to introduce, by a drain from the town,
into the ditch between two principal gates; the end
of the leader was hid in the grafs. Every thing being
ready to play off this machine, the king gave us leave
to go and fee its effe&s ; which was furprifing. For
one of the gates was thrown into the middle of the
town, and the other into the field fifty paces from the
wall : all the vaults were deftroyed, and a paffage was
made in the wall for three men to enter abreaft, by
which the town was taken.”—For further accounts
of the force of large quantities of powder, fee the
article Mines.
To recover damaged Gun- powder. The method of
the powder-merchants is, to put part of the powder
on a fail-cloth, to which they add an equal weight of
what is really good; and with a fhovel mingle it well
together, dry it in the fun, and barrel it up, keeping
it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if it be
very bad, reftore it by moiftening it with vinegar, wa¬
ter, urine, or brandy : then they beat it fine, fearce
it, and to every pound of powder add an ounce, an
ounce and a half, or two ounces, according as it is de¬
cayed, of melted falt-petre. Afterwards, thefe in¬
gredients are to be moiftened and mixed well, fo that
nothing can be difcerned in the compofition, which
may be known by cutting the mafs; and then they
granulate it as aforefaid. In cafe the powder be in
a manner quite fpoiled, the only way is to extradf the
faltpetre with water, according to the ufual manner,
by boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and cryftallizing;
and then with frefh fulphur and charcoal to make it
up anew again.
In regard to the medical virtues of gun-powder,
Boerhaave informs us, that the flame of it affords a
very healthy fume in the height of the plague, be-
caufe the explofive acid vapour of nitre and fulphur
correfts the air; and that the fame vapour, if received
in a fmall clofe pent-up place, kills infefts.
It is ena&ed by 5 and 1 x of Geo. I. and 5 Geo. II.
c. 20. that gun-powder be carried to any place in a
covered carriage ; the barrels being clofe-jointed; or
in cafes and bags of leather, &c. And perfons keep¬
ing more than 200 pounds weight of gun-powder at
one time, within the cities of London and Weftmin-
fter, or the fuburbs, &c. are liable to forfeitures if it
be not removed; and juftices of peace may iffuc war¬
rants to fearch for, feize, and remove the fame.
Gun-SAj/ Wounds. See Surgery.
GUNTER (Edmund), an excellent Englilh ma¬
thematician and aftronomer, was born in Hertford-
fhire in 1581, and ftudied at Weftminfter fchool; from
whence he removed to Oxford, where he took the de¬
gree of mailer of arts in 1606, and afterwards entered
into holy orders. In 1615, he took the degree of ba¬
chelor of divinity : but being peculiary eminent for his
knowledge in the mathematics, he had two years be¬
fore been chofen profeffor of aftronomy in Grelham
college, London ; where he diftinguilhed himfelf by
his leftures and writings. He invented a fmall por¬
table quadrant; and alfo the famous line of propor¬
tions, which, after the inventor, is called Gunters
Scale. He likewife publilhed Canon Triangulorum;
You V.
and a Work entitled, Of the fettor, crofs-Jlaff, and other Gunter,
injlruments. This laft was publilhed, with an Englilh Gun~walc-
tranllation of his Canon Triangulorum, in 410, by Sa¬
muel Fofter, profeffor of Grelham college. Mr Gun¬
ter died at that college in 1626.
Gunter’s-Z/wc, a logarithmic line, ufually gradua¬
ted upon fcales, feclors, &c.
It is alfo called the line of lines, and line of num¬
bers ; being only the logarithms graduated upon a ru¬
ler, which therefore ferves to folve problems inllru-
mentally in the fame manner as logarithms do arithme¬
tically. It is ufually divided into an hundred parts,
every tenth whereof is numbered, beginning with 1,
and ending w'ith 10 : fo that, if the firll great divi-
fion, marked 1, Hand for one tenth of any integer, the
next divifion, marked 2, will Hand for two tenths;
3, three tenths, and fo on ; and the intermediate divi-
lions will, in like manner, reprefent xoodth-parts of
the fame integer. If each of the great divifions repre¬
fent 10 integers, then will the leffer divifions Hand for
integers; and if the greater divifions be fuppofed each
100, the fubdivifions will be each 10.
Ufe of Gunter’s-Z//?!?. i. To find the product of
tono numbers. From 1 extend the compaffes to the
multiplier; and the fame extent, applied the fame way
from the multiplicand, will reach to the produdl. Thus
if the produft of 4 and 8 be required, extend the
compaffes from 1 104, and that extent laid from 8 the
fame way will reach to 32, their produdl. 2. To di¬
vide one number by another. The extent from the di-
vifor to unity, will reach from the dividend to the quo¬
tient : thus, to divide 36 by 4, extend the compaffes
from 4 to 1, and the fame extent will reach from 36
to 9, the quotient fought. 3. To threegiven numbers,
to find a fourth proportional. Suppofe the numbers
6, 8, 9: extend the compaffes from 6 to 8; and this
extent, laid from 9 the fame way, will reach to 12,
the fourth proportional required. 4. To find a snean
proportional between any two given numbers. Suppofe
8 and 32 : extend the compaffes from 8, in the left-
hand part of the line, to 32 in the right; then biffec-
ting this diftance, its half will reach from 8 forward,
or from 32 backward, to 16, the mean proportional
fought. 5. To ext raft the fquare-root of any number.
Suppofe 25 ; biffedl the diftance between 1 on the
fcale and the point reprefenting 25 : then the half of
this diftance, fet off from ), will give the point repre¬
fenting the root 5. In the fame manner, the cube
root, or that of any higher power, may be found by
dividing the diftance on the line between 1 and the
given number, into as many equal parts as the in¬
dex of the power expreffes; then one of thofe parts,
fet from 1, will find the point reprefenting the root re¬
quired.
Gunter’/ Quadrant, one made of wood, brafs,&c.
containing a kind of ftereographic projedtion of the
fphere, on the plane of the equinoctial 5 the eye being
fuppofed placed in one of the poles.
Gunter’/ Scale, called by navigators limply the
gunter, is a large plain fcale, generally two foot long,
and about an inch and a half broad, with "artificial
lines delineated on it, of great ufe in folving queftions
in trigonometry, navigation, &c.
GUN-WALE, or Gunnel, is the uppermoft wale
of a Ihip, or that piece of timber which reaches on ei-
19 Y ther
GUY
Gurk ther fide from the quarter-deck to the forecafide, being
H the uppermoft bend which finiihes the upper works of
Glly' the hull, in that part in which are put the ftanchions
which fupport the wafte-trees.
GURK, an epifcopal town of Carinthia in Ger¬
many, feated on the river Gurk, in E. Long. 14. 15.
N. Lat. 47. 10.
GURNARD, in ichthyology. SccTrigla. ^
GUST, a hidden and violent fquall of wind, burft-
ing from the hills upon the fea, fo as to endanger the
/hipping near the /bore. Thefe are peculiar to fome
coafls, as thofe of South Barbary and Guinea.
GUSTAVUS I. king of Sweden, fon of Eric de
Vafa duke of Gripfholm. Chriftian II. king of Den¬
mark having made himfelf mailer of the kingdom of
Sweden, confined Guftavus at Copenhagen ; but he
making his efcape, wandered a long time in the fo-
refts, till the cruelties of the tyrant having occafioned
a revolution, he was firft declared governor of Swe¬
den, and in 1513 defied king. This prince introdu¬
ced Lutheranifm into his dominions, which in a little
time fpread itfelf all over the kingdom. He died in
T560; having made his kingdom hereditary, which
was before eledlive. See Sweden.
Gustavus Adolphus, furnamed the Great, king of
Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1594, and fucceed-
ed his father Charles in 1611. He efpoufed the caufe
of the Proteftants in Germany, who were opprelfed
and almoft entirely ruined by the emperor Ferdinand.
He was a great warrior, and gained many viflories, of
which an account is given under the article Sweden.
He was at laft killed in the battle of Lutzen, where
his troops got th» viflory, and defeated two of the
emperor’s armies.
GUTTA rosacea, in medicine, called alfo Amply
Rofacea, from the little red drops or fiery tubercles dif-
perfed about the face and nofe. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
Gutta Serena, a difeafe in which the patient, with¬
out any apparent fault in the eye, is deprived of fight.
See (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
Gutta, in architedlure, are ornaments in the form
of little cones ufed in the Doric corniche, or on the ar¬
chitrave underneath the triglyphs, reprefenting a fort
of drops or bells.
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or founds
pronounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in heraldry, a term ufed when anything
is charged or fprinkled with drops. In blazoning,
the colour of the drops is to be named; as gutty of
fable, of gules, &c.
GUY (Thomas), an eminent bookfeller, founder of
the hofpital for fick and lame in Southwark bearing
his name, was the fon of Thomas Guy lighterman and
coal-dealer in Horfleydown, Southwark. He was
put apprentice, in 1660, to a bookfeller in the porch of
Mercer’s chapel ; and fet up trade with a Hock of about
2001. in thg’houfe that forms the angle between Corn-
hill and Lombard-ftreet. The Englilh Bibles being at
that time very badly printed, Mr Guy engaged with
others in a fcheme for printing them in Holland and
importing them; but this being put a (lop to, he con-
tratled with the univerfityof Oxford for their privilege
of printing them, and carried on a great bible-tradc
for many years to a confiderable advantage. Thus he
GUY
Began to accumulate money, and his gains refled in his Gny,
hands; for being a fingle man, and very penurious, Guyon.
his expences could not be great when it was his cuflom
to dineon his (hop-counter with no other table-cover¬
ing than an old newfpaper: he was moreover as little
fcrtipulous about the ftyle of his apparel. The bulk of
his fortune, however, was acquired by purchafing fea-
mens tickets during queen Anne’s wars, and by South-
Sea-ftock in the memorable year 1720. To (hew
what great events fpring from trivial caufes, it may be
obferved, that the public owe the dedication of the
greatefl part of his immenfe fortune to charitable pur-
pofes, to the indifcreet oflkioufnefs of his maid-fer-
vant in interfering with the mending of the pavement
before the door. Guy had agreed to marry her ; and,
preparatory to his nuptials, had ordered the pavement
before his door, which was in a neglefted (late, to be
mended, as far as to a particular (lone which he point¬
ed out. The maid, while her mafter was out, inno¬
cently looking on the paviours at work, faw a broken
place that they had not repaired, and mentioned it to
them : but they told her that Mr Guy bad directed
them not to go fo far. Well, fays (he, do yon mend
it, tell him 1 bade you, and I know he will not be an¬
gry. It happened, however, that the poor girl pre¬
fumed too much on her influence over her careful lover,
with whom a few extraordinary (hillings expence turn¬
ed thefcale totally againd her: the men obeyed, Guy
was enraged to find his orders exceeded, his matrimo¬
nial fcheme was renounced, and fo he built hofpitals
in his old age. In the year 1707 he built and furniflv-
ed three wards on the north-fide of the outer court of
St Thomas’s Hofpital in Southwark, and gave tool,
to it annually for eleven years preceding the ereftion of
his own hofpital: and, fome time before his death, e-
redled the (lately iron gate, with the large honfes on
each fide, at the expence of about 30001. He was
76 years of age when he formed the defign of building
the hofpital contiguous to that of St Thomas’s, which
bears his name, and lived to fee itroofed in ; dying in
the year 1724. The charge of erecting this vail pile
amounted to 18,793!. and he left 219,499 1. to en¬
dow it; a much larger fum than had ever been dedica¬
ted to charitable ufes in this kingdom by any one man.
He eredled an alms-houfe with a library at Tanworth in
Stafibrdfliire (the place of his mother’s nativity, and
for which he was reprefentative in parliament) for 14
poor men and women; and for their penfions, as well
as for the putting out poor children apprentices, be¬
queathed 125I. a year. Laftly, he bequeathed 1000L
to every ene who could prove themfelves in any degree
related to him.
Guy, a rope ufed to keep (leady any weighty body
whilft it is hoifting or lowering, particularly when the
(hip is (haken by a tempeiluous fea.
Guy is likewife a large (lack rope, extending from,
the head of the main-mad to the head of the fore-
mad, and having two or three large blocks fadened to
the middle of it. This is chiefly employed to fuflain
the tackle ufed to hold in and out the cargo of a mer¬
chant (hip, and is accordingly removed from the mad-
head as foon as the veflel is laden or delivered.
GUYON (Johanna Mary Bouriers de la Mothe), a
French lady, memorable for her writings, and for her
fufferings. in the caufe of Quietifm, was defcended from
[ 5478 1
GYM [ 3479 ] GYM
Gyanis a noble family, and born at Montargis in 1648. She
II gave fome extraordinary fymptoms of illumination
^um1" fr°m *ier ear*'eft infancy, and tried to take the veil
 before (he was of age to difpofe of herfelf; but her
parents obliged her to marry a gentleman to whom
they had promifed her. She was a widow at the age
of 28 ; when diftinguifliing herfelf in, and making
many converts to, the way of contemplation and
prayer, known by the name of quietifm, complaints
were made of her fpiritualifm ; and fhe confined by or¬
der of the king, and feverely examined for eight
months. She was difcharged; but was afterwards invol¬
ved in the perfecution of the archbiihop of Cambray,
and thrown into the Baftile, where ihe underwent many
examinations: but nothing being made out againft
her, fhe once more obtained her liberty, and lived
private to her death in 1717. She fpent her latter
years in myftical reveries j covering her tables, ciel-
ings, and every thing that would receive them, with
tbefallies of a vifionary imagination. Her pious ver-
fes were collefled after her death, in 5 vols, entitled
Cantiques fpirituds, ou d’Emblemesfur V Amour Divin.
Her publications were, Le moyen court it tres facile
de faire Oraifons ; and Le Cantique des Cantiques de Sa¬
lomon interprete, felon le fens myjlique ; which were
condemned by the archbifhop of Paris.
GYARUS, (anc. geog.), one of the Cyclades, 12
miles in compafs, lying to the eaft of Delos. It was a
defart ifland, and alloted for a place of banifhment by
the Romans.
GYBING, the aft of fhifting any boom-fail from
one fide of the mail to the other.
In order to underiland this operation more clearly, it
is neceffary to remark, that by a boom-fail is meant
any fail whofe bottom is extended by a boom, the fore¬
end of which is hooked to its refpeftive mail; fo as to
fwing occafionally on either fide of the veffel, defcri-
bing an arch, of which the mall will be the centre.
As the wind or the courfe changes, it alfo becomes
frequently neceflary to change the pofition of the boom,
together with its fail, which is accordingly (hifted to
the other fide of the veffel as a door turns upon its
hinges. The boom is pulhed out by the effort of the
wind upon the fail, and is reftrained in a proper fitua-
tionby a ftrong tackle communicating with the veffels
Hern, and called the fheet. It is alfo confined on the
fore-part by another tackle, called guy.
GYMNASIARCH, in antiquity, the director of
the gymnafium. He had two deputies under him ;
the one called xyfarch, who prefided over the athletae,
and had the overfight of wreftling ; the other was
gymnafes, who had the direction of all other exercifes.
GYMNASIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place fit¬
ted for performing exercifes.—The word is Greek,
formed of yv/tv®-, “ naked by reafon they ancient¬
ly put off their clothes, to pra&ife with the more
freedom.
Gymnafia, according to Potter, were firft ufed at
Lacedaemon, but were afterwards very common in all
parts of Greece ; and imitated, very much augmented,
and improved, at Rome. They were not fingle edifi¬
ces, but a knot of buildings united, being fufficiently
capacious to hold many thoufands of people at once ;
and having room enough for philofophers, rhetoricians,
and the profeffors of all other fciences to read their
le&ures,—and wreftlers, dancers, and all others who
had a mind, to exercife,—at the fame time, without the
leaft diflurbance or interruption. They confided of a
great many parts; the chief of which were the porti¬
coes, eleothefium, palasftra, coniftorium, &c.
Athens had feveral gymnafia, of which the ly-
caeum, academia, and cynofurges, were thofe of moll
note.
The lycasum was feated on the banks of the river I-
lilfus; and received its name from Apollo, to whom it
was dedicated. This was the place where Ariftotle
taught philofophy, walking there every day till the
hour of anointing : whence he and his followers were
named Peripatetics.
_ The academy was part of the Ceramicus without the
city, where Plato le&ured.-
The cynofurges was alloted for the populace.
GYMNASTICS, the art of performing the feve¬
ral bodily exercifes, as wreftling, running, fencing,
dancing, &c.
That part of medicine which regulates the exercifes
of the body, whether for preferving or reftoring health,
is alfo termed gymnajlk.
GYMNOPYRIS, in natural hiftory, a name given
by Dr Hill to the pyritse of a fimple internal ftrufture,
and not covered with a cruft. See Pyrites.
Of thefe there are only two fpecies-. 1. A green
varioully lhaped kind. 2. A botryoide kind.
The firft fpecies is the moll common of all the py-
ritae, and appears under a great diverfity of lhapes. It
is very hard and heavy, very readily gives fire with
Heel, but will not at all ferment with aquafortis. The
fecond fpecies is very elegant and beautiful, and its
ufual colour is a very agreeable pale green; but what
moll diftinguilhes it from all other pyritae is, that its
furface is always beautifully elevated into tubercles of
various fixes, refembling a duller of grapes.
GYMNOSOPHISTS, a fedl of philofophers who
clothed themfelves no farther than modefty required.
There were fome of thefe fages in Africa; but the moll
celebrated clan of them was in India. .The African
gymnofophifts dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia,
near the Nile, without the accommodation either of
houfe or cell. They did not form themfelves into fo-
cieties like thofe of India; but each had his private
recefs, where he ftudied, and performed his devo¬
tions by himfelf. If any perfon had killed another by
chance, he applied to thefe fages for abfolution, and
fubmitted to whatever penances they enjoined. They
obferved an extraordinary frugality, and lived only
upon the fruits of the earth. Lucan afcribes to thefe
gymnofophifts feveral new difcoveries in aftronomy.
As to the Indian gymnofophifts, they dwelt in the
woods, where they lived upon the wild products of
the earth, and never drank wine nor married. Some
of them pra&ifed phyfic, and travelled from one
place to another; thefe were particularly famous for
their remedies againft barrennefs. Some of them,
likewife, pretended to praftife magic, and to foretel
future events.
In general, the gymnofophifts were wife and learned
men: their maxims and difcourfes, recorded by hifto-
rians, do not in the leaft favour of a barbarous educa¬
tion ; but are plainly the refult of great fenfe and
deep thought. They kept up the dignity of their
19 Y 2 cha-
Gymnafttcs
II .
Gymno¬
fophifts.
GYM [ 3480 ] GYM
Gymno- charafter to fo high a degree, that it was never their
fpermia, cuft0rivto wait upon anybody, not even upon princes
Gymnotus. t}jemfe]ves. fot which reafon Alexander, who would
not condefcend to vifit them in perfon, fent fome of
his courtiers to them in order to fatisfy his curiofity.
Their way of educating their difciples is very remark¬
able: every day, at dinner, they examined them how
they had fpent the morning ; and every one was obli¬
ged to {hew, that he had difcharged fome good office,
praftifed fome virtue, or improved in fome part of
learning: if nothing of this appeared, he was fent back
without his dinner. They held a tranfmigration of
fouls ; and it is probable that Pythagoras borrowed
his do&rine from them.
GYMNOSPERMIA, in botany, from
naked, and amp pa, feed; the firll order in Linnaeus’s
clafs of didynamia. It comprehends thofe plants of
that clafs which have naked feeds. The feeds are con-
ftantly four in number, except in one genus, viz.
phryma, which is monofpermous. See Botany,
p. 1292.
GYMNOTUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes
belonging to the order of apodes. They have two
tentacula at the upper lip; the eyes are covered with
the common {kin ; there are five rays in the membrane
of the gills; the body is compreffed, and carinated on
the belly with a fin. There are five fpecies; the moft
remarkable of which is the eleftricus. This fpecies is
peculiar to Surinam; and is found in the rocky parts
of the river, at a great difiance from the fea. The
moft accurate defcription we have of this fifti is in the
Phil. Tranf. for 1775, where Alex. Garden, M. D.
gives an account of three of them brought to Charlef-
town in South-Carolina. The largeft was about three
feet eight inches in length, and might have been from
jo to finches in circumference about the thickeft
part of its body. The head was large, broad, flat,
and fmooth; imprefled here and there with holes, as
if perforated with a blunt needle, efpecially towards
the fides, where they were more regularly ranged in a
line on each fide. There were two nofirils on each
fide ; the firft large, tubular, and elevated above the
furface; the others fmall, and level with the fldn. The
eyes were fmall, flattifti, and of a bluifti colour, placed
about three quarters of an inch behind the noftrils.
The whole body, from about four inches below the
head,, was clearly diftinguifhed into four longitudinal
parts or divifions. The upper part or back was of a
dark colour, and feparated from the other parts on
each fide by the lateral lines. Thefe lines took their
rife at the bafe of the head, juft above the pe&oral
fins, and run down the fides, gradually converging as
the fifti grew fmaller to the tail. The fecond divilion
was of a lighter and clearer colour than the firft, incli¬
ning to blue. Itfeemed to fwell out on each fide; but
towards the under part it is again contrafted and fliar-
pened into the third part or carina. This part is ea-
lily diftinguiflied from the other two by its thinnefs,
its apparent laxnefs, and by the reticulated fltin of a
more grey and light colour, with which it is covered.
The carina begins about fix or feven inches below the
bafe of the head ; and, gradually deepening or wi¬
dening as it goes along, reaches down to the tail,
where it is thinneft. The fourth part is a long, deep,
foft and wavy fin, which takes its rife about three or
four inches at moft below the head ; and thus runs Gymnotns-
down the fliarp edge of the carina to the extremity of  
the tail. The fituation of the anus was very Angular;
being an inch more forward than the petfioral fins.
Externally it feemed to be a pretty large ritna; but
the formed excrements were only the fize of a quill of
a common dunghill-fowl. There were two pedloral
fins fituated juft behind the head, fcarcely an inch in
length; of a very thin, delicate confidence, and orbi¬
cular ftiape. They feemed to be chiefly ufeful in fup-
porting and raifing the head of the fifti when he came
up to breathe ; which he was obliged to do every four
or five minutes. Acrofs the body were a number of
fmall bands, annular divifions, or rather rugts of the
flo’n. By means of thefe the fifti feemed to par¬
take of the vermicular nature, had the power of
lengthening or ftiortening its body like a worm,
and could fwim backwards as well as forwards, which
is another property of the vermicular tribe. Every
now and then it laid itfelf on one fide in the water,
as if to reft.
This fifti hath the aftoniftiing property of giving the
eleftric ftiock to any perfon, ornumber of perfons, either
by the immediate touch with the hand, or by the me¬
diation of any metallic condu&or; and the perfon
who kept them, told Dr Garden, that they had this
property much ftronger when firft catched than after¬
wards: “ The perfon (fays he) who is to receive the
{hock, muft take the fifti with both hands, at fome con-
fiderable diftance afunder, fo as to form the commu¬
nication, otherwife he will not receive it: at leaft I
never faw any one ftiocked from taking hold of it with
one hand only ; though fome have affured me, that
they were ftiocked by laying one hand on it. I my-
felf have taken hold of the largeft with one hand of¬
ten, without ever receiving a flioek; but I never
touched it with both hands, at a little diftance afun¬
der, without feeling a fmart ftiock. I have often re¬
marked, that when it is taken hold of with one hand,
and the other is put into the water over its body, with¬
out touching it, the perfon received a fmart ftiock; and
I have obferved the fame effeft follow, when a num¬
ber joined hands, and the perfon at one extremity of
the circle took hold of or touched the fifti, and the
perfon at the other extremity put his hand into the wa¬
ter, over the body of the fifti. The fliock was com¬
municated through the whole circle, as fmartly as if
both the extreme perfons had touched the fifti. In this
it feems to differ widely from the torpedo *, or elfe we * See Tor-
are much mifinformed of the manner in which the be- pedo:
numbing effedl of that fifti is communicated. The
ftiock with our Surinam fifti gives, feems to be wholly
ele&rical; and all the phenomena or properties of it
exaftly refemble thofe of the eleftric aura of our at-
mofphere when colledfed, as far as they are difeover-
able from the feveral trials made on this fifti. This
ttroke is communicated by the fame condudfors, and
intercepted by the interpofition of the fame origi¬
nal eledlrics, or eleclrics per fe as they ufed to be
called. The keeper of this fifti informs me, that he
catched them in Surinam river, a great way up, be¬
yond where the falt-water reaches ; and that they are
a frefti-water fifti only. He fays, that they are eaten,
and by fome people eftcemed a great delicacy. They
live on fifli, worms, or any animal-food if it is cut
fmall.
G Y N [ 3481 ] G Y N
Gymnotus. fmall fo that they can fwallow it. When fmall fifties
   are thrown into the water, they firft give them afhock,
which kills or fo ftupifies them, that they can fwallow
them eafily, and without any trouble. Ifoneofthefe
fmall fifties, after it is ftiocked, and to all appearance
dead, be taken out of the veffel where the eledlrical fifti
is, and put into frefh water, it will foon revive again.
If a larger fifti than they can fwallow be thrown into
the water, at a time that they are hungry, they give
him fome fmart (hocks, till he is apparently.dead, and
then they try to fwallow or fuck him in ; but, after
feveral attempts, finding he is too large, they quit
him. Upon the moil careful infpe&ion of fuch fifii, I
could never fee any mark of teeth, or the lead wound
or fcratch on them. When the electrical fifti are hun¬
gry, they are pretty keen after their food; but they
are foon fatisfied, not being able to contain much at
one time. An eledtrical fifti of three feet and upwards
in length cannot fwallow a fmall fifti above three or at
molt three inches and a half long. I am told, that fome
of thefe have been feen in Surinam river upwards of 22
feet long, whofe ftroke or (hock proved inftant death
to any perfon that unluckily received it.”
Several other accounts of this fifti have been pub-
liftied by different perfons, but none of them fo full
and diffinCt as the above. They all agree that the
eleCtiic virtue of the fifti is very ftrong. Mr Fer-
min in his natural hiftory of Surinam, publiftied in
1765, tells us, that one cannot touch it with the
hands, or even with a ftick, without feeling a hor¬
rible numbnefs in the arms up to the (boulders;
and he farther relates, that, making 14 perfons grafp
each other by the hands, while he grafped the hand
of the laft with one of his, and with the other
touched the eel with a ftick, the whole number felt
fo violent a (hock, that he could not prevail on them
to repeat the experiment. V. Vanderlott, in two let¬
ters from Rio Effequebo dated in 1761, makes two
fpecies, the black and the reddifti; though he ac¬
knowledges, that, excepting the difference of colour
and degree of ftrength, they are not materially, differ¬
ent. In mod experiments with thefe animals, he re¬
marked a furpriiing refemblance between them and an
eleCtrical apparatus: nay, he obferved, that the (hock
could be given to the finger of a perfon held at
fome diftance from the bubble of air formed by the
fifti when he cbmes to the furface of the water to
breathe; and he concluded, that at fuch times the
eleCtrical matter was difcharged from its lungs. H'e
mentions another characterizing circumftance, which
is, that though metals in general were conductors of
its eleCtric property, yet fome were found to be fen-
fibly better than others for that purpofe. Of this
property Dr Prieftley takes notice, and fays that a
gold ring is preferable to any thing elfe. The fame
is likewife obferved by Linnseus. Dr Prieftley adds,
that the fenfation is ftrongeft when the fifti is in
motion, and is tranfmitted to a great diftance; fo
that if perfons in a (hip happen to dip their fingers
or feet in the fea, when the fifti is fwimming at the
diftance of 15 feet from them, they are affeCted by it.
He alfo tells us, that the gymnotus itfelf, notwith-
ftanding all its eleCtric powers, is killed by the lobfter.
GYNiECEUM, among the ancients, the apartment
ef the women, a feparate room in the inner part of the
houfe, when they employed themfelves in fpihuing, Gymoo-
weaving, and needle-work. cr*pc
GYNiECOCRACY, denotes the government of wo- Gypfics
men, or a (late where women are capable of the (u-   
preme command. Such are Britain and Spain.
GYNANDRIA, (from a “ woman and
“"f, a “ man.”) The name of the 20th clafs in Lin-
nasus’s fexual fyftem, confiding of plants with herma¬
phrodite flowers, in which the (lamina are placed upon
the ftyle, or, to fpeak more properly, upon a pillar-
(haped receptacle, refembling a ftyle, which rifes in
the middle of the flower, and bears both the (lamina
and pointal ; that is, both the fuppofed organs of ge¬
neration. See Botany, p. 1292.
The flowers of this clafs, fays Linnaeus, have a mon- »
ftrous appearance, arifing, as he imagines, from the
Angular and unufual fituation of the parts of fruClifi-
cation.
GYPSIES, or Egyptians, in our ftatutes, a kind
of impoftors and jugglers, who difguifing themfelves in
uncouth habits, fmearing their faces and bodies, and
framing to themfelves a canting language, wander up
and down, and, under pretence of telling fortunes, cu¬
ring difeafes, &c. abufe the common people, trick them
of their money, and (leal all that they can-come at.
There are feveral ftatutes made again them.
Egyptians coming into England are to depart the
realm , in fifteen days, or be imprifoned, by 22 Hem
VIII. cap. 10. And by 1 & 2 P. & M. cap. 4.
any perfon importing them into this kingdom, (hall
forfeit forty pounds ; and if they remain here a-
bove one month, or if any perfon, fourteen years
old, confort with them, they are guilty of felony,
without benefit of clergy; 5 Eliz. cap. 20. And
we are informed by Sir M. Hale, that at one Suffolk
affizes, no lefs than thirteen Gypfies were executed
upon thefe ftatutes, a few years before the Reftoration.
See alfo 39 Eliz. cap. 4. $ 2. 17 & Geo II. cap. 5. § 2.
The origin of this tribe of vagabonds is fome what
obfcure; at lead, the reafon of the denomination is
fo. It is certain, the ancient Egyptians had the cha-
ra&er of great cheats, and were famous for the fnb-
tilty of their impoftures ; whence the name might af¬
terwards pafs proverbially into other languages, as it
is pretty certain it did into the Greek and Latin : or
elfe, the ancient Egyptians, being much verfed in a-
ftronomy, which in thofedays was little elfe but aftro-
logy, the name was on that (core affumed by thefe tell¬
ers of good fortone.
Be this as it will, there is fcarce any country of Eu ¬
rope but has its Egyptians, though not all of them un¬
der that denomination : the Latins call them JEgyptii ;
the Italians, Cingani and Chigari; the Germans, Z/-
gcuncr ; the French, Bohemicns ; others, Saracens;
and others, Tartars, Sac.
Munfter, Geogr. lib. Hi. cap. 5. relates, that they
made their firft appearance in Germany in 1417, ex¬
ceedingly tawny and'fun-burnt, and in pitiful array,
though they affedted quality, and travelled with a train
of hunting-dogs after them, like nobles. The above
date (hould probably ha've been 1517, as Munfter him-
ftlf owns he never faw any till 1524. He adds, that'
they had paffports from king Sigiftnund of Bohemia,
and other princes. Ten years afterwards, they came
into France,, and thence paffed into England. Seve-
GYP [ 3482 ] GYP
Gypfies. ral hiftorians inform us, that when fultan Selim con-
“ - quered Egypt in the year 15x7, feveral of the natives
refufed to fuhmit to the Turkidi yoke; but, being at
length fuhdued and banilhed, they agreed to difperfe
in fmall parties over the world, where their fuppofed
(kill in the black art gave them an univerfal reception
in that age of fuperftition and credulity. In a few
years, the number of their profelytes multiplied, and
they became formidable to moft of the ftates. of Eu¬
rope. Pafquier, in his Recherch. lib. iv. chap. 19.
relates a lefs probable origin of the Gypfies, thus:
On the 17th of April 1427, there came to Paris twelve
penitents, or perfons, as they faid, adjudged to pe¬
nance, viz. one duke, one count, and ten cavaliers or
* perfons on horfeback : they took on themfelves the
character of Chrijliaris of the Lower Egypt, expelled
by the Saracens ; who, having made application to the
Pope, and confeffed their fins, received for penance,
that they fliould travel through the world for feven
years, without ever lying on a bed. Their train con¬
fided of x20 perfons, men, women, and children;
which were all that were left of x 200, who came to¬
gether out of Egypt. They had lodgings afiigned
them in the chapel, and people went in crowds to fee
them. Their cars were perforated, and filver-buckles
hung to them ; their hair was exceedingly black, and
frizzled ; their women were ugly, thievifix, and pre¬
tenders to telling of fortunes. The bifhop foon after¬
wards obliged them to retire, and excommunicated
fuch as had (hewn them their hands.
By an ordonnance of the edates of Orleans in the
year 1560, it was enjoined all thefe impodors, under
the name of Bohemians and Egyptians, to quit the
kingdom, on penalty of the galleys. Upon this they
difperfed into lefler companies, and fpread themfelves
over Europe. The fird time we hear of them in Eng¬
land, was in the year 1530, when they were defcribed
by the datute already cited, 22 Hen. VIII. cap. 10.
They were expelled from Spain in 1591.
Ralph. Volaterranus, making mention of them, af¬
firms, that they fird proceeded or drolled from among
the Uxii, a people of Perils or Perfia.
GYPSUM, or Plaster-stone, in natural hidory, Gypfum
a genus of foffils, naturally and effentially fimple, II
not inflammable nor foluble in water, and compofed ®y^lorn-
of flat fmall particles, which form bright, glofly, and
in fome degree tranfparent maffes, not flexible or ela-
dic, not giving fire with fled, nor fermenting with or
being foluble in acid mendrua, and very eafily cal¬
cined in the fire.
Of thefe gypfums, fome are harder, others fofter,
and are of feveral colours, as white, grey, red, green,
&c. fometimes diftind, and fometimes varioufly blend¬
ed together.
The origin of all thefe gypfums is from the vitriolic
acid and calcareous earth. See Chemistry, n° 127.
They are much ufed for fluccoing rooms, and for
cafling buds and datues; for which lad purpofe they
are excellently adapted by the property they have of
expanding when they fet, or become folid, after being
mixed with water. See Plaster.
Gypfum by itfelf is very difficult of fufion : yet if a
piece of forged iron is furrounded with gypfum in a
crucible, and urged with a vehement heat, that metal,
though otherwife unfufible, will be melted, and retain
its malleability, though fome fay it afiumes the nature
of cad iron. Another very remarkable property of
gypfum is, that when mixed with chalk, clay, lime-
done, and fome other unfufible earths, they melt, in a
heat not very great, into a yellowilh glafs. It is im-
poffible, however, either to reduce this glafs to a fuf-
ficient degree of finenefs and tranfparency by itfelf, or
by means of it to give a good yellow colour to other
glafs.
GYR-falco, in zoology, the name of a large and
fierce fpecies of falcon called in Engliflx the jer-fal-
con. See Falco.
It is a very bold and daring bird, attacking all other
fowl without referve, particularly the heron and dork
kinds. The other falcons are all afraid of this.
GYSHORN, a town of Germany in the duchy of
Lunenburg, fiturted on the river Aller, in E. Long.
10. 45. N. Lat. 52. 50.
H-
TT The eighth letter and fixth cotifonant ui otir
alphabet; though fome grammarians will have
it to* be only an afpiration, or breathing. But no¬
thing can be more ridiculous than to difpute its be¬
ing a didindl found, and formed in a particular mannet
by the organs of fpeech, at lead in our language: wit-
nefs the words eat and heat, arm and harm, ear and
hear, at and hat, &c. as pronounced with or with¬
out the h.
It is pronounced by a drong exfpiration of the
breath between the lips, clofing, as it were, by a gentle
motion of the lower jaw to the upper, and the tongue
nearly approaching the palate.
There feems to be no doubt, but that our h, which
is the fame with that of the Romans, derived its figure
from that of the Plebrew h. And, indeed, the Phoeni¬
cians, mod ancient Greeks and Romans, ufed the fame
figure with our H, which in the feries of all thefe alpha¬
bets keeps its primitive place, being the eighth letter.
H, ufed as a numeral, denotes 200; and with a dafli
over it, H, 200,000.
As an abbreviation, H was ufed by the ancients to
denote homo, hares, hora, &c. Thus H. B. flood
for hares bonorum; and H. S. corruptly for L L S.
federce; and H. A. for Hadrianus.
HAAG, or Hag, a town of the duchy of Bavaria
in Germany, feated oh a hill on the wed fide of the
river Inn, in E. Long. 12. 23. N. Lat. 48. 16.
HABAKKUK, one of the twelve lefler prophets,
whofe prdphecies are taken into the canon of the Old
Tefla-
H A B [ 3483 ] H A B
Habat Teftament. The name is wrote Tn the Hebrew with
II n hketh; and fignifies “ a wreftler.” There is nopre-
cife time mentioned in fcripture when this Habakkuk
lived ; but from his predicting the ruin of the Jews by
the Chaldeans, it may be concluded, that he prophe-
fied before Zedekiah, or about the time of Manaffeh.
He is reported to have been the author of feveral pro¬
phecies which are not extant: but thofe that are in-
difputably his, are contained in three chapters. In
thefe the prophet complains very pathetically of the
diforders which he obferved in the kingdom of Judaea.
God reveals to him, that he would (hortly punifh them
in a very terrible manner by the arms of the Chaldae-
ans. He foretels the conquefts of Nebuchadnezzar,
his metamorphofis, and death. He foretels, that the
vaft (hfigns of Jehoiakim would be fruftrated. He
fpeaks againft a prince (probably the king of Tyre)
who built with blood and iniquity; and he accufes
another king (perhaps the king of Egypt) of having
intoxicated his friend, in order to difcover his naked-
nefs. The third chapter is a fong or prayer to God,
whofe majefty he defcribes with the utmoll grandeur
and fublimity of expreflion.
HABAT, a province of Afia, in Barbary, and in
the kingdom of Fez. It is furrounded by the Medi¬
terranean, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic
Ocean. The principal towns are Arzilla, Tetuan, and
Ceuta; which lalt is in poffeffion of the Spaniards.
HABDALA, a ceremony of the Jews obferved on
the evening of the fabbath, when every one of the fa¬
mily is come home. At that time they light a taper
or lamp, with two wicks at leaft. The mailer of the
family then takes a cup, with fome wine, mixed with
fragrant fpices, and having repeated a pafiage or two
of fcripture, as for example, I will take the cup of
falvation,” &c. Pfal. cxvi. and “ The Jews had light
and gladnefs,” &c. E!lh. viii. he bleifes the wine and
fpices. Afterwards he bleifes the light of the fire; and
then calls his eyes on his hands and nails, as remem¬
bering that he is going to work. The whole is in¬
tended to iignify, that the fabbath is over, and is from
that moment divided from the day of labour which
follows. For this reafon the ceremony is called Hab-
dala, which fignifies “ dillin6lion.,, After the cere¬
mony is over, and the company breaks up, they wiih
one another, not “ a good night,? but “ a good
week.”
HABEAS corpus, in law, is the great remedy in
cafes of Et^ Imprisomment. The incapacity of the
three other remedies referred to under that article, to
give complete relief in every cafe, hath almoft entirely
antiquated them, and hath caufed a general recourfe
to be had, in behalf of perfons aggrieved by illegal
imprifonment, to the prefent writ, the moil celebra¬
ted in the Engliih law. Of this there are various
kinds made ufe of by the courts at Weftminiter, for
removing prifoners from one court into another for the
more eafy adminiftration of juftice. Such is the ha¬
beas corpus ad refpondendutn, when a man hath a caufe
of a&ion againil one who is confined by the procefs of
fome inferior court; in order to remove the prifoner,
and charge him with this new action in the dourt
above. Such is that adfatisfaciendum, when a prifo¬
ner hath had judgment againil him in an adlion, and
the plaintiff is defirous to bring him up to fome fupe-
I
rior court to charge him with procefs of execution. Habeas
Such alfo are thofe ad profequendum, teJUficandum, de- corPus-
liberandum, &c.; which iffue when it is neceffary to
remove a prifoner, in order to profecute or bear tefti-
mony in any court, or to be tried in the proper jurif-
didlion wherein the fadl was committed. Such is,
laftly, the common writ ad faciendum et recipiendum,
which iffues out of any of the courts of Weitminiler-
hall, whenaperfon is fued in fome inferior jurifdiftion,
and is defirous to remove the adlion into the fuperior
court; commanding the inferior judges to produce the
body of the defendant, together with the day and caufe
of his caption and detainer (whence the writ is fre¬
quently denominated an habeas c'drpus cum caufa) to
do and receive whatfoever the king’s court ihall confi-
der in that behalf. This is a writ grantable of com¬
mon right, without any motion in court; and it in-
ftantly fuperfedes all proceedings rn the court below.
But, in order to prevent the furreptitious difeharge of
prifoners, it is ordered by flatute 1 & 2 P. & M. c. 13.
that no habeas corpus fhall iffue to remove any prifoner
out of any gaol, unlefs figned by fome judge of the
court out of which it is awarded. And, to avoid vexa¬
tious delays by removal of frivolous caufes, it is enafted
by llatute 21 Jac. I. c. 23. that, where the judge of
an inferior eourt of record is a barrifter of three years
Handing, no caufe fhall be removed from thence by
habeas corpus or other writ, after iffue or demurrer de¬
liberately joined : that no caufe, if once remanded to
the inferior court by writ of procedendo or otherwife,
fhall ever afterwards be again removed : and that no
caufe fhall be removed at all, if the debt or damages
laid in the declaration do not amount to the fum of
five pounds. But an expedient having been found out
to elude the latter branch of the flatute, by procuring
a nominal plaintiff to bring another adlion for five
pounds or upwards, (and then by the courfe of the
court the habeas corpus removed both adlions together),
it is therefore enadled by flatute 12 Geo. I. c. 29.
that the inferior court may proceed in fuch adlions as
are under the value of five pounds, notwithflanding
other adlions may be brought againft the fame defend¬
ant to a greater amount.
But the great and efficacious writ, in all manner of d, >
illegal confinement, is that of habeas corpus ad fubjici- Commenta-
endum; diredled to the perfon detaining another, and ri«.
commanding him to produce the body of the prifoner,
with the day and caufe of his caption and detention,
ad faciendum, fubjiciendum, et recipiendum, to do, fub-
mit to, and receive whatfoever the judge or court
awarding fuch writ fhall confiderin that behalf. This
is a high prerogative writ, and therefore by the com¬
mon law iffuing out of the court of king’s bench not
only in term-time, but alfo during the vacation, by a
fiat from the chief juftice, or any other of the judges,
and running into all parts of the king’s dominions :
for the king is at all times entitled to have an account,
why the liberty of any of his fubjedls is reftrained,
wherever that reftraint may be inflifted. If it iffues
in vacation, it is ufually returnable before the judge
himfelf who awarded it, and he proceeds by himfelf
thereon ; unlefs the term fhould intervene, and then it
may be returned in court. Indeed, if the party were
privileged in the courts of common pleas and exche¬
quer, as being an officer or fuitor of the court, an ha-
bear
H A B
Habeas leas corpus adfubjiciendum might alfo have been award-
corpus. e(j froin thence • and, if the caufe of imprifonment were
palpably illegal, they might have difcharged him x but,
if he were committed for any criminal matter, they
could only have remanded him, or taken bail for his
appearance in the court of king’s bench; which occa-
fioned the common pleas to difcountenance fuch ap¬
plications. It hath alfo been faid, and by very re-
fpedtable authorities, that the like habeas corpus may
iffuc out of the court of chancery in vacation : but,
upon the famous application to lord Nottingham by
Jenks, notwithftanding the moft diligent fearches, no
precedent could be found where the chancellor had if-
fued fuch a writ in vacation, and therefore his lordihip
refufed it.
In the court of King's-bench it was, and is ftill,
neceffary to apply for it by motion to the court, as in
the cafe of all other prerogative writs (certiorari, pro¬
hibition, mandamus, &c.) which do not ilTue as of
mere courfe, without (hewing fome probable caufe why
the extraordinary power of the crown is called in to
the party’s afliitance. For, as was argued by lord
chief juflice Vaughan, “ it is granted on motion, be-
“ cauie it cannot be had of courfe ; and there is there-
“ fore no necejfity to grant it: for the court ought to
“ be fatisfied that the party hath a probable caufe to
“ to be delivered.” And this feems the more reafon-
able, hecaufe (when once granted) the perfon to whom
it is direfted can return no fatisfaftory excufe for not
bringing up the body of the prifoner. So that, if it
iffiied of mere courfe, without (hewing to the court
or judge fome reafonable ground for awarding it, a
traitor or felon under fentence of death, a foldier or
mariner in the king’s fervice, a wife, a child, a relation,
or a domeftic, confined for infanity or other pruden¬
tial reafons, might obtain a temporary enlargement
by fuing out an habeas corpus, though fure to be re¬
manded as foon as brought up to the court. And
therefore Sir Edward Coke, when chief juftice, did not
fcruple, in 13 Jac. I. to deny a habeas corpus to one
confined by the court of admiralty for piracy; there
appearing, upon his own (hewing, fufficient grounds
to confine him. On the other hand, if a probable
ground be (hewn, that the party is imprifoned without
juft caufe, and therefore hath a right to be delivered,
the writ of habeas corpus is then a writ of right, which
“ may not be denied, but ought to be granted to
“ every man that is committed, or detained in prifon,
“ or otherwife reftrained, though it be by the com-
“ mand of the king, the privy-council, or any o-
ther.”
In the articles Liberty and Rights, we expatiated
at large on the perfonal liberty of the fubjeft. This
was (hewn to be a natural inherent right, which could
not be furrendered or forfeited unlefs by the commif-
fion of fome great and atrocious crime, and which
ought not to be abridged in any cafe without the fpe-
cial permiffion of law. A do&rine coeval with the
firft rudiments of our conftitution; and handed down
to us from the Anglo-Saxons, notwithftanding all their
druggies with the Danes, and the violence of the
Norman conqueft: afferted afterwards and confirmed
by the conqueror himfelf and his defeendants: and
though fometimes a little impaired by the ferocity of
the times, and the oceafional defpotifm of jealous or
H A B
ufurping princes, yet eftablifhed on the firmed bafis by Habeas
the provifions of snagna charta, and a long.fuceefiion corpus,
of ftatutes enaded under Edward III. To aflert an *
abfolute exemption from imprifonment in all cafes, is
inconfiftent with every idea of law' and political focie-
ty; and in the end would deftroy all civil liberty, by
rendering its protedion impofiible: but the glory of Blackftone's
the Engfifti law confifts in clearly defining the Commenta-
the caufes, and the extent, when, wherefore, and ton<;*’
what degree, the imprifonment of the fubjedf may be
lawful. This it is, which induces the abfolute necef-
fity of exprefling upon every commitment the reafon
for which it is made; that the court, upon an habeas
corpus, may examine into its validity; and according
to the circumftances of the cafe may difeharge, ad¬
mit to bail, or remand the prifoner.
And yet, early in the reign of Charles I. the court
of king’s-bench, relying on fome arbitrary precedents
(and thofe perhaps mifunderftood), determined * that * State
they could not upon an habeas corpus either bail or trials, viii.
deliver a prifoner, though committed without any ,^(S‘
caufe afligned, in cafe he was committed by the fpe-
cial command of the king, or by the lords of the privy-
council. This drew on a parliamentary inquiry, and
produced the petition of right, 3 Car. I. which recites
this illegal judgment, and enatfts that no freeman here¬
after (hall be fo imprifoned or detained. But when,
in the following year, Mr Selden and others were
committed by the lords of the council, in purfuance of
his majefty’s fpecial command, under a general charge
of “ notable contempts and ftirring up fedition againft
“ the king and government,” the judges delayed for
two terms (including alfo the long vacation) to deliver
an opinion how far fuch a charge was bailable. And,
when at length they agreed that it was, they how¬
ever annexed a condition of finding fureties for the
good behaviour, which dill protracted their imprifon¬
ment ; the chief juftice Sir Nicholas Hyde, at the fame
time declaring f, that “ if they were again remanded f Jb\i. 140.
“ for that caufe, perhaps the court would not after-
“ wards grant a habeas corpus, being already made
“ acquainted with the caufe of the imprifonment.”
But this was heard with indignation and aftonifh-
ment by every lawyer prefent; according to Mr
Selden’s own account of the matter, whofe refent-
ment was not cooled at the diftance of four and twenty
years.
Thefe pitiful evafions gave rife to the ftatute 16
Car. I. c. 10. $. 8. whereby it is enaCIed, that if any
perfon be committed by the king himfelf in perfon,
or by his privy council, or by any of the members
thereof, he (hall have granted unto him, without any
delay upon any pretence whatfoever, a writ of habeas
corpus, upon demand or motion made to the court of
king’s bench or common-pleas; who (hall therupon,
within three court-days after the return is made, exa¬
mine and determine the legality of fuch commitment,
and do what to juftice (hall appertain, in delivering,
bailing, or remanding fuch prifoner. Yet (fill in the
cafe of Jenks, before alluded to, who in 1676 was
committed by the king in council for a turbulent
fpeech at Guildhall, new (hifts and devices were made
ufe of to prevent his enlargement by law ; the chief
juftice (as well as the chancellor) declining to award
a writ of habeas corpus ad fubjiciendum in vacation,
though
[ 3484 ]
H A B [ 3485 ] H A B
Habeas though at laft he thought proper to award the ufual
Corpus. Wnts ad deliberandum, Ike. whereby the prifoner was
~~ difeharged at the Old Bailey. Other abufes had alfo
crept into daily pra&ice, which had in fome meafure
defeated the benefit of this great conftitutional re¬
medy. The part^r imprifoning was at liberty to de¬
lay his obedience to the firft writ, and might wait till
a fecond and a third, called an alias and a pluries,
were ilfued, before he produced the party; and many
other vexatious fiiifts were pradtiled to detain ftate-
prifoners in enftody. But whoever will attentively
confider the Engliih hiilory may obferve, that the
flagrant abufe of any power, by the crown or its mi-
niflers, has always been produdlive of a ftruggle;
which either difeoyers the exercife of that power to
be contrary to law, or (if legal) reftrains it for the
future. This was the cafe in the prefent inftance.
The oppreffion of an obfeure individual gave birth to
the famous habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II. c. 2. which
is frequently confidered as another rnagna carta of the
kingdom ; and by confequence has alfo in fubfequent
times reduced the method of proceeding on thefe writs
(though not within the reach of that ftatute, but ifiu-
ing merely at the common law) to the true ftandard of
law and liberty.
The ftatute itfelf enafts, t. That the writ fhall be
returned and the prifoner brought up, within a limited
time according to the diftance, not exceeding in any
cafe twenty days. 2. That fuch writs fliall be endor-
fed, as granted in purfuance of this aft, and figned by
the perfon awarding them. 3. That on complaint and
requeft in writing by or on behalf of any perfon com¬
mitted and charged with any crime (unlefs committed
for treafon or felony expreffed in the warrant, or for
fufpicion of the fame, or as acceffory thereto before
the fadf, or convifted or charged in execution by le¬
gal procefs) the lord chancellor or any of the twelve
judges, in vacation, upon viewing a copy of the war¬
rant, or affidavit that a copy is denied, ffiall (unlefs
the party has neglefted for two terms to apply to any
court for his enlargement) award a habeas corpus for
fuch prifoner, returnable immediately before himfelf
or any other of the judges ; and upon the return made
ffiall difeharge the party, if bailable, upon giving fe-
curity to appear and anfwer to the accufation in the
proper court of judicature. 4. That officers and
keepers neglefting to make due returns, or not deli¬
vering to the prifoner or his agent within fix hours
after demand a copy of the warrant of commitment,
or ffiifting the cuftody of a prifoner from one to ano¬
ther without fufficient reafon or authority (fpecified
in the aft) ffiall for the firft offence forfeit tool, and
for the fecond offence 200 1. to the party grieved,
and be difabled to hold his office. 5. That no per¬
fon, once delivered by habeas corpus, ffiall be re¬
committed for the fame offence, on penalty of
5001. 6. That every perfon committed for trea¬
fon or felony ffiall, if he requires it the firft week
of the next term or the firft: day of the next feffion
of oyer and terminer, be indifted in that term, or
feffion, or elfe admitted to bail ; unlefs the king’s
witnefl’es cannot be produced at that time : and if ac¬
quitted, or if not indifted and tried in the fecond term
or feffion, he ffiall be difeharged from his imprifon-
ment for fuch imputed 'offence : but that no perfon,
Vox,. V.
after the affifes ffiall be opened for the county in which Habeas
he is detained, ffiall be removed by habeas corpus, till
after the affifes are ended; but fltail be left to the  1
juftice of the judges of affife. 7. That any fuch pri¬
foner may move for and obtain his habeas corpus, as
well out of the chancery'or exchequer, as out of the
king’s bench or common pleas; and the lord chan¬
cellor or judges denying the fame, on fight of the
warrant or oath that the fame is refufed, forfeit feve-
rally to the party grieved the firm of 500 1. 8. That
the writ of habeas corpus ffiall run into the counties
palatine, cinque ports, and other privileged places,
and the iflands of Jerfey and Guernfey. 9. That no
inhabitant of England (except perfons contrafting, or
convifts praying, to be tranfported ; or having com¬
mitted fome capital offence in the place to which
they are fent) ffiall be fent prifoner to Scotland, Ire¬
land, Jerfey, Guernfey, or any places beyond the
feas, within or without the king’s dominions : on pain
that the party c-oni,mitting, his advifers, aiders, and
affiftants, ffiall forfeit to the party grieved a fum not
lefs than 500 1. to be recovered with treble cofts ; ffiall
be difabled to bear any office of trull or profit ; ffiall
incur the penalties of pramunire; and ffiall be incap¬
able of the king’s pardon.
This is the fubftance of that great and important
ftatute : which extends (we may obferve) only to the
cafe of commitments for fuch criminal charge as can
produce no inconvenience to public juftice by a tem¬
porary enlargement of the prifoner ; all other cafes of
unjuft imprifonment being left to the habeas corpus at
common law. But even upon writs at the common
law it is now expefted by the court, agreeable to an¬
cient precedents and the fpirit of the aft of parlia¬
ment, that the writ ffiould be immediately obeyed,
without waiting for any alies or pluries ; otherwife an
attachment will iffue. By which admirable regula¬
tions, judicial as well as parliamentary, the remedy is
now complete for removing the injury of unjuft and
illegal confinement. A remedy the more neceffary,
becaufe the oppreffion does not always arife from the
ill-nature, but fometimes from the mere inattention, of
government. For it frequently happens in foreign
countries, (and has happened in England during the
temporary fufpenfions of the ftatute), that perfons ap¬
prehended upon fufpicion have fuffered a long impri¬
fonment, merely becaufe they were forgotten.
HABICOT (Nicholas), a celebrated furgeon, bora
at Bonny in Gatinois, acquired great reputation by
his (kill in his profeffion, and by his works; and died
in 1624. He wrote a treatife on the plague, and fe-
veral other curious works.
HABINGTON (William), an Engliffi poet and
hiftorian, was the fon of Thomas Habington, Efq.
He was born in 1605, at Hendlip in Worcefterffiire;
and was educated at St Omers and at Paris. He
died in 1654, and left feveral manuferipts in the hands
of his fon. His printed works are, 1. Poems under
the title of Cajlura. 2. The queen of Arragon, a
tragi comedy. 3. Obfervations upon Hiltory. 4. The
hiftory of Edward IV. king of England, written and
puhliffied at the defire of Charles I. This work is
compofed in a very florid ftyle.
HABIT, in philofophy, an aptitude or difpofition
either of mind or body, acquired by a frequent repe-
19 Z tition
HAG [ 3486 ] HAG
B-Mt tition of the fame aft. See Custom and Habit.
Habit is alfo ufed for a drefs or garb, or the eom-
ac ‘‘T' pofition of garments, wherewith a perfon is covered ;
in which fenfe we fay, the habit- of an ecclefiaftic, of
a religtorus, a military habit, &c.
1IABI I’E rtW Repu fe, in Scots law, the com¬
mon opinion of the people, among whom a perfon
lives, with refpeft to any circumftance relating to
him.
HABITUDE, among fchoolmen, the refpedd .or
relation one thing bears to another. See Relation.
HABSBURG, or Hapsburg, an ancient caftle
of Swifferland, in the canton of Bern. It is the place
where the ancient counts of Hapfburg refided, and is
feated near the lake of Lucern, and to the call of
the town of that name. E. Long. 8. 10. N. Lat.
47. 22.
HACHA, a fea-port town of So'uth America, in
Terra Eirma, feated at the mouth of a river of the fame
name. Here the Spanifh galleons touch at their ar¬
rival in South America, from whence exprefies are
fent to all the fettlements to give them notice of it.
W. Long. 72. o. N. Lat. 11. 30.
HACKET (John), bilhop of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, was born in 1592. In 1623, he was made
chaplain to James I. and prebendary of Lincoln : and
foon after obtained the redory of St Andrew’s Hol-
born, with that of Cheam in Surrey ; his patron tell¬
ing him, he intended Holborn for wealth, and Cheam
, for health. In 1642 he was prefented to a preben¬
dary and refidentiary ; but was deprived of the enjoy¬
ment of them, as well as of St Andrew’s, by the enfuing
troubles. He then lived retired at Cheam with little
dilturbance, until he recovered his preferments by the
reilofation of Charles II. by whom he was preferred
to the fee of Litchfield and Coventry in 1661. Find¬
ing the beautiful cathedral of LitchfieJd almoft bat¬
tered to the ground, he in eight years finilhed a com¬
plete church fuperior to the former, at his own ex¬
pence of 20,0001. excepting 10001. he had from the
dean and chapter, with what he could procure from
private benefaftors. He laid out 10001. on a pre-
bendal houfe, his palaces at Litchfield and Ecclelhall
having been demolifhed during the civil wars : and
befide thefe a&s-of munificence, left feveral other be¬
nefactions at his death in 1670. He publifhed before
he entered into orders, a comedy entitled Zsytf/c/, which
was twice aCted before king James 1. After his
death there appeared a “ Century of his fermons on
feveral remarkable fubjeCts,” in folio ; and “ The life
of archbilhop Williams,’’ in folio, which was abridged
in 1700 by Ambrofe Philips.
HACKNEY-coaches, thofe expofed to hire in
the ftreets of London,- and fome other great cities, at
rates fixed by authority. See Coach.—Thefe firfl
began to ply in the ftreets of London, or rather’waited
at inns, in the year 162^, and were only 20 in num¬
ber ; but in 1635 they were fo much increafed, that
king Charles iffued out an order of council for reftrain-
ing them. In 1637, he allowed 50 hackney-coachmen,
each of whom might keep 12 horfes. In 1652, their
number was limited to 200; and in 1654, it was ex¬
tended to 300. In 1661, 400 were h con fed', at 5 1.
annually for each. In 1694, 700 were allowed, and
taxed by the 5 and 6 of W. & M. at 4I. />cr an^
num each. By 9 Anne cap. 23. 800 coaches were Hackney
allowed in London and Weftminfter; but by 8 Geo. I)
III. cap. 24. the nuttiberis increafed to 1000, which
are to be licenfed by commiffioners, and to pay a duty  I 1_
of 5 fh. per week to the king. On Sundays there
were formerly only 175 hackney-coaches to ply, which
were to be appointed by commiffioners; but their
number is now unlimited.
The fare of hackney coachmen in London, or with¬
in ten miles of the city, is 12 (hillings' and fixpence
per day, allowing 1 2 hours per day. By the hour it
is is. 6d. for the firft, and is. for every hour after;
and none are obliged to pay above is. for any diftance
not exceeding a mile and a hailf; or above is. 6d. for
any diftance not exceeding two miles. Where hack¬
ney coachmen refufe to go at, or exadl more than,
their limited hire, they are fubjedt to a forfeit not un¬
der 10s. nor exceeding 3I.. and which, the cemmiffion-
ers have power to determine. Every hackney-coach
muft be provided with cheque firings, and every coach¬
man plying without them incurs a penalty of 5s.—
Drivers of hackney-coaches are to give way to per-
fons of quality and gentlemens coaches, under the pe¬
nalty of 5 1.
The duty arifing from licences to hackney-coaches
and chairs in London, forms a branch of the king’s
extraordinary and perpetual revenue *. This revenue * See Revs-
is governed by comrniflioners of its own, and is in ntie'
truth a benefit to the fubjedl; as the expence of it is
felt by no individual, and its neceffary regulations have
eltablifhed a competent jurifdidlion, whereby a very
refradlory race of men may be kept in fome tolerable
order.
HADDINGTON, a borough-town of Scotland,
in Eart Lothian, which fends one member to parlia¬
ment. It is furrounded with many feats of nobility
and gentry. It is about 17 miles E. of Edinburgh.
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 55. 50.
HADDOCK, the Englifh name of a fpecies of
Gadus.
HADDON (Dr Walter), a great reftorer of the
learned languages in England, was born in 1516. He
diftinguifhed himfelf particularly by writing Latin in
a fine ftyle, which he acquired by a conftant ftudy of
Cicero. He was a ftrenuous promoter of the refor¬
mation under king Edward ; and was therefore thought
a proper perfon to fucceed'bifhop Gardiner in the ma-
fterfhip of Trinity-hall, Cambridge, on his deprivation.
He lay concealed during the reign of queen Mary;
but acquired the favour of Elizabeth, who conftituted
him one of the mafters of the court of requells, and
fent him one of the three agents to Bruges in 1566,
to reftore commerce between England and the Nether¬
lands. He was alfo engaged with Sir John Cheke in
drawing up in Latin that ufeful code of ecclefiaftical
law, publifned in 1571 by the learned John Fox, un¬
der the title of Rejormatio legum ecdejiajlicarum; his
other works are collefted and publiftied under the title
of Lucubrations. He died in 1572.
HADERSLEBEN, a fea-port town of Denmark,
in the duchy of Slefwick, with a ftrong citadel, built
upon a fmall ifland. It is feated on a bay ofthe Baltic
Sea, and has a well-frequented harbour. E. Lon. 9. 35;
N. Lat. 55. 24.
HADLEY,
Hadley
II 11.
HAD [ 3487 ] H ^ M
HADLEY, a town in Suffolk, feated in a bottom
on the liver Prefton. It confifts of about 600 houfes;
with a very handfome church, a chapel of eafe, and a
. Prefbyterian meeting-houfe. The ftreets are pretty
broad, but not paved. Large quantities of yarn are
fpun here for the Norwich uranufa&ure; and this
town had once a coofiderahle woollen manufa&ure,
which is now decayed. E. Lon. 1. o. N. Lat. 52. 7.
HADRIAN. See Adrian.
HiEMAGOGOS, among phyficians, a compound
mediciire, confiding of fetid and aromatic fimples
mixed with black hellebore, and prefcribed in order to
promote the mendrua and haemorrhoidal fluxes; as alfo
to bring away the lochia.
HiEMANTHUS, the blood-flower; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria
clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The coccineus, with plain tongue-
fhaped leaves, rifes about a foot high, with a ftalk
fupporting a cluder of bright red tubulous flowers.
It hath a large bulbous root, from which in the au¬
tumn comes out two broad flat leaves of a flelhy con¬
fidence, fliaped like a tongue, which turn backward
on each fide, and fpread on the ground, fo that they
have a drange appearance all the winter. In the fpring
thefe decay ; lo that from May to the beginning of
Augud they are deflitute of leaves. The flowers are
produced in the autumn jud before the leaves come
out. 2. The carinatus with keel-fhaped leaves, has a
taller dalk and paler dowers than the former; its
leaves are not flat, but hollowed like the keel of a boat.
3. The puniceus, with large fpear-fliaped waved leaves,
grows about a foot high, and hath flowers of a yellow-
iih red colour.' Thefe are fucceeded by berries, which
are of a beautiful red colour when ripe.
Culture. All thefe plants are natives of the Cape
of Good Hope, and do not propagate very fad in Eu¬
rope, their roots feldom putting forth many off-fets.
The bed method of managing them is to have a bed
of good earth in a bricked pit, where they may be
covered with glades, and in hard frods with mats and
draw. The earth in the frame fliould be two feet
deep, and the frame fliould rife two feet above the
furface, to allow height for the flower-dems to grow.
The roots Ihould be plante-d nine or ten inches afun-
der; and in v/inter, if they are protefted from frod,
and not fuffered to have too much wet, but in mild
weather expofed to the air, they will flower every year,
and the flowers will be much flronger than with any
other management. The third fort requires to be
condantly kept in a dry dove.
HAEMATITES, or blood-stone, a hard mineral
fubfiance, red, black, or purple, but the powder of
which is always red. It is found in tnades fometimes
fpherical, femi-fpherical, pyramidal, or cellular, that is
like a honeycomb. It contains a large quantity of
iron. Forty pounds of this metal have been extracted
from a quintal of the done; but the iron is of fuch a
bad quality, that this ore is not commonly fmelted.
The great harduefs of hasmatites renders it fit for bur-
niihing and polidiing metals.
H/EMATOPUS, the sea-pye, in ornithology,
a genus belonging to the order of grallx. The beak
is compreffed, with an equal wedge-fliaped point; the
noftiils are linear ; and the feet have three toes without
nails. There is but one fpecies, viz. the aflralegus, a
native of Europe and America. It feeds upon Ihell-
fifit near the fea-ftiore.
HAEMATOXYLUM, logwood, or Gan.peaohy
Wood; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the decandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there is only one fpecies,
viz. the campechianum, which grows naturally in the
bay of Campeachy at Honduras, and other parts of
the Spanilh Weft-Indies*, where it rifes from 16 to
24 feet high. The .Items are generally crooked, and
very deformed; and feldom thicker than a man’s thigh.
The branches which come out on each fide are crooked,
irregular, and armed with flrong thorns, garnifhed
with winged leaves, compofed of three pair of obfcure
lobes indented at the top. The flowers come in a ra-
cemus from the wings of the leaves danding erett,
and are of a pale yellowifti colour, with a purple em-
palement. They are fucceeded by flat oblong pods,
each containing two or three kidney-feeds.
Culture. The feeds, which are frequently brought
from America, will readily grow if fown upon a good
hot-bed in this country, and will thrive very well if
kept eondantly in a good degree of heat in the back-
dove.
Ufes. The logwood is ufed in great quantities for
dying purple, but efpecially black colours. All the
colours, however, which can be prepared from it, are of
a fading nature, and cannot by any art be made equally
durable with thofe prepared from fame other materials.
Of all the colours prepared from logwood, the black
is the mod durable. Dr Lewis recommends it as an
ingredient in making ink. “ In dyeing cloth, (fays
he,) vitriol and galls, in whatever proportions they are
ufed, produce only browns of different Ihades: I have
often been furprifed that with thefe capital materials
of the black dye I never could obtain any true black-
nefs in white cloth, and attributed the failure to fame
unheeded mifmanagement in the procefs, till I found
it to be a known fadf among the dyers. Logwood is
the material which adds blacknefs to the vitriol and
gall-brown ; and this black dye, though not of the
mod durable kind, is the mod common. On blue cloth
a good black may be dyed by vitriol and galls alone;
but even here, an addition of Logwood contributes not
a little to improve the colour.” ^Mr Delaval, how¬
ever, in his Effay on Colours, informs us, that with an
infufion of galls and iron-filings, he not only made an
exceeding black and durable ink, but alfo dyed linen
cloth of a very deep black. See Oox.atv.-Makingi
n° 12, 13, 14.; Dyeing, n° 17.; and Ink. Logwood
is alfo found to have a confiderable aftringent virtue as
a medicine, and an extradi of it is fqmetimes given
with great fuccefs in diarrhoeas.
HAEMOPTYSIS, H^maptysis, or Hamoptoe; a
fpitting of blood. See [Index fubjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
HAEMORRHOIDAL, an appellation given by
anatomifls to the arteries and veins going to the iute-
flinum redtum.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or Piles, an hsemorrhage,
or iffue of blood from the haemorrhoidal vclfels. (See
[Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HAER^EM. See Harlem.
HAG, in zoology. See Myxine.
19 Z 2
Hsrmitry
xylsim
H !g.
* See Cam-
peachy.
HA-
HAG [ 34S8 ] H A I
HAGAI, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
fo called from the prophet of that name, who, in all
probability was born at Babylon, from whence he re¬
turned with Zertibbabel.
This prophet, by the command of God, exhorted
the Jews, after their return from the captivity, to fi-
nifh the rebuilding of the temple, which they had in¬
termitted for 14 years. His remonftrances had the
defired effedt ; and to encourage them to proceed in
the work, he affured them from God, that the glory
of this latter houfe fhould be greater than the glory of
the former: which was accordingly fulfilled, when
Chrift honoured it with his prefence ; for, with refpeft
to the building, this latter temple was nothing in com-
parifon with the former.
HAGEDORN (Frederick de), a celebrated Ger¬
man poet, was born at Hamburg, wdiere his father
was relident for the king of Denmark, in 1708. He
finifhed his ftudies at Jena ; and, in 1728, publifhed a
number of poetical pieces in Germany, which were
well received. He afterwards came to England, where
he obtafned the friendlhip of many of the learned ;
and, at his return, was made fecretary to the Englifh
Hamburgh company, a lucrative employment that
left him fufficient time for cultivating the mufes. In
1738, he publifhed his Fables and Tales, the firft
eolledfion of the kind of which Germany can boaft.
He afterwards publifhed other pieces of poetry of dif¬
ferent kinds, as Moral Poems, Epigrams, and five
books of Songs : which of all his poetical pieces are
moft efteemed. He died in 1754.
HAGENAU, a town of Germany, and capital of
a bailiwick of the fame name, which was formerly
imperial, but now belongs to the French. It was
taken by them in 1673 5 the Imperialifts retook it in
] 702 ; after which it was feveral times taken and re¬
taken by both parties ; but at laft the French got
pofTeffion of it in 1706. It is divided by the river
Motterinto two parts; and is feated near a foreft of its
own name, in E. Long. 7. 53. N. Lat. 48. 49.
HAGIOGRAPHA, or “ holy writingsa
name given to a particular divifion of the Old Tefta¬
ment, as containing hymns to God, and moral pre¬
cepts for the conduct of life. The books diftinguifhed
by this term were the Pfalms, Proverbs, Ecclefiaftes,
and the Song of Solomon.
HAGUE, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, fituated in E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 48.49.
—In Latin it is called Haga Comith ; in French, La
Haye; in Dutch cftr Haag, or 'S-Graavenbage, i. e.
the Earl’s Grove or Wood, from the wood near which
it is built, and in which the earls of Holland had a
country-houfe. Though it fends no deputies to the
dates, it is one of the moft confiderable towns in Hol¬
land, pleafantly fituated, and exceeding beautiful.
It may indeed compare with almoft any city in Eu¬
rope, though geographers account it but a village.
The inhabitants alfo breathe a better air than thofe of
the other cities, as it (lands on a dry foil, fomewhat
higher than the reft of the country. It has no gates
or walls, but is furrounded by a moat over which
there are many draw-bridges. Two hours are required
to walk round it, and' it contains about 40,000 or
50,000 fouls. It is a place of much fplendor and
bufinefs, being the feat of the high colleges of the
republic and province of Holland, and the refidence Hague
of the ftadtholder and foreign ambafladors ; and there I!,
are a great many fine ftreets and fquares in it. In the
inner court all the high colleges and courts of juftice
hold their affemblies: there alfo the foot-guards do du¬
ty, as the horfe-guards in the outer, when the ftates
are fitting. De Plaats is an open airy place, in form
of a triangle, adorned with neat and beautiful build¬
ings: the Vyverberg is an eminence, laid out into fe¬
veral fine (hady walks, with the Vyver, a large bafon of
water, at the bottom : the Voorhout is the moft cele¬
brated part of the Hague, and confifts of the mall,
and three ways for coaches on each fide, planted w’ith
trees, being much the fame as St James’s park at Lon¬
don : the palace of Opdam, or Waflenaar, is built in
a very elegant tafte : the prince and princefs grafts are
fine ftreets : the plain, in Dutch Het Pleyn, is a
beautiful grove, laid out in feveral crofs walks, and
furrounded with (lately houfes. The Jewi(h-fynagogue
is well worth being feen by a curious traveller ; and al¬
fo the palaces of the prince of Orange, the hotel of
Spain, the new Woorhout, the maufoleum of the ba¬
ron of Opdam in the great church, and the feveral
hofpitals. The environs'of the Hague are exceedingly
pleafant. Among other agreeable objects are the
wood, with the palace of Orange at the extremity of
it, called the boufe in the ’wood; the village of Sche-
veling; and the fand-hills along the north-fea ; with
the village of Voorburg, and the charming feats and
fine gardens round it. Two miles from the Hague is
Ryfwick, a village ; and, a quarter of a mile from
that, a noble palace belonging to the prince of 0-.
range, famous for the treaty of peace concluded there
in 1697. Loofduynen, where Margaret, countefs of
Henneburg, and daughter of Florence IV. count of
Holland and Zealand, is faid to have been delivered of
365 children at a birth, in 1276, is about five miles
from the Hague. Five miles beyond Loofduynen,
and not far from the beautiful village of Gravefande,
is Honflatdyck, another palace belonging to the
prince of Orange, and one of the fined ftru&ures im
the Low-Countries.
HAHN (Simon Frederick), a celebrated German
hiftorian. At ten years of age he was not only far
advanced in the Latin, but underftood feveral living
languages. Four years after, he pronounced a fpeech
on the origin of the cloyfter at Bergen, the place of
his birth, which was printed with fome other pieces;
and in 1708 he publifhed a Continuation of Meibo-
mius’s Chronicle of Bergen. After having for feve¬
ral years given public lectures at Hall, he became, at .
the age of 24, profeflbr of hiftory at Helmftadt; and
was at length counfellor, hiftoriographer, and libra¬
rian, to the king of Great Britain, eledtor of Hanover.
He died in 1729, aged 37.—Befides the above, and
fome other works, he wrote, 1. The firft volume of the
Hiflory of the Empire. 2. CelleCio monumentorum ve-
terum et recentium ineditorum, 2 vols 8vo.
HAIL, in natural hiftory, a meteor generally de¬
fined frozen rain, but differing from it in that the
hailftones are not formed of fingle pieces of ice, but of
many little fpherules agglutinated together. Neither
are thefe fpherules all of the fame confidence ; fome of
them being hard and (olid like perfedl ice; others foft,
and moftly like fnow hardened by a fevere froft. Some¬
times
H A I [ 3489 ] H A I
Hall. times the hailftone hath a kind of core of this foft
" ~ matter; but more frequently the core is folid and hard,
while the outfide is formed of a fofter matter. Hail-
ftones aflume various figures, being fometimes round,
at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and
flat, and fometimes flellated, with fix radii like the
fmall cryftals of fnow.
Natural hiftorians furnidi us with various accounts
of furprifing fhowers of hail, in which the hailftonts
were of extraordinary magnitude. Mezeray, fpeaking
of the war of Louis XII. in Italy, in the year 1510,
relates, that there was for fome time an horrible dark-
nefs, thicker than that of night; after which the clouds
broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell a
fhower of hailftones, or rather (as he calls them) peb-
ble-ftones, which deltroyed all the fifh, birds, and
beads of the country. — It was attended with a ftrong
fmell of fulpbur; and the ftones were of a bluifh colour,
fome of them weighing an hundred pounds. Hift. de
Francs, Tom. II. p. 339.
At Lifle in Flanders, in 1686, fell haildones of a
very large fize ; fome of which contained in the middle
a dark brown matter, which, thrown on the fire, gave
a very great report. Philofopb. Franfatt. N° 203.
Dr Halley and others alfo relate, that in Chethire,
Lancafhire, &c. April 29, 1697, a thick black cloud,
coming from Carnarvonfhire, difpofed the vapours to
congeal in fuch a manner, that for about the breadth of
two miles, which Vvas the limit of the cloud, in its pro-
grefs for the fpace of 60 miles, it did inconceivable
damage ; not only killing all forts of fowls and other
fmall animals, but fplitting trees, knocking down horfes
and men, and even ploughing up the earth ; fo that
the hailftones buried themfelves under ground an inch,
or an inch and a half deep. The hailftones, many of
which weighed five ounces, and fome half a pound;
and being five or fix inches about, were of various fi¬
gures; fome round, others half round ; fome fmooth,
others embofled and crenated: the icy fubftance of
them was very tranfparent and hard, but there was a
fnowy kernel in the middle of them.
In Hertfordfhire, May 4. the fame year, after a fe-
vere ftorm of thunder and lightning, a fhower of hail
fucceeded, which far exceeded the former : fome per-
fons were killed by it, their bodies beat all black and
blue ; vaft oaks were fplit, and fields of rye cut down
as with a fcythe. The ftones meafured from 10 to
13 or 14 inches about. Their figures were various,
fome oval, others picked, fome flat. Philojopb. Franf
Nc 229.
It is remarkable, that, far as we know, hail is a me¬
teor which never produces any beneficial effeft. The
rain and'dew invigorate and give life to the whole vege¬
table tribe ; the froft,by expanding the water contained
in the earth, pulverifes and renders the foil fertile;
Inow covers and preferves the tender vegetables from
being deftroyed by too fevere a froft. But hail does
none of all thefe. In winter, it lies not fufficiently
clofe to cover vegetables from the nipping frofts; and
in fpring and fummer it not only has a chilling and
blafting effeft from its coldnefs, but often does great
damage to the more tender plants by the weight of the
Hones, and in great hail-ftorms the damage done in
this manner is prodigious.
Hail is one of the natural phenomena for which
it is almoft impofiible to account in any fatisfa£Iory Hailing
manner. It is certain, that on the tops of mountains j!
hailftones, as well as drops of rain, are very fmall, Haman‘
and continually increafe in bulk till they reach the low¬
er grounds. It would feem, therefore, that during
their paflage through the air, they attract the con¬
gealed vapour which increafes them in fize. But
here we are at a lofs how they .come to be folid
hard bodies, and not always foft, and compofed of
many fmall ftars like fnow. The flakes of fnow,
no doubt, increafe in fize as they defeend, as
well as the drops of rain or hail-ftones ; but why
ftiould the one be in foft cryftals, and the other in
large hard lumps, feeing both are produced from con¬
gealed vapour ? Some modern philofophers aferibe
the formation of hail to ele&ricity. Signior Beccaria
fuppofes hail to be formed in the higher regions of the
air, where the cold is intenfe, and where the eleftric
matter is very copious. In thefe circumftances, a great
number of particles of water are brought near toge¬
ther, where they are frozen, and in their defeent col-
left other particles, fo that the denfity of the fub¬
ftance of the hailftone grows lefs and lefs from the
centre ; this being formed firft in the higher regions,
and the furface being collefted in the lower. Agree¬
able to this, itisobferved, that, in mountains,hail-ftones,.
as well as drops of rain, are very fmall, there being
but little fpace through which they can fall and in¬
creafe their bulk. Drops of rain and hail alfo agree in
this, that the more intenfe the eleftricity that forma
them, the larger they are. Motion is known to pro¬
mote freezing, and fa the rapid motion of the eleftri-
fied clouds may produce that effeft. A more intenfe
eleftricity alfo, he thinks, unites the particles of hail
more clofely than the more moderate eleftricity does
thofe of fnow. In like manner we fee thunder-clouds
more denfe than thofe that merely bring rain ; and
the drops of rain are larger in proportion, though
they fall not from fo great a height.
HAILING, the falutation or accofting of a Ihip at
a diftance, either at fea, or in a harbour. The ufual
expreflion is, “ Hoa, the (hip ahoay !” To which (he
anfwers, “Holloa! Whence came ye ? Where are
ye bound? Good voyage ! What cheer? All well!
How fare ye ?” &c.
HAILLAN (Bernard de Girard, lord of), a ce¬
lebrated French hiftorian. After having made fome
figure in the literary world, and as a tranflator, he
applied himfelf to hiftory with fuch fuccefs, that
in 1571, Charles IX. made him hiftoriographer of
France. His hiftory of France extends from Phara-
mon to the death of Charles VII. and is the firft com¬
plete hiftory of that kingdom compofed in the French
tongue. He was honoured by Henry III. with fev&-
ral marks of favour; and propofed to continue his hi¬
ftory to the reign of Henry IV. but did not perform
his promife. He died at Paris in 1610.
HAIMSUCKEN, fee Hamesegken..
HAINAN, a confiderable ifland of Afia, fituated
in between i8-° and 200 N. Lat. It belongs to Chi¬
na.; and lies to the north of the Gulf of Cochin Chi¬
na, and about twelve miles fouth from the province of
Canton. It is about 400 miles in circumference.
The foil of the northern parts is level, but the fouthem
andeaftern ones are mountainous; among which fonae
H A I [ 3490 ] H A I
Hainaulr, of the valleys produce two crops of rice everj year.
Hair. 'p]ie inhabitants are general]y’fliort', deformed lavages,
of a reddilh colour.' In the interior parts of the ifland
they have not fubmitt^d to the Chinefe ; but they are
great cowards, and 50 Chinefe will put too of them
to flight. There are mines of gold and lapis lazuli,
which laft. is carried to Canton to paint the porcelain.
This ifland produces the fume fruits as China, befides
fngar, tobacco, cotton, and indigo.
HAJNAULT, a province, of the Netherlands, be¬
longing partly to France and partly to the houfe of
Aultria. It is bounded to the fouth by Champagne
and Picardy, to the north by Flanders, to the ealt by
the duchy of Brabant, the county of Namur, and
the bilhopric of Liege; and to the weft by Artois
and Flanders. Its extent from north to fouth is about
45 miles, and about 48 from ealt to weft. The air
is pleafant and temperate, and the foil fruitful : it a-
bounds in rich paftures, corn-fields, woods, and fordts,
coal, iron, lead, beautiful marble, flate, and other
ufeful {tones: it is well watered by rivers and lakes,
and breeds abundance of black cattle, and fheep, whofe
wool is very fine. Its principal rivers are the Schelde,
the Selle, and the Dender. This province is reckon¬
ed to contain 24 walled towns, 950 villages, one du¬
chy, and feveral principalities, earldoms, peerdoms,
and baronies. The abbeys in it are 27. For fpiritu-
al matters, the greater part of it is fubjeift to the arch-
bifliop of Cambray, and the reft to the bifhops of
Liege and Arras. The ftates of the province con-
fift of the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The cler¬
gy are the abbots, deputies of the chapters, and rural
deans; but the chapters of St Waudru ancTSt. Ger¬
main, in Mons, fend no deputies, as they contribute
nothing to the public taxes. The nobility confift of
the earls and barons, and all thofe who, by their birth,
have a right to a feat in the aflembly of the ftates.
The commoners are compofed of the deputies of the
towns. The clergy in this county r»re uncommonly
rich. The ftates meet only when they are fummoned
by the fovereign ; but there is a Handing committee
at Mons, which meets weekly. This county had counts
of its own, till the year 1436 ; when Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, arrived to the pofleffion of it, up¬
on the death of Jaqueline, the heirefs, without iffue.
The French acquired that part of it which they pof-
fefs, partly by the peace of the Pyrenees, and partly
by thofe of Nimeguen and Refwyck. The arms of
this county are quartered, and contain four lions, in
a field or. For the government of it, there is a fo-
vereign-coyncil, at the head of which is the high-bai¬
liff, who has very great authority : he reprelc-nts the
fovereign, is governor of Mons, and captain-general
of the province.
HAIR, fmall filaments, iffuing out of the pores of
the lkins of animals; and ferving moll of them as a te-
* See Ana- gument or covering*.—In lieu of hair, the nakednefs
n08r- of fome animals is covered with feathers, wool, {kins,&c.
Hair is found on all parts of the human body, ex¬
cept the foies of the feet and the palms of the hands.
—But it grows longeft on the head, chin, breaft, in
the arm-pits, and about the privities.
The ancients held the hair a fort of excrement, fed
only with excrementitious matters, and no proper part
of a living body.—They fuppofed it generated of the
fuliginous parts of the blood, exhaled by the heat of Hair.
the body to the Curface, and tiiere condenfed in palling    " “
through the pores—Their chief reafons were, that the
hair being cut, will grow again apace, even in extreme
old age, and when life is very low : that in hcfue and
confumptiye people, where the reft of the body is con¬
tinually emaciating and attenuating, the hair fhall
thrive : nay, and that it will grow again in dead car-
cafes.—They added, that hair does not feed and grow,
like the other parts, by introlufception, i. e. by a juice
circulating within it; but, like the nails, by juxtapofi-
tion, each part next the root thrulling forward that
immediately before it.
But the tAoderns are agreed, that every hair does
properly aqd truly live, and receive nutriment to fill
and diftend it like the other parts : which they argue
hence, that the roots do not turn grey in aged perfons
fooner than the extremities, but the whole changes
colour at pnce, and the like is obferved in boys, &c. ;
which fhews that there is a direft communication, and
that all the parts are affefted alike.
It may he obferved, however, that, in propriety, the
life and growth of hairs is of a different kind from that
of the reft of the body ; and is not immediately de¬
rived therefrom, or reciprocated therewith It is ra¬
ther of the nature of vegetation. They grow as plants
do out of the earth; or as fome plants {hoot from
the parts of others; from which'though they draw
their nourifhment, yet each has, as it were, its feveral
life and a diftind oeconomy.---They derive their food
from fome juices in the body, but not from the nutri¬
tious juices of the body ; whence they may live, tho’
the body be ftarved. —Wulferus, in the Philofophical
Colletlions, gives an account of a woman buried at No-
rimberg, whofe grave being opened 43 years after her
death, there was hair found iffuiug forth plentifully
through the clefts of the coffin ; infomuch, that there
was reafon.to imagine the coflin had fome time been
covered all over with hair.—The cover being removed,
the whole corps appeared in its perfed fhape ; but,
from the crown of the head to the foie of the foot,
covered over with a thick-fet hair, long and curled 
The fexton going to handle the upper part of the head
with his fingers, the whole ftrudure fell at once, lea¬
ving nothing in his hand but an handful of hair : there
was neither {kull noi;any other bone left; yet the hair
was folid and ftrong enough.—Mr Arnold, in the fame
colledlion, gives a relation of a man hanged for theft,
who, in a little time, while he yet hung upon the gal¬
lows, had his body ftrangely covered over with hair.—
Some moderns, however, deny the authenticity of thefe
and other fimilar inftances.
The hairs ordinarily appear round or cylindrical;
but the microfcope alfo dilcovers triangular and fquare
ones; which diverlity of figure arifes from that of the
pores, to which the hairs always accommodate them-
felves. Their, length depends on the quantity of the
proper humour to feed them, and their colour on the
quality of that humour: whence, at different ilages of
life, the colour ufually differs. Their extremities fplit
into two or three branches, efpecially when kept dry,
or fufftred to grow too long; fo that what appears
only a lingle hair to the naked eye, feems a brufh to
the microfcope.
The hair of a moufe, viewed by Mr Derham with a
micro- I
H A I [ 3491 ] H A I
Hair. microfcope, feemed to be one Angle tranfparent tube,
‘ with a pith made up of fibrous fubftances, running in
dark lines, in fume hairs tranfverfcly, in others fpirally.
The darker medullary parts or lines, he obferves, were
no other than finall fibres convolved round, and lying
clofer together than in the other parts of the hair. They
run from the bbttom to the top of the hair; and, he
imagines, may ferve to make a gentle evacuation of
fome-humour out of the body. Hence the hair of
hairy animals, this author fuggefis, may not only ferve
as a fence againft cold, &(c. but as an organ of infen-
fible perfpiration.
•Though the external furface of the body is the na¬
tural place for hairs, we have many well-attefted in-
ftances of their being found alfo on the internal fur-
face. Amatus Lulitanus mentions a perfon who had
hair upon his tongue. Pliny and Valerius Maximus
concur in their teftimonies, that the heart of Arifto-
menes the Meffenian was hairy. Caslius Rhodiginus
relates the fame of Hermogenes the rhetorician ; and
Plutarch, of Leonidas the Spartan Hairs are
faid to have been frequently found in the breafts of
women, and to have occafioned the dillemper called
trichiafis; but fome authors are of opinion, that thHe
are fmall worms and not hairs. There have been,
however, various and indifputable obfervations of hairs
found in the kidneys, and voided by urine.
Hippocrates is of opinion, that the glandular parts
are the mod fubjeft to hair; but bundles of hair have
been found in the mufcular parts of beef, and in fuch
parts of the human body as are equally firm with that.
— Hair has been often found in abfcefles and impofthu-
mations.- Schultetus, opening the abdomen of a wo¬
man, found r2 pints of water, and a large lock or
bundle of hair fwimming loofe in it. But of all the
internal parts, there is none fo much fubjeft to an un¬
natural growth of hair as the ovaries of females, and
that .as well of the human fpecies as of other animals.
Of this DtyTyfon relates three remarkable inftances ;
two of thefe were young women, and the other was a
bitch. The animal had been much emaciated in its
hinder parts ; the hair was about an inch and an half
long: but the mod remarkable particular was, that
hair was alfo found lying loofe in the cavities of the
veins. We have feveral indances of mankind being
affe&ed in the fame manner. Cardan relates, that he
found hair in the blood of a Spaniard; and Slonatius
in that of a gentlewoman of Cracovia ; and Schultetus
declares from his own obfervation, that thofe people
who are affli&ed with the plica polonica, have very
often hair in their blood.
Difecrfes of the Hair. Almod the only difeafe of
the hair, befides the remarkable one called plica polo¬
nica, is its falling off, or baldnefs. For this many re¬
medies have been recommended, but fcarce any of them
can be depended upon. The juice of burdock, and
the lixivial falls of vine-afhes, are faid t6 be efficacious ;
alfo the powder of hermodaftyls, and the deco&ion of
boxwood. • A remarkable indance of the efficacy of
this lad is given under the article Buxus.—Some au¬
thors give indances of the hair changing its colour in
aihorttime, thro’grief, or by reafon of a fright, <!Vc.
Hunian-W.ki'i. makes a confiderable article of trade;
the goodnefs of it confids in its being neither too
coarfe nor too {lender.
Hair that does not curl or buckle naturally, is made Hair,
to do fo by fird boiling, and then baking it. Having ~
forted it, they next roll it carefully upon pipes hol¬
lowed in the middle ; thefe they put into a pot or
cauldron, and let them boil about two hours r then ta¬
king them out, they are drie^.and covered with pa¬
pers ; and, ladly, fent to the padry-cook, who bakes
them in an oven, till the crud with which they are
covered is about three fourths baked.
The hair of feveral other animals, as the beaver,
hare, coney, &c. is alfo ufed in commerce, and efpe-
cially in the manufa&ure of hats. See Hat.
Staining of Hair may be changed from a
ed, grey, or other difagreeable colour, to a brown or
deep black, by a folution of filver. The liquors fold
under the name of hair-’waters, are at bottom no more
rhan folutions of filver in aqua-fords, largely diluted
with water, with the addition perhaps of other ingre¬
dients, which contribute nothing to their efficacy.
The folution fhould be fully faturated with the filver,
that there may be no more acid in it than is neceflary
for holding the metal didblved ; and befides dilution
with water, a little fpirit of wine may be added for
the further dulci.fication of the acid. It mud be ob-
ferved, that, for diluting the folution, diddled water,
or pure rain-water, mud be uftd ; the common fpring-
waters turning it milky, and precipitating a part of
the diffolved filver. It is to be obferved alfo, that if
the liquor touches the Ikin, it has the fame effedl on it
as on the matter to be dained, changing the part moi-
dened with it to an indelible black.—Hair may alfo
be dyed of any colour in the fame manner as wool*. * See Djt-
Hair as an Enftgn of Dignity, or of Religion. It was in&'
edeemed a notable honour among the ancient Gauls
to have long hair, and hence came the appellation
Gallia comata. For this reafon Julius Casfar, upon
fubduing the Gauls, made them cut off their hair as a
token of fubmjffion.— It was with a view to this, that
fuch as afterwards quitted the world to go and live in
cloiders, procured their hair to be (haven off; to ffiew
that they bid adieu to all earthly ornaments, and made
a vow of perpetual fubjeftioh to their fuperiors.
Greg, of Tours allures us, that in the royal family
of France, it was a long time the peculiar mark and
privilege of kings and princes of the blood to wear
long hair, artfully dreffed and curled: every body elfe
was obliged to be polled, or cut round, in fign of in¬
feriority and obedience. Some writers affure us, that
there were different cuts for all the different qua¬
lities and conditions ; from the prince who wore it at
full length, to the flave or villain who was quite cropt.
—To cut off the hair of a fan of France, under the
firft race of kings, was to declare him excluded from
the right of fucceeding to the crown, and reduced to
the condition of a fubjedt.
In the eighth century, it was the cuftom of people
of quality to have their childrens hair cut the firft time
by perfons they had a particular honour and efteem
for11; who, in virtue of this ceremony, were reputed a
fort of fpiritual parents or godfathers thereof: Tho*
this pradtice appears to have been more ancient; inaf-
much as we read, that Couftantine fent the pope the
hair of his fon Heraclius, as a tolien that "he defired
him to be his adoptive father.
The parade of long hair became ftill more and more
©&-
H A I [ 3492 ] H A K
Hair, obnoxious in the progrefs of Chriftianity, as fomething
utterly inconfiftent with the profeffion of perfons who
bore the crofs. Hence numerous injun&ions and ca¬
nons to the contrary.—Pope Anicetus is commonly
fuppofed to have been the firfl who forbade the clergy
to wear long hair: but the prohibition is of an older
landing in the churches of the eaft; and the letter
wherein.that decree is wrote, is of a much later date
than that pope.—The clerical tonfure is related by Ifi-
dore Hifpalenfis, as of apoftolical inttitution.
Long hair was anciently held fo odious, that there
is a canon (till extant of the year 1096, importing, that
fuch as wore long hair, fhould be excluded coming
into church while living, and not be prayed for when
dead.
We have a furious declamation of Luitprand againft
the emperor Phocas, for wearing long hair, after the
manner of the other emperors of the eaft, all except
Theophilus, who being bald, enjoined all his fubjeds
to (have their heads.
The French hiftorians and antiquaries have been
very exad in recording the head of hair of their feve-
ral kings. Charlemagne wore it very fhort, his fon
fliorter ^ Charles the bald had none at all. Under
Hugh Capet it began to appear again ; this the eccle-
fiaftics took in dudgeon, and excommunicated all who
let their hair grow. Peter Lombard expoftulated the
matter fo warmly with Charles the Young, that he cut
off his hair; and his fucceffors for fome generations
wore it very (hort.—A profeffor of Utrecht, in 1650,
wrote exprefsly on the queftion. Whether it be lawful
for men to wear long hair ? and concluded for the ne¬
gative.— Another divine, named Reves, who had wrote
for the affirmative, replied to him.
The Greeks, and after their example, the Romans,
wore falfe hair. See Peruke.
Hair, in farriery, is generally called the coat \
and, with regard to horfes, deferves particular confi-
deration.
The hair growing on the fetlock, ferves as a de¬
fence to the prominent part of it, in travelling in ftony
ways, or in frofty weather: if the hair of a horfe's
neck, and the parts moft uncovered, be clofe, fmooth
and fleek, it is an indication of his being in health and
good cafe. In order to make the hair of an horfe foft
and fleek, he muft be kept warm at heart, for the leaft
inward cold will caufe the hair to ftare ; alfo fweat him
often, for that will loofen and raife the duft and filth
that renders his coat foul ; and when he is in the heat
of a fweat, ferape off all the white foam, fweat, and
filth, that is raifed up, with an old fword-blade ; and
alfo when he is blooded,, if you rub him all over with
his own blood, repeating it two or three days, and
curry and drefs him well, it will make his coat fhine as
if covered with a fine varni/h.
Hair falling from the main or tail, is caufed either
by his having taken fome heat, which has engendered
a dry mange ; or from fome forfeit which caufes the
evil humours to refort to thofe parts. To cure this,
anoint the horfe’s mane and creft with black foap ;
make a ftrong lee of allies, and walh it al^ over with
it. But if a canker Ihould grow on a horfe’s tail, which
will eat away both flefli and bone; then put fome oil
of vitriol to it, and it will confume it: and if you find
that the vitriol corrodes too much, you need only to
wet it with cold water, and it will put a ftop to it.
If you would take away hair from any part of a
horfe’s body, boil half a pound of lime in a quart of
water, till a fourth part is eonfumed, .to which add an
ounce of orpiment; make this into a plafter, and lay
it on.
Hair, or Donvn, of Plants; a general term expref-
five of all the hairy and glandular appearances on the
furface of plants, to which they are fuppofed by natu-
raliits to ferve the double purpofe of defenfive weapons
and veffels of fecretion.
Thefe hairs are minute threads of greater or lefs
length and folidity ; fome of them vifible to the naked
eye; whilft others are rendered vifible only by the help
of glaffes. Examined by a microfcope, almoft all the
parts of plants, particularly the young ftalks or items,
appear covered with hairs.
Hairs on the furface of plants prefent themfelves un¬
der various forms : in the leguminous plants, they are
generally cylindric in the mallow tribe, terminated in
a point; in agrimony, ftiaped iike a fiih-hook; in nettle,
awl-ihaped and jointed; and in fome compound flow¬
ers with hollow or funnel-fhaped florets, they are ter¬
minated in two crooked points.
Probable as fome experiments have rendered it, that
the hairs on the furface of plants contribute to fome
organical fecrction, their principal ufe feems to be to
preferve the parts in which tjiey ate lodged from the bad
effefts of violent fridtions, from winds, from extremes
of heat and cold, and fuch like external injuries.
M. Guettard, who has eftabliffied a botanical me¬
thod from the form, fituation, and other circumftances
of the hairy and glandular appearances on the furface
of plants, has demonftrated, that thefe appearances are
generally conftant and uniform in all the plants of
the fame genus. The fame uniformity feems to cha-
raflerife all the different genera of the fame natu¬
ral order.
The different forts of hairs which form the down
upon the furface of plants were imperfe&ly diftin-
guifhed by Grew in 1682, and by Malphigi in 1686.
Mr Guettard juft mentioned, was the firft who exami¬
ned the fubjedt both as a botanift and a philofopher;
his obfervations were publilhed in 1747.
HAKLUYT (Richard), a naval hiftorian, is fup¬
pofed to have been born in London about the year
1553, and defeended of a genteel family in Hereford-
fliire, as the name frequently occurs in the lift of high
ftieriffs for that county, in former reigns. He was e-
ducated at Weftminfter fchool ; and thence, in 1570*
removed to Chrift-church, Oxford ; where he applied
himfelf particularly to the ftudy of cofmography, and
read public ledtures in that fcience.
Sir Edward Stafford being fent ambaffador to Fiance
in 1583, Mr Hakluyt was one of his attendants, pro¬
bably in the capacity of chaplain. He was at this
time mafter of arts, and profeffor of divinity. In 1585
he obtained the royal mandate for the next vacant pre¬
bend of Briftol, to which preferment he fucceeded du¬
ring his relidence at Pan's. Conftantly attentive to his
favourite cofmographical inquiries, in fearching the
French libraries, he found a valuable hiftory of Flori¬
da, which had been difeovered about 20 years before,
by Captain Loudonniere, and others : this he caufed
to be publiftied, at his own expence, in the French
language,
Hair,
Hakluyt.
Hakluyt
Halberftadt
HAL [ 3493 ] HAL
language, and foon after revifed and republifhed Peter
Martyr’s book De orbs novo. After five years refidence
in France, Mr Hakluyt returned to England in com¬
pany with lady Sheffield, filler to the lord admiral
Howard. In the year 1589 he publilhed his Collec¬
tion of Voyages in one folio volume, which in 1598
was republilhed in three. In 1605, our author was
made prebendary of Weftminfter; which, with the rec¬
tory of Wetheringfet in the county ef Suffolk, feems*
to have been the fummit of his preferment. He died
in 1616, and was buried in Weftminller abbey, be¬
queathing to his fon Edmund his manor of Bridge-
Place, and feveral houfes in Tothil-ftreet, Weftminfter.
He was an indefatigable and faithful hiftorian. His
works are, 1. A colledlion of voyages and difcoveriee,
a fmall volume. 2. Hiftory of Florida, abovemen-
tioned. 3. The principal navigations, voyages, and
difcoveries of the Englitli nation, made by fea or over
land to the mod and fartheft diftant quarters of the
earth, at any time within the compafs of thefc 1500
years, in 3 vols folio. - 4. The difcoveries of the world,
from the firft original to the year 1555* written in the
Portugal tongue by Ant. Galvano; correfled, much
amended, and tranflated into Englifn, by Richard Hak¬
luyt. 5. Virginia richly valued, by the defcription of
the main land of Florida, her next neighbour, &c.
written by a Portugal gentleman of Elvas, and tranf¬
lated by Richard Hakluyt. Befides thefe, he left fe¬
veral manufcripts, which were printed in Purchas’s
collection.
HALBERSTADT, a fmall-principality of Ger¬
many, bounded on the north-eaft by the duchy of
Magdeburg, on the fouth by the principality of An¬
halt, on the weft by the diocefe of Hildlheim, on the
eaft by part of the ele&orate of Saxony, and on the
north by Brunfwic Wolfenbuttle. It is near 40 miles
in length and 30 in breadth. The foil in general is
fertile in corn and flax ; and there are fome woods,
though in general fuel is fcarce. There are three large
towns in it which fend reprefentatives to the diet, to¬
gether with ten fmall ones, and 91 county-towns and
villages. The number of the inhabitants is computed
at about 200,000: the greateft part of them are Lu¬
therans ; but there are alfo Calvinifts, Jews, and Ro¬
man Catholics. The manufactures are chiefly woollen
(for the country produces a great number of ftreep) ;
the exports are grain, and a kind of beer called broi~
ban. The annual revenue arifing from this principa¬
lity, and the incorporated counties and lordftiips, isfaid
to amount 1,0 500,000 rix-dollars. Till the treaty of
Weftphalia in 1648, this country was a diocefe, but
was then transferred to the electoral boufeof Branden¬
burg as a temporal principality. It is entitled to a vote
both in the diet of the empire, and that of the circle.
The principal places are Halberftadt, Groningen, Of-
cherfleben, Ofterwick, &c.
Halberstadt, a city'of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, feated near the river Hothein. It is a
neat uniform place; and has fome good churches and
other handfome buildings, of which the cathedral is
the chief. There is an inn in this place, which is look¬
ed upon to be the largeft and to have the bell accom¬
modations of any in Europe. Before the Reforma¬
tion, it was a biftiop’s fee. . E. Long. 11. 29. N.
Lat. 52. 6.
Vol. V.
HALBERT, or Halbard, in the art of war, a Halb
well-known weapon carried by the fergeants of foot N
and dragoons. It is a fort of fpear, the fiiaft of which ^
is about five feet long, and made of afli or other wood.
Its head is armed with a fteel point, not unlike the
point of a two-edged fword. But, belides this (harp
point which is in a line with the fhaft, there is a crofs
piece of fteel, flat and pointed at both ends ; but ge¬
nerally with a cutting edge at one extremity, and a
bent (harp point at the other ; fo that it ferves equally
to cut down, or to pufh withal. It is alfo ufeful in
determining the ground between the ranks, and ad-
jufting the files of a battalion. The word is formed
of the German bal “ hall,’’ and bard “ an hatchet.”
Voffius derives it from the German bellebaert, of kelt
“ clarus, fplendens,” and haert, “ ax.”
The halbert was anciently a common weapon in the
army ; where there were companies of halbardeers.
It is faid to have been ufed by the Amazons, and af¬
terwards by the Rhaetians and Vindelicians about the
year 570.
It was called the Danijh ax, becaufe the Dane*
bore an halbert on the left fhoulder. From the Danes
it was derived to the Scots ; from the Scots to the
Englifh Saxons; and from them to the French.
HALCYON, in ornithology, a name given by the
ancients to the alcedo or king’s-fiftier. See Alcedo.
Halcyon-Z)^/, in antiquity, a name given tofeven
days before and as many after the winter-folftice; by
reafon the halcyon, invited by the calmnefs of the
weather, laid its eggs in nefts built in the rocks, clofe
by the brink of the fea, at this feafon.
HALDE (John Baptift du), a learned French Je-
fuit born at Paris in 1674. He was extremely well
verfed in Afiatic geography; and we have of his com¬
pilation a work intitled Grand defcription de la Chine
& de la Tartaric, from original memoirs of the Jefui-
tical miffionaries, in 4 vols, folio. He was alfo con¬
cerned in a colleflion of letters begun by father Go-
bien, called Des lettres edifantes, in 1 8 vols; and
publifhed^fome Latin poems and orations. He died
in 1743.
HALE, in the fea-language, fignifies pull; as, To
hale up, is to pull up ; to hale in or out, is to pull in
or out. To over-hale a rope, is to hale it too ftiff, or
to hale it the contrary way.
AW-Hale. See Due KING.
Hale (Sir Matthew,) iord chief juftice of the
king’s-bench in the reign of Charles II. was the fon
of Robert Hale, efq; a barrifterof Lincoln’s Inn, and
was born in 1609. He was educated at Oxford, where
he made a confiderable progrefs in learning ; but was
afterwards diverted from his ftudies by the levities of
youths From thefe he was reformed by Mr John
Glanvill, ferjeant at law; and applying to the ftudypf
the law, entered into Lincoln’s-Inn. Noy, the attor-
ney-general, took _ early notice of him, and direfted
him in his ftudies. Mr Selden alfo took much notice
of him ; and it was this acquaintance that firll fet Mr
Hale on a more enlarged purfuit of learning, which he
had before confined to his own profeffion. During
the civil wars, he behaved fo well as to gain the efteem
of both parties. He was employed in his pradlice by
all the king’s party; and was appointed by the par¬
liament one of the commiffioners to treat with the
20 A king.
HAL [ 3494 ] HAL
Hale. king. The murder of king Charles gave him very fen-
“ fible regret. However, he took the engagement; and
was appointed, with feveral others, to confider of the
reformation of the law. In 1653 he was by writ
made fergeant at law, and foon after appointed one of
thejufticesof the Common Pleas. Upon the death of
Oliver Cromwell he refilled to accept of the new com-
miffion offered him by Richard his fuccelfor. He was
returned one of the knights of Gloucefterfhire in the
parliament which called home Charles II. Soon af¬
ter, he was made lord chief baron of the exchequer ;
but declined the honour of knighthood, till lord chan¬
cellor Hyde, fending for him upon bufinefs when the
king was at his houfe, told his Majefty, that “ there
was his modeft chief baron;” upon which he was un-
cxpe&edly knighted. He was one of the principal
judges that fat in Clifford’s Inn about fettling the dif¬
ference between landlord and tenant, after the fire of
London, in which he behaved to the fatisfadlion of all
parties concerned, and alfo in his poft of chief baron
afted with inflexible integrity. One of the firft peers
went once to his chamber, and told him, “ That ha¬
ving a fuit in law to be tried before him, he was then
to acquaint him with it, that he might the better un-
derftand it when it fhould come to be tried in court.”
Upon which the lord chief baron interrupted him, and
faid, “ He did not deal fairly to come to his cham¬
bers about fuch affairs ; for he never received informa¬
tion of fuch caufes but in open court, where both par¬
ties were to be heard alike.” Upon which his Grace
(for it was a duke) went away not a little diffatisfied,
and complained of it to the king as a rudenefs that was
not to be endured : but his Majefty bid him content
himfelf that he was ufed no/worfe; and faid, “ That
he verily believed, he would have ufed him no better,
if he had gone to folicit him in any of his own caufes.”
Another remarkable incident happened in one of his
circuits. A gentleman who had a trial at the affixes
had fent him a buck for his table. When judge Hale
therefore heard his name, he alked “ if he was not the
fame perfon who had fent him the venifon ?” and find¬
ing that he was the fame, told him, that “ he could
not fuffer the trial to go on till he had paid him for his
buck.” The gentleman anfwered, that “ he never
fold his venifon; and that he had done nothing to him,
which he did not do to every judge who had gone that
circuit which was confirmed by feveral gentlemen
prefent The lord chief baron, however, would not
fuffer the trial to proceed till he had paid for the pre¬
fent : upon which the gentleman withdrew the record.
In Ihort, he was, in 1671, advanced to be lord chief
juftice of the king’s bench ; but about four years after
this promotion, his health declining, he refigned his
poft in February 1675-6, and died in December fol¬
lowing. This excellent man, who was an ornament
to the bench, to his country, and to human nature,
wrote, 1. An effay on the gravitation and non-gravi¬
tation of fluid bodies. 2. Obfervations touching the
Torricellian experiment. 3. Contemplations, moral and
divine. 4. The life of Pomponius Atticus, with poli¬
tical and moral refle&ions. 5. Obfervations on the
principles of natural motion. 6. The primitive origi¬
nation of mankind. He alfo left a great number of
manufcripts, in Latin and Englilh, upon various fub-
jefts $ among which are, his “ Pleas of the Crown,”
fince publiflied by Mr Emyln in two volumes folio; Hales,
and his “ Original iuftitution, power, and jurifdi&ion
of Parliaments.”
Hales (Stephen), D. D. a celebrated divine and
philofopher, was born in 1677. He was the fixth fon
of Thomas Hales, Efq; the eldeft fon of Sir Robert
Hales created a baronet by king Charles II. and
Mary the heirefs of Richard Langley of Abbots-Wood
in Hertfordihire« In 1696,'he was entered a pen-
fioner at Bennet-College, Cambridge ; and was admit¬
ted a fellow in 1703, and became bachelor of divini¬
ty in 1711. He foon difcovered a genius for natural
philofophy. Botany was his firft ftudy ; and he tifed
frequently to make excurfions among Gogmagog hills,
in company with Dr Stukely, with a view of profecu-
ting that ftudy. In thefe expeditions he likewife col-
le&ed foflils and infefts, having contrived a curious in-
ftrument for catching fuch of the latter as have wings.
In company with this friend he alfo applied himfelf
to the ftudy of anatomy, and invented a curious me¬
thod of obtaining a reprefentation of the lungs in
lead. They next applied themfelves to the ftudy of
chemiftry ; in which, however, they did not make any
remarkable difcoveries.
In the ftudy of aftronomy Mr Hales was equally af-
fiduous. Having made himfejf acquainted with the^
Newtonian fyftem, he contrived a machine for (hew¬
ing the phenomena on much the fame principles with
that afterwards made by Mr Rowley, and, from the
name of his patron, called an Orrery.
About the year 1710, he was prefented to the
perpetual cure of Teddington near Twickenham, in
Middlefex ; and afterwards accepted of the living of
Porlock in Somerfetfttire, which vacated his fellow-
(hip in the college, and which he exchanged for the
living of Faringdon in Hampfttire.
Soon after, he married Mary, the daughter and
heirefs of Dr Newce, who was re£!or of Halifham in
Suffex, but refided at Much-Haddam in Hertford-
(hire.
On the 13th of March 1718, he was eledfed mem¬
ber of the Royal Society ; and on the 5th of March,
in the year following, he exhibited an account of fome
experiments he had lately made on the effe<ft of the
fun’s warmth in raifing the fap in trees. This pro¬
cured him the thanks of thefociety, who alfo requefted
him to profecute the fubjecf. With this requeft he
complied with great pleafure ; and on the 14th of
June 1725, exhibited a treatife in which he gave an
account of his progrefs. This treatife being highly
applauded by the fociety, he farther enlarged and
improved it; and in April 1727 he publilhed it under
the title of Vegetable Statics. This work he dedi¬
cated to his late majefty king George the fecond, who
was then prince of Wales ; and he was, the fame year,,
chofen one of the council of the Royal Society, Sir
Hans Sloan being at the fame annual eleftion chofen
their prefident. The book being well received, a
fecond edition of it was publilhed in 1731 ; in a pre¬
face to this edition Mr Hales promifed a fequel to the
work, which he publifhed in 1733, under the title of
Statical ejfays, &c.
In 1732, he was appointed one of the truftees for
eftabliftiing a new colony in Georgia. On the 5th of
July 1733, the univerfity of Oxford honoured hinv
witlv.
HAL [ 3495 ] HAL
Hales. wJtli a diploma for the degree of do&or in divinity;
“ a mark of diitin&ion the more honourable, as it is
not ufual for one univerfity to confer academical ho¬
nours on thofe who were educated at another.
In 1734, when the health and morals of the lower
and middling clafs of people were fubverted by the
exceflive drinking of gin, he publiflied, though with¬
out his name, “ A friendly admonition to the drinkers
of brandy and other fpirituous liquorswhich was
twice re-printed. The latter end of the fame year he
publifhed a fermon which he preached at St Bride’s
before the reft of the truftees for eftablilhing a new
Colony in Georgia. His text was, Bear ye one ano¬
ther's burthens, and fo fulfil the la<w of Chrif ; Gala¬
tians vi. 2.
In 1739, he printed a volume in 8vo, intitled,
Philofophical experiments on fea-’water, corn, fiefh,
and other fulfances: this work, which contained
many ufeful inftruftions for voyagers, was dedicated
to the lords of the admiralty. The fame year he ex¬
hibited to the Royal Society an account of fome far¬
ther experiments towards the difcovery of medicines
for diffolving the ftone in the kidneys and bladder, and
preferving meat in long voyages ; for which he re¬
ceived the gold medal of Sir Godfrey Copley’s dona¬
tion. The year following he publilhed fome ac¬
count of “ Experiments and obfervations on Mrs Ste¬
phens’s medicines for diffolving the ftone, in which
their diffolvent power is inquired into and demon-
ftrated.”
In 1741, he read before the Royal Society an ac¬
count of an in'ftrument which he invented, and called
a ventilator, for conveying frefti air into mines, hof-
pitals, prifons, and the clofe parts of (hips : he had
communicated it to his particular friends fome months
before; and it is very remarkable that a machine of
the fame kind, for the fame purpofe, was in the fpring
of the fame year invented by one Martin Triewald, an
officer in the fervice of the king of Sweden, called
captain of mechanics, for which the king and fenate
granted him a privilege in O&obet following, and
ordered every (hip of war in the fervice of that ftate
to be furnifhed with one of them ; a model alfo of
this machine was fent into France, and all the (hips
in the French navy were alfo ordered to have a venti¬
lator of the fame fort.
It happened alfo, that about the fame time one Sut¬
ton, who kept a coffee houfe in Alderfgate-ftreet, in¬
vented a ventilator of another conftruclion to. draw off
the foul air out of (hips, by means of the cook-room
fire : but poor Sutton had not intereft enough to make
mankind accept the benefit he offered them ; though
its fuperiority to Dr Hales’s contrivance was evident,
and among others Dr Mead and the late ingenious
Mr Benjamin Robins gave their teftimony in its
favour. See Pipes.
The public, however, is not lefs indebted to the
ingenuity and benevolence of Dr Hales, whofe venti¬
lators came more eafily into ufe for many purpofes of
the greateft importance to life, particularly for keep¬
ing corn fweet, by blowing through it frelh (howtrs
of air; a pradtice very foon adopted by France, a
large granary having been m .k, under the diredtion
of Duhamel, for the prefervation of corn in this man¬
ner, with a view to make it a general pradtice.
In I743» Dr Hales read before the Royal Society Hales,
a defcriptioh of a method of conveying liquors into
the abdomen during the operation of tapping, and it
was afterwards printed in their Tranfadfions. In
1745, he publiftietTfome experiments and obfervations
on tar-water, which he had been induced to make by
the publication of a work called Siris, in which the
late learned and moft excellent Dr Berkeley, bifhopof
Cloyne, had recommended tar-water as an univerfal
medicine : on this occafion feveral letters paffed be¬
tween them on the fubjedt, particularly with refpedt
to the ufe of tar-water in the difeafe of the horned
cattle.
In the fame year he communicated to the public,
by a letter to the editor of the Gentleman’s Magazine,
a defcription of a back-heaver, which will winnow and
clean corn much fooner and better than can be done
by the common method. He alfo, at the fame time,
and by the fame channel, communicated to the public
a cheap and eafy way to preferve corn fweet in facks;
an invention of great benefit to farmers, efpecially to
poor leafers, who want to keep fmall quantities of
corn for fome time, but have no proper granary or re-
pofitory for that purpofe. He alfo the fame year took
the fame method to publifti diredlions how to keep corn
fweet in heaps without turning it, and to fweeten it
when mufty. He publifhed a long paper, containing
an account of feveral methods to preferve corn by ven¬
tilators; with a particular defcription of feveral forts
of ventilators, illuftrated by a cut, fo that the whole
mechanifm of them may be eafily known, and the ma¬
chine conftru&ed by a common carpenter. He pub-
liftied alfo in the fame volume, but without his name,
a detedfion of the fallacious boafts concerning the effi¬
cacy of the liquid (hell in diffolving the flone in the
bladder. In 1746 he communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety a propofal for bringing fmall paffable (tones foon,
and with eafe, out of the bladder; and this was alfo
printed in their Tranfadtions. In the Gentleman’s
Magazine for July 1747, he publiftied an account of a
very confiderable improvement of his back-heaver, by
which it became capable of clearing corn of the very
fmall grain, feeds, blacks, fmut balls, &c, to fuch per-
fedtion as to make it fit for feed-corn. In 1748 he
communicated to the Royal Society a propofal for
checking, in feme degree, the progrefs of fires, occa-
fioned by the great fire which happened that year in
Cornhill: And the fubftance of this propofal was
printed in their Tranfa&ions. In the fame y'ear he
alfo communicated to the Society two memoirs, which
are printed in their Tranfadlions; one on the great be¬
nefit of ventilators, and the other on fome experiments
in eledlricity.
In 1749 his ventilators were fixed in the Savoy pri-
fon, by order of the right hon. Henry Fox, efq ; then
fecretary at war, afterwards lord Holland; and the
benefit was fo great, that though 50 or too in a year
often died of the gaol-diftemper before, yet from the
year 174910 the year 1752 inclufive, no more than
four perfons died, though in the year 1750 the num¬
ber of prifoners was 240; and of thofe four, one died
of the fmall-pox, and another of intemperance-
In the year 1750 he publilhed fome confiderations
on the caufes of earthquakes; occafioned by the flight
(hocks felt that year in London. The fubftance of
20 A 2 this
HAL [ 3496 1 HAL
this work was alfo printed in the Philofophical Tranf*
'actions. The fame year he exhibited an examination
of the ftrength of feveral purging waters, efpecialiy of
the water of Jejfop's well, which is printed in the Phi¬
lofophical Tranfa&ions.
He had now been feveral years honoured with the
efteem and friendfhip of his royal highnefs Frederick
prince of Wales; who frequently vifited him at Ted-
dington, from his neighbouring palace at Kew, and
took a pleafure in furprifing him in the midft of thofe
curious refearches into the various parts of nature
which almoft incefiantly employed him. Upon the
prince’s death, which happened this year, and the fet-
tlement of the houfehold of the princefs dowager, he
was, without his folicitation, or even knov/ledge, ap¬
pointed clerk of the clofet, or almoner to her royal
highnefs.
In 1751 he was chofen by the college of phyficians
to preach the annual fermon called Crowne’s lecture:
Dr William Crowne having left a legacy for a fermon
to be annually preached on “ the wifdom and good-
«* nefs of God difplayed in the formation of man.”
Dr Hales’s text was, IVitb the ancient is wifdom, and
in length of days underfunding. Job xii. 12. This
fermon, as ufual, was publHhed at the requeft of the
eollege.
In the latter end of the year 1752, his ventilators,
worked by a windmill, were fixed in Newgate, with
branching trunks to 24 wards; and it appeared that
the difprbportibn of thofe that died in the gaol before
and after this eflablifhment was as 16 to 7. He pub-
lifhed alfo a farther account of their fuccefs, and fome
obfervations on the great danger arifing from foul air,
exemplified by a narrative of feveral perfons feized
with the gaol fever by working in Newgate.
On the death of Sir Hans Sloane, which happened
in the year 1753, he was ele&ed a member of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris in his room. The fame
year he publilhed in the Gentleman’s Magazine fome
farther confiderations about means to draw the foul air
out of the fick.rooms of occafional army-hofpitals,
and private houfes in town. Fie alfo pubiifhed many
other curious particulars relative to the ufe and fuc-
eefs of ventilators. The fame year a defcription of a
fea-gage, which the do&or invented to meafure un¬
fathomable depths, was communicated to the public in
the fame mifeellany: this paper was drawn up about
the year 1732 or 1733, by the dqftor, for the late Co¬
lin Campbell, efq; who employed the ingenious Mr
Hawkfbee to make the machine it defcribes, which was
tried in various depths, and anfwered with great exaft-
nefs, yet was at laft loft near Bermuda.
In 1754, he communicated to the Royal Society
fome experiments for keeping water and fifti fweet
with lime-water, an account of which was publilhed
in the Phil. Tranf. He alfo continued to enrich their
memoirs with many ufeful articles from this time till
his death, particularly a method of forwarding the
diftillation of frelh from fait water by blowing Ihowers
of frelh air up through the latter during the operation.
Ln 1757 he communicated to the editor of the
Gentleman’s Magazine, an eafy method of purifying
the air, and regulating its heat in melon-frames and
green-houfes, alfo further improvements in his method
of difti-lling tea-water*
His reputation and the intereft of his family and H
friends might eafily have procured hirti farther pre-
ferment: but of farther preferment he was not de- 
firous ; for being nominated by his late majefty to a
canonry of Windfor, he engaged the princefs to re¬
queft his majefty to recall his nomination. That
a man fo devoted to philofophical {Indies and employ¬
ments, and fo confcientious in the difcharge of his
duty, Ihould not defire any preferment which would
reduce him to the dilemma either of neglefting his
duty, or foregoing his amufement, is not ftrange :
but that he would refufe an honourable and profitable
appointment, for which no duty was to be done that
would interrupt his habits of life, can fcarce be im¬
puted to his temperance and humility without im¬
peaching his benevolence ; for if he had no will of any
thing more for himfelf, a liberal mind would furely
have been highly gratified by the diftribution of fo
confiderable a fum as a canonry of Windfor would
have put into his power, in the reward of induftry,
the 'alleviation of diftrefs, and the fupport of helplefs
indigence. He was, however, remarkable for focial
virtue and fweetnefs of temper; his life' was not only
blamelefs, but exemplary in a high degree ; he was
happy in himfelf, and beneficial to others, as appears
by this account of his attainments and purfuits ; the
conftant ferenity and cheerfulnefs of his mind, and
the temperance and regularity of his life, concurred,
with a good conftitution, to preferve him in health
and vigour to the uncommon age of fourfcoreand four
years.
He died at Teddington in 1761 ; and was buried,
purfuant to his own direflions, under the tower of
the pari(h-church, which lie built at his own expence
not long before his death.—Her royal highnefs the
princefs of Wales ere&ed a monument to his memory
in Weftminfter abbey.
HALESWORTH, a town of Suffolk in England,
feated on a neck of land between two branches of the
river Blith. It is a well frequented thriving place,
and has a trade in linen-yarn and fail-cloth. It has one'
large church, and about 600 good houfes ; but the
ftreets are neither wide nor paved. About the town
is raifed a great deal of hemp* E. Long. x. 40. N.
Lat. 52. 30.
HALF-blood, in law, is where a man marries a
fecond wife, the firft being dead, and by the firft ven¬
ter has a fon, and by his fecond venter has likewife a
fon ; the’ two brothers, in this cafe, are but of half-
blood. See Consanguinity and Descent.
HALF-AfcT/f; a noble, or 6 s. 8d*
HALF-ALfW, in fortification ; an outwork compofed
of two faces, forming a faliant angle, whofe gorge is
in form of a crefcent or half-moon, whence the name.
HALI-BEIGH, firft dragoman or interpreter at the
Grand Signior’s court in the 1 7th century, was born of
Chriftian parents in Poland; but having been taken by
the Tartars when he was young, they fold him to the
Turks, who brought him up in their religion in the fe-
raglio. His name, in his native country, was Bobowlki.
He learnt many languages, and Sir Paul Ricaut owns he
was indebted to him for feveral things which he relates
in his Prefent fate of the Ottoman empire. He held a
great correfpondence with the Englilh, who perfuaded?
him. to trasflate fome hooks into the Turkilh language ;
HAL [ 3497 ] HAL
HaUetus, and he had a mind to return into the bofom of the
Halifax. Chriftian church, but died before he could accomplilh
the defign. Dr Hyde publilhed his book Of the li-
ttifgy of the Turks, their pilgrimages to Mecca, their
circumcifon and vifting of thefck. He tranflated the
catecbifm of the church of England, and the bible, in¬
to the Turkifh language. The MS. is lodged in the
library of Leyden. He wrote likewife a Turkifti
grammar and dictionary.
HALIiETUS, in ornithology. See Falco.
HALIFAX, the capital of the province of Nova
Scotia in America, fituated in W. Long. 64. 30. N.
Lat. 44. 43. It was founded in 1749, in order to fe-
cure the Britilh fettlements there from the attempts of
the French and Indians. It was divided into 35
fquares, each containing 16 lots of 40 by 60 feet;
one eftablifhed church, and one meeting-houfe, and a
fmall number of houfes out of the regular ftreets,
which are 65 feet broad. The town was furrounded
by pickettings, and guarded by forts on the outfide ;
but, (ince the commencement of the American troubles,
it has been very llrongly fortified. Along the river
Chebu&o, to the fouthward of the town, are buildings
and fifh-flakes for at leaft two miles, and to the north¬
ward on the river for about one mile. The plan,
however, has been greatly improved by the earl of
Halifax, who was the original contriver. The pro¬
clamation iffued for this fettlement, offered 50 acres of
land to every foldier and failor who would fettle in that
part of America, without paying any rent or doing
any fervice for ten years, and no more than one (hil¬
ling per annum for each 50 acres ever afterwards: to
every foldier and failor who had a wife and children,
ten acres more were added for every individual of his
family, and for every increafe that (hould afterwards
happen in the fame proportion. To each fubaltern
officer, 80 acres, and 15 for each of his family ; 200
acres to each enfign ; 300 to each lieutenant; 400 to
each captain; 600 to every officer in rank above a
captain, and 30 for each of his family. The govern¬
ment alfo engaged to tranfport and maintain the new
fcttlers for one year at its own expence, and to furniffi
them with fuch arms, provifions, utenfils, implements,
&c. as ffiouid be neceffary to put them in a way to cul¬
tivate their lands, to build habitations, and to com¬
mence a filhery. The fame conditions were likewife
offered to all carpenters and other handicraftfmen ;
and furgeons were offered the fame conditions with the
enfigns.—This proclamation was publifhed in March,
and by the month of May 3700 perfons had offered
themfelves. They accordingly embarked, and eita-
bliffied themfelves in the bay of Chebu&o ; calling their
city Halifax, from the title of their patron. Before
the end of October the fame year, 330 comfortable
wooden houfes were built, and as many more during
the winter.—The fame year in which the fettlers em¬
barked, the government granted them 40,000!. for
their expences* In 1750, they granted 57,5821. 17 s.
3|-d. for the fame purpofe; in 1751, 531927!. 14s.
4d.; in 1752, 61,492). 19s. 4^; in 1753, 94,615!.
12 s. 4d. ; in 1754, 58,447!. 2$. ; and in 1755,
49,418 1. 7 s. 8 d.
Halifax, earl of. See Saville.
Halifax, a town in the weft riding of Yorkffiire
in England, feated on the river Calder, in W. Long.
2. o. N. Lat. 53. 45. If has the title of an earldom,
and is very eminent for the clothier trade. The parifti
is faid to be the moft populous, if not the moft ex-
tenfive, in England : for it is above 30 miles in cir¬
cumference; and,befides the mother-church at Halifax,
and i6meeting-houfes, has 12 chapels, two of which
are parochial. What is a little Angular, all themeet-
ing-houfes here, except the quakers, have bells and
burying grounds. The woollens principally manu-
fa&ured here, are kerfeys and (balloons. Of the for¬
mer it is affirmed, that one dealer hath fent by com-
miffion 60,000 pounds worth in a year to Holland and
Hamburgh ; and of the latter, it is faid, 100,000
pieces are made in this parifli yearly. The inhabi¬
tants here, and in the neighbouring towns, are fo en¬
tirely employed in thefe manufa&ures, that agriculture
is but little minded. Moft of their provifions of all
forts are brought from the north and eaft ridings,
and from Lancafiiire, Chefhire, Nottinghamffiire, and
Warwickfhire. The markets are very much crowded
for the buying and felling provifions and manufa&ures.
The cloths, at the firft ere&ing of the woollen manu-
faftures in thefe parts, having been frequently ftolen
off the tenters in the night, a law was made, by which
the magiftrates of Halifax were empowered to pafs
fentencc on and execute all offenders, if they were ta¬
ken in the fad, or owned it, or if the ftolen cloth was
found upon them, provided alfo the crime was com¬
mitted, and the criminal apprehended, within the liber¬
ties of the foreft of Hardwick. Thofe found guilty
were executed in the following manner : an axe was
drawn by a pulley to the top of a wooden engine, and
faftened by a pin, which being pulled out, the axe fell
down in an inftant, and did its work. If they had
dole an ox, horfe, or any other beaft, it was led with
them to the fcaffold, and there faftened by a cord to
the pin, that held up the axe; and when the fignal was
given by the jurors, who were the firft; burghers with¬
in the feveral towns of the foreft, the beaft was driven
away, and the pin plucked out, upon which the axe
fell and did its office. This fevete and fummary courfe
of juftice, gave occafion to a litany, which is Hill
much more frequent in the mouths of the beggars
and vagrants of thefe parts, than is the common
prayer, viz.
“ t rom Hell, Hull, and Hallifax, good Lord deliver us
though neither the engine, nor manner of proceeding
againft them, are now in ufe.
HALIOTIS, the ear-shell, a genus of infe&s
belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. This is an
animal of the fnail-kind, with an open (hell refembling
an ear. There are feven fpecies, diftinguiftied by the
figure of their (hells. See Plate CLVIII.
HALITZ, a town of Poland, and capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name, in Red Ruffia, with a caftle.
It is feated on the river Neifter. E. Long. 26. o,
N. Lat. 49. 20.
HALL, in archite&ure, a large room at the en¬
trance of a fine houfe and palace. Vitruvius mentions
three kinds of halls; the tetraftyle, with four columns,
fupporting the platfond or ceiling; the Corinthian,
with columns all round let into the wall, and vaulted
over; and the Egyptian, which had a periftyle of in-
fulated Corinthian columns, bearing a fecond order
with a ceiling.
Halifax
II
Hall.
The
HAL [ 3498 ] HAL
Hall The hall is properly the fined as well as firfl: mem-
I] her of an apartment; and in the houfes of minilters of
3 e‘ ftate, magiftrates, &c. is the place where they difpatch
bufinefs, and give audience. In very magnificent
buildings, where the hall is larger and loftier than or¬
dinary, and placed in the middle of the houfe, it is
called a fahon.
The length of a hall fliould be at lead twice and a
quarter its breadth; and in great buildings, three
times its breadth. As to the height of halls, it may
be two thirds of the breadth ; and, if made with an
arched ceiling, it will be much handfomer, and lefs
liable to accidents by fire. In this cafe, its height is
found by dividing its breadth into fix parts, five of
which will be the height from the floor to the under
fide of the key of the arch.
Hall (Jofeph), an eminent prelate of the church of
England, was born in 1574, and educated at Cam¬
bridge. He became profefibr of Rhetoric in that uni-
verfity, and then fucceflively was made re&or of Hal-
fled in Suffolk, prefented to the living of Waltham
in Efiex, made prebendary of Wolverhampton, dean
of Worcefter, bifhop of Exeter, and laftly of Nor¬
wich.
His works teftify his zeal againft Popery, and are
much efteemed. He lamented the divifions of the Pro-
teftants, and wrote fomething concerning the means
of putting an end to them. July 1616, he attended
the embafly of lord Doncafter into France, and upon
his return was appointed by his majefty to be one of
the divines who fliould attend him into Scotland. In
1618 he was fent to the fynod of Dort with other di¬
vines, and pitched upon to preach a Latin fermon be¬
fore that aflembly. But being obliged to return from
thence before the fynod broke up, on account of his
health, he was by the ftates prefented with a gold me¬
dal. He wrote, 1. Mifcellaneous epiftles. 2. Mun~
dus alter et idem. 3. A juft cenfure of travellers.
4. The Chriftian Seneca. 5. Satires, in fix books.
6. A century of meditations; and many other works,
which, befides the above fatires, make in all five vo¬
lumes in folio and quarto. He died in 1656.
Hall (John), a poet of diftinguifhed learning, was
born at Durham, and educated at Cambridge, where
he was efteemed the brighteft rgenius in that univerfi-
ty. In 1646, when he was but 19 years of age, he
publilhed his Horne Vaciva, or Efi'ays; and the fame
year came out his poems. He tranflated from the
Greek “ Hierocles upon the golden verfes of Pythago¬
ras;” before which is an account of the ingenious tranf-
lator and his works, by John Davies of Kidwelly. He
died in 1656, aged 29.
HALLAGE, a fee or toll paid for cloth brought
to be fold in Blackwell-hall, London.
HALLAMASS. See All-Saints.
HALLAND, a country of Sweden, in the ifland
of Schonen, lying along the fea-coaft, at the entrance
of the Baltic Sea, and oppofite to Jutland. It is 60
miles along the coaft, but is not above 12 in breadth.
Halmftadt is the capital town.
HALLATON, a town of Leicefterfhire, in Eng¬
land. It is feated on a rich foil, 12 miles fouth-eaft
of Leicefter, in E. Lon. o. 50. N. Lat. 52. 35.
HALLE, a little difmantled town of the Auftrian
Netherlands, in Hainault. The church of Notre
Dame contains an image of the Virgin Mary, held in Halle
great veneration. E. Lon. 3. 15. N. Lat 50.44. ^
Halle, a handfome and confiderable town of ^a^er'
Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and in the
duchy of Magdeburg, with a famous univerfity and
falt-works. It belongs to the king of Pruflia; and is
feated in a pleafant plain on the river Sale, in E. Lon.
1 2. 33. N. Lat. 51. 36.
Halle, a free and imperial town of Germany,
in Suabia, famous for its falt-pits. Itis feated on theriver
Kocher, among rocks and mountains, in E. Lon. 10.
50. N. Lat. 49. 6.
HALLE1N, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, and archbilhopric of Saltfburg; feated on
the river Saltza, among the mountains, wherein are
mines of fait, which are the chief riches of the town
and country. E. Lon. 12. 15. N. Lat. 47. 33.
HALLELUJA, a word fignifying “ Praife the
Lord.” The finging halleluja (firtl introduced into
the church-fervice by St Jerom), was a fort of invita-
tory, or call to each other, to praife the Lord. St
Auftin fays, that in fome churches it was fung only
on Ealler-day, and the 50 days of Pentecoft ; but that
even in thofe churches where it was moft in ufe, it was
never ufed in the time of Lent.
HALLER (Albert Van), an eminent phyfician,
was born at Bern, on the 16th of O&ober 1708. He
was the fon of an advocate, of confiderable eminence
in his profeffion. His father had a numerous family,
and Albert was the youngeft of five fons. From the
firft period of his education, he (hewed a very great
genius for literature of every kind : to forward the pro-
grefs of his fludies, his father took into his family a
private tutor, named Abraham Billodz ; and fuch was
the difcipline exerted by this pedagogue, that the ac¬
cidental fight of him, at any future period of life, ex¬
cited in Haller very great uneafinefs, and renewed all
his former terrors.
According to the accounts which are given us,
the progrefs of Haller’s ftudies, at the earlieft periods
of life, was rapid almoft beyond Relief. When other
children were beginning cmljrfo read, he was ftudying
Bayle and Moreri; and at nine years of age he was
able to tranflate Greek, and was beginning the ftudy
of Hebrew. Not long after this, however, the courfe
of his education was fomewhat interrupted by the death
of his father; an event which happened when he was
in the 13th year of his age. After this he was fent
to the public fchool at Bern, where he exhibited many
fpecimens of early and uncommon genius. H^- was
diftinguifhed for his knowledge in the Greek and La¬
tin languages; but he was chiefly remarkable for his
poetical genius: and his eflays of this kind, which
were publifhed in the German language, were read
and admired throughout the whole empire.
In the 16th year of his age, he began the ftudy of
medicine at Tubingen, under thofe eminent teachers
Duvernoy and Camerarius ; and continued there for the
fpace of two years, when the great reputation of the
juftly celebrated Boerhaave drew him to Leyden. Nor
was this diftinguiftied teacher the only man from whofe
fuperior abilities he had there an opportunity of pro¬
fiting, Ruyfch was (till alive, and Albinus was riling
into fame. Animated by fuch examples, he fpent all
the day, and the greateft part of the night, in the
moft
HAL [ 3499 ] HAL
Haller, moft intenfe ftudy; and the proficiency which he
    made, gained him univerfal efteem both from his
teachers and fellow-ftudents.
From Holland, in the year 1727, he came to Eng¬
land. Here, however, his ftay was but fhort; and it
was rather his intention to vifit the illurtrious men of
that period, than to profecute his {Indies at London.
He formed connexions with fome of the moft eminent
of them. He was honoured with the friendthip of
Douglas and Chefelden ; and he met with a reception
proportioned to his merit from Sir Hans Sloane, prefi-
dent of the Royal Society. After his vifit to Britain,
he went to France ; and there, under thofe eminent raa-
fters, Window and Le Dr a 11, with the latter of whom
he refided during his ftay in Paris, he had opportuni¬
ties of profecuting anatomy, which he had not before
enjoyed. But the zeal of our young anatomift was
greater than the prejudices of the people at that pe¬
riod, even in the enlightened city of Paris, could ad¬
mit of. An information being lodged againft him to
the police for di{Lifting dead bodies, he was obliged
to cut fhort his anatomical inveftigations by a preci¬
pitate retreat. Still, however, intent on the farther
profecution of his ftudies, he went to Bafil, where he
became a pupil to the celebrated Bernoulli.
Thus improved and inftrufted by the leiftures of the
moft diftinguiftied teachers of that period, by uncom¬
mon natural abilities, and by unremitting induftry,
he returned to the place of his nativity in the 26th
year of his age. Not long after this, he offered him-
felf a candidate, firft for the office of phyfician to an
hofpital, and afterwards for a profefforftiip. But nei¬
ther the charaifter which he had before he left his na¬
tive country, nor the fame which he had acquired and
fupported while abroad, were fufficient to combat the
intereft oppofed to him. He was difappointed in both ;
and it was even with difficulty that he obtained, in the
following year, the appointment of keeper of a pub¬
lic library at Bern. The exercife of this office was
indeed by no means fuited to his great abilities: but
it was agreeable to him, as it afforded him an oppor¬
tunity for that extenfive reading by which he has been
fo juftly diftinguifhed.
The negledt of his merit which marked his firft out-
fet, neither diminiftied his ardour for medical purfuits,
nor detrafted from his reputation either at home or
abroad. And foon after be was nominated a profeffor
in the univerfity of Gottingen, by king George II.
The duties of this important office he difcharged, with
no lefs honour to himfelf than advantage to the pu¬
blic, for the fpace of feventeen years; and it afford¬
ed him an ample field for the exertion of thofe great
talents which he poffeffed. Extenfively acquainted
with the fentiments of others refpeifting the ceconomy
of the human body, ftruck with the diverfity of opi¬
nions which they held, and fenfible that the only means
of inveftigating truth was by careful and candid ex¬
periment, he undertook the arduous taflt of exploring the
phsenomena of human nature from the original fource.
In thefe purfuits he was no lefs induftrious than fuccefs-
ful, and there was hardly any funftion of the body on
which bis experiments did notrefleift either a new or a
ftronger light. Nor was it long neceffary for him, in this
arduous undertaking, to labour alone. The example of
She preceptor infpired his pupils with the fpirit of in¬
duftrious exertion. Zinn, Zimmerman, Caldani, and
many others, animated by a generous emulation, la¬
boured with indefatigable induftry to profecute and to
perfedt the difcoveries of their great mafteff And the
mutual exertion of the teacher and his ftudents, not
only tended to forward the progrefsof medical fcience,.
but placed the philofophy of the human body on a
more fure, and an almoft entirely new bails.
But the labours of Dr Haller, during his refidence
at Gottingen, were by no means confined to any one
department of fcience. He was not more anxious to
be an improver himfelf, than to inftigate others to fi-
miiar purfuits. To him, the Anatomical Theatre,
the School of Midwifery, the Chirurgical Society, and
the Royal Academy of Sciences, at Gottingen, owe
their origin. Such diftinguifhed merit could not fail
to meet with a fuitable reward from the fovereign un¬
der whofe protection he then taught. The king of
Great Britain not only honoured him with every mark
of attention which he himfelf could beftow, but pro¬
cured him alfo letters of nobility from the emperor.
On the death of Dillenius, he had an offer of the pro¬
fefforftiip of botany at Oxford; the ftates of Holland
invited him to the chair of the younger Albinus ; the
king of Prufila was anxious that he (hould be the fuc-
ceffor of Maupertuis at Berlin. Marfhal Keith wrote
to him in the name of his fovereign, offering him the
chancellorftiip of the univerfity of Halle, vacant by
the death of the celebrated Wolff. Count Orlow in¬
vited him to Ruflia, in the name of his miftrefs the
emprefs, offering him a diftinguiftied place at St Pe-
terfburgh. The king of Sweden conferred on him an
unfolicited honour, by railing him to the rank of
knighthood of the order of the polar ftar ; and the
emperor of Germany did him the honour of a perfon-
nal vifit, during which he thought it no degradation
of his charaifter to pafs fome time with him in the
moft familiar converfation.
Thus honoured by fovereigns, revered by men of
literature, and efteemed by all Europe, he had it in
his power to have held the higheft rank in the republio
of letters. Yet, declining all the tempting offers which
were made to him, he continued at Gottingen, anxiouf-
ly endeavouring to extend the rifing fame of that me¬
dical fchool. But after feventeen years refidence in
that univerfity, an ill ftate of health rendering him
lefs fit for the duties of the important office which he
held, he folicited and obtained permiflion from the re¬
gency of Hanover to return to his native city of Bern.
His fellow-citizens, who might at firft have fixed him
among themfelves, with no lefs honour than advantage
to their city, were now as fenfible as others of his
fuperior merit. A penfion wras fettled upon him for
life, and he was nominated at different times to fill
the moft important offices in the ftate. Thefe occu¬
pations, however, did not diminifti his ardour for
ufeful improvements. He was the firft prefident, as
well as the greateft promoter, of the Geconomical So¬
ciety at Bern ; and he may be confidered as the father
and founder of the Orphan-hofpital of that city. De¬
clining health, however, reftrained his exertions in the
more aiftive fcenes of life, and for many years he was
confined entirely to his own houfe. Even this, how¬
ever, could not put a period to his utility : for, with
indefatigable induftry he continued his favourite em¬
ployment
Haller.
HAL [ 3500 ] HAL
Hallty. ployment of writing till within a few days of his death ;
which happened in the 70th year of his age, on the
12th of December 1777. His Elementa Pbyfwlogia
and Bibliotheca Medicinx, will afford, to lateft pofte-
rity, undeniable proofs of his indefatigable induftry,
penetrating genius, and folid judgment. But he was
not lefs diltinguifhed as a philofopher, than beloved as
a man ; and he was not more eminent for his improve¬
ment in every department of medical fcience, than for
his piety to God, and benevolence to all mankind.
HALLEY (Dr Edmund), an eminent aftronomer,
was the only fon of a foap-boiler in London, and was
born in 1656. He firft applied himfelf to the ftudy
of the languages and fciences, but at length gave him¬
felf up wholly to that of aftronomy. in 1676 he went
to the ifland of St Helena to complete the catalogue
of fixed ftars, by the addition of thofe that lie near
the fouth pole; and having delineated a planifphere,
in which he laid them all down in their exaft places,
he returned to England in 1678. In the year 1680
he took what is called the grand tourt accompanied
by his friend the celebrated Mr Nelfon. In the mid¬
way between Calais and Paris, Mr Halley had a fight
of a remarkable comet, as it then appeared a fecond
time that year, in its return from the fun. He had
the November before feen it in its defcent; and now
haftened to complete his obfervations upon it, in view¬
ing it from the royal obfervatory of France. His de-
fign in this part of his tour was, to fettle a friendly
correfpondence between the two royal aftronomers of
Greenwich and Paris, and in the mean time to’im-
prove himfelf under fo great a mailer as Caffini. From
thence he went to Italy, where he fpent great part of
the year 1681; but his affairs calling him home, he
returned to England. In 1683, he publiflied his 7'W)’
of the variation of the magnetical compafs ; in which he
fuppofes the whole globe of the earth to be a great
magnet, with four magnetical poles, or points of at-
tradlion : but afterwards thinking that this theory
was liable to great exceptions, he procured an appli¬
cation to be made to king William, who appointed
him commander of the Paramour pink, with orders
to fetk by obfervations the difcovery of the rule of
variations, and to lay down the longitudes and
latitudes of his majefty’s fettlements in America.—
He fet out on this attempt on the 24th of Novem¬
ber 1698 : but having crofled the line, his men grew
fickly; and his lieutenant mutinying, he returned
home in June 1699. Having got the-lieutenant tried
and calhiered, he fet fail a fecond time in Septem¬
ber following, with the fame fhip, and another of lefs
bulk, of which he had alfo the command. He now
traverfed the vafl: Atlantic ocean from one hemifphere
to the other, as far as the ice would permit him to go;
and having made his obfervations at St Helena, Brafil,
Cape Verd.Barbadoes, the Madeiras, the Canaries, the
coall of Barbary, and many other latitudes, arrived in
September 1700; and the next year publilhed a general
chart, (hewing at one view the variation of the com¬
pafs in all thofe places. Captain Halley, as he was
now called, had been at home little more than half a
year, when he was fent by the king to obferve the
courfe of the tides, with the longitude and latitude of
the principal head-lands in the Britilh channel ; which
having executed with his ufual expedition and accura¬
cy, he publilhed a large map of the Britilh channel. Halley-
Soon after, the emperor of Germany refolving to II
make a convenient harbour for (hipping in the Adriatic, Halttea^*
Captain Halley was fent by queen Anne to view the
two ports on the coaft of Dalmatia. He embarked
on the 22d of November 1702 ;.pafTed over to Hol¬
land ; and going through Germany to Vienna, he pro¬
ceeded to Iflria : but the Dutch oppofing the delign,
it was laid afide 5 yet the emperor made him a prefent
of a rich diamond-ring from his finger, and honoured
him with a letter of recommendation, written with
his own hand, to queen Anne. Prefently after his
return, he was fent again on the fame bgfinefs; when
palling thro’ Hanover, he flipped with king George I.
then electoral prince, and his filler the queen of Pruf-
fia. On his arrival at Vienna, he was the fame even¬
ing prefented to the emperor, who fent his chief engi¬
neer to attend him to Illria, where they repaired and
added new fortifications to thofe of Trielte.
Mr Halley returned to England in 1703; and the
fame year was made profeflbr of geometry in the uni-
verfity of Oxford, in the room of Dr Wallis, and had
the degree of doctor of laws conferred on him by that
univerfity. He is faid to have loll the profelforlhip of
allronomy in that city, becaufe he would not profefs
his belief of the Chriftian religion. He was fcarcely
fettled at Oxford, when he began to tranflate into La¬
tin from the Arabic, Apollonius de feftione rationis ;
and to rellore the two books De fettione fpatii of the
fame author, which are loll, from the account given
of them by Pappius; and he publilhed the whole work
in 1706. Afterwards he had a (hare in preparing for
the prefs Apollonius’s Conics; and ventured to fupply
the whole eighth book, the original of which is alfo
loll. He likewife added Serenus on the feilion of the
cylinder and cone, printed from the original Greek,
with a Latin tranflation, and publilhed the whole in
folio. In 1713, he was made fecretary of the Royal
Society; in 1720, he was appointed the king’s aftro-
nqmer at the royal obfervatory at Greenwich, in the
room of Mr Flamftead ; and, in 1729, was chofen as
a foreign member of the Academy of Sciences at Pa¬
ris. He died at Gieenwich in 1742. His principal
works are, 1. Catalogue Jlellarum aujlraliorum. 2.
Tabula aftronomica. 3. An abridgment of the a-
llronomy of comets, &c. We are alfo indebted to
him for the publication of feveral of the works of the
great Sir Ifaac Newton, who had a particular friend-
ftiip for him, and to whom he frequently communicated
his difcoveries.
Halley’s Quadrant. See Quadrant.
HALLIARDS, the ropes or tackles ufually em¬
ployed to hoift or lower any fail upon its refpe&ive
mall or Hay. See Jears.
HALMOTE, or Halimote, is the fame with
what we now call a court-baron, the word implying a
meeting of the tenants of the fame hall or manor. The
name is Hill retained at Lullon, and other places in
Herefordlhire. See Mote.
HALMSTADT. See Helmstadt.
HALSTEAD, town of Elfex, in England, feat-
ed on the river Coin, in E. Lon. o. 45. N. Lat. 51.
55. It has an old church, the lleeple of which
was once burnt down by lightning, but rebuilt at the
expenoe of an individual, (Robert Filke, efq;). The
town
HAL [ 3501 ] HAM
Halo town confifts of about 600 pretty good houfes, and
!| is fituated on a rifing ground, but the ftreets are not
Ham. paved. The inhabitants are about 4000 in number.
Here is a good manufaftory of fays, bays, calliman-
coes, &c. alfo a good free-fchool for 40 boys, and a
very antique Bridewell.
HALO, or Corona, in natural hiftory, a coloured
circle appearing round the body of the fun, mooni or
any of the large ftars. See Corona.
HALT, in war, a paufe or ftop in the march of a
military body.—Some derive the word from the Latin
ha lit us, breath ; it being a frequent occafion of halt¬
ing to take breath : others from alto, becaufe in halt¬
ing they raifed their pikes on end, &c.
HALTERISTiE, in antiquity, a kind of players
at difcus; denominated from a peculiar kind of difcus
called by the Greeks ka-toj, and by the Latins Halter.
See Discus.
Some take the difcus to have been a leaden weight
or ball which the vaulters bore in their hands, to fe-
cure and keep themfelves the more fteady in their leap¬
ing. Others will have the halter to be a lump or mafs of
lead or ftone, with an hold or handle fixed to it, by
which it might be carried ; and that the halterijlee
were thofe who exercifed themfelves in removing thefe
maffes from place to place.
Hier. Mercurialis, in his treatife De arte gyninaJU-
ca, 1. ii. c. 12. diftinguifhes two kinds of halterjflx.;
for though there was but one/Wh'r,; there were two
ways of applying it. The one was to throw or pitch
it in a certain manner ; the other only to hold it out at
arm’s-end, and in this pofture to give themfelves di¬
vers motions, fwinging the hand backwafds and for¬
wards, according to the engraven figures thereof given
us by MercurialiS.—The Baton was of a cylindrical
figure, fmaller in the middle, where it was held, by
one diameter, than at the two ends. It was above a
foot long, and there was one for each hand : it was
either of iron, ftone, or lead.
Galen, De tuend. valetud. lib. i. v. & vi. fpeaks of
this exercife, and (hews of what ufe it is in purging
the body of peccant humours; making it equivalent
both to purgation and phlebotomy.
HALT WHISTLE,; ja town of Northumberland,
in. England, .fituated in, E^.Lon. 2. N. Lat. 55. o.
It is pretty well built,, and affords good entertainment
for travellers. . '
HALYMOTE, properly fignifies an holy or ecclefi-
..aftical court. See Halmote.
There is a court held in London by this name be¬
fore the Lord-Mayor and Iheriffs, ifor regulating the
.bakers. It was anciently held on Sunday next before
St Thomas’s day, and for this reafon called the Haly-
■ inpte, or Holy-court.
HALYWERCFOLK, in aid writers, were per-
fons who enjoyed land, by the pious ferviceof repair¬
ing fome church , on defending a fepulchre.
This word alfo fignified fuch perfons in the diocefe
of Durham, as held their lands to defend the corps of
St Cuthbert, and who from thence claimed the privilege
of not being forced to go out of the bilhopric.
HAM is a Saxon word ufed for “ a place of dwell¬
ing a village or town : hence the termination of
fome of our towns, Nottingham, Buckingham. &c.
Vou.V.
Alfo a home clofe, or little narrow meadow, is called Ham
a ham. I;
Ham, in cookery, the leg of a hog, feafoned and dried. Hamame :5-
To fait a ham in imitation of thofe of Weftphalia :
Let the ham be of young pork ; fprinkle it with fait
for one day, that it may fetch out the blood ; then
wipe it dry, and rub it with the following mixture r
Take a pound of brown fugar, half a pound of falt-
petre, half a pint of bay-falt, and three pints of com¬
mon fait; ftir thefe together in an iron-pan over the fire
till they are pretty hot, and then rub the leg of pork
with it: let it lie three weeks in this faking, frequent¬
ly turning it, and then dry it in a chimney.
Ham, a city of Germany, in the circle of Weft¬
phalia, capital of the county of Mark, and fubjedt to
the king of Pruflia. It is feated on the river Lippe,
on the frontiers of Munfter. The adjacent country a-
bounds in corn, hemp, and flax ; and the inhabitants
get a good deal of money by travellers. It was for¬
merly a hanfe-town, but is now reduced. E. Lon. 7.
53. N. Lat. 51. 42.
Ham, a town of Picardy, in France, feated on the
river Somme, among marffies. It has three parifhes,
and there is here a round tower whofe walls are 36
feet thick. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1557,
but reftored by treaty. E. Lon. 3. 9. N. Lat. 49. 45.
HAMADAN. See Amadan.
HAMADRYADS, in Heathen theology, certain
rural deities; being nymphs of the woods, whofe fate
depended upon certain trees, together with which they
were fuppofed both to be born and to die.
HAMAH, a town of Turky in Afia, in Syria, fi¬
tuated in E. Lon. 36. 15. N. Lat. 35. 15. By fome
travellers it is corruptly called Amarl and Amant.
Some miftake it for the ancient Apamea ; but this is
now called Afarniyah, and is fituated a day’s journey
from Hamah. Hamah is fituated among hills, and has
a caftle feated on a hill. It has all along been a con-
fiderable place, and in the 13th century had princes
of its own. It is very large, and being feated on the
afcent of a hill, the houfes rife above one another, and
make a fine appearance. It is, however, like moil
other towns under the Turkifti government, going to
decay. Many of the houfes are half ruined; but
-thofe which are ftill ftanding, as well as the mofques
and caftle, have their walls built of black and white
ftones, difpofed in fuch manner as to form various fi¬
gures. The river Afli, the ancient Orontes, runs by
the-fide of the caftle, and fills the ditches round it,
which are cut very deep into the rock. This river,
leaving the caftle, paffes through the town from fouth
to north, and has a bridge over it, though it is pret¬
ty broad. In its ;courfe through the town it turns 18
great wheels, called by the natives faki, which raife
great quantities-of water to a confiderable height, and
throw it into canals fupported by arches, by which
means it is conveyed into the gardens and fountains.
There are fome pretty good bazars or market-places
in Hamah, where there is a trade for linen, which is
manufaftured there, and fent to Tripoli to be export¬
ed into Europe.
HAMAMELIS, witch hazel; a genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, a native of Virgi-
20 B nia»
HAM [ rro2 ] HAM
HjamMen, ni’a. It hath a flirubby or woody ftem, branching
Hamburg. three or four feet high ; oval, indented, alternate leaves,
refembling thofe of common hazel ; and flowers grow¬
ing in clufters from the joints of the young branches,
but not fucceeded by feeds in this country.—The plant
is hardy, and is admitted as a variety in our gardens ;
but its flowers are more remarkable for their appearing
in November and December, when the leaves are fall¬
en, than for their beauty. — It may be propagated ei¬
ther by feeds or layers.
HAMBDEN (John), a celebrated patriot, defcend-
edof the ancient family of Hambden in Buckingham-
fhire, was born in 1594. From the univerfity he went
to the inns of court, where he made a conflderable
progrefs in the ftudy of the law. He was chofen to
ferve in the parliament which began at Weftminfter
February 5th 1626; and ferved in all the fucceeding
parliaments in the reign of Charles I. In 1636 he
became univerfally known, by his refufal to pay Ihip-
money, asbeing an illegal tax ; upon which he was pro-
fecuted, and his carriage throughout this tranfadion
gained him a great chara&er. When the long parlia¬
ment began, the eyes of all men were fixed on him as
their pater patrice. On January 3d 1642, the king
ordered articles of high treafon and other mifdemea-
nours to be prepared againll Lord Kimbolton, Mr
Hambden, and four other members of the Houfe of
Commons, and went to that houfe to feize them: but
they were then retired. Mr Hambden afterwards
made a fpeech in the houfe to clear himfelf of the
charge laid againft him. In the beginning of the wars
he commanded a regiment of foot, and did good fer-
\ice to the parliament at the battle of Edge-hill. He
received a mortal wound in an engagement with Prince
Rupert, in Chalgrave-field in Oxfordrtiire, and died in
1643. He is faid to have had the art of Socrates to a
great degree, of interrogating, and, under the notion
of doubts, infinuating obje&ions, fo that he infufed
his own opinions into thofe from whom he pretended to
learn and receive them. He was, fay his panegyrifts, a
very wife man, and of great parts; and poffefled of the
moit abfolute fpirit of popularity to govern the people,
that ever was in any country: He was matter over all his
appetites and paflions, and had thereby a very great a-
feendant over other mens’ : He was of an induftry
and vigilance never to be tired out, of parts not to be
impofed upon by the moil fubtile, and of courage e-
qual to his beft parts.
HAMBURG, an imperial city of Germany, feated
in E. Lon. 9. 40. N. Lat. 54. o. Its name is deri¬
ved from the old German word Hamme, fignifying a
wood, andZ?«r£, a cattle; and ftands on the north-fide
of the river Elbe. This river is not lefs than four
miles broad oppofite the city. It forms two fpacious
harbours, and likewife runs through moft part of it
in canals. It flows above Hamburg many miles; but
when the tide is accompanied with north-wett winds,
a great deal of damage is done by the inundations oc-
cafioned thereby. There are a great many bridges
over the canals, which are moftly on a level with the
ftreets, and fome of them have houfes on both fides.
In the year 833, Ludovicus Pius eredled Hamburg
firft into a bilhopric, and afterwards into an archbi-
fliopric; and Adolphus III. duke of Saxony, among
many other great privileges, granted it the right of Hamburg.
fifhing in the Elbe, eight miles above and below the^ 
city. The kings of Denmark, fince they have fuc-
oeed to the counts of Holttein, have continually claim¬
ed the fovereignty of this £lace, and often compelled
the citizens to pay large fums to purchafe the confir¬
mation of their liberties. Nay, it has more than once
paid homage to the king of Denmark ; who, notwith-
ftanding, keeps a minitterhere with credentials, which
is a fort of acknowledgment of its independency and
fovereignty. Though Hamburg has been conftantly
fummoned to the diet of the empire ever fince the year
1618, when it was declared a free imperial city, by a
decree of the aulic council; yet it waves this privilege,
in order to keep fair with Denmark. The emperor
feveral other emperors, and the privilege is now exer-
and filver money; and the emperor Frederic 1. ex¬
empted the citizens from paying any tolls on the Elbe.
By theirfituation among a number of poor princes, the
Hamburghers are continually expofed to their rapa-
cioufnefs, efpecially that of the Danes, who have
extorted vatt fums from them. The city is very popu¬
lous, in proportion to its bulk ; for though one may
walk with cafe round the ramparts in two hours, yet
it contains, exclufive of Jews, at lead 100,000 inhabi¬
tants. Here are a great many charitable foundations,
the regulations of which are greatly admired by fo¬
reigners. All perfons found begging in the ftreets are
committed to the houfe of .correction to hard labour,
fitch as the rafping of Brazil and Other kinds of wood.
’There is an hofpital into which unmarried women
may be admitted for a fmall fum, and comfortably
maintained during the refidue of their lives. The
number of hofpitals in this place is greater in propor¬
tion to its bignefs, than in any other Proteftant city
in Europe. The revenue of the orphan-houfe alone
is faid to amount to between 50 and 60,0001. There
is a large fumptuous hofpital for receiving poor tra¬
vellers that fall fick. In one of their work-hpufes or
houfes of correflibn, thofe who have not performed
their talk are hoifted up in a bafleet over the table in
the common-hall while the reft are at dinner, that
they may be tantalized with the fight and ftnell of
what they cannot tafte. The eftablifhed religion of
Hamburgh is Lutheranifm; as for the Calvinitts and
the Roman-catholics, they go to the ambafladors cha¬
pels to celebrate their divine fervice and worfliip.
They have here what they call a private confeflion,
previous to the holy communion, which differs in no¬
thing from that of the church of England, and the
abfolution is the.fame, only the poorelt of the people
here are forced to give a fee to the pried on thefe oc-
cafions. Their churches, which are ancient large fabrics,
are open thoroughfares, and in fome of them there are
bookfellers (hops. The pulpit of St Catharine’s is of
marble, curioufly carved and adorned with figures and
other ornaments of gold ; and its organ, reckoned one
of the beft in Europe, has 6000 pipes. The cathedral
is very ancient, and its tower leans as if juft going to
fall; yet, on account of the Angularity and beauty of
its archite&ure, the danger attending it has been hi¬
therto overlooked. There is Hill a dean and chapter
belonging to this church; though fecularized; from
whofe court there lies no appeal, but to the imperial
.chamber
HAM [ 3503 j HAM
Hamburg, chamber at Wetzlar. The chapter confifls of a pro-
 voft, dean, ] 3 canons, eight minor canons, and 30 vi-
carii immunes, befides others who are under the jurif-
didtion of the city. The cathedral, with the chapter,
and a number of houfes belonging to them, are under
the immediate protection of his Britannic majeftyjas
duke of Bremen, who difpofes of the prebends that fall
in fix months of the year, not fucceffively, but alter-
- nately with the chapter. Hamburgh is almoft of a
circular form, and fix miles in compafs. It has fix
gates, and three entrances by water, viz. two from
the Elbe and one from the Allter, being divided into
the old and newj which are ftrongly fortified with
moats, ramparts, baltions, and out-works. The ram¬
parts are very lofty, and planted with trees; and of
fuch a breadth, that feveral carriages may go a-breaft.
In the new town, towards Altena, are feveral ftreets
of mean houfes inhabited by Jews. Through that en¬
trance from the Elbe called the lower Baum, pafs all
fhips going to or coming from fea. Every morning
at the opening of it is feen a multitude of boats and
fmall barks, whofe cargoes confift of milk, fruits, and
all kinds of provifions, rufhing in at the fame time.
There are fome fine chimes here, efpecially thofe of
St Nicholas, which play every morning early, at one
o’clock in the afternoon, and on all feftivals and fo-
lemnities. The other public ftruftures in this city,
befides the churches, make no great appearance: how¬
ever, the yard, arfenal, and two armories, are well
worth feeing. There are feveral convents or cloifters
(fill remaining; which having been fecularized, are
now poffeifed by the Lutherans. One of them holds
its lands by this tenure, “ That they offer a glafs of
“ wine to every malefactor who is carried by it for
“ execution.” There is a fine exchange, though in¬
ferior to that of London. It is the cufiom of Ham¬
burgh, that a citizen, when he dies, mult leave the
tenth of his eftate to the city ; and foreigners, not
naturalized, mull pay a certain fum annually for li¬
berty to trade. The common carts here are only a
long pulley laid upon an axle-tree between two wheels,
and drawn not by horfes, but by men, of whom a dozen
or more are fometimes linked to thefe machines, with
flings acrofs their fhoulders. Shch of the fenators,
principal elders, divines, regular phyficians, and gra¬
duates in law', as affilt at funerals, have a fee. The
hangman’s houfe is the common prifon for all male-
fadtors; on whom fentence is always paffed on Friday,
and on Monday they are executed. As, by their laws,
no criminal is punilhable unlefs he plead guilty, they
have five different kinds of torture to extort fuch con-
feffion. The government of this city is lodged in the
fenate and three colleges of burghers. The former is
yefled with almoft every aft of fovereignty, except that
of laying taxes and managing the finances, which are
the prerogatives of the latter. The magitlracy is com-
pofed of four burgo-mafters, fourfyndics, and 24 alder¬
men, of whom fome are lawyers and fome merchants.
Any perfonelefted into the magiftracy, and declining the
office, muft depart the place. No burgher is admitted
into any of the colleges, unlefs he dwells in a houfe of
his own within the city, and is poffefTed of 1000 rix-
dollars in fpecie, over and above the fum for which the
houfe may be mortgaged; or 2000 in moveable goods,
within the jurifdiftion of the fame. For the admini-
ftration of juftice, here are feveral inferior courts, from Hamburg.
which an appeal lies to the Obergericht, or high court,  
and from that to the aulic council and other imperial
colleges. For naval caufes here is a court of admi¬
ralty, which, jointly with the city-treafury, is alfo
charged with the care of the navigation of the Elbe,
from the city to the river’s mouth. In conlequence
of this, too large buoys, fome white, others black, are
kept conftantly floating in the river in fummer; but in
winter, inftead of fome of them, there are machines, like
thofe called ice-beacons, to point out the ffioals and flats.
Subordinate to the admiralty is a company of pilots;
and at the mouth of the Elbe is, or at leafl ought to
be, a vefltl always riding, with pilots ready to put on
board the ffiips. At the mouth of the river alfo is a
good harbour, called Cuxhaven, belonging to Ham¬
burgh; a light-houfe; and feveral beacons, fome of
them very large. For defraying the expence of thefe,
certain tolls and duties were formerly granted by the
emperors to the city. Befides the Elbe, there is a
canal by which a communication is opened with the
Trave, and thereby wfith Lubeck and the Baltic, with¬
out the hazard, trouble, and expence of going about
by the Sound. The trade of Hamburgh is exceeding
great, in exporting all the commodities and manufac¬
tures of the feveral cities and Hates of Germany, and
fupplying them with whatever they want from abroad.
Its exports confift of linens of feveral forts and coun¬
tries; as lawns, diapers, Ofnaburgs, dowlas, &c. linen-
yarn, tin-plates, iron, brafs and fteel wire, clap-board,
pipe-ftaves, wainfeot-boards, oak-plank and timber,
kid-lkins, corn, beer in great quantities, with flax, honey,
wax, anifeed, linfeed, drugs, wine, tobacco, and metals.
Its principal imports are the woollen manufaftures and
other goods of Great Britain, to the amount of feve¬
ral hundred thoufand pounds a-year; they have alfo a
great trade with Spain, Portugal, and Italy, which Is
carried on moftly in Englifti bottoms, on account of
their Mediterranean panes. Their whale-fiffiery is
alfo very confiderable^ 50 or 60 Ihips being generally
font put every year in this trade. Add to thefe a va¬
riety of manufaftures, which are performed here with,
great fuccefs; the chief of which are, fugar-baking,
calico-printing, the weaving of damalks, brocades,
velvets, and other rich filks. The inland trade of
Hamburgh is fuperior to that of any in Europe, un¬
lefs perhaps we ffiould except that of Amfterdam and
London. There is a paper publiffied here at ftated times,
calledthePm/t-oartfjrf.fpecifyingthe courfeof exchange,
with the price which every commodity and merchan-
dile bore laft upon the exchange. There is alfo a board
of trade, erefted on purpofe for the advancing every
projeft fi?r the improvement of commerce. Another
great advantage to the merchants is, the bank efta-
bliffied in 1619, which has a flouriftiing credit. To
fupply the poor with corn at alow price, here are public
granaries, in which great quantities of grain are laid
up. By charters from feveral emperors, the Ham-
burghers have a right of coinage, which they aftually
exercife. The Engliffi merchants, or Hamburgh com¬
pany, as it is called, enjoy great privileges; for they
hold a court with particular powers, and a jurifdiftion
among themfelves, and have a church and minifler of
their own.—This city has a diftrift belonging to it of
confiderable extent, which abounds with excellent pa-
20 B 2 - ftures,
HAM [ 3504 ] HAM
Hamburg fturcs, intermixed with feveral large villages and noble-
mens feats. A fmall bailiwic, calledbelongs
Hamilton. to cjty an(] Lubeck.—Though Hamburgh has
an undoubted right to a feat in the diet of the empire,
yet as (lie pays no contributions to the military cheft
in time of war, and is alfo unwilling to draw upon,
herfelf the refentment of Denmark, (he makes no ufe
of that privilege. There is a fchola illujiris or gym-
nafium here, well endowed, with fix able profelfors,
who read le&ures in it as at the univerfitits. There
are alfo feveral free fchools, and a great number of
libraries, public and private. The public cellar of
this towm has always a prodigious (lock and vent of
old hock, which brings in a confiderable revenue to
the (late. Befides the militia, or trained bands, there
is an eftablifhmeot of regular forces, confiding of 12
companies of infantry, and one troop of dragoons,
under the commandant, who is ufually a foreigner,
and one who has didinguilhed himfelf in the fervice.
There is alfo an artillery company, and a night-guard;
the lad of which is poded at night all over the city,
and calls the hours.
HAMEL (John Baptide du), a very learned
French philofopher and writer in the 17th ceutury.
At j 8 he wrote a treatife, in which he explained in a
very fimple manner, Theodofins’s three books of
Spherics; to which he added a trad upon trigono¬
metry, extremely perfpicuous, and defigned as an in-
trodudion to adronomy. Natural philofophy, as it
was then taught, was onlya colledion of vague, knotty,
and barren quedions ; when our author undertook to
edablifh it upon right principles, and publidied his
Jfironomia Phyfica. In 1666 Mr Colbert propofed to
Lewis XIV. a fcheme, which was approved of by his
majedy, for edablilhing a royal academy of fciences ;
and appointed our author fecretary of it. He pub-
lifhed a great many books; and died at Paris in 1706,
of mere old age, being almod 83. He was regius
profeffor of philofophy, in which pod he was fuc-
ceeded by M. Varignon. He wrote Latin with pu¬
rity and elegance.
HAMELIN, a drong town of Germany, in the
duchy of Calemberg in Lower Saxony. It is fituated
at the extremity of the duchy of Brunfwick, to which
it is the key, near the confluence of the rivers Hamel
and Wefer, in E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 52. 13.
HAMESECKEN. Qv of No fturnalHoufe-
breaking, was by the ancient Englifh law called Hame-
fecken, as it is in Scotland to this day.—Violating
the privilege of a man’s houfe in Scotland is as fevere-
]y punidied as ravilhing a woman.
HAMILTON, a town of Scotland, in Clydefdale,
feated on the river Clyde, eleven miles fouth-ead of
Glafgow ; from whence the noble family of Hamilton
take their name, and title of duke. The town is feated
in the middle of a very agreeable plain'; and on the wed
of the town this family has a large park, which is
near feven miles in circumference, inclofed with a
high wall, full of deer and other game. The
rivulet called dvon runs through the park, and
falls into the river Clyde, over which lad there is a
bridge of free-done. W Lon. 3. 50. N. Lat. 55. 40.
The original name of this place, or the lands about
it, was Cadzo'vj or Cadyonu, a barony granted to
an ancedor pf the noble owner, on the following oc-
cafion. In the time of Edward II. lived Sir Gil- Hamilton
bert de Hamilton, or Hampton, an Engliftvman of *
rank ; who happening at court to fpeak in praife of
Robert Bruce, received-on the occafion an infult from
John de Spenfer, chamberlain to the king ; whom he
fought and flew. Dreading the refentment of that
potent family, he fled to the Scottifli monarch ; who
received him with open arms, and eflablilhed him at
the place poflefled by the duke of Hamilton. In after¬
times the name was changed from Cadzoiu to Hamil¬
ton ; and in 1445 the lands were eredted into a lord-
(hip, and the then owner Sir James fat in parliament
as lord Hamilton. The fame nobleman founded the
collegiate church at Hamilton in 1451, for a provod
and feveral prebendaries. The endowment was rati¬
fied at Rome by the pope’s bull, which he went in
perfon to procure.—Hamilton-houfe, or palace, is at
the end of the town ; a large difagreeable pile, with
two deep wings at right angles with the centre: the
gallery is of great extent; and furnilhed, as well as
fome other rooms, with mod excellent paintings.
Hamilton (Anthony, count), defcended from a
noble family in Scotland, was born in Ireland, and
fettled in France. He wrote feveral poetical pieces ;
and was the fird who compofed romances in an agree¬
able tafte, without imitating the burlefque of Scar-
ron. He is alfo faid to be the author of the Memoirs
of the count de Grammont, one of the bed written pieces
in the French language. His. works were printed in
6 vols izmo. He died at St Germain-en-Laye, in
1720.
Hamilton (George), earl of Orkney, and a brave'
warrior, was the fifth fon of William earl of Selkirk,,
and early betook himfelf to the profeffion of arms.
Being made colonel in 1689-90, be diftinguifliecMiim-
felf by his bravery at the battle of the Boyne ; and
foon after, atthofe of Aghrim, Steinkirk, and Landen,
and at the fieges of Athlone, Limerick, and Namur.
His eminent fervices in Ireland and Flanders, through
the whole courfe of that war, recommended him fo
highly to king William III. that, in 1696, he ad¬
vanced him to the dignity of a peer of Scotland, by
the title of earl of Orkney ; and his lady, the filler of
Edward vifcount VHHers, afterwards earl ofjerfey,
had a grant made to her, under the great feal of Ire¬
land, of almoft all the private eftates of the late king
James, of very confiderable value-
Upon the acceffion of queen Anne to the throne,
he was-promoted totherankof major-general in 1702^,
and the next year to that of lieutenant-general, and
was likewife made knight of the thiftle. His lord-
(hip afterwards ferved under the great duke of Marl¬
borough; and contributed by his bravery and con-
dutt to the glorious vi&ories of Blenheim and Mali
plaquet, and to the taking feveral of the towns in
Flanders..
In the beginning of 1710, his lord (hip, as one of
the 16 peers of Scotland, voted for the impeachment
of Dr Sacheverel; and the fame year was fworn of
the privy-council, and. made general of the foot im
Flanders. In 1712, he was made colonel of the royal
regiment of fuzileers, and ferved in Flanders under
the duke of Ormond. In 1714, he was appointed
gentleman-extraordinary of the bed chamber to king
George I. and afterwards governor of Virginia. As
length
HAM [ 3505 ] HAM
' Hamlet length he was appointed conftable, governor, and
II captain of Edinburgh caftle, lord lieutenant of the
Hammond. county 0f Clydefdale, and field-marfhal. He died at
his houfe in Albemarle-fixeet, in 1737.
HAMLET, Hamel, or Hampfel, (from the Saxon
Ham, i. e. Domus, and the German Let, i. e. Mernbruni),
fignifies a little village, or part of a village or parilh ;
of which three words the firft is now only ufed, tho’
Kitchen mentions the two lath. By Spelman there is
a difference between villam integrant, villain ditnidiam,
hamlet am ; and Stowe expounds it to be the feat
of a freeholder. Several county-towns have hamlets,
as there may be feveral hamlets in a parifh; and fome
particular places may be out of a town or hamlet,
though not out of the county.
HAMMOCK, on fhipboard, a piece of canvas fix
feet long and three feet wide, gathered together at
the two ends, and hung horizontally under the deck
Jengthwife, for the failors to deep therein. There
are ufually from 14 to 20 inches in breadth allowed
between-decks for every hammock in a fhip of war :
this fpace, however, muff in fome meafure depend on
the number of the crew, &c. in proportion to the room
of the veffel. In the time of battle the hammocks, to¬
gether with their bedding, are all firmly corded, and
fixed in the nettings on the quarter-deck, or where-
ever the men are too much expofed to the view or fire
of the enemy.
HAMMER, a well-known tool ufed by mecha¬
nics, confifting of an iron-head, fixed'croffwife upon
a handle of wood. There are feveral forts of ham¬
mers ufed by blackfmiths ^ as, i. The hand-ham¬
mer, which is of fuch weight that it may be wielded
or governed with one hand at the anvil. 2. The up-
hand fledge, ufed with both hands, and feldom lifted
above the head. 3. The about-fledge, which is the
biggeft hammer of all, and held by both hands at
the* fartheft end of the handle ; and being fwung at
arms-length over the bead, is made to fall upon the
work with as heavy a blow as poffible. There is alfo
another hammer ufed by fmiths, called a rivetting-
hammer} which is the fmalleft of all, and is feldom
ufed at the forge, unlefs upon fmall work.—Carpen¬
ters and joiners have likewife hammers accommodated
to their feveral purpofes.
HAMMOND (Henry), D. D. on.e of the moft
learned Englifh divines in the 17th century, was born
in 1605. He ftudied at Oxford, and in 1629 en¬
tered into holy orders. In 1633 he was indu&ed into
the re&oiy of Penfhurft in Kent. In 1643 he was
made archdeacon of Chichefter. In the beginning of
1645 he was made one of the canons of Chrift-church,
Oxford, and chaplain in ordinary to king Charles I.
who was then in that city ; and he was alfo chofen
public orator of the uniwsrfity. In 1647, he attended
the king in his confinement at Wooburn, Cavefbam,
Hampton-Court, and the ifle of Wight, where he
continued till his majefly’s attendants were again put
from him. He then returned to Oxford, where he
was chofen fub-dean ; and continued there till the par¬
liament vifitors firll ejefted him, and then imprifoned
him for feveral weeks in a private houfe in Oxford.
During this confinement he began his Annotations on
the New Teftament. At the opening of the year
1660, when every thing vifibly tended to the reftora-
tion of the royal family, the dodor was defired by the Hammonth
bifiiops to repair to London, to affift there in the com- ‘^'rplhn-e-
pofure of the breaches of the church, his ftation in
which was defigned to be the bifhopric of Worcefter ;
but on the 4th of April he was feized by a fit of the
ftone, of which he died on the 25th of that month,
aged 55. Befides the above work, he wrote many
others ; all of which have been publilhed together in
four volumes folio.
HAMMOND (Anthony, efq ;) an ingenious Eng-
lifh poet, defeended from a good family of Somer-
fham Place in Huntingdonrtiire, was born in 1608.
After a liberal education at St John’s college, Cam¬
bridge, he was chofen member of parliament, and
foon diltinguilhed himfelf as a fine fpeaker. He be¬
came a commiffioner of the royal navy, which place
he quitted in 1712. He publilhed “ A mifcellany
of original poems by the molt eminent hands 5” in
which himfelf, as appears by the poems marked with
his own name, had no inconfiderable lhare. He wrote
the life of Walter Moyle, efq ; prefixed to his works.
He was the intimate friend of that gentleman, and
died about the year 17.26.
Hammond (Mr.), known to the world by the Love-
Elegies, which, fome years after his death, were pub¬
lilhed by the earl of Chefterfield, was the fon of a mer¬
chant in London, and preferred to a place about the
perfon of the late prince of Wales, which he held till
an unfortunate accident deprived him of his fenfes.
The canfe of this calamity was a paflion he entertained
for a lady, who would not return it: upon which he
wrote thofe love-elegies which have been fo much ce¬
lebrated for their tendernefs. The editor obferves,.
that he compofed them befiSre he was 21 years of age :
a period, fays he, when fancy and imagination com¬
monly riot at the expetice of judgment and correft-
nefs. He was fincere in his love as in his friendlhip
and wrote to his miftrefs as he fpoke to his friends,
nothing but the genuine fentiments of his heart. Ti¬
bullus feems to have been the model our author judi-
cioufly preferred to Ovid ; the former writing dire&lyr
from the heart to the heart, the latter too often yield¬
ing and addreffing himfelf to the imagination. Mr
Hammond died in the year 1743, at Stow, the feat
of lord Cobham, who honoured him with a particular
intimacy.
HAMPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on
the weft by Dorfetlhire and Wiltlhire, on the north
by Berklhire, on the eaft by Surry and Suflex, and
on the fouth by the Englilh channel. It extends 64
miles in length from north to fouth, and 36 in breadth
from eaft to weft. It is divided into 39 hundreds, and
253 parilhes; in which are one city, 18 market-towns,
and about 180,000 inhabitants. It fends 26 mem¬
bers to parliament; viz. two for the county, two for
the city of Winchefter the capital, and two for each of
the following boroughs, Southampton, Portfmouth,.
Yarmouth, Petersfield, Newport, Stockbridge, New¬
ton, Chriftchurch, Lymington, Whitchurch, and An¬
dover.—The air is very pure and pleafant, efpecially
upon the downs, on which vaft flocks of flieep are kept
and bred. In the champaign part of the county, where
it is free of wood, the foil is very fertile, producing all
kinds of grain. The county is extremely well wooded,
and watered j fop befides many woods on private e-
eftalesj,
HAM [ 3506 ] HAN
Hampftilre ftates, in which there arevaft quantities of well-grown
II timber, there is the new foreft of great extent, belong-
Hampton. to tj)e crowri) Well (lored with venerable oaks. In
thefe woods and forefts, great numbers of hogs run at
large, and feed on the acorns ; and hence it is that the
Hampfhire bacon fo far excells that of moft other
countries. The rivers are the Avon, Anton, Arle,
Teft, Stowre, and Itchin ; befides feveral fmaller
ftreams, all abounding in fifh, efpecially trout. As its
fea-coaft is of a confiderable extent, it poffefles many-
good ports and harbours, and is well fupplied with
falt-watcr fifh. Much honey is produced in the coun¬
ty, and a great deal of mead and metheglin made.
Here is alfo plenty of game, and on the downs is mofl
delightful hunting. The manufa&ure of cloth and
kerfies in this county, though not fo extenfive as that
of feme others, is yet far from being inconfiderable,
and employs great numbers of the poor, as well as
contributes to the enriching of the manufacturers by
what is fent abroad.
iVifw Hampshire, a province of North America, in
New England. It is bounded on the north by Nova
Scotia, on tlieeaft by the Ocean, on the fouth by Maf-
fachufet’s bay, and on the weft by New-York. Be¬
fore the commencement of the American war, it was
ruled by a governor and council appointed by the
king, and a houfe of reprefentives. As it is a very
proper country for furnifhing naval ftores, great part
of its timber was appointed for mails and yards to the
royal navy.
HAMPSTEAD, a pleafant village of Middlefex,
five miles north of London. As the air is exceeding
good, the place is well furnifhed with fine feats built
in an elegant manner, and much reforted to in the
fummer-time by all forts of people. As for the medi¬
cinal waters formerly in requeft, they are now much
negleCted. In Henry VIII’s time it was chiefly in¬
habited by laundrefles, who wafhed for the Londoners.
HAMPTON, a town of Glocefterfhire in England,
feated on the Cotfwold hills, and had formerly a nun¬
nery. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. ^1.38.
HAMPTON-Cear/, a town of Middlefex in England,
feated on the river Thames, 12 miles weft of London,
and two from Kingftown. It is chiefly famous for the
royal palace there, which is the fineft in Britain. It
was built by cardinal Wolfey, who had 280 filk beds
for ftrangers only, and furnilhed it richly with gold
and filver plate. The buildings, gardens, and the two
parks, to which William III. made confiderable addi¬
tions, are about four miles in circumference, and are
watered on three fides by the Thames. The inward
court, built by king William, forms a piazza, the pil¬
lars of which are fo low, that it looks more like a
cloyfter than a palace ; however, the apartments make
ample amends, being extremely magnificent, and more
exaClly difpofed than in any other palace ia the world,
and adorned with moft elegant furniture. Since the ae-
ceffion of his prefent majefty, however, this palace hath
been much negleCted, as the king has generally made
choice of Richmond for his fummer retreat. Thofe
inimitable paintings by Raphael Urbin called the car-
icons, which were placed there by king William, have
been removed to the queen’s palace at Weftminfter.
For thefe pieces Lewis XV. is faid to have offered
100, odd.
HANAU, a town of Germany, and capital of a Hanau
county of the fame name, is pleafantly fituated on the II
river Kenzig near its confluence with the Mayne. The Hinclel‘
river divides it into the old and new towns, both of
which are fortified. The new town, which was built
at firft by French and Flemifli refugees, who had great
privileges granted them, is regular and handfome. The
callle in which the counts ufed to refide, and which
{lands in the old town, is fortified, and has a fine
flower-garden with compiodious apartments, but makes
no great appearance. The Jews are tolerated here,
and dwell in a particular quarter. The magillracy of
the new town, and. the difpofal of all offices in it, be¬
long to the French and Dutch congregations. Here
is an univerfity, with feveral manufadures, particularly
of that of roll tobacco, and a very confiderable traffic.
E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 49. 58.
Ukativ-Munzenberg, a county of Germany. The
greateft part of it is furrounded by the eledlorate of
Mentz, the biftiopric of Fulda, the lordfhips of Rei-
neck, Ifenburg, and Solms ; as alfo by the territories
of Heffe-Homburg, Burg-Friedburg, and Frankfort.
Its length is near 40 miles, but its greateft breadth
not above 12. It is exceeding fertile in corn, wine,
and fruits ; yielding alfo fait fprings, with fome cop¬
per, filver, and cobalt. The chief rivers are, the
Mayne, the Kinzeg, and the Nidda. The prevailing
religion is Calvinifm, but Lutherans and Catholics are
tolerated. The country is populous, and trade and
manufa&ures flourifh in it. In 1736, the whole male
line of the counts of Hanau failing in John Reinard,
William VIII. landgrave of Heffe Calfel, by virtue
of a treaty of mutual fuccdfion between the families
of Hanau and Heffe Caffel, took poflefiion of the
county, fatisfadlion having been firft made to the
houfe of Saxony for their claims; and in the year
1754 transferred it to prince William, eldeft fon to
the then hereditary prince Frederic, afterwards land¬
grave. The revenues of the laft count, arifing from
this and other territories, are faid to have amounted to
JOOjOOO florins. The principal places are Hanau,
Bergen, Steinau, and Glenhaufen.
HAND, in anatomy, the extreme part of the arm.
Anaxagoras is reprefented by ancient authors, as main¬
taining, that man owes all his wifdom, knowledge, and
fuperiority over other animals, to the ufe of his hands.
—Galen puts the thing another way : man, according
to him, is not the wifeft creature becaufe he has hands;
but he had hands given him becaufe he was the wifeft
creature.
Hand, in the manege, a meafure of four inches, or
of a clenched fill, by which the height of a horfe is
computed.
Wkw-Breadth, a meafure of three inches.
HANDEL (George Frederic), a moft eminent ma¬
iler and compofer of mufic, was born at Hall, a city
of Upper Saxony in Germany. His father was a phy-
fician aqd furgeon of that place, and was upwards of
60 years of age when Handel was born. During his
infancy young Handel is faid to have amufed himfelf
with mufical inftruments, and to have made confider¬
able progrefs before he was feven years of age, without
any inftrudlions. His propenfity for mufic at laft be¬
came fo ftrong, that his father, who defigned him for
the ftudy of the civil law, thought proper to forbid
HAN [ 3507 ] HAN
Handel, him, even at this early period of life, to touch a mu-
7-  fical inftrument, and would fuffer none to remain in
his houfe. Notwithftanding this prohibition, how¬
ever, Handel found means toget a little clavichord pri¬
vately conveyed to a room in the uppermoft ftory of
the houfe, to which room he conftantly ftole when the
family were afleep; and thus made fuch advances in
his art, as enabled him to play on the harpfichord. He
was firft taken notice of by the duke of Saxe Weifen-
fels on the following occafion. His father went to
pay a vifit to another fon by a former wife, who was
valet de chambre to the duke, and refided at his court.
Young Handel, being then in his feventh year, ear-
neltly defired permifiion to go along with him ; but
being refufed, he followed the chaife on foot, and o-
vertook it, the carriage being probably retarded by the
roughnefs of the way. His father at firft chid him
for his difobedience, but at laft took him into the
.chaife along with him. While he was in the duke’s
court, he ftill continued to (hew the fame inclination for
mufic : it was impofiible to keep him from harpli-
chords ; and he ufed fometimes to get into the organ-
loft at church, and play after fervice was over. On
one of thefe occafions, the duke happening to go out
later than ufual, found fomething fo uncommon in
Handel’s manner of playing, that he inquired of his
valet who it was; and receiving for anfwer that it was
his brother, he defired to fee him. This nobleman
was fo much taken with the mufical genius (hewn by
young Handel, that he perfuaded his father to let him
follow the bent of his inclination. He made the boy a
prefent; and told him, that if he minded his ftudies,
no encouragement (hould be wanting.
On his return to Hall, Handel was placed under
one Zackaw, the organift of the cathedral church; and
our young mufician was even then able to fupply his
mafter’s place in his abfence. At nine years of age
he began to compofe church-fervices for voices and in-
ftruments, and continued to compofe one fuch fervice
every week for threeyears fucceflively. At the age of 14,
he far excelled his mafter, as he himfelf owned; and he
was fent to Berlin, where he had a relation in fome place
about the court, on whofe care and fidelity his parents
could rely. The opera was then in a flouriftiing condi¬
tion, being encouraged by the grandfather of the prefent
king of Pruffia, and under the diredion of many emi¬
nent perfons from Italy, among whom were Buonon-
cini and Attilio. Buononcini, being of a haughty
difpofition, treated Handel with contempt ; but Atti¬
lio behaved to him with great kindnefs, and he profit¬
ed much by his inftru&ions. His abilities foon recom¬
mended him to the king, who frequently made him
.prefents, and at laft propofed to fend him into Italy
under his own patronage, and to take him under his
immediate protedion as foon as his ftudies (hould be
compleated. But Handel’s parents not thinking pro¬
per to fubmit their child to the caprice of the king, de¬
clined the offer ; upon which it became neceffary for
him to return to Hall.
Handel having now obtained ideas in mufic far ex¬
celling every thing that could be found in Hall, con¬
tinued there very unwillingly, and it was refolved to
fend him into Italy : but as the expence of this journey
could not then be fpartd, he went to Hamburg, where
the opera was little inferior to that of Berlin. Soon
after his arrival in this city, his father died ; and his mo* Wan(lfl*
ther being left in narrow circumdances, herfon thought
it neceffary to procure fome fcholars, and to accept a
place in the orcheftra, by which means, inftead of be¬
ing a burden, he became a great relief to her.
At this time, the firft harpfichord in Hamburg was
played by one Kefer, a man who alfo excelled in com-
pofition ; but he, having involved himfelf in fome
debts, was obliged to abfcond. Upon this vacancy,
the perfon who had been ufed to play the fecond harp¬
fichord claimed the firft by right of fucceffion : but he
was Oppofed by Handel, who founded a claim to the
firft harpfichord upoh his fuperior abilities. After
much diipute, in which all who fupported or direfted
the opera engaged with much vehemence, it was de¬
cided in favour of Handel; but this good fuccefs had
almoft coft him his life. His antagonift refented the
.fuppofed affront fa much, that, as they were coming
out of the orcheftra together, he made a pu(h at Han¬
del’s bread with a fword; which muft undoubtedly
have killed him, had there not fortunately been a mufic-
book in the bofom of his coat.
Handel, though yet but in his 15th year, became
compofer to the houfe ; and the fuccefs of Almeria, his
firft opera, was fo great, that it ran 30 nights without
interruption. Within lefs than a twelvemonth after this,
he fet two others, called Florinda and Norene, which
were received with the fame applaufe. During his
ftay here, which was about four or five years, he alfo
compofeda confiderabie number of fonatas, which are
now loft. Here his abilities procured him the ac¬
quaintance of many perfons of note, particularly the
prince of Tufcany, brother to John Gafton de Medi-
cis the grand duke. This prince preffed him to go
with him to Italy, where he affured him that no con¬
venience (hould be wanting ; but this offer Handel
thought proper to decline, being refolved not to give
up his independency for any advantage that could be
offered him.
In the 19th year of his age, Handel took a journey
to Italy on his own bottom; where he was received
with the greateft kindnefs by the prince of Tufcany,
and had at all times accefs to the palace of the grand
duke. His Serene Highnefs was impatient to have
.fomething compofed by fo great a mafter; and not¬
withftanding the difference between the ftyle of the I-
talian mufic and the German, to which Handel had
hitherto been accnftomed, he fet an opera called Rode-
rigo, which pleafed fo well, that he was rewarded with
100 fequins, and a fervice of plate. After (laying a-
bout a year in Florence, he went to Venice, where he
is faid to have been firft difcovered at a mafquerade.
He was playing on a harpfichord in his vifor, when
Scarlatti, a famous performer, cried out, that the per-
.fon who played could be none but the famous Saxon or
the devil.. But a ftory fimilar to this is reported of
.many eminent perfons whofe abilities have been difco-
vered in difguife.. Here he compofed his opera call¬
ed which was performed 27 nights fuccef-
fively, with the moft extravagant applaufe.
From Venice, our mufician proceeded to Rome,
where he became acquainted with cardinal Ottobani
and many other dignitaries of the church, by which
means he was frequently attacked on account of his
religion ; but Handel declared he would live and die in
the .
HAN f rfo8 1 HAN
Handel, the religion in which he had been educated, whether
* it was true or falfe. Here he compofed an oratorio
called Refurredione, and 150 cantatas, betides fome fo-
natas, and other mufic. Ottoboni alto contrived to
have a trial of Ikill between him and Dominici Scar¬
latti, who was confidered as the greateft matter on
that inftrument in Italy. The event is differently re¬
ported. Some fay that Scarlatti was vidorious, and
others give the vidory to Handel ; but when they
came to the organ, Scarlatti himfelf afcribed the fupe-
riority to Handel.
From Rome, Handel went to Naples ; after which,
he paid a fecond vifit to Florence; and at lad, ha¬
ving fpent fix years in Italy, fet out for his native
country. In his way thither, he was introduced at
the court of Hanover with fo much advantage by the
baron Kilmanfeck, that his Eledoral Highnefs offered
him a penfion of 1500 crowns a-year as an inducement
for him to continue there. This generous offer he de¬
clined on account of his having promifed to vifit the
court of the Eledor Palatine, and likewife to come o-
ver to England in compliance with the repeated invita¬
tions of the duke of Manchefter. The eledor, how¬
ever, being made acquainted with this objedion, ge-
nerouffy ordered him to be told, that his acceptance of
the peniion fiiould neither reftrain him from his pro-
mife nor refolution ; but that he ffiould be at full li¬
berty tobeabfent a year or more if he chofe it, and to
go wherever he thought fit. Soon after, the place of
mafter of the chapel was bellowed upon Handel; and
our mufician having vifited his mother, who was now
extremely old and blind, his old mafter Zackaw, and
ftaid fomc time at the court of the Eledor Palatine,
fet out for England, where he arrived in 1710.
At that ’time operas were a new entertainment in
England, and were conduded in a very abfurd man¬
ner : but Handel foon put them on a better footing ;
and fet a drama called Rinaldo, which was performed
with uncommon fuccefs. Having (laid a year in Eng¬
land, he returned to Hanover ; but in 1712 he again
came over to England ; and the peace of Utrecht be¬
ing concluded a few months afterwards, he compofed
a grand 7V Deum and Jubilate on the occafion. He
now found the nobility very defirous that he Ihould re¬
fume the diredion of the opera houfe in the Hay-mar¬
ket ; and the queen having added her authority tfo
their folicitations, and conferred on him a penfion of
L. 200 a-year, he forgot his engagements to the elec¬
tor of Hanover, and remained in Britain till the death
of the queen in 1714. On the arrival of king Gem I.
Handel, confcious of his ill behaviour, durft not ap¬
pear at court; but he was extricated from his dilem¬
ma by the baron Kilmanfeck. Having engaged feve-
ral of the Englilh nobility in his behalf, the baron
perfuaded the king to a party of pleafure on the wa¬
ter. Handel was apprifed of the defign, and ordered
to prepare fome mufic for the occafion. This he exe¬
cuted with the utmoft attention, and on the day ap¬
pointed it was performed and conduced by himfelf.
The king with pleafure and furprife inquired whofe it
was, and how the entertainment came to be provided
without his knowledge. The baron then produced
the delinquent; and afked leave to prefent him to his
Majefty as one too fenfible of his fault to attempt art
excufe, but fincerely defirous to atone for it. This
interceffion was, accepted, Handel was reftored to fa- Jdandel. ^
vour, his water-mufic was honoured with the highefl:
approbation, and the king added a penfion of L. 200
a-year to that formerly beftowed on him by queen
Anne ; which he foon after increafed to L. 400, on his
being appointed to teach the young princeffes mufic.
In the year 1715, Handel compofed his opera of A-
madige; but from that time to the year 1720 he com¬
pofed only Tefeo and Pajlor Fido, Buononcini and
Attilio being then compofers for the operas. About
this time a projeft was formed by the nobility for e-
refting a kind of academy at the Hay-market, with a
view of fecuring to themfelves a conftant fupply of o-
peras to be compofed by Handel, and performed un¬
der his diredtion. No lets than L. 50,000 was fub-
fcribed for this fcheme, of which the king himfelf fub-
fcribed E. 1000, and it was propofed to continue the
undertaking for 14 years. Handel went over to Drefden
in order to engage fingers, and returned with Stneiino
andDuriftanti. Buononcini and Attilio had ftilla ftrong
party in their favour, but not equal to that of Handel ;
and therefore in 1720 he obtained leave to perform his
opera of Radamifto. The houfe was fo crowded, that
many fainted through excelfive heat; and forty {hil¬
lings were offered by fome fora feat in the gallery, af¬
ter having in vain attempted to get one elfewhere. The
contention, however, ftill ran very high between Han¬
del’s party and that of the two Italian mailers ; and at
laft it was determined that the rivals ftiould be jointly
employed in making an opera, in which each ftiould
take a diftindt adt, and he who by the general fuffrage
was allowed to have given the bell proof of his abili¬
ties Ihould be put in poffeffion of the houfe. This o-
pera was called Muzio Scxvola, and Handel fet the laft:
adl. It is faid that Handel’s fuperiority was owned
even in the overture before it; but when the adl came
to be performed, there remained no pretence of doubt
or difpute. The academy was now therefore firmly
eftabliftied, and Handel condudfed it for nine years
with great fuccefs ; but about that time an irreconcile-
able enmity took place between Handel himfelf and
Senefino. Senefino accufed Handel of tyranny, and
Handel accufed Senefino of rebellion. The merits of
the quarrel are not known : the nobility, however, be¬
came mediators for fome time.; and having failed in
that good defign, they became parties in the qliarrel.
Handel was refolvgd to di'fmifa Sendfino, and the no- j
bility feemed alfo refolved not to permit him to do fo.
The haughtinefs of Handel’s temper would not allow
him to yield, and the affair ended in the total diflblu-
tion of the academy.
Handel now found that his abilities; great as they
were, could not fupport him againft the powerful op-
pofition he met with. After the difmifiion of Senefino,
his audience infenfibly dwindled away, and Handed en¬
tered into an' agreement with Mr Keidegger to carry
on operas in conjun&ion with him. New fingers were
engaged from Italy; but the offended nobility raffed a
fubfcription againft him, to carry on operas in the play-
houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn fields. Handel bore up four
years agamft this oppofition ; three in partnerfhip with
Keidegger, and one by himfelf: but though his mufi-
cal abilities were fuperior to thofe of his ahtogonifts,
the aftonifhing powers of the voice of Farinelli, whofri
the oppofite party had engaged, determined the vie-
HAN [ 3509 ] HAN
Handel, tory againft him. At laft Handel, having fpent all he
was worth in a fruitlefs oppofition, thought proper to
defift. His difappointment had fuch ap effedt upon
him, that for fome time he was diforderedin his under-
ftanding, and at the fame time his right arm was ren-
cfered ulelefs by a ftroke of the palfy. In this deplo¬
rable (ituation, it was thought neceffary that he ihould
go to the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and from them
he received fuch extraordinary and hidden relief, that
his cure was looked upon by the nuns as miraculous.
In 1736, Handel again returned to England; and
foon after his return his Alexander’s feaft was perform¬
ed with applaufe at Covent-Garden. The fuccefs and
fplendor of the Hay-market was by this time fo much
reduced by repeated mifmanagements, that lord Mid-
dlefex undertook the direction of it himfelf, and once
more applied to Handel for compofition. He accord¬
ingly compofed two operas called Faromondo, and 4-
lejfandro Severe, for which in 1737 he received L. 1000.
In 1738 he received L. 1500 from a fingle benefit, and
nothing feemed wanting to retrieve his affairs, excep¬
ting fuch conceDGons on his part as his opponents had
a right to expe&. Thefe conceffions, however, he
could not be prevailed upon to make ; and that he
might no longer be under obligations to a£t as he was
diredled by others, he refufed to enter into any en¬
gagements upon fubfeription. After having tried a
few more operas at Covent-Garden without fuccefs, he
introduced another fpecies of mufic called oratorios,
which he thought better fuited to the native gravity of
an Englifh audience. But as the fubje&s of thefe
pieces were always taken from facred hiftory, it was by
fome thought to be a profanation to fet them to mufic
and perform them at a playhoufe. In confequence of
this prejudice, the oratorios met with very indifferent
fuccefs; and in 1741 Mr Handel found his affairs in
fuch a bad fituation, that he was obliged to quit Eng¬
land, and go to Dublin.
He was received in Ireland in a manner fuitable to
his great merit; and his performing his oratorio called
the Mejfiak, for the benefit of the city-prifon, brought
him into univerfal favour. In nine months time he
bad brought his affairs into a better fituation; and on
his return to England in 1742, he found the public
much more favourably difpofed. His oratorios were
now performed with great applaufe: his Meffiah,
which before had been but coldly received, became a
favourite performance ; and Handel, with a generous
humanity, determined to perform it annually for the
benefit of the foundling hofpital, which at that time
was only fupported by private benefaftions. In 1743,
he had a return of his paralytic diforder; and in 1731
became quite blind by a gutta ferem in his eyes. This
laft misfortune for fome time funk him into the deepeft
defpondency; but at laft he was obliged to acquiefce
in his fituation, after having without any relief under¬
gone fome very painful operations. Finding it now
impoflible to manage his oratorios alone, he wasaflift-
ed by Mr Smith, who at his requeft frequently played
for him, and conduced them in his ffead ; and with
this affiftance they were continued till within eight
days of his death. During the latter part of his life,
his mind was often difordered ; yet at times it appears
to have refumed its full vigour, and he compofed feve-
ral fongs, chorufes, &c. which from their dates may
Vol. V.
be confidered almoft as the laft founds of his dying Hands,
voice.. From about Oaober 1758 his health declined Hanging*
very fall; his appetite, which had been remarkably ‘—
keen, and which he had gratified to a great degree,
left him ; and he became fenfible of the approach of
death. On the 6th of April 1759, his laft oratorio
was performed, at which he was prefent, and died on
the 14th of the fame month. On the 20th he was bu¬
ried by the right reverend Dr Pearce, biftiop of Roche-
fter, in Weitminfter abbey ; where, by his own order,
and at his own expence, a monument was erefted to
his memory.
With regard to the chara6Ier of this moft eminent
mufician, he is univerfally allowed to have been a
reat epicure. In his temper he was very haughty,
ut was feldom or never guilty of mean a&ions. His
pride was uniform ; he was not by turns a tyrant and
a Have. He appears to have had a moft extravagant
love for liberty and independence ; infomuch, that he
would, for the fake of liberty, do things otherwife the
moft prejudicial to his own intereft. Nay, fo far is he
faid to have carried this principle, that, merely for the
fake of preferving his independence, he often refufed
the higheft favours from the ladies ; though others a-
feribe this to a very different caufe. Certain it is,
that he never ftiewed the leaft attachment to the fair
fex. He was liberal even when poor, and remember¬
ed his former friends when he was rich. His mufical
powers can perhaps be beft expreffed by Arbuthnot’s
reply to Pope, who ferioufly afked his opinion of him as
a mufician; “ Conceive (faid he) the higheft you can
of his abilities, and they are much beyond any thing
you can conceive.”
HANDS, in heraldry, are borne in coat-armour dex¬
ter and finifter; that is, right and left, expanded or
open. Thefe are the moft neceffary parts of the hu¬
man body, as they ferve to exprefs all adtions, and
even our very thoughts and defigns; thus, joining of
hands is an univerfal token of friendlhip, and clapping
of hands a general mark of applaufe.
HANGING, a common method of infliAing death
on criminals, by fufpending them by the neck. Phyfi-
cians are not agreed as to the manner in which death is
brought on by hanging. De Haen hanged three dogs,
whom he afterwards opened. In one, nothing remark¬
able appeared in the lungs. In another, from whom
half an ounce of blood was taken from the jugular
vein, the dura and pia mater were of the natural ap¬
pearance; but the lungs were much inflamed. In the
third, the meninges were found, and there was no ef-
fufion of blood in the ventricles of the brain, but the
left lobe of the lungs was turgid with blood. Wepfer,
Littrseus, Alberti, Bruhierius, and Boerhaave, affirm
that hanged animals die apoplectic. Their arguments
for this are chiefly drawn from the livid colour of the
face ; from the turgefcency of the veffels of the brain ;
the inflammation of the eyes; and from the fparks of
fire which thofe who have furvived hanging allege they
have feen before their eyes. On the contrary, Bdne-
tus, Petit, Haller, and Lancifi, from obferving that
death is occafioned by any fmall body falling into the
glottis, have aferibed it to the ftoppage of refpiration.
Others, deeming both thefe caufes ill-founded, have a-
feribed it to a luxation of the vertebrae of the neck.—
De Haen adduces the authority of many eminent au-
20 C thors
HAN [35
Hangings thors to prove the poflibility of recovering hanged per¬
il. fons ; and obferves, in general, that with bleeding in
anni a ‘ the jugular vein, and anointing the neck with warm oil,
the fame remedies are to be employed in this cafe as
for the recovery of drowned people. See Drowning.
HANGINGS, denote any kind of drapery hung up
againft the walls or wainfcotting of a room.
Paper Hangjngs. See Paper-HangiKgs.
Wove Hangings. See Tapestry.
HANGCLIFF, a remarkable point of land on the
eaft coaft of the largeft of the Shetland Iflands. It is
frequently the firft land feen by ihips in northern voy¬
ages. Captain Phipps determined its fituation to be in
W. Long. o° 56' 30". N. Lat. 6o° 9'.
HANNIBAL, a famous Carthaginian general, of
whofe exploits an account is given under the articles
Carthage and Rome. After having had the mif-
fortune to lofe a fea-fight with the Rhodians, through
the cowardice of Apollonius one of the admirals of
Antiochus the Great, he was forced to fly into Crete,
to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans. On
his arrival in this ifland, he took fanftuary among the
Gortynii; but as he had brought great treafure along
with him, and knew the avarice of the Cretans, he
thought proper to fecure his riches by the following
ftratagem. He filled feveral veffels with melted lead,
juft covering them over with gold and filver. Thefe
he depofited in the temple of Diana, in the prefence
of the Gortynii, with whom, he faid, he trufted all
his treafure: Juftin tells us, that he left this with
them as a fecurity for his good behaviour, and lived
for fome time very quietly in thefe parts. He took
care, however, to conceal his riches in hollow ftatues
of brafs; which, according to fome, he always carried
along with him; or, as others will have it, expofed in
a public place, as things of little value. At laft he
retired to the court of Prufias king of Bithynia, where
he found means to unite feveral of the neighbouring
Hates with that prince into a confederacy againft Eu-
menes king of Pergamus, a profefled friend to the Ro¬
mans; and during the enfuing war gave Eumenes fe¬
veral defeats, more through the force of his own ge¬
nius, than the valour of his troops. The Romans
having received intelligence of the important fervices
performed by Hannibal, immediately difpatched T.
Quintius Flaminius as an ambaflador to Prufias, in
order to procure his deftru&ion. At his firft audience,
he complained of the protedion given to that famous
general, reprefenting him “as the moft inveterate and
implacable enemy the Romans ever had; as one who
had ruined both his own country and Antiochus, by
drawing them into a deftrudtive war with Rome.”—
Prufias, in order to ingratiate himfelf with the Romans,
immediately fent a party of foldiers to furround Han¬
nibal’s houfe, that he might find it impoflible to make
his efcape. The Carthaginian, having before difco-
▼ered that no confidence was to be repofed in Prufias,
had contrived feven fecret paflages from his houfe, in
order to evade the machinations of his enemies, even
if they fhould carry their point at the Bithynian court.
But guards being polled at thefe, he could not fly,
though, according to Livy, he attempted it. Per¬
ceiving, therefore, no poffibility of efcaping, he had
iccourfe to poifon, which he had long referved for fuch
a melancholy occaiion. Then taking it in his hand,
10 ] HAN
“ Let us (faid he) deliver the Romans from the dif- Hannibal.
“ quietude with which they have long been tortured,
“ fince they have not patience to wait for an old man’s
“ death. Flaminius will not acquire any reputation
“ or glory by a viftory gained over a betrayed and
“ defencelefs perfon. This Angle day will be a laft-
“ ing teftimony of the degeneracy of the Romans.
“ Their anceftors gave Pyrrhus intelligence of a de-
“ fign to poifon him, that he might guard againft the
“ impending danger, even when he was at the head
“ of a powerful army in Italy; but they have deputed
“ a perfon of confular dignity to excite Prufias im-
“ pioufly to murder one who has taken refuge in his
“ dominions, in violation of the lawfs of hofpitality.,,
Then having denounced dreadful imprecations againft
Prufias, he drunk the poifon, and expired at the age of
70 years. Cornelius Nepos acquaints us, that he put
an end to his life by a fubtle poifon which he carried
about with him in a ring. Plutarch relates, that, ac¬
cording to fome writers, he ordered a fervant to ftrangle
him with a cloak wrapped about his neck; and others
fay, that, in imitation of Midas and Themittocles, he
drank bull’s blood.
With refpefl to the charafler of this general, it
appears to have been in nailitary affairs what Demof-
thenes was in oratory, or Newton in mathematics ;
namely, abfolutely perfect, in which no human wifdom
could difcover a fault, and to which 110 man could add
a perfedtion. Rollin hath contrafted his character
with that of Scipio Africanus. He enumerates the
qualities which make a complete general; and having
then given a fummary of what hiftorians have related
concerning both commanders, is inclined to give the
preference to Hannibal. “ There are, however, (he
fays) two difficulties which hinder him from deciding;
one drawn from the charadlers of the generals whom
Hannibal vanquifhed; the other from the errors he
committed. May it not be faid, (continues our author,)
that thofe vidtories which made Hannibal fo famous
were as much owing to the imprudence and temerity
of the Roman generals, as to his bravery and Ikill ?
When a Fabius and a Scipio were fent againft: him,
the firft flopped his progrefs, the other conquered
him.”
Thefe reafons have been anfwered by Mr Hooke,
who hath taken fome pains to vindicate Hannibal’s
charadter, by fully and fairly comparing it with that
of Scipio Africanus, and other Roman commanders.
“ I do not fee (fays he) why thefe difficulties Ihould
check our authors inclination to declare in favour of
the Carthaginian. That Fabius was not beaten by
Hannibal, we cannot much wonder, when we remem¬
ber how fteadily the old man kept to his refolution
never to fight with him. But from Fabius’s taking
this method to put a flop to the vidlories of the ene¬
my, may we not conclude that he knew no other, and
thought Hannibal an overmatch for him ? And why
does our author forget Publius Scipio (Africanus’s
father), a prudent and able general, whom Hannibal
vanquifhed at the Ticin? Livy relates fome vidtories
of Hannibal over the celebrated Marcellus; but nei¬
ther Marcellus nor any other general ever vanquiftied
Hannibal before the battle of Zama, if we may be¬
lieve Polybius, (fib. xv. c. 16.). Terentius Varro, in¬
deed, is reprefented as a headftrong ralh man; but th«
battle
HAN [35
Hannibal battle of Cannae was not loft by his imprudence. The
ii order in which he drew up his army is no where con-
_ anQver, demned; and Chevalier Folard thinks it excellent.
And as to the conduft of the battle, iEmilius Paulus, a
renowned captain, and a difciple of Fabius, had a greater
ftiare in it than his colleague. The imprudence with
which Varro is taxed, was his venturing, contrary to
his colleague’s advice, with above 90,000 men to en¬
counter in a plain field, an enemy who had only 50,000,
but was fuperior in horfe. And does not the very advfce
of jEmilius, and the charge of temerity on Varro for not
following it, imply a confeffion of Hannibal’s fuperio-
rity in military flail, over jEmilius as well as Varro?
It ought likewife to be obferved, that Hannibal’s in¬
fantry had gained the viftory over the Roman infan¬
try, before this latter buffered any thing from the Car¬
thaginian cavalry. It was otherwife when Spipio
gained the victory at Zama. His infantry would’pro-
bably have been vanquiftied but for his cavalry. Han¬
nibal, with only his third line of foot (his Italian army),
maintained a long fight againft Scipio’s three lines of
foot; and feems to have had the advantage over them,
when Mafinifla and Lailius, with the horfe, came to
their affiftance. Polybius indeed fays, that Hannibal’s
Italian forces were equal in number to all Scipio’s in¬
fantry; but this is contradifted by Livy, and is not
very probable. The authority of Polybius, who was
an intimate friend of Scipio jEmilianus, is, I imagine,
of little weight in matters where the glory of the
Scipios is particularly concerned. His partiality and
flattery to them are, in many inftances, but too vi-
fible.”
Our author then proceeds to (hew, that Hannibal
was not guilty of any of the faults laid to his charge
as a general; and having contrafted the moral cha-
ra&ers of the two generals with each other, makes it
evident, that as a man, as well as a general, Hannibal
had greatly the advantage of his rival. See Hooke's
Roman hijiory, vol. iv. p. 15 1. & Jeq.
HANNO, general of the Carthaginians, was com¬
manded to fail round Africa. He entered the ocean
through the Straits of Gibraltar, and difcovered feveral
countries. He would have continued his navigation, had
it not been for want of provifions. He wrote an account
of his voyage, which was often quoted, but not much
credited. Sigifmund Gelenius publilhed it in Greek
at Bafil, by Frobenius, in 1533- He lived, according
to Pliny, when the affairs of the Carthaginians were
in the mod flouriflting condition ; but this is a very
indeterminate expreffion.
HANOVER, a city of Germany, and capital of
an ele&orate of the fame name, of which the king of
Great Britain i^eleftor.—Though the houfe of Ha¬
nover is the lati that hath been raifed to the ele&oral
dignity in the empire, it may vie with any in Ger¬
many for the antiquity and noblenefs of its family. It
is likewife very confiderable for the extent of its terri¬
tories, which at prefent are, The duchy of Calenberg,
in which are the cities of Hanover, Calenberg, Ha¬
mden, Neuftadt, Gottingen, &c.; the duchy of Gru-
benhagen, the county of Diepholt, the county of Ilo-
ga, in the bifhopric of Hildeflieim ; the bailiages of
Coldingen, Luther, Badenburg, and Wefterlhoven,
with the right of protedtion of the city of Hildeflieim;
and the county of Danneberg, ceded by the dukes of
11 ] HAN
Wolfenbuttle to the dukes of Lunenburg, as an equi- Hanover,
valent for their pretenfions on the city of Brunfw’ic. Hant'e.
The eledtor poffeffes likewife the county of Delmen-
horft, and the duchies of Bremen and Verden, fold by
the king of Denmark in 1715: the right of poffefling
alternatively the bifhopric of Ofnabruck belongs folely
to the eledloral branch; but if it {hall happen to fail,
the dukes of Wolfenbuttle are to enjoy the fame
right.
In confideration of the great fervices performed by
Erneft Auguftus, duke of Brunfwic-Hanover, in the
wars which the emperor Leopold had wdth Louis XIV.
that emperor conferred the dignity of an eledfor of the
holy Roman empire upon him and his heirs male, of
which he received the inveftiture on the 19th of De¬
cember 1692. This new creation met with great
oppofuion both in the eledforal college and the col¬
lege of princes ; but at laft, by a conclufion of the
three colleges on the 30th of January 1708, it was
unanimoufly determined, that the eledforal dignity
fliould be confirmed to the duke of Hanover and his
heirs male; but it was added, that if, while that elec¬
toral dignity fubfifted, the Palatine eleftorate fhould
happen to fall into the hands of a Proteftant prince,
the firft Catholic eleftor fliould have a fupernumerary
vote.
The princes of this houfe have their feat in the col¬
lege of princes, immediately after thofe of the ele&oral
houfes; each branch having a vote. The eleftor, be-
fides his feat in the ele&oral college, was invefted with
the office of arch ftandard-bearer of the empire ; but
this being difputed with him by the duke of Wirtem-
berg, the elector Palatine having obtained the office
of arch-fteward, yielded that of arch-treafurer to the
eleftor of Hanover, who was confirmed in this dignity
by a decree of the diet of the 13th of January 1710.
For the adminiftration of* the government, the eledtor
has a council of ftate, a council of war, the court of
juftice, the chancery, the juftice of the court, and a
confiftory. But for making new laws, or eftabliftiing
new taxes, the confent of the ftates, which are com-
pofed of the nobility, clergy, and burghers, is required.
The city of Hanover is agreeably lituated in a Tandy
plain on the river Leyne, in E. Long. to. 5. N. Lat.
22. 5. It is a large well-built town, and pretty well
fortified. The eftablilhed religion is the Lutheran;
but the Catholics are tolerated, and have a handfome
church. It has fuffered greatly by the French, who
got pofftffion of it in 1757, but vverefoon after driven
out. It is noted for a particular kind of beer, reckoned
excellent in thefe parts. This city was the refidence
of the eledlor before he afeended the throne of Great
Britain. The palace makes no great fhew outwardly,
but within it is richly furniftied. The regency of the
country is adminirtered in the fame manner as if the
fovereign was prefent.
HANSE, or Hans, an ancient name for a fociety
or company of merchants; particularly that of certain
cities in Germany, &c. hence called Hanfe-towns. See
HANSE-TcwTtr.—The word banfe is obfolete High
Dutch or Teutonic; and fignifies “ alliance, confede¬
racy, affociation,” &c. Some derive it from the two
German words, am-fee, that is, “ on the fea ;” by rea-
fon the firft hanfe towns were all fituated on the fea-
coaft ; whence. the fociety is faid to have been firft
20 C 3 called
H a n ^ [ 35:
called am z-ee fleden, that is, “ cities on the fea and
afterwards, by abbreviation, hanfee, and banfe.
Hanse Towns. The hanfeatic fociety was a league
between feveral maritime cities of Germany, for the
mutual proteftion of their commerce. Bremen and
Amfterdam were the two firfl: that formed it; whofe
trade received fuch advantage by their fitting out two
men of war in each to convoy their (hips, that more
cities continually entered into the league: even kings
and princes made treaties with them, and were often
glad of their afMance and prote&ion ; by which means
they grew fo powerful both by fea and land, that they
raifed armies as well as navies, enjoyed countries in
fovereignty, and made peace or war, though always in
defence of their trade, as if they had been an united
ftate or commonwealth.
At this time alfo abundance of cities, though they
had no great intereft in trade, or intercourfe with the
ocean, came into their alliance for the prefervation of
their liberties : fo that in 1200 we find no lefs than
72 cities in the lift of the towns-of the Hanfe; parti¬
cularly Bremen, Amfterdam, Antwerp, Rotterdam,
Dort, Bruges, Ofttnd, Dunkirk, Middleburg, Calais,
Rouen, Rochelle, Bourdeaux, St Malo, Bayonne, Bil-
boa, Lifbon, Seville, Cadiz, Carthagena, Barcelona,
Marfeilles, Leghorn, Naples, Mefiina, London, Lubec,
Roftock, Stralfund, Stetin, Wifmar, Konigfberg,
Dantzig, Elbing, Marienburg.
The alliance was now fo powerful, that their (hips
of war were often hired by other princes to affift them
againft their enemies. They not only awed, but often
defeated, all that oppofed their commerce ; and, par¬
ticularly in 1358, they took fuch revenge of the Da-
ni(h fleet in the Sound, for having interrupted their
commerce, that Waldemar III. then king of Denmark,
for the fake of peace, gave them up all Schonen for
j6 years; by which they Commanded the paffage of
the Sound in their own right.—In 1428 they made
war on Erick king of Denmark with 250 fail, carry¬
ing on board 12,000 men. Thefe fo ravaged the coaft
of Jutland, that the king was glad to make peace with
them.
Many privileges were beftowed upon the hanfe towns
by Lewis XI. Charles VIII. LewisXII. and Francis I.
kings of France 5 as well as by the emperor Charles
V. who had divers loans of money from them ; and by
king Henry III. who alfo incorporated them into a
trading body, in acknowledgment for money which
they had advanced to him, as well as for the good fer-
vices they did him by their naval forces in 1206.
Thefe towns exercifed a jurifdi&ion among them-
felves; for which purpofe they were divided into four
colleges or provinces, diftinguilhed by the names of
their four principal cities, viz. Lubec, Cologne, Brunf-
wic, and Dantzic, wherein were held their courts of
judicature. They had a common dock or treafury at
Lubec, and power to call an affembly as often as ne-
ceffary.—’’They kept magazines or warehoufes for the
fale of their merchandifes in London, Bruges, Ant¬
werp, Berg in Norway, Revel in Livonia, Novogorod
in Mufcovy, which were exported to moft parts of
Europe, in Engliftr, Dutch, and Flemifh bottoms.
One of their principal magazines was at London,
where a fociety.of German merchants was formed, call¬
ed the Jieelyard company. To this company great
2 ] H A R
privileges were granted by Edward I. but revoked by
ad. of parliament in 1552 in the reign of Edward VI.
on a complaint of the Englifh merchants that this
company had fo engrofled the clotlu-trade, that, in the
preceding year, they had exported 50,000 pieces,
while all the Englifh together had (hipped off but 1 ioo.
Queen Mary, who afcended the throne the year fol¬
lowing, having refolved to marry Philip the empe¬
ror’s fon, fufpended the execution of the ad for three
years : but after that term, whether by reafon of fome
new ftatute, or in purfuance of that of king Edward,
the privileges of that company were no longer regard¬
ed, and all efforts of the hanfe-towns tcrrecover this
lofs were in vain.
Another accident that happened to their mortifica¬
tion was while queen Elizabeth was at war with the
Spaniards. Sir Francis Drake happening to meet
60 (hips in the Tagus, loaden with corn belonging to
the hanfe-towns, took out all the corn as contraband
goods which they were forbid to carry by their origi¬
nal patent. The hanfe towns having' complained of
this to the diet of the empire, the queen fent an am-
baffador thither to declare her reafons. The king of
Poland likewife interefted himfelfin the affair, becuufe
the city of Dantzic was under his protedion. At laft,
though the queen drove hard to preferve the commerce
of the Englifh in Germany, the emperor excluded the
Englifh company of merchant-adventurers, who had
confiderable fadories at Stade, Embden, Bremen,
Hamburg, and Elbing, from all trade in the empire.
In (hort, the hanfe-towns, in Germany in particular,
were not only in fo flouriffing, but in fo formidable a
(late, from the 14th to the 16th centuries, that they
gave umbrage to all the neighbouring princes, who
threatened a ftrong confederacy againft them '; and, as
the firft ftep towards it, commanded all tbe cities
within their dominion or jurifdidion to withdraw from
the union or hanfe, and be no farther concerned there¬
in. This immediately feparated all the cities of Eng¬
land, France, and Italy, from them. The hanfe, on
the other hand, prudently put themfelves under the
protedion of the empire: and as the cities juft now
mentioned had withdrawn from them; fo they with¬
drew from feveral more, and made a decree among
themfelves, that none fhould be admitted into their fo¬
ciety but fuch as flood within the limits of the German
empire, or were dependent thereon ; except Dantzic,
which continued a member, though in nowife depend¬
ent on the empire, only it had been fummoned formerly
to the imperial diet. By this means they maintained
their confederacy for the protection of their trade, as
it was begun, without being any more envied by their
neighbours. Hereby likewife they were reduced to
Lubec, Bremen, Hamburgh, and Dantzic ; in the firft
of which they kept their regifter, and held affemblies
once in three years at lead. But this hanfe or union
has for fome time been diffolved; and now every one
of the cities carries on a trade feparately for itfelf, ac¬
cording to the ftipulation in fuch treaties of peace, &c.
as are made for the empire betwixt the emperor and
other potentates.
HA R ANGUE, a modern French name for a fpeech
or oration made by an orator in public.—Menage de¬
rives tbe word from the Italian arenga, which fignifies
the fame ; formed, according to Ferrari, from arringo^
H A R [ 3513 ] H A R
Harbour « a juft, or place of jufting.” Others derive it from
II . the Latin ara, “ altar;” by reafon the firft harangues
Hanlouin. were macje before a]tars: whence the verfe of Juvenal,
/lut Lugdunenfn rhetor difhtrui ad aram.
The word is alfo frequently ufed in an ill fenfe, viz.
for a too pompous, prolix, or unfeafonable fpeech or
declamation.
HARBOUR, a general name given to any fea port
or haven ; as alfo to any place convenient for mooring
{hipping, although at a great diftance from the fea.
The qualities requifite in a good harbour are, that the
bottom be entirely free from rocks or {hallows ; that
the opening be of lufficient extent to admit the en¬
trance or departure of large {hips, without difficulty ;
that it ftiould have good anchoring-ground, and be
eafy of accefs ; that it fliould be well defended from
the violence of the wind and fea ; that it {hould have
room and convenience to receive the (hipping of diffe¬
rent nations, and thofe which are laden with different
merehandifes; that it be furnifhed with a good light-
houfe, and have variety of proper rings, polls, moor¬
ings, &c. in order to remove or fecure the vcffels con¬
tained therein; and, finally, that it have plenty of
wood, and other materials for firing, befides hemp,
iron, mariners, &c.
HARBURG, a fmall town of Germany in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunenburg, Rated on
the river Elbe over againft Hamburgh. It was fur-
rounded with walls in 1355 ; and 30 years after, a ftrong
caftle, which ftill remains, was built by the bifirop.
E. Long. 9. 41. N. Lat. 53. 51.
HARDENING, the giving a greater degree of
hardnefs to bodies than they had before.
There are feveral ways of hardening iron and fteel,
as by hammering them, quenching them in cold wa¬
ter, &c. See Steel.
Cafe Hardening. See Cass.-Hardening.
HARDERWICK, a town of the United Provin¬
ces in Dutch Guelderland. It is a well-built town,
and the chief of the fea-ports of this province. It has
feveral good buildings, particularly the great church,
which is much admired. In 1648, the public fchool
here was turned into an univerfity. The French did
it a great deal of damage in 1672, fince which time it
has been on the decline. E. Long. 5. 37. N. Lat.
52* H-
HARDNESS, a quality of certain bodies, which
xmnfifts in an intimate union and ftrong adhefion of
their integrant parts, which cannot therefore be ealily
disjoined.—We cannot precifely determine what dif-
pofition of parts occafions the greateft hardnefs ; but
this probably depends on the perfeftion and extent of
the contad of thefe parts: and this quality depends
elfentially upon their figure, which we do not know.—
The hardeft of bodies which we do know, are vitrifi-
able ftones; and amongft thefc the hardeft are alfo the
the moft pure and .homogeneous, that is, diamonds.
Not any one of ail known bodies .is perfedly hard.
This quality belongs undoubtedly to the primary or
elementary particles of matter, which of all beings we
know the leaft of.
HARDOUIN (John), a learned French Jefuit in
the beginning of the i8th century, known by the re¬
markable paradoxes he advanced in his writings ; this
in particular, That all the works of the ancient pro-
fane writers, except Cicero’s works, Virgil’s Geor- Hardwicke
gics, Horace’s fatires and epiftles, and Pliny’s natu- jl.
ral hiftory, are mere forgeries. He died at Paris in Har eiaT1>
1729, aged 83. His principal works are, x. An
edition of Pliny’s natural hiftory, with notes, which
is much efteemed. 2. An edition of the councils,
which made much noife. 3. Chronology reftored
by medals, 410. 4. A commentary on the New Te-
ftament, folio; in which he pretends that our Saviour
and hisapoftles preached in Latin, &c.
HARDWICKE. See York.
HARE, in zoology. See Lepus.
The hare is a beaft of venery, or of the foreft, but
peculiarly fo termed in the fecond year of her age.
There are reckoned four forts of them, from the place
of their abode: fome live in the mountains, fomt in
the fields, fome in marfhes, and fome wander about
every where. The mountain-hares are the fwfteft,
the field-hares are not fo nimble, and thofe of the
marfhes are the floweft : but the wandering hares are
the moft dangerous to follow; for they are cunning in
the ways and mazes of the fields, and, knowing the
neareft ways, run up the hills and rocks, to the con-
fufion of the dogs, and the difeouragement of the
hunters. See the article Hunting.
Hare-Z^>, in furgery. See Surgery.
HARFLUER, au ancient town of France, [in
Normandy; but is now a poor place, on account of
its fortifications being demoliffied, and its harbour
choaked up. It was taken by the Englilh, by affault,
in the year 1415. It is feated on the river Lizarda,
near the Seine, five miles from Havre de Grace, forty
north-weft of Rouen, and one hundred and fix north-
weft of Paris. E. Lon. o. 17. N. Lat. 49. 30.
HARIOT, or Heriot, in law, a due belonging
to a lord at the death of his tenant, confiding of the
beft beaft, either horfe, or cow, or ox, which he had at
the time of his death; and in fome manors the beft
goods, piece of plate, &c. are called hariots.
Hariot (Thomas), See Harriot.
HARLECH, a town of Merionethfiiire, in north
Wales. It is feated on a rock, on the fea-ffiore; and is
but a poor place, though the fhire-town, and fends a
member to parliament. It had formerly a ftrong,
handfome caftle, which was a garrifon for Charles I,
in the civil wars, for which reafon it was afterwards
derpoliftied by the parliament. W. Long. 4. o. N.
Lat. 54. 47.
HARLEIAN collection.—A moft valuable
colleftion of ufeful and curious manuferipts, begun
near the end of the laft century, by Robert Flar-
ley of Brampton Bryan, efq. in Herefordffiire, after¬
wards earl of Oxford and lord high-treafurer ; and
which was conduced upon the plan of the great
Sir Robert Cotton. He publifhed his firft confider-
able colledlion in Auguft 1705, and in lefs than ten
years he got together near 2500 rare and curious
MSS. Soon after this, the celebrated Dr George
Hicks, Mr Anftis garter king at arms, biffiop Ni-
colfon, and many other eminent antiquaries, not only
offered him their affiftance in procuring MSS. but
prefented him with feveral that were very valuable.
Being thus encouraged to perfeverance by his fuccefs,
he kept many perfons employed in purchafing MSS',
for him abroad, giving them written inftru&ions for
their
H A R [ 3514 ] H A R
Harlem their condu&. By thefe means the MS. library was,
If in the year 1721 increafed to near 6000 books, 14,000
r ”* original charters, and 500 rolls.
On the 2 1 ft of May 1724, lord Oxford died : but
his fon Edward, who fuceeeded to his honours and
eftate, ftill farther enlarged the collection; fo that when
he died, June 16th 1741, it con filled of 8000 volumes,
feveral of them containing diftinft ami independent
treatifes, befides many loofe papers which have been
fince forted and bound up in volumes ; and above
40,000 original rolls, charters, letters patents, grants,
and other deeds and inftruments of great antiquity.
The principal defign of making this collection was
the eftablifhment of a MS. Englilh hiltorical library,
and the refeuing from deftruCtion fuch national re¬
cords as had eluded the diligence of preceding collec¬
tors : but lord Oxford s plan was more extenlive ; for
his collection aboundsalfo with curious MSS. in every
fcience.—ThiscolleCtion is now in the Britifh Mufaeum;
and an enumeration of its contents may be feen in the
Annual Regilter, vi. 140, &c.
HARLEM, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, fituated on the river Sparen, in E. Lon. 5.
17. N. Lat. 53. 22. It is a large and populous city,
and Hands near a lake of the fame name, with which
it has a communication as well as with Amfterdam and
Leyden, by means of feveral canals. Schemes have
been often formed for draining of this lake, but were
never put in execution. To the fouth of the town lies
a wood, cut into delightful walks and villas. The
town is famous for the fiege which it held out againft
the Spaniards for ten months in 1573 ; the townfmen,
before they capitulated, being reduced to eat the vi-
Isft animals, and even leather and grafs. The inhabi¬
tants correfponded with the prince of Orange for a
confiderable time by means of carrier-pigeons. Har¬
lem, as is well known, claims the invention of printing ;
and in faCt, the firft eflays of the art are indifputably
to be attributed to Laurentius, a magiftrate of that
city. [See Laurentius, and (Hiftory of) Printing.]
Before the Reformation, Harlem was a bilhop’s fee;
and the Papifts ftill greatly outnumber the Protellants.
An academy of fciences was founded here in 1752.
Vaft quantities of linen and thread are bleached here;
the waters of the lake having a peculiar quality, which
renders them very fit for that purpofe.—A fort of
phrenfy with regard to flowers, particularly tulips, once
prevailed here, in confequence of which the moft beau¬
tiful forts were bought and fold at an extravagant price.
HARLEQUIN, a buffoon or merry-andrew ; but
the word is now ufed fora perfon of extraordinary agi¬
lity, dreffed in party-coloured clothes, the principal
character in a pantomime entertainment.
HARLEY (Robert), earl of Oxford and Morti¬
mer, was the eldeft fon of Sir Edward Harley, and
born in 1661. At the Revolution, Sir Edward and
bis fon raifed a troop of horfe at their own expence ;
and after the accefiion of king William and queen Ma¬
ry, he obtained a feat in parliament. His promotions
were rapid: in 1702, he was chofen fpeaker of the
houfe of commons; in 1704, he was fworn of queen
Anne’s privy council, and the fame year made fecre-
tary of ftate ; in 1706, he a£ted as one of the com-
miflioners for the treaty of Union; and in 1710, was
appointed a commiflioner of the treafury, and chancel- Harlin*
lor and under-treafurer of the exchequer. A daring II
attempt was made on his life, March 8. 1711, by the Harmonia-
marquis of Guifcard a French papift ; who, when un¬
der an examination b.fore a committee of the privy
council,, ftabbed him with a penknife. Of this wound,
however, he foon recovered ; and was the fame year
created earl of Oxford, and lord high treafurer, which
office he refigned juft before the queen’s death. He
was impeached of high treafon in 1715, and commit¬
ted to the tower ; but was cleared by trial, and died
in 1724. His chara&er has been varioufly reprefent-
ed, but cannot be here difeuffed. He was not only an
encourager of literature, but the greateft collector in
his time of curious books and MSS. his colle&ion of
which makes a capital part of the Britilh Mufeum.
See Harleian Collett ion.
HARLING. See Herling.
HARLINGEN, a fea-port town of the United
Netherlands, in Weft Friefland. It Hands on the
coaft of the Zuyder fea, at the mouth of a large canal,
in E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 53. 12. It was only a
hamlet till about the year 1234, when it was deftroyed
by the fea ; and being afterwards rebuilt, became a
confiderable town. In 1579, it was confiderably en¬
larged by the care of William prince of Orange. It
is now very well fortified, and is naturally ftrong, as
the adjacent country can very eafily be laid under wa¬
ter. The city is fquare; and the ftreets are handfome,
ftraight, and clean, with canals in the middle of them. It
has five gates; four towards the land, and one towards
the fea ; but thougn the harbour is good, yet veffels of
great burthen cannot get into it until they are light¬
ened, for want of water. The admiralty college of
Friefland has its feat here. The manufactures are fait,
bricks, and tiles; a confiderable trade is alfo carried
on in all forts of linen cloth, and the adjacent country
yields abundance of corn and good paftures.
HARLOT, a woman given to incontinency, or that
makes a habit or a trade of proftituting her body.—
The word is fuppofed to be ufed for the diminutive
mhorelet, a “ little whore.”—Others derive it from y^r-
/<?/ta,miftrefs to Robert duke of Normandy, and mother
to W'illiam the Conqueror: Camden derives it from one
Arlotba, concubine to William the Conqueror: O-
thers from the Italian Arlotta, “ a proud whore.”
HARMONIA, in fabulous hillory, the wife of
Cadmus, both of whom were turned into ferpents.
See Cadmus.
Though many of the ancient authors make Har-
monia a princefs of divine origin, there is a paffage in
Athenasus from Euhemerus, the Vanini of his time,
which tells us, that (he was by profeffion a player on
the flute, and in the fervice of the prince of Zidon
previous to her departure with Cadmus. This cir-
cumftance, however, might encourage the belief, that,
as Cadmus brought letters into Greece, his wife
brought harmony thither; as the word harmania,
has been faid to have no other derivation than from
her name : which makes it very difficult to afeertain
the fenfe in which the Greeks made ufe of it in their
mufief; for it has no roots by which it can be decom- f See
pounded, in order to deduce from them its etymology. Harmony, j
The common account of the word, however, that is
given
H A R [ 3515 ] H A R
Harmonica, given by lexicographers, and generally adopted by
— the learned, does not confirm this opinion. It is ge¬
nerally derived from and this from the old verb
apto, to fit or join.
HARMONICA. This word, when originally appro¬
priated by Dr Franklin to that peculiar form or mode
of mujicalglajfes, which he himfelf, after a number of
happy experiments, had conftituted, was written Ar-
nionica. In this place, however, we have ventured to
reftore it to its native plenitude of found, as we have
no antipathy againft the moderate ufe of afpirations.
It is derived from the Greek word The ra¬
dical word is to fait or fit one thing to another.
By the word a'f^ovia, the Greeks exprefled aptitudes of
vaiious kinds; and from the ufe which they made of
that expreffion, we have reafon to conclude, that it
was intended to import the higheft degree of refine¬
ment and delicacy in thofe relations which it was
meant to fignify. Relations or aptitudes of found, in
particular, were underftood by it ; and in this view,
Dr Franklin could not have felefled a name more ex-
preflive of its nature and genius, for the inftrument
which we are now to deferibe ; as, perhaps, no mu-
fical tone can pofiibly be finerj nor confequently fuf-
ceptible of jufter concords, than thofe which it pro¬
duces.
In an old Englilh book, whofe title we cannot at
prefent recolleft, and in which a number of various
amufementswere deferibed, we remember to have feen
the elements or firft approaches to mufic by glafles.
That author enjoins his pupil to choofe half a dozen of
fuch as are ufed in drinking; to fill each of them with
water in proportion to the gravity or acutenefs of the
found which he intended it Ihould produce; and, ha¬
ving thus adjufted them one to another, he might en¬
tertain the company with a church-tune. Thele, per¬
haps, were the rude and barbarous hints which Mr
Puckeridge afterwards improved. But, for a farther
account of him, of the ftate in which he left the in¬
ftrument, and of the ftate to which it has afterwards
been carried, we muft refer our readers to the follow¬
ing extracts from Dr Franklin’s letters, and from
others who have written upon the fame fubjedt.
The Doctor, in his letter to Father Beccaria, has
given a minute and elegant account of the Harmonica.
Nor does it appear that his fucceffbrs have either more
fenfibly improved, or more accurately delineated, that
angelic inftrument. The detail of his own improve¬
ments, therefore, (hall be given in his own words.
“ Perhaps (fayshe) it may be agreeable to you, as
you live in a mufical country, to have an account of
the new inftrument lately added here to the great
number that charming feience was poflefled of before :
As it is an inftrument that feems peculiarly adap¬
ted to Italian mufic, efpecially that of the foft and
plaintive kind, I will endeavour to give you fuch
a defeription of it, and of the manner of conftruc-
ting it, that you or any of your friends may be ena¬
bled to imitate it, if you incline fo to do, without
being at the expence and trouble of the many experi¬
ments I have made in endeavouring to bring it to its
prefent perfection.
“ You have doubtlefs heard the fweet tone that is
drawn from a drinking-glafs, by preffing a wet finger
round its brim. One Mr Puckeridge, a gentleman
from Ireland, was the firft who thought of playing HaKnoniea,
tunes formed of thefe tones. He collected a number
of glafles of different fizes; fixed them near each other
on a table; and tuned them, by putting into them wa¬
ter, more or lefs, as each note required. The tones
were brought out by prefltng his fingers round their
brims. He was unfortunately burnt here, with his
inftrument, in a fire which confumed the houfe he lived
in. Mr E. Delaval, a moft ingenious member of our
Royal Society, made one in imitation of it, with a
better choice and form of glaffcs, which was the firft I
faw or heard. Being charmed with the fweetnefs of
its tones, and the mufic he produced from it, I wifhed
to fee the glafits difpofed in a more convenient form,
and brought together in a narrower compafs, fo as to
admit of a greater number of tones, and all within
reach of hand to a perfon fitting before the inftru¬
ment; which I accomplifhed, after various intermediate
trials, and lefs commodious forms, both of glaffes and
conftruCtion, in the following manner.
“ The glafles are blown as near as poffible in the
form of hemifpheres,. having each an open neck or
focket in the middle. The thicknefs of the glafs near
the brim is about the tenth of an inch, or hardly quite
fo much, but thicker as it comes nearer the neck ;
which in the largeft glafies is about an inch deep, and
an inch and a half wide within ; thefe dimenfions lef-
fening as the glaffes themfelves dtminilh in fize, ex¬
cept that the neck of the fmalleft ought not to be
fliorter than half an inch.—The largeft glafs is nine
inches diameter, and the fmalleft three inches. Be¬
tween thefe there are 23 different fizes, differing from
each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To
make a fingle inftrument, there fhould be at leaf! fix
glaffes blown of each fize ; and out of this number
one may probably pick 37 glaffes (which are fufficient
for three o&aves with all the femitones) that will be
each either the note one wants, ora little (harper than
that note, and all fitting fo well into each other as to
taper pretty regularly from the largeft to the fmalleft.
It is true, there are not 37 fizes ; but it often happens
that two of the fame fize differ a note or half a note
in tone, by reafon of a difference in thicknefs, and
thefe may be placed one in the other without fenfibly
hurting the regularity of the taper form.
“ The glaffes being chofen, and every one marked
with a diamond the note you intend it for, they are
to be tuned by diminifliing the. thicknefs of thofe
that are too (harp. This is done by grinding them
round from the neck towards the brim, the breadth
of one or two inches as may be required ; often try¬
ing the glafs by a well-timed harpfichord, comparing
the note drawn from the glafs by your finger, with
the note you want, as founded by that firing of the
harpfichord. When you come near the matter, be
careful to wipe the glafs clean and dry before each
trial, becaufe the tone is fomething flatter when the
glafs is wet than it will be when dry;—and grinding
a very little between each trial, you will thereby tune
to great exa&nefs. The more care is neceffary in this,
becaufe, if you go below your required tone, there is
no iharpening it again but by grinding fomewhat off
the brim, which will afterwards require polifhing, and
thus increafe the trouble.
“ The glaffes being thus tuned, you are to he
pro-
H A R [ 35
Harmonica, provided with a cafe for them, and a fpindle on which
they are to be fixed. My cafe is about three feet
long, eleven inches every way wide within at the
biggeft end, and five inches at the fmalleft end ; for
it tapers all the way, to adapt it better to the coni¬
cal figure of the fet of glaffes. This cafe opens in the
middle of its height, and the upper part turns up by
hinges fixed behind. The fpindle is of hard iron,
lies horizontally from end to end of the box within,
exadtly in the middle, and is made to turn on brafs
gudgeons at each end. It is round, an inch diame¬
ter at the thickeil end, and tapering to a quarter of
an inch at the fmalleft.—A fquare (hank comes from
its thickeft end through the box, on which fhank a
wheel is fixed by a fcrew. This wheel ferves as a fly
to make the motion equable, when the fpindle, with
the glafles, is turned by the foot like a fpinning wheel.
My wheel is of mahogany, 18 inches diameter, and
pretty thick, fo as to conceal near its circumference
about 25 lb of lead.—An ivory pin is fixed in the
face of this wheel, about four inches from the axis.
Over the neck of this pin is put the loop of the firing
that comes up from the moveable ftep to give it mo¬
tion. The cafe ftands on a neat frame with four legs.
“ To fix the glafles on the fpindle, a cork is firft to
be fitted in each neck pretty tight, and projefting a
little without the neck, that the neck of one may not
touch the infide of another when put together, for
that would make a jarring. Thefe corks are to be
perforated with holes of different diameters, fo as to
fuit that part of the fpindle on which they are to be
fixed. When a glafs is put on, by holding it ftifily
between both hands, while another turns the fpindle,
it may be gradually brought to its place. But care
muff be taken that the hole be not too fmall, left in
forcing it up the neck fhould fplit ; nor too large,
left the glafs, not being firmly fixed, fhould turn or
move on the fpindle, fo as to touch or jar againft its
neighbouring glafs. The glafles thus are placed one
in another ; the largeft on the biggeft end of the
fpindle, which is to the left hand : the neck of this
glafs is towards the wheel; and the next goes into it
in the fame pofition, only about an inch of its brim
appearing beyond the brim of the fiift; thus proceed¬
ing, every glafs when fixed (hows about an inch of its
brim (or three quarters of an inch, or half an inch,
as they grow fmaller) beyond the brim of the glafs
that contains it; and it >s from thefe expofed parts of
each glafs that the tone is drawn, by laying a finger
on one of them as the fpindle and glafies turn round.
“ My largeft; glafs is G a little below the reach of
a common voice, and my higheft G, including three
complete o&aves.—~To diftinguifh the glaffes more
readily to the eye, I have painted the apparent parts
of the glafles within-fide, every femitone white, and
the other notes of the oftave with the feven prifmatic
colours, viz. C, red; D, orange ; E, yellow; F,
green; G, blue; A, indigo; B, purple; and C, red
again ;—fo that the glaffes of the fame colour (the
white excepted) are always o&aves to each other.
“ This inftrument is played upon, by fitting before
the middle of the fet of glaffes, as before the keys of
a harpficord, turning them with the foot, and wetting
them now and then with a fpunge and clean water.
The fingers (hould be firft a little foaked in water, and
16 ] H A R
quite free from all greafinefs ; a little fine chalk upon Hahnon
them is fometimes ufeful, to make them catch the glafs
and bring out the tone more readily. Both hands are
ufed, by which means different parts are played to¬
gether. — Obferve, that the tones are beft drawn out
when the glaffes turn from the ends of the fingers, not
when they turn to them.
“ The advantages of this inftrument are, that its
tones are incomparably fweet beyond thofe of any
other; that they may be fwelied and foftened at plea-
fure by ftronger or weaker preffures of the finger, and
continued to any length ; and that the inftrument,
being once well-tuned, never again wants tuning.”
Such was the ftate in which this learned and inge¬
nious author found, and fuch the perfection to which
he carried, that celeftial inftrument of which we now
treat. We call \X. celeflial; bccauie, in comparifon with
any other inftrument which we know, the founds that
it produces are indeed heavenly. Some of them, how¬
ever, are ftill conftrufted in the fame imperfeCt man¬
ner as the inftrument of Mr Puckeridge. They are
contained in an oblong theft ; their pofitions are either
exactly or nearly reCtilineal; the artificial femitones by
which the full notes are divided, form another paral¬
lel line ; but the diftances between each of them are
much greater than thofe between the notes of the na¬
tural fcale, as they take their places, not direCtly op-
pofite to the notes which they are intended to heighten
or deprefs, but in a fituation between the higheft and
loweft, to (how, that, in afcending, they are (harps to
the one, and, in defcending, flats to the other. This
ftruCture, however, is doubly inconvenient; for it not
only increafes the labour and difficulty of the performer,
but renders fome mufical operations impracticable,
which upon (heHarmonica, asconftituted by Dr Frank¬
lin, may be executed with eafe and pleafure. In this
fabric, if properly formed and accurately tuned, the
inftrument is equally adapted to harmony and melody.
But as no material ftruCture could ever yet be brought
to the perfection even of human ideas, this inftrument
ftill in fome meafure retains the perverfe nature of its
original (lamina. Hence it is not without the utmoft:
difficulty that the glaffes can be tuned by grinding,
and the lead conceivable redundancy or defeCt renders
the difcord upon this inftrument more confpicuous and
intolerable than upon any other. Hence likevvife
that inexpreffible delicacy to be obferved in the man¬
ner of the fridion by which the found is produced:
for if the touch be too gentle, it cannot extort the
tone; and if too ftrong, befidesthe mellow and deli¬
cate found which ought to be heard, we likewifc per¬
ceive the finger jarring upon the glafs, which, mingled
with thofe fofter founds by which the fenfes had been
foothed, gives a feeling fimilar to iron grating upon
iron, but more difagreeable. In wind-inftruments the
operation of the tongue, in harpfichords the ftroke of
the quill, and on the violin the motion of the bow,
gives that ftrong and fenfible interruption of found
which may be called articulation, and which renders
the rithmus or meafure of an air more perceptible: but,
upon the glaffes, the touch of the finger is too foft to
divide the notes with fo much force; fo that, unlefs the
mind be fteadily attentive, they feem to melt one into
another, by which means the idea of rhythmus isalmoft
loft. There is no way of performing a flur, but by
H A R
Harmonica, forbearing to ftop the firfl; found, when that which is
—' • immediately fubfequent commences. Thus, when the
flur is of any length, and regularly defcends or rifes
by the intervarof a fecond, all the notes in the flur
mu ft be heard together, and produce no agreeable
diflbnance; yet if it rifes or defcends by perfeft chords,
the effeft is pleafing. The open fhake, or trill, is ano¬
ther unhappy operation upon mufical glafles; which
can only be performed by the alternate pulfations of
two continued founds, differing from each other only
by a note or femitone. But, as thefe pulfations, thus
managed, cannot be diftindf, the refult is far from be¬
ing pleafant ; nor is there any fuccedaneum for the
clofe ftiake, which in the violin is performed by alter¬
nately depreffing the firing to the finger-board, and
fuffering it to rife without entirely removing the finger
from it, and which, by giving the note that tremulous
found produced by the human voice affedted with grief,
is a grace peculiarly adapted to pathetic and plaintive
We proceed, however, to a farther account of the
fame inftrument, extracted from the Annual Regifter,
vol. iv. p. 149.
“ Befides thofe tones (fays the author of that
account) which every elaftic firing produces by a vi¬
bration of all its parts, it is capable of another fet of
tones, in which only a part of the firing is fuppofed
to vibrate. Thefe founds are produced by the lighteft
touches, either by air, as in Ofwald’s lyre, or by
rubbing the bow in the fofteft manner on the firing of
a fiddle.
“ Analogous to thefe founds are thofe produced by
bells: in thofe laft, befides thofe tones produced by
their elliptical vibrations, there are a fet of tones which
may be brought by gently rubbing their edges, and
in which the whole inftrument does not appear to vi¬
brate in all its parts as before.
“ Take, for inftance, a bell finely poliflied at the
edges; or^ what will perhaps be more convenient, a
drinking-glafs: let the edges be as free from any thing
oily as poffible; then, by moiftening the finger in wa¬
ter (I have found alum-water to be beft), and rub¬
bing it circularly round the edge of the glafs, you
will at length bring out the tone referred to.
“ This note is poffeffed of infinite fweetnefs; it has
all the excellencies of the tone of a bell, without its
defers. It is loud, has a fufficient body, is capable
of being fwelled and continued at pleafure; and, be¬
fides, has naturally that vibratory foftening, which
muficians endeavour to imitate, by mixing with the
note to be played, a quarter-tone from below.
“ To vary thefe tones, nothing more is required
than to procure feveral bells or glaffes of different tones,
tuned as nearly as poflible, which may be done by thin¬
ning the edges of either: or, for immediate fatisfac-
tion, the glaffes may be tuned by pouring in water;
the more water is poured in, the graver the tone
will be.
“ Let us fuppofe then a double odtave of thofe
glaffes, thus tuned, to be'procured. Any common
tune may be executed by the fingers rubbing upon
each glafs fucceffively; and this I have frequently
done without the leaft dipTiculty, only choofing thofe
tunes which are flow and eafy. Here then are num¬
bers of delicate tones, with which muficians have been,
Vol. V-
H A R
till very lately, unacquainted ; and the only defe£l is, Harmonica,
that they cannot be made to follow each other with
that celerity and cafe which is requifite for melody. In
order to remedy this, I took a large drinking-glafs,
and by means of a wheel and gut, as in the eleftrical
machine, made it to turn upon its axis with a mode¬
rately quick but equable motion ; then moiftening the
finger as before, nothing more was required than
merely to touch the glafs at the edge, without any o-
ther motion, in order to bring out the tone.
“ Inftead of one glafs only turning in this manner, if
the whole number of glaffes were fo fixed as to keep
continually turning, by means of a wheel, it follows,
that upon every touch of the finger a note would be
expreffed ; and thus, by touching feveral glaffes at
once, an harmony of notes might be produced, as in
an harpfichord.
“ As I write rather to excite than fatisfy the cu-,
rious, I (hall not pretend to direft the various ways
this number of glaffes may be contrived to turn ; it
may be fufficient to fay, that if the glaffes are placed
in the fegment of a circle, and then a (trap, as in a
cutler’s wheel, be fuppofed to- go round them all, the
whole number will by this means be made to turn, by
means of a wheel.
“ Inftead of the finger, I have applied moiftened
leather to the edge of the glafs, in order to bring out
the tone : but, for want of a proper elafticity, this did
not fucceed. I tried cork, and this anfwered every
purpofe of the finger ; but made the tone much louder
than the finger could 'do. Inftead, therefore of the
finger, if a number of corks were fo contrived as to
fall with a proper degree of preffure on the edge of
the glafs, by means of keys like the jacks of an organ,
it is evident, that in fuch a cafe a new and tolerably
perfedt inftrument would be produced ; not fo loud in¬
deed as fome, but infinitely more melodious than any.
“ The mouths of the glaffes or bells ufed in this ex¬
periment fiiould not refemble the mouth of a trumpet,
but (hould rather come forward with a perpendictilar
edge. The corks ufed in this cafe ftiould be fmooth,
even free from thofe blemilhes which are ufually found
in them, and at the fame time the more elaftic the
better.”
In the two accounts here given feems to be compre¬
hended every thing valuable which has been laid upon
the fubjedt. It remains, however, our permanent opi¬
nion, that the form and ftrudlure defigned and confti-
tuted by Dr Franklin is by much the moft eligible ;
nor can we admit, that a cork, however fuccefsfully
applied, will produce the fame mellownefs and equabi¬
lity of tone in general, with the finger. It appears to
us, that, by this kind of voluntary attrition, a note
may be funk or fwelled with much more art and pro¬
priety than by the fubftitution of any thing elfe extrin-
lic to the hand; and when chords are long protrac¬
ted, that degree of fri&ion, which renders every found
in the chord fenfible to the ear, without harftinefs, mull
be the moft agreeable. For this reafon, likewife, we
Ihould recommend alum-water in preference to chalk.
From what has already been faid, it will eafily be per¬
ceived, that this inftrument requires to be tuned with
the niceft degree of delicacy which the laws of tempe¬
rament will polfibly admit. For thefe laws the reader
will naturally have rccourfe to the article Music f, t Chap, vil,
20 D in artl (54.
[ 3517 1
H A R [35
Hirmonici in this Diflionary; where, from M. D’Alembert, is
given a plain and fatisfa&ory account, both of the
method propofed by Rameau, and of that eftablifhed
in common praftice, without anticipating the expe¬
rience and tafte of the reader, by dilating which of
thefe plans is preferable. To thofe who have occafion
to tune the inttrument, it may likewife be ufeful to per-
ufe the detached article Temperament in this Work.
Without recapitulating the different rules of alteration
prefcribed in thefe accounts, we (hall prefuppofe the
reader acquainted with them; and proceed to defcribe
how, under their influence, the Harmonica may be tu¬
ned. But it is previoufly expedient to obferve, that
the fame rules which conduft the procefs of tuning a
harpfichord, will be equally effeftual in tuning the Har¬
monica; with this only difference, that greater delica¬
cy in adjufting the chords Ihould, if pradicable, be at-
• tempted.
There are different notes from whence the procedure
of tuning may commence. La or A, which is the key
that pretty nearly divides the harpfichord, is chofen by
fome ; this la in common fpinets is 24 natural keys
from the bottom, and 13 from the top : and the ut a-
bove it, or fecond C upon the G*cleff, by others. This
laft we fhould rather advife, becaufe we imagine thofe
intervals which we have calledye^W/ major to be more
juft through the whole o&ave, when the courfe of tu¬
ning is begun by a natural femitone. The initiate,
therefore, may begin by tuning the fecond ut of his
Harmonica^ or C above the treble cleff, in unifon with
its correfpondent C upon the harpfichord or any other
inftrument in concert-pitch ; then, defcending to its oc¬
tave below, adjuftit with the ut above, till every pul-
fation if poffible be loft, and the founds rendered
fcarcely diftinguilhable when fimultaneoufly heard. To
the loweft note of this odlave he muft tune the fol or
G immediately above it by a fifth, ftill obferving the
laws of temperament: To thisG, the re, orD imme¬
diately above it, by the fame chord: To the re, or D
above, its o&ave below: To this, by a fifth, the la
or A immediately above it: To la, the mi or E a-
fce/iding in the fame proportion : To mi, its oftave
below : To this, the or B immediately above it
by a fifth: To the firft ut,or C, which was tuned, the
faorY immediately below by the fame chord.
That the praditioner may be ftill more fecure in the
juftice and propriety of his procedure, he may try the
thirds of the notes already adjufted, and alter, as
much as is confiftent with the fifths and oftaves, fuch
among thefe thirds as may feem grating and difagree-
able to his ear. Thus far having accomplifhed his o-
peration, he may tune all the other natural notes
whether above or below by o&aves. His next concern
is with the femitones. And here it will be fuggefted
by common fenfe, that as in all inftruments with fixed
fcales the (harp of a lower muft likewife anfwer for the
flat of a higher tone, the feoaitone ought as nearly as pof¬
fible to divide the interval. He may begin with la or A
fharp, whichin its natural ftate isathird minor beneath
the ut or C, from whence he began in the natural fcale.
This femitone ftiould correfpond with the F natural
immediately above by a fifth. To it may be tuned the
re or D (harp immediately below by a fimilar chord :
To D ftiarp, its oftave above : To y? or B natural,
immediately above the la or A firft mentioned, may be
18 ] H A R
adjufted the F or fharp immediately above it: To Harmonica
this its oftave below: To that odtave, the C or «jf (I
fharp above by a fifth t To the C fharp, its oflave be- Harmony<
low: To this, by a fifth, the G or fol fharp above. *
Between this G fharp and the D fharp immediately
above it, the fifth will probably be too fharp; but if
the others are juftly tuned, that difcord will not be ex¬
tremely offenfive ; and it is a neceffary confequence of
temperament. The reft of the fharps and flats, like their
naturals, w’hether afcending or defcending, may be tu¬
ned by their oftaves.
The notes, with their chords, may be expreffed by
letters and figures, thus; where, however, it muft be
obferved, that the higher notes of any chord are marked
with larger capitals. It fhould likewife be remarked,
that the figures are not expreflive of the different ratios
which the notes bear one to another, confidered with
refpedl to their vibrations; but only fignificant of
their nominal diftances, according to the received de¬
nominations of the intervals. Cc cG cD dD dA
aE Ee eB Cf. The fharps and flats thus, a^F^(
AM, b F$, FM, v%Q% CM,
c$G$;. In running over the fharps and flats as the
naturals, it will likewife be neceffary to try the thirds,
and to alter fuch as may offend the ear ; which, if
cautioufly done, will not fenfibly injure the other
chords.—Though this article has been protra&ed to
a length which we did not originally intend, we have
however the fatisfa&ion to find, that it comprehends
every thing effential; fo that any perfon who under-
ftands the nature of chords, and the practical prin¬
ciples of mufic as univerfally taught, may not only
be able to tune his inftrument, but to acquire its
whole manoeuvre, without the leaft afliftance from a
mafter.
On Plate CLIX. is reprefented an inftrument of this
kind, made by Mr Dobb of St Paul’s Church-yard,
London.
HARMONIC. As an adje&ive, it fignifies in gene¬
ral any thing belonging to harmony ; though, in our
language, the adje&ive is more properly written har-
monkal. In this fenfe it may be applied to the har-
monical divifions of a monochord; or, in a word, to
confonances in general. As a fubftantive neuter, it
imports all the concomitant or acceffory founds which,
upon the principles refulting from the experiments
made on fonorous bodies, attend any given found
whatever, and render it appretiable. Thus all the
aliquot parts of a mufical firing produce harmonical
founds, or harmonics.
HARMONY. The fenfe which the Greeks gave to
this word in their mufic, is fo much lefs eafy to be de-
termined, becaufe, the word itfelf being originally a
fubftantive proper, it has no radical words by which
we might analyfe it, to difcover its etymology. In
the ancient treatifes which remain to us, harmony ap*-
pears to be that department whofe objeft is the agree¬
able fucceffion of founds, merely confidered as high or
low ; in oppofition to the two others called rhythmica
and metrica, which have their principle in time and
meafure. This leaves our ideas concerning that apti¬
tude of found vague and undetermined; nor can wc
fix them without ftudying for that purpofe all the rules
H A R [35
Harmony. 0f the art: and even after we have done fo, it will be
very difficult to diftinguiffi harmony from melody, un-
lefs-we add to the laft the ideas of rhythmus and mea-
fure; without which, in reality, no melody can have a
diftinguifhing chara6ter: whereas harmony is charac-
terifed by its own nature, independent of all other
quantities except the chords or intervals which com-
pofe it.
It appears by a paffage of Nicomachus, and by
others, that they likewife gave the name of harmony to
the chord of an oftave, and to concerts of voices and
inftruments, which performed in the diftance of an oc¬
tave one from the other, and which is more commonly
called antipkone.
Harmony, according to the moderns, is a fucceffion
of chords agreeable to the laws of modulation. For a
long time this bad no other principle but fuch
rules as were almoft arbitrary, or folely founded on
the approbation of a pra&ifed ear, which decided con¬
cerning the agreeable or difagreeable fucceffion of
chords, and whofe determinations were at lall reduced
to calculation. But Father Merfenne and M. Sa-
veur having found, that every found, however Ample
in appearance, was always accompanied with other
founds lefs fenfible, which conftitute with itfelf a per-
feft chord-major; with this experiment M. Rameau
fet out, and upon it formed the bafis of his harmonic
fyftem, which he has extended to a great many vo¬
lumes, and which at laft M. D’Alembert has taken the
trouble of explaining to the public.
Signior Tartini, taking his route from an experiment
which is newer and more delicate, yet not lefs certain,
has reached conclufions fimilar enough to thofe of Ra¬
meau, by purfuing a path whofe direftion feems quite
oppofite. According to M. Rameau, the treble is gene¬
rated by the bafs ; Signior Tartini makes the bafs refult
from the treble. One deduces harmony from melody,
and the other fuppofes quite the contrary. To determine
from which of the two#fchools the beft performances
are likely to proceed, no more is neceffary than to in-
veftigate the end of the compofer, and difeover whe¬
ther the air is made for the accompaniments, or the
accompaniments for the air. At the word System
in Rouffeau’s Mutical Dictionary, is given a delinea¬
tion of that publifhed by Signor Tartini. Here he
continues to fpeak of M. Rameau, whom he has
followed through this whole work, as the artift of
greateft authority in the country where he writes.
He thinks himfelf obliged, however, to declare,
That this fyftem, however ingenious it may be, is far
from being founded upon nature.; an affirmation which
he inceflantly repeats: “That it is only eftabliftied upon
analogies and congruities, which a man of invention
may overturn to-morrow, by fubftituting others more
natural: that, in fhort, of the experiments from whence
he deduces it, one is detected fallacious, and the other
will,not yield him the confequences which he would
extort from it. In reality, when this author took it
in his head to dignify with the title of demonjlration
the reafonings upon which he eftablilhed his theory,
every one turned the arrogant pretence into ridicule.
The Academy of Sciences loudly difapproved a title
fo ill-founded, and fo gratuitoufly affumed; and M.
Eftive, of the Royal Society at Montpelier, has (hewn
him, that even to begin with this propofition, That
19 ] H A R
according to the law of nature, founds are reprefented Harmony,
by their oftaves, and that the o&aves may be fubfti- '
tuted for them, there was not any one thing demon-
ftrated, or even firmly eftablHhed, in his pretended de-
monftration.” He returns to his fyftem.
“ The mechanical principle of refonance prefents
us with nothing but independent and folitary chords ;
it neither preferibes nor eftablifhes their fucceffion.
Yet a regular fucceffion is neceffary; a di&ionary of
fele&ed words is not an oration, nor a colledion of
legitimate chords a piece of mufic: there muft be a
meaning, there muft be connexions in mufic as well
in language: it is neceffary that what has preceded
fhould tranfmit fomething of its nature to what is fub-
fequent, fo that all the parts conjoined may form a
whole, and be ftamped with the genuine charaXer of
unity.
“ Now, the complex fenfation which refults from a
perfeX chord, muft be refolved into the fimple fenfa¬
tion of each particular found which compofes it, and
into the fenfation of each particular interval 'which
forms it, afeertained by eomparifon one with another.
Beyond this there is nothing fenfible in any chord;
from whence it follows, that it is only by the relation
between founds, and by the analogy between intervals,
that the connexion now in queftion can be eftabliftied;
and this is the genuine, the only fource, from whence
flow all the laws of harmony and modulation. If, then,
the whole of harmony were only formed by a fucceffion
of perfeX chords-major, it would be fufficient to pro¬
ceed by intervals fimilar to thofe which compofe fuch
a chord; for then fome one or more founds of the
preceding chord being neceffarily protraXed in that
which is fubfequent, all the chords would be found
fufficiently conneXed, and the harmony would, at leaft
in this fenfe, be one.
“ But befides that thefe fucceffions muft exclude
all melody by excluding the diatonic feries which forms
its foundation, it would not arrive at the real end of
the art ; becaufe, as muilc is a fyftem of meanings
like a difeourfe, it ought like a difeourfe to have its
periods, its phrafes, its fufpenfes, its cadences, its
punXuation of every kind ; and becaufe the unifor¬
mity of a harmonical procedure implies nothing of all
this. Diatonic procedures require that major and
minor chords ftiould be intermixed ; and the neceffity
of diffonances has been felt in order to diftinguifh the
phrafes, and render the cadences fenfible. Now, a con¬
neXed feries of perfeX chords-major, can neither be
produXive of perfeX chords-minor nor of diflbnances,
nor can fenfibly mark any mnfical phrale, and the
punXuation muft there be found entirely defeXive.
“ M. Rameau being abfolutely determined, in his
fyftem, to deduce from nature all the/wvwwy prac-
tifed among us, had recourfe, for this effeX, to ano¬
ther experiment of his own invention, of which I
have formerly fpoken, and which by a different
arrangement is taken from the firft. He pretended,
that any fimple found whatever afforded in its mul¬
tiples a perfeX minor or flat chord, of which it was
the dominant or fifth, as it furnilhed a perfeX chord-
major by the vibration of its aliquot parts, of which
it is the tonic or fundamental found. He has affirmed
as a certain faX, that a vocal firing caufed two others
lower than itfelf to vibrate through their whole ex-
20 D 2 tent,
H A R [ 3520 ] H A R
Harmony, tent, yet without making them produce any found,
one to its twelfth major and the other to its feven-
tetnth; and from this joined to the former fadt, he
has very ingenioufly deduced, not only the applica¬
tion of the minor mode and of diilonances in harmony,
but the rules of harmonic phrafes and of all modula¬
tion, fuch as they are found at the words Chord,
Accompaniment, Fundamental Bafs, Cadence, DiJJo-
nance, Modulation*
** But firft, (continues Rouffeau) the experiment is falfe.
It is difcovered, that the firings tuned beneath the fun¬
damental found do not entirely vibrate when this funda¬
mental found is given ; but that they are divided in fuch
a manner as to return its unifon alone, which of confe-
quence can have noharmonics below. It is moreover dif¬
covered, that the property of firings in dividing them-
felves, is not peculiar to thofe which are tuned by a
twelfth and feventeenth below the principal found;
but that ofcillations are likewife produced in the
lower firings by all its multiples. Whence it follows,
that the intervals of the twelfth and feventeenth below,
not being fingular phenomena of their kind, nothing
can be concluded in favour of the perfedl minor chord
which they reprefent.
“ Though the truth of this experiment were granted,
even this would by no means remove the difficulty. If,
as M. Rameau alleges, all harmony is derived from
the refonance of fonorous bodies, it cannot then be
derived only from the vibrations of fuch bodies as do
not refound. In reality, it is an extraordinary theo¬
ry, to deduce from bodies that do not refound the
principles of harmony.; and it is a pofition in natural
philofophy no lefs ftrange, that a fonorous body Ihould
vibrate without refounding, as if found itfelf were any
thing elfe but the air impelled by thefe vibrations.
Moreover, fonorous bodies do not only produce, be-
fides the principal found, the other tones which with
itfelf compofe a perfect chord; but an infinite number
of other founds, formed by all the aliquot parts of
the bodies in vibration, which do not enter into that
perfeft harmony. Why then ffiould the former founds
produce confonances, and why fliould the latter not
produce them, fince all of them equally refult from
nature ?
“ Every found exhibits a chord truly perfeft, fince it
is compofed of all its harmonics, and fince it is by them
that it becomes a found. Yet thefe harmonics are
not heard, and nothing is diftinguilhed but a fimple
found, unlefs it be exceedingly ftrong: whence it fol¬
lows, that the only good harmony is an unifon ; and
that as foon as the confonances can be diftinguifhed,
the natural proportion being altered, the harmony has
loft its purity.
That alteration is in this cafe produced two diffe¬
rent ways. Firft, by caufing certain harmonics to re¬
found, and not the others, the proportion of force
which ought to prevail in all of them is altered, for
producing the feufation of a fingle found ; whence the
unity of nature is deftroyed. By doubling thefe har¬
monics, an eft’eft is exhibited fimilar to that which
would be produced by fuppreffing all the others ; for
in that cafe we cannot doubt, but that, along with the
generating found, the tones of the other harmonics
which were permitted to found would be heard: where¬
as, in leaving all of them to their natural operations.
they deftroy one another, and confpire together in Harmony.
forming and ftrengthning the fimple fenfation of the 
principal found. It is the fame effeil which-the full
found of a flop in the organ produces, when, by fuc-
ceffively removing the ftopper or regifter, the third
and fifth are permitted to found with the principal ;
for then that fifth and third, which remained abforbed
in the other founds, are feparately and difagreeably
diftinguilhed by the ear.
“ Moreover, the harmonics which we caufe to found
have other harmonics pertaining to themfelves, which
cannot be fuch to the fundamental found. It is by
thefe additional harmonics that the founds which pro-,
duce them are diftinguiftied with a more fenfible de¬
gree of harlhnefs; and thefe very harmonics which
thus render the chord perceptible, do not enter into its
harmony. This is the reafon why the moll perfeft
chords are naturally difpleafing to ears whofe relilh
for harmony is not fufficiently formed; and I have
no hefitation in thinking, that even the o&ave itfelf
might be difpleafing, if the mixture of male and fe¬
male voices did not inure us to that interval from our
infancy.
“ With diffonance it is ftill worfe ; becaufe, not only
the harmonics of the found by which the difcord is
produced, but even the found itfelf is excluded from
the natural harmony of the fundamental: which is the
caufe why difcord is always diftinguilhed amongft all
the other founds in a manner Ihocking to the fenfe.
“ Every key of an organ, with the flop fully opened,
gives a perfedl chord with its third-major, which are
not diftinguilhed from the fundamental found, if the
hearer is not extremely attentive, and if he does not
found the whole Hop in fucceffion ; but thefe harmo¬
nic founds are never abforbed in the fundamental, but
on account of the prodigious noife, and by fuch a fi-
tuation of the regilters as may caufe the pipes which
produce the fundamental found to conceal by their
force the other founds which produce thefe harmonics.
Now, no perfon obferves, nor can obferve, this conti¬
nual proportion in a concert; fince, by the manner of
inverting the harmony, its greateft force mull in every
inftant be transferred from one part to another ; which
is not pra&icable, and would deftroy the whole me¬
lody.
“When we play upon the organ, every key in the
bafs caufes to refound the perfect chord major; but
becaufe that bafs is not always fundamental, and be¬
caufe the mufic is often modulated in a perfect minor
chord, this perfedt chord-major is rarely ftruck with
the right hand ; fo that we hear the third minor with
the major, the fifth with the triton, the feventh re¬
dundant with the o&ave, and a thoufand other caco¬
phonies, which, however, do not much difguft our ears,
becaufe habit renders them tradable ; but it is not to
be imagined that an ear naturally juft would prove fo
patient of difcords, when firft expofed to the tell of
this harmony.
“ M. Rameau pretends, that trebles compofed with
a certain degree of fimplicity naturally fuggeft their
own baffes; and that any man having a juft, though
unpradifed ear, would fpontaneoufly fing that bafs.
This is the prejudice of a mufician, refuted by univer-
fal experience. Not only would he, who has never
heard either bafs or harmony, be of himfelf incapable
fe[ A R [ 3521 ] H A R
Harmony, of finding either the bafs or the harmony of M. Ra-
■—  mean, but they would be difpleafing to him if he heard
them, and he v/ould greatly prefer the fimple unifon.
“ When we confider, that, of all the people upon
earth, who have all of them fome kind of mufic and
melody, the Europeans are the only people who have
a harmony confifting of chords, and who are pleafed
with this mixture of founds; when we confider that
the world has endured for fo many ages, whilft,
of all the nations which cultivated the fine arts,
not one has found out this harmony : that not one
animal, not one bird, not one being in nature, pro¬
duces any other chord but the unifon, nor any other
mufic but melody : that the eaftern languages, fo fo-
norous, fo mufical; that the ears of the Greeks, fo
delicate, fo fenfible, pra&ifed and cultivated with fo
much art, have never condufted this people, luxurious
and enamoured of pleafure as they were, towards this
harmony which we imagined fo natural: that without
it their mufic produced fuch aftonilhing effefts; that
with it ours is fo impotent: that, in fhort, it was refer-
ved for the people of the north, whofe grofs and cal¬
lous organs of lepfation are more affedfed with the
noife and clamour of voices, than with the fweetnefs
of accents and the melody of infledfions, to make this
grand difcovery, and to vend it as the effential princi¬
ple upon which all the rules of the art were founded ;
when, in (hort, attention is paid to all thefe obferva-
tions, it is very difficult not to fufpedt that all our har¬
mony is nothing but a Gothic and barbarous invention,
which would never have entered into our minds, had
we been truly fenfible to the genuine beauties of art,
and of that mufic which is unquefiionably natural.
“ M. Rameau afferts, however, that harmony is the
fource of the moft powerful charms in mufic. But
this notion is contradidfory both to reafon and to mat¬
ter of fadt. To fadt it is contradidfory; becaufe,
fince the invention of counter-point, all the wonderful
effedts of mufic have ceafed, and it has loft its whole
force and energy: To which may be added, that fuch
beauties as purely refult from harmony are only per¬
ceived by the learned; that they affedl none with tranf-
port but fuch as are deeply converfant in the art:
whereas the real beauties of mufic, refulting from na¬
ture, ought to be, and certainly are, equally obvious
to the adept and the novice. To reafon it is contra-
dtftory j fince harmony affords us no principle of imi¬
tation by which mufic, in forming images and expref-
fing fentiments, can rife above its native excellence till
it becomes in fome meafure dramatic or imitative,
which is the highelt pitch of elevation and energy to
which the art can afpire ; fince all the pleafures which
we can receive from the mere mechanical influence of
founds are extremely limited, and have very little power
over the human heart.”
Thus far we have heard M. Rouffeau, in his obfer-
yzXxom on harmony, with patience; and we readily grant,
that the fyftem of harmony by M. Rameau is neither
demonftrated, nor capable of demonftration. But it
will not follow, that any man of invention can foeafily
and fo quickly fnbvert thofe aptitudes and analogies
on which the fyftem is founded. Every hypothefis is
admitted to poffefs a degree of probability proportioned
to the number of phenomena for which it offers a fa-
tisfadory folu*ion. The firft experiment of M. Ra¬
meau is, that every fonorous body, together with its Harmony,
principal found and its o&ave, gives likewife its twelfth
and feventeenth major above; which being approxi¬
mated as much as poffible, even to the chords imme¬
diately reprefented by them, return to the third, fifth,
and o&ave, or, in other words, produce perfed har¬
mony. This is what nature, when folicited, fponta-
neoufly gives; this is what the human ear, unprepa¬
red and uncultivated, imbibes with ineffable avidity
and pleafure. Could any thing which claims a right to
our attention, and acceptance from nature, be impreffed
with more genuine or more legible fignatures of herfanc-
tion than this ? We do not contend for the truth of
M. Rameau’s fecond experiment. Nor is it neceffary
we fhould. The firft, expanded and carried into all its
confequences, refolves the phenomena of harmony in a
manner fufficient to eftablifh its authenticity and in¬
fluence. The difficulties for which it affords no folu-
tion are too few and too trivial either to merit the re¬
gard of an artift or a philofopher, as M. D’Alembert
in his elements has clearly fhown. The fads with
which M. Rouffeau confronts this principle, the armies
of multiplied harmonics generat 'd in infinitum, which
he draws up in formidable array againft it, only fhow
the thin partitions which fometimes may divide philo-
fophy from whim. For, as bodies are infinitely divi-
fible, according to the philofophy now eftablifhed, or
as, according to every philofophy, they muft be inde¬
finitely divilible, each infinitefimal of any given mafs,
which are only harmonics to other principal founds,
muff have fundamental tones and harmonics peculiar
to themfelves; fo that, if the reafoning of Rouffeau
has any force againft M. Rameau’s experiment, the
ear muft be continually diftraded with a chaos of in-
appretiable harmonics, and melody itfelf muft be loft:
in the confufion. But the truth of the matter is, that,
by the wife inftitution of nature, there is fuch a con¬
formity eftablifhed between our fenfes and their pro¬
per objedts, as muft prevent all thefe difagreeable ef-
feds. Rouffeau and his opponent are agreed in this,
that the harmonics confpire to form one predominant
found; and are not to be deteded but by the niceft or¬
gans, applied with the deepeft attention. It is equally
obvious, that, in an artificial harmony, by a proper
management of this wife precaution of nature, diffo-
nances themfelves may be either entirely concealed, or
confiderably foftened. So that, fince by nature fono¬
rous bodies in adiial vibration are predifpofed to ex¬
hibit perfed harmony; and fince the human ear is, by
the fame wife regulation, fabricated in fuch a manner
as to perceive it; the harmonica! chaos of M. Rouffeau
may be left to operate on his own brain, where it will
probably meet with the warmelt reception it can ex-
ped to findf. Nordoesit avail him to pretend, that^,VI,Rou^‘
before the harmonics can be diftinguifhed, fonorous bo-1^”
dies muff be impelled with a force which alters the this article
chords, and deftroys the purity of the harmony ; for was written,
this pofition is equally falfe both in theory and prac¬
tice. In theory, becaufe an impulfe, however forcible,
muft proportionally operate on all the parts of any fo¬
norous body, fo far as it extends: in pradice, be¬
caufe the human ear adually perceives the harmony to
be pure. What effeds his various manoeuvres upon
the organ may have, we leave to fuch as have leifure
and curiofity enough to try the experiments: but it is
ap-
H A R [ 3522 ] H A R
Harmony, apprehended, that when tried, their refults will leave
" the fyftem of Rameau, particularly as remodelled by
D’Alembert, in its full force.
Of all the whims and paradoxes maintained by this
-philofopher, none is more extravagant than his affer-
tion, that every chord, except the Ample unifon, is
difpleafing to the human ear : nay, that we are only
reconciled to oftaves themfelves by being inured to
hear them from our infancy. Strange, that nature
ihould have fixed this invariable proportion between
male and female voices, whilft at the fame time die in¬
spired the hearers with fuch violent prepofleflions a-
gainft it as were invincible but by long and confirmed
habit! The tranflator of D'Alembert's Elements, as
iven under the article Music in this Diftionary, has
een at peculiar pains to inveftigate his earlielt recol¬
lections upon this fubjeft; and has had fuch opportu¬
nities, both of attending to his original perceptions,
and of recognifing the fidelity of his memory, as are
not common. He can remember, even from a period
of early childhood, to have been pleafed with the fim-
plefi; kinds of artificial harmony; to have diftinguifiied
the harmonics of fonorous bodies with delight; and to
have been (truck with horror at the found of fueh bo¬
dies as, by their ftruCture, or by the cohefion of their
parts, exhibited thefe harmonics falfe. This is the
chief, if not the only caufe, of the tremendous and
difagreeable fenfation which we feel from the found of
the Chinefe ghong. The fame horrible cacophony is
frequently, in fdme degree, produced by a drum un¬
equally braced : from this found the tranflator often
remembers to have ftarted and fcreamed, when carried
through the ftreets of the town in which he was born
an the arms of his nurfery-maid ; and as he is confci-
ous, that the acouftic organs of many are as exquifite
as his own, he cannot doubt but they may have had
the fame fenfations, though perhaps they do not re¬
coiled the fads. So early and fo nicely may the fen¬
fations of harmony and difcord be diftinguifiied. But
after all, it feems that harmony is no more than a mo¬
dern invention, and, even at this late period, only
known to the Europeans. We (hould, however, be
glad to know, from what oracle our philofopher learn¬
ed, that harmony was not known to antiquity. From
•what remains of their works, no proof of his pofition can
be derived ; and we have at lead mentioned one proba¬
bility againft it in our notes to the Preliminary Dif-
courfe to the article Music, (fee Note b.) But though
Rqufleau’s mighty objedions were granted, that har¬
mony can only be endured by fuch ears as are habi¬
tually formed and cultivated ; that the period of its
prevalence has been ftiort, and the extent of its empire
limited to Europe; ftill his conclufion, that it is a Go¬
thic and barbarous invention, is not fairly deducible
even from thefe premifes. Muft we affirm, that epic
poetry has no foundation in nature, becaufe, during
the long interval which happened from the beginning
of the world to the deftrudion of Troy, no epic poem
feems to have appeared ? Or becaufe a natural and
mellifluous verfification is lefs rejiflied by an unpoliflied
tafte, than the uncouth rhymes of a common ballad,
(hall we infer, that the power of numbers is merely
fuppofititious and arbitrary ? On the contrary, we will
venture to affirm, that though harmony cannot, as
Rameau fuppofes, be mathematically demonftrated
from the nature and vibrations of fonorous bodies.; yet Harmony,
the idea of its conftituent parts, and of their coalef-
cence, is no lefs eftabliftied, no lefs precife and definitej
than any mode or property of fpace or quantity to be
inveftigated by geometrical refearches or algebraical
calculations. It is certain, that the mimetic or imi¬
tative power of mufic chiefly confifts in melody ; but
from this truth, however evident, it cannot be fairly
deduced, that harmony is abfolutely unfufceptible of
imitation. Perhaps every mufical found, even to the
moft fimple, and all modulations of found, are more or
lefs remotely conneded with fame fentiment or paffion
of the human heart. We know, that there are inftinc-
tive expreffions of pain or pleafure in their various
modes and degrees, which, when uttered by any fen-
fitive, and perceived by any confcious being, excite in
the mind of the percipient a feeling fympathetic with
that by which they are prompted. We likewife know
from experience, that all artificial founds modulated in
the fame manner, have fimilar, though not equal, ef-
feds. We have feen, that, in order to render harmony
compatible with itfelf, the melody of each part muft be
congenial; and, for that reafon, one kindred melody
refult from the whole. So far, therefore, as anycom-
pofer has it in his power to render the general melody
homogeneous; fo far the imitation may he preferred,
and even heightened : for fuch objeds as are majeftic
and auguft, or the feelings which they excite, are more
aptly expreffed by a compofition of kindred founds,
than by any fimple tone whatever. They who fup-
pofe the mimetic powers of mufic to be confummated
in the imitation of mere unmeaning founds or degrees
of motion, muft entertain limited and unworthy ideas
of its province. It is naturally a reprefentative almoft
of every fentiment or affedion of the foul; and, when
this end is gained, the art muft have reached its higheft
peffedion, and produced its nobleft effeds. But thefe
effeds, however fenfible among the ancients, may in
us be fuperfeded by other caufes which remain yet un¬
explored. Theatrical performances are likewife, by
them, faid to have produced the moft wonderful effeds;
yet thefe we do not recognife amongft ourfelves, tho’
we have dramatic entertainments perhaps not inferior
to theirs.
Rouffeau proceeds to tell us, that among the an¬
cients, the enkarmonick fpecies of mufic was fometimes
called harmony.
Z)/ra? Harmony, is that in which the bafsls fun¬
damental, and in which the upper parts preferve a-
raong themfelves, and with that fundamental bafs,
the natural and original order which ought to fub-
fift in each of the chords that compofe this harmony.
Inverted Harmony, is that in which the fundamen¬
tal or generating found is placed in fame of the upper
parts, and when fame other found of the chord is tranf-
•ferred to the bafs beneath the others.
Harmony of the Spheres, or Cehjlial Harmony, a
fort of mufic much talked of by many of the ancient
philofophers and fathers, fuppofed to be produced by
the fweetly tuned motions of the ftars and planets. This
harmony they attributed to the various proportionate
impreffions of the heavenly globes upon one another,
ading at proper intervals. It is impoffible, according
to them, that fuch prodigious large bodies, moving
with fo much rapidity, ftiould be filent: on the con¬
trary,
H A R [ 3523 ] H A R
Harold, trary, the atmofphere, continually impelled by them,
KarP- mull yield a fet of founds proportionate to the impref-
fion it receives ; confequently, as they do not all run the
fame circuit, nor with one and the fame velocity, the
different tones arifing from the diverfity of motions, di-
refted by the hand of the Almighty, muft form an ad¬
mirable fymphony or concert.
They therefore fuppofed, that the moon, as being
the loweft of the planets, correfponded to mi; Mer¬
cury, to fa; Venus to fl; the Sun, to/a ; Mars, to
f; Jupiter, to t/S; Saturn, to re; and the orb of the
fixed (tars, as being the Bigheft of all, to mi, or the
oftave.
HAROLD, the name of two Englifh kings. See
England, n° 76, 82.
HARP, a mnfical inftrument of the ftringed kind,
of a triangular figure, and held upright between the
legs of the performer.
There is fome diverfity in the ftru&ure of harps.
That called the triple harp has three row’s of firings or
chords, which in all make 78, or four odtaves ; the fe-
cond row/ makes the half turn, and the third is unifon
with the firft. There are two rows of pins on the
right fide, called buttons, that ferve to keep the firings
tight in their holes; which are fattened at the other end
to three rows of pins on the upper fide called the keys.
This inftrument is ftruck with the fingers and thumbs
of both hands: its mufic is like that of the fpinet,
whence fome have called it the inverted fpinet. There
are among us two forts of this inftrument, viz. the Irifti
harp, which is fining with wire ; and the Wellh harp,
ftrung W'ith gut.
As to ancient harps, two are reprefented on
Plate CL. Fig. 26. is a trigonum or triangular
harp. It is taken from an ancient painting in themu-
feum of the king of Naples, in which it is placed on
the (boulder of a little dancing cupid, who fupports
the inftrument with his left hand, and plays upon it
with his right. The trigonum is mentioned by Athe-
naeus, lib. iv. and by Julius Pollux, lib. iv. cap. 9.
According to Athenaeus, Sophocles calls it a Phry¬
gian inflrument; and one of his dipnofophifts tells us,
that a certain mufician, named Alexander dlexandrinus,
was fuch an admirable performer upon it, and had gi¬
ven fuch proofs of his abilities at Rome, that he made
the inhabitants yKno-o^avov, -mufically mad.
Fig. 25. is the Theban harp, according to a draw¬
ing made by J. Bruce, efq ; from an ancient painting
in one of the fepulchral grottos of the firft kings of
Thebes. “ The performer is clad in a habit made like
a fhirt, fuch as the women ft.il 1 wear in Abyffinia, and
the men in Nubia. This feems to be white linen or
muflin, with narrow ftripes of red. It reaches down
to his ancles; his feet are without fandals and bare ;
his neck and arms are alfo bare; his loofe wide
fleeves are gathered above his elbows; and his head
is clofe (haved. His left hand feems employed in the
upper part of the inftrument among the notes in alto,
as if in an arpeggio ; while, (looping forwards, he
feems with his right hand to be beginning with the
loweft firing, and promifing to afcend with the moft
rapid execution : this aflion, fo obvioufly rendered by
an indifferent artift, (hews that it was a common one
in his time ; or, in other words, that great hands were
then frequent, and confequently that mufic was well
underftood, and diligently followed. Harp.
“ If we allow the performer’s ftature to be about five ——~
feet ten inches, then we may compute the harp in its
extreme length to be fomething lefs than fix feet and a
half. It feems to fupport itfelf in equilibria on its foot
or bafe, and needs only the player’s guidance to keep
it fteady. It has 13 ftrings; the length of thefe, and
the force and liberty with which they are treated, (hew
that they are made in a very different manner from
thofe of the lyre. (See Lyre.)
“ This inftrument is of a much more elegant form
than the triangular Grecian harp. It wants the fore¬
piece of the frame, oppofite to the longed firing;
which certainly muft have improved its tone, but muft
likewife have rendered the inftrument itfelf weaker,
and more liable to accidents if carriage had not been
fo convenient in Egypt. The back part is the found¬
ing board, compofed of four thin pieces of wood,
joined together in form of a cone, that is, growing
wider towards the bottom; fo that, as the length of
the firing increafes, the fquare of the correfpondent
fpace, in the founding board, in which the tone is to
undulate, always increafes in proportion.
“ Befides that the whole principles upon which the
harp is conftrufted are rational and ingenious, the or¬
namental parts are likewife executed in the very bed
manner; the bottom and fides of the frame feem to
be fineered, or inlaid, probably with ivory, tortoife-
fhell, and mother-of-pearl, the ordinary produce of the
neighbouring feas and deferts. It would be even now
impoffible to finifh an inftrument with more tafte and
elegance.
“ Befides the elegance of its outward form, we muft
obferve, likewife, how near it approached to a perfect
inftrument; for it wanted only two ftrings of having
two complete odtaves in compafs. Whether thefe
were intentionally omitted or not, we cannot now de¬
termine, as we have no idea of the mufic or tafte of'
that time ; but if the harp be painted in the propor¬
tions in which it was made, it might be demonftrated
that it could fcarce bear more than the 13 ftrings with
which it was furnifhed. Indeed the crofs-bar would
break with the tenfion of the four longeft, if they were
made of the fize and confiftence and tuned to the pitch
that ours are at prefent.
“ I look upon this inftrument then,.as the Theban
harp, before and at the time of Sefoftris, who adorned
Thebes, and probably caufed it to be painted there, as
well as the other figures in the fepulchre of his father,
as a monument of the fuperiority which Egypt had in
mufic at that time over all the barbarous nations that
he had feen or conquered.
“ We know, about the time of Sefoftris, if, as Sir
Ifaac Newton fuppofes, this prince and Sefac were the
fame, that in Paleftine the harp had only ten ftrings ;
but as David, while he played upon it, both danced
and fung before the ark, it is plain, that the inftru¬
ment upon which he played could have been but of
fmall volume, we may fuppofe little exceeding in
weight our guitar; though the origin of this harp was
probably Egyptian, and from the days of Mofes it
had been degenerating in fize, that it might be more
portable in the many peregrinations of the Ifraelites.”
To the above account by Mr Bruce, Dr Burney
fubjoins the following obfervations, “ The number
of
H A R [ 3524 ] H A R
Harp. 0f ftnngs, the fize and form of this inftrument, and the
elegance of its ornaments, awaken refle&ions, which to
indulge would lead us too far from our purpofe, and
indeed out of our depth. The mind is wholly loft in
the immenfe antiquity of the painting in which it isre-
prefented. Indeed the time when it w^as executed is
fo remote, as to encourage a belief, that arts after ha¬
ving been brought to great perfeftion, were again loft,
and again invented long after this period.—
“ With refpeft to the number of firings upon this
harp, if conjeftures may be allowed concerning the
method of tuning them, two might be offered to the
reader’s choice. The firft idea that prefented itfelf at
the fight of 13 firings was, that they would furnifh all
the femitones to be found in modern inftruments with¬
in the compafs of an oftave, as from C to c, D to d,
or E to e. The fecond idea is more Grecian, and con¬
formable to antiquity; which is, that if the longefl
firing reprefented Projlanibanomenos, or D, the re¬
maining 12 firings would fupply all the tones, femi¬
tones, and quarter-tones, of the diatonic, chromatic,
and enharmonic genera of the ancients, within the
compafs of an oftave : but for my part I would rather
incline to the firfl arrangement, as it is more natural,
and more conformable to the ftrufture of our organs,
than the fecond. For with refpeft to the genera of the
Greeks, though no hiftoric teftimony can be produ¬
ced concerning the invention of the diatonic and chro¬
matic, yet ancient writers are unanimous in afcribing
to Olympus the Phrygian the firft ufe of the enhar¬
monic : and though in the beginning the melody of
this genus was fo fimple and natural as to referable the
wild notes and rude effays of a people not quite emer¬
ged from barbarifm ; yet in after-times it became over¬
charged with finical fopperies, and fanciful beauties,
arifing from fuch minute divifions of the fcale as had
no other merit than the great difficulty of forming
them.
“ It feems a matter of great wonder, with fuch a
model before their eyes as the Theban harp, that the
form and manner of ufing fuch an inrtrument fhould
not have been perpetuated by pofterity ; but that, many
ages after, another of an inferior kind, with fewer
firings, fhould take place of it. Yec if we confider how
little we are acquainted with the ufe and even conftruc-
tion of the inftruments which afforded the greateft de¬
light to the Greeks and Romans, or even with others
in common ufe in a neighbouring part of Europe only
a few centuries ago, our wonder will ceafe ; efpecially
if we refleft upon the ignorance and barbarifm into
which it is poffible for an ingenious people to be plun¬
ged by the tyranny and devaftation of a powerful and
cruel invader.”
Z?<r//-HARP, a mufical inflrument of the firing kind,
thus called from the common players on it fwinging it
about, as a bell on its bais.
It is about three feet long ; its firings, which are of
no determinate number, are of brafs or fleel wire, fixed
at one end, and ftretched acrofs the found-board by
fcrews fixed at the other. It takes in four o&aves,
according to the number of the firings, which are
flruck only with the thumbs, the right hand playing
the treble, and the left hand the bafe : and in order to
draw the found the clearer, the thumbs are armed
with a little wire pin. This may perhaps be the lyra,
or cythara of the ancients ; but we find no mention Harquebufs
made of it under the name it now bears, which mull !l
be allowed to be modern. Harpocra-
Harp of JEolus. See Acoustics, n° 10.  '
HARPAGIUS. See Arpagius.
HARPALUS, a Greek aftronomer, who flourifh-
ed about 480 B. C. correded the cycle of eight, years
invented by Cleoftratus ; and propofed a new one of
nine years, in which he imagined the fun and moon
returned to the fame point. But Harpalus’s cycle was
afterwards altered by Meton, who added ten full years
to it. See AsrapNOMY, n° 304.
HARPIES, among the ancient poets, fabulous im¬
pure monfters, faid to be the daughters of Neptune and
Terra. Virgil mentions three of them, Aello, Ocy-
pete, and Celceno ; they are defcribed to be fowls, with
the face of a virgin, bears ears, their bodies like vultures*
and. hands like their crooked talons.
HARPING iron. See Harpoon.
HARPINGS, the fore-parts of the wales which
encompafs the bow of a (hip, and are faftened to the
Hem, being thicker than the after part of the wales,
in order to reinforce the fhip in this place, where fhe
fuftains the greateft flicck of refiflance in plunging in¬
to the fea, or dividing it, under a great preffure of
fail. '*
HARPOCRATES, in Pagan theology, was the
fon of Ifis, and elleemed the god of lilence. He
was reprefented under the form of a young man half
naked, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, holding in
his left hand a cornucopia, and a finger of the other
placed on his lips as recommending filence.
HARPOCRATION, (Valerius), a celebrated an¬
cient rhetorician of Alexandria, who has left us an ex¬
cellent Lexicon upon the ten orators of Greece. Aldus
firft publifhed this lexicon in the Greek at Venice in
1603. Many learned men have laboured upon it; but
the bell edition was given by James Gronovius at Ley¬
den in 1696.
HARPSICHORD, the moft harmonious of all
the mufical inftruments of the ftring-kind. It is played
on after the manner of the organ, and he is furnifhed
with a fet, and fometimes with two fets of keys; the
touching or linking of thefe keys moves a kind of little
jacks, which alfo move a- double row of chords or
firings, of brafs or iron, ftretched over four bridges on
the table of the inftrument.
HARPOON, or Harping iron, a fpear or ja¬
velin ufed to ftrike the whales in the Greenland filhery.
The harpoon, which is fometimes called the harp~
ing-iron, is furniflied with a long ftaft", having at one
end a broad and flat triangular head fharpened at both
edges, fo as to penetrate the whale with facility: to
the head of this weapon is faftened a long cord, called
the •whale line, which lies carefully coiled in the boat, in
fuch a manner, as to run out without being interrupted
or entangled. See WHALE-Fj/fter^.
HARQUEBUSS, a piece of fire-arms, of the
length of a mnlket, ufually cocked with a wheel. It
carried a ball that weighed one ounce feven-eighths.
There was alfo a larger fort, called the great har¬
quebufs, ufed for the defence of ftrong places, which
carried a ball of about three ounces and a half: but
they ate now but little ufed, except in fome old caftles,
and by the French in fome of their garrifons.
3 HAR-
H A R [ 3525 ] H A R
Harrier HARRIER, a kind of hound, endowed with an Raleigh, as a pfoper perfon to inftruft him in that
I! admirable gift of fmelling, and very bold in the pur- fcience. He was accordingly received into the family —^  
Harriot. fuJx 0f his game. of that gentleman ; who, in 1585, fent him with the
HARRINGTON (Sir John), an ingenious Eng- colony, under Sir Richard Grenville, to Virginia; of
lifh poet, was the fon of John Harrington, efq; who which country, hiving remained there about a year,
was committed to the tower by queen Mary for hold- he afterwards publifhed a topographical defcription.
ing a correfpondence with her filler Elizabeth ; who. About the year 1588, Mr Hariot was introduced by
when fhe came to the crown, ftood godmother to this his patron Sir Walter Raleigh, to Henry Percy earl
fon. Before he was 30, he publifhed a tranflation of ' of Northumberland, who allowed him a penfion of
Ariofto’s Orlando Furiofo, a work by v/hich he was i2o\. per annum. He fpent many years of his life
principally known; for though he afterwards pub- in Sion college; where he died in July 1621, of a
lifhed fome epigrams, his talent did not feem to have cancer in his lip, and was buried in the church of St
. lain that way. He was created knight of the bath Chriftopher, where a handfome monument was ere&ed
by James I. ; and prefented a MS. to prince Henry, to his memory. Anthony Wood tells us he was a
levelled chiefly at the married bifliops. He is fup- dtift, and that the divines looked upon his death as a
pofed to have died about the latter end of James’s judgement. Be his religious opinions what they might,
yeign. he was doubtlefs one of the firft mathematicians of the
Harrington (James), a mod eminent Englifli age in which he lived, and will always be remembered
writer in the 17th century, bred at Oxford, travelled as the inventor of the prefent improved method of
into Holland, France, Denmark ftnd Germany, and algebraical calculation. His improvements in algebra
learned the languages of thofe countries. Upon his were adopted by Des Cartes, and for a confiderable
return to England, he was admitted one of the privy- time impofed upon the French nation as his own
chamber extraordinary to king Cha. I. He ferved the invention ; but the theft was at laft dete&ed, and ex-
king with great fidelity, and made ufe of his intereft pofed by Dr Wallis, in his Hiftory of Algebra, where
with his friends in parliament to procure matters to the reader will find our author’s invention accurately
be accommodated with all parties. The king loved fpecified. His works are, 1. A brief and true re-
his company except when the converfation happened port of the new-found land of Virginia ; of the com-
to turn upon commonwealths. He found means to modfities there found, and to be raifed, &c. 2. jfrtis
fee the king at St James’s ; and attended him on the analytic# praxis ad tequationcs algebraicas nova ex-
fcaffold, where, or a little before, he received a token pedita, et general's methodo refolvendas, e pojibumis
of his majefty’s affection. After the death of king Thom# Harrioti, &c. 3. EphemCris chyrometrica.
Charles, he wrote his Oceana ; a kind of political ro- Manufcript, in the library of Sion college. He is
mance, in imitation of Plato’s Commonwealth, which faid to have left feveral other manufcripts which are
he dedicated to Oliver Cromwell. It is faid, that probably loft.
when Oliver perufed it, he declared, that “ the gentle- HARRISON (John), a moft accurate mechanic,
man had wrote very well, but muft not think to cheat the celebrated inventor of the famous time-keeper for
him out of his power and authority ; for that what afcertaining the longitude at fea, and alfo of the com¬
be had won by the fword, he would not fuffer himfelf pound, or, as it is commonly called, the gridiron pen-
to be fcribbled out of.” This work was attacked by dulum ; was born at Foulby, in the pariih of Wrag-
feveral writers, againft whom he defended it. Befide by, near Pontefraft in Yorkftiire, in 1693. The vi-
his writings to promote republican principles, he in- gour of his natural abilities, if not even ftrengthened
ftituted likewife a nightly meeting of feveral ingenious by the want of education, which confined his atten-
men in the New Palace-Yard, Weftminfter; which tion to few objefts, at lead amply compenfated the
club was called the Rota, and continued till the fe- deficiencies of it; as fully appeared from the aftonilh-
cluded members of parliament being reftored by ge- ing progrefs he made in that branch of mechanics to
neral Monk, all their models vaniihed. In 1661, he which he devoted himfelf. His father was a carpen-
was committed to the tower for treafonable defigns ter, in which profeffion the fon aflifted; occafionally
and practices; and chancellor Hyde, at a conference alfo, according to the mifcellaneons pra&ice of coun-
with the lords and commons, charged him with being try artifts, furveying land, and repairing clocks and
concerned in a plot. But a committee of lords and watches. He was, from his early childhood, attached to
commons could make nothing of that plot. He was any machinery moving by wheels, as appeared while
conveyed to St Nicolas’ illand, and from thence to he lay fick of the fmall-pox about the 6th year of his
Plymouth, where he fell into an uncommon drforder age, when he had a watch placed open upon his pil-
of the imagination- Having obtained his liberty by low to amufe himfelf by contemplating on the move-
means of the earl of Bath, he was carried to London, ment. In ryoo, he removed with his father to Bar-
and died in 1677. He publiflied, befidcs the above row in Lincolnftiire; where, though his opportunities
works, feveral others, which were firft colle&ed by of acquiring knowledge were very few, he eagerly
Toland, in one volume folio, in 1700; but a more improved every incident from which he might colledt
complete edition was publifhed, in 1737, by the reve- information ; frequently employing all, or great part
rend Dr Birch. of his nights, in writing, or drawing : and he always
HARRIOT (Thomas), a celebrated algebraift, acknowledged his obligations to a clergyman who
was born at Oxford in 1560, where he was alfo edu- came every funday to officiate in the neighbourhood,
cated. In 1579, he completed his bachelor’s degree ; who lent him a MS. copy of profeflbr Saunderfon’s
and, being already diftinguiflied for his mathematical Leftures ; which he carefully and neatly tranfcribed,
learning, was fbon after recommended to Sir Walter with all the diagrams. His native genious exerted
Vou V, 20 E itfelf
Harrifon.
H A R [ 3526 ] H A R
itfelf Tupenor to thefe folitary difadvantages; for in
the year 1726, he had conftru&ed two clocks, moftly
of wood, in which he applied the efcapement and
compound pendulum of his own'invention : thefe fur-
paifed every thing then made, fcarceiy erring a fecond
ilia month. In 1728, became up to London with
the drawings of a machine for determining the longi¬
tude at fea. in expe&ation of being enabled to exe¬
cute one by the the board of longitude. Upon ap¬
plication to Dr Halley, he referred him to Mr
George Graham; who, difcbvering he had uncommon
merit, adviftd him to make his machine before he ap¬
plied to the board of longitude. He returned home
to perform this talk ; and 1735, came to London again
with his firft machine ; with which he was fent to
Lilbon the next year for a trial of its properties. In
this Ihort voyage, he correfted the dead reckoning
about a degree and a half; a fuccefs that proved the
means of his receiving both public and private encou¬
ragement. About the year 1739, he completed his
fecond machine, of a conftrudtion much more Ample
than the former, and which anfwered much better:
this, though not fent to fea, recommended Mr Har¬
rifon yet Rronger to the patronage of his private
friends and of the public. His third machine, which
he produced in 1749, was ftill lefs complicated than the
fecond, and fuperior in accuracy, as erring only thrjie or
four Ceconds in a week. This he conceived to be the ne
plus ultra of his attempts ; but in an endeavour to im¬
prove pocket - watches, h e found th e principles he applied,
to furpafs his expedlations fo much, as toencourage him
to make his fourth time-keeper, which is in the form
of a pocket watch, about fix inches diameter. With
this time-keeper his fon made two voyages, the one
to Jamaica, and the other to Barbadoes; in both
which experiments it corrected the longitude within
the neareft limits required by the aft of the t2th of
queen Anne ; and the inventor therefore, at different
times, though not without infinite trouble, received
the propofed reward of 20,0001. Thefe four ma¬
chines were given up to the board of longitude. The
three former were not of any ufe, as all the advanta¬
ges gained by making them were comprehended in
thelaft: they were worthy, however, of being carefully
preferved as mechanical curiofities, in which might be
traced the gradations of ingenuity execOted with the
mod delicate workmanfhip ; whereas they now lie
totally neglefted, in the royal obfervatory at Green¬
wich. The fourth machine, emphatically diftinguilhed
by the name of The time-keeper, has been copied by
the ingenious Mr Kendal; and that duplicate, during
a three years circumnavigation of the globe in the
fouthern hemifphere by captain Cook, anfwered as
well as the original. The latter part of Mr Harri-
fon’s life was employed in making a fifth improved
time-keeper on the fame principles with the prece¬
ding one ; which, at the end of a ten weeks trial, in
1772, at the king’s private obfervatory at Richmond,
erred only 4J- feconds. Within a few years of his
death,, his confiitution vifibly declined ; and he had
frequent fits of the gout, a diforder that never attacked
him before his 77th year: he died at his houfe in
Red-Lion Square, in 1776, aged 83. The reelufe
manner of his life in the unremitted purfuit of his fa¬
vourite objeft, was by no means calculated to qualify
him as a man of the world ; and the many difcourage- Harrow
ments he encountered in foliciting the legal reward II
of his labours, ftill lefs difpofed him to accommodate
himfelf to the humours of mankind. In converfing L__
on his profeffion, he was clear, diftinft, and modeft ;
yet, like many other mere mechanics, found a diffi¬
culty in delivering his meaning by writing; in which
he adhered to a peculiar and uncouth phrafeology.
This was but too evident in his Defcription concerning
fuch mechanifm as will afford a nice or true menfura-
tion of time, he. 8vo. 1775; which his well-known
mechanical talents will induce the public to account
for from his unacquaintance with letters, from his
advanced age, and attendant mental infirmities; a-
mong which may be reckoned his obftinate refufal to
accept of any affiftance whatever in this publication.
This fmall work includes alfo an account of his new
mufical fcale; or mechanical divition of the oftave,
according to the proportion which the radius and dia¬
meter of a circle have repeftively to the circumference.
He had in his youth been the leader of a diftinguiffied
band of church-fingers; had a very delicate ear for
mufic ; and his experiments on found, with a moft cu¬
rious monochord of his own improvement, are reported
to have been not lefs accurate thaii thofe he was en¬
gaged in for the menfuration of time.
HARROW, in agriculture. See there, n° 89.
HART, a flag, or male deer, in the fixth year.
See Cervus.
Hart’s Horns, in pharmacy, the whole horns of
the common male deer, as feparated from the head,
without farther preparation.
The chemical analyfis of hart’s-horn is fufficiently
known : it yields a water highly impregnated with
a volatile fait, which is called fpirit of bart/horn, with
a fetid oil, and a volatile fait, by the common diftilla-
tion in a retort.—The fait of hartlhorn, when pure, dif¬
fers in nothing from other purified volatile alkalies.
See Chemistry, n° 329—336 ; Volatile Alkali;
and Alkaline Spirits.
HARTFORDSHIRE, a county of England,
deriving its name from Hartford, the capital; and that
from the harts with which it anciently abounded, be¬
ing then over-run with woods. It is bounded on the
eaft by Effex, on the weft by Bedfordffiire and Buc-
kinghamfhire, on the fouth by Middlefex, and on the
north by Cambridgefhire. This county is much in¬
dented by thofe that furround it: the longeft part is
about 30 miles, the broadeft about 24, and 130 in
compafs; in which are contained about 451,000 acres,,
18 market-towns, i2opariffies, and above 95,000 in¬
habitants, who fend fix members to parliament, viz.
two for the (hire, two for Hartford, and two for St
Alban’s. Before the reign of queen Elizabeth, one
ftieriff ferved both for this {hire and Effex ; but in the
ninth year of her reign, it had one allotted for itfelf..
With regard to ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion, it belongs
partly to the diocefe of Lincoln, and partly to that
of London.
Though the foil in general, efpecially in the Chil-
tern and fonthero parts, is but very indifferent, and
much inferior to that of the neighbouring counties ;
yet the air is fo much fuperior, that lands in this {hire
generally fell at three or four years purchafe more than
in many others, on that account. But it muft be
owned.
H A R [ 3527 ] H A R
Hartford owned, that the foil of Hartfordlhire has been much
II improved of late, by draining, fowinggrafs-feeds, and
Hartlepool, methods. There are few or no manufactures in
the county ; but its markets are much frequented, in
confequence of its being near London, for malt and
all forts of grain, which, with the many thorough¬
fares through it, make ample amends.
HARTFORD, the capital of the county of the
fame name, fignifying, as is commonly thought, the
“ ford of harts,” ftands on the river Lea, in W. Long.
7'. N. Lat. 51. 45. In William the Conqueror’s
time, as we find in doomfday-book, there were 26
burgefles in it. It has a callle upon the Lea, fup-
pofed to have been built by Edward the Elder, which
Edward III. granted to his fon John duke of Lan-
cafter, together with the town and honour of Hart¬
ford, that (as it is expreffed in the grant) he might
keep a houfe fuitable to his quality and have a decent
habitation. Here the Eaft-Saxon kings often kept their
court; and here, in 673, was held a fynod. King
Edward the Elder built a village for his tenants, and
fortified it with a wall of turf for their defence, which
is what was originally meant by a burgh, whence the
houfes were called burgages^ and the inhabitants
burgher or burgejfes. The manor of this town was an
honour and a royal manor, and even the town and
cattle were held of the king in capite ; of the latter of
which the ttteriffs of Hartfordlhire and Effex were
ufually governors. The manor was granted by queen
Elizabeth to lord Burleigh, whofe defeendants ftill
pofiefs it. The town fent members to parliament in
Edward I.’s time, but after the feventh of Hen¬
ry the bailiff and burgeffes petitioned the parlia¬
ment to be excufed on account of their poverty. It
has had feveral charters and grants of privileges from
different kings, particularly feveral fairs and markets.
In Henry VII.’s reign, the ftandards of weights and
meafures were ordered to be kept here. Here was
anciently a monaftery; founded by a nephew of Wil¬
liam the Conqueror’s, and five churches, which are
now reduced to two. As the town is remarkable for
its pleafant dry fituation and wholefome air, the go¬
vernors of Chrift’s-hofpital have fitted up a large build¬
ing for the reception of their fickly or fupernumerary
children. It is governed at prefent by a mayor, high-
fteward, recorder, nine aldermen, a town-clerk, cham¬
berlain, 10 capital burgeffes, and 16 afliftants; and
it has'two fergeants at mace. Its markets are very
confiderable for wool, wheat, and malt ; of which,
efpecially the laft, great quantities are conveyed to
London by the river Lea. The town has had a great
many benefa&ors ; but to particularize them and their
benefa&ions, would require more room than we can
allow. It gives the title of earl to the noble family
of Seymour-Conway.
HARTLAND, a town in Devonfhire, near the
Briftol channel, with a market on Saturdays, njuch
frequented by the people of Cornwall, who come hi¬
ther in boats. It gives its name to a point, called
Hartland Painty at the entrance of Briftol channel.
W. Lon. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51. 9.
HARTLEPOOL, a fea-port town in the county
of Durham. It is commodioufly feated on a promon¬
tory, and is almoft encompaffed by the fea. It is an
ancient corporation, governed by a mayor and aider-
men, with other fubordinate officers. It is at prefent Hartley
a pretty large, but poor place. It-depends chiefly on II
the fifhing trade ; and its harbour is much frequented Haillll"c"-
by colliers palling to and from Newcaftle. W. Lon.
o. 55. N. 54. 40.
HARTLEY (David), M. A. born at Uingworth,
where his father was curate, received his academi¬
cal education at Jefus college, Cambridge, of which
he was a fellow. He firft began to pradtife phyfic at
Newark, in Nottinghamfhire ; from whence he remo¬
ved to St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk. After this,
he fettled for fome time in London ; and laftly went
to live at Bath, where he died in 1757, aged 53,
leaving two fons and a daughter. He publilhed “ A
view of the prefent evidence for and againft Mrs Ste¬
phens’s * medicines as a folvent for the (lone, contain- * See Stc
ing 155 cafes,, with fome experiments and obferva- ^-'"’1
tions London, 1739. dicincs.
He is faid to have alfo written againft Dr Warren,
of St Edmund’s Bury, in defence of inoculation ; and
fome letters of his are to be met with in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaftions.—The do&er was certainly a man
of learning, and reputed a good phyfician ; but too
fond of noftrums.
But his moft confiderable literary produftion is a
work entitled, “ Obfervations on man, bis frame, his
duty, and his expeftations, in two partsLondon,
1749, 2 vols, 8vo. The firft part contains obferva¬
tions on the frame of the human body and mind, and
on their mutual connexions and influences. The fe-
cond part contains obfervations on the duty and ex-
pe&ations of mankind.
HARTMAN (John Adolphus), a learned divine
and hiftorian, was born at Munfter in 1680. After
being a Jefuit for feveral years, he became a Calvinift,
at Caffel, in 1715, and foon after was made profeffor
of philofophy and poetry, and in 1722 profeffor ! of
hiftory and eloquence at Marpurg, where he died in
1744. The moft efteemed of his works are, t. The
ftate of the fciences at Hcffe, in German. 2. Hijlo-
ria HaJJiaca, 3 vols. 3. Precept a elocpientije rationa-
Usy &c.
He ought not to be confounded with George Hart-
many a German mathematician, who, in 1540, wrote
a book on perfpedtive; nor with Wolfgang Hartmany
who, in 1596, compofed the Annals of Auglburg.
HARUSPICES, pretenders to divination by cer¬
tain figns, or omens, among the Romans.—The Ro¬
man harufpices were at firft all taken from Hetruria,
where their art had moft credit. Afterwards young
Romans were fent into Hetruria, in order to be brought
up in the fcience. It contifted in fortelling future e-
vents by attending to various circumftances of the vic¬
tims. Firft, It was an ill omen when the viftim would
not come to the altar without dragging, when it broke
its rope, fled away, avoided the ftroke, ftruggled
much after it, made a great bellowing, was long a-
dying, or bled but little. Secondly, Prefages were
drawn from infpe&ing the noble parts of the viftitn
when opened ; as the heart, lungs, fpleen, and efpe¬
cially the liver. If all thefe were found, if the top
of the liver was large and well-made, and if its fibres
were ftrong, it prefaged well for the affair in quettion.
Thirdly, Knowledge was alfo drawn by the harufpi¬
ces from the manner in which the fire confumed the
20 E 2 viftitn.
H A R [ 3528 ] HAS
Harufpicy vl&im. If the flame brightened immediately, was pure
il and clear, rofe up in a pyramid without noife, and did
arwK ’ not go out till the vi&im was confumed, thefe were
happy flgns. Fourthly, The fmoke alfo was confider-
ed, whether it whirled about in curls, or fpread itfelf
to the right or the left, or gave a fmell different from
the common one of broiled meat. Fifthly, it was a
lucky omen if the incenfe they burned melted all at
once, and gave a moft agreeable fmell.
HARUSPICY. SeeHARusprcEs andDiviNATion.
HARVEY (Dr William), an eminent Englifliphy-
fician in the 17th century, was incorporated Doftor
of phyfic in Cambridge, afterwards admitted into the
college of phyficians in London, and was appointed
lecturer of anatomy and chirurgery in that college.
In thefe ledturcs he opened his difcovery relating to
the circulation of the blood ; which, after a variety of
experiments, he communicated to the world in his Ex-
ercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et fanguinis. He
was phyfician to king James I. and to king Charles I.
and adhered ta the royal caufe. His works have e-
ternized his memory. In 1651, he publiflied his .Exer-
citationes de generatione animaliurn, a very curious
work; but it would have been more fo, had not his
papers been deftroyed during the civil wars. In 1654,
he was chofen prefident of the college of phyficians
in his abfence : but his age and weaknefs were fo great,
that he could not difcharge the duty of that office ;
and, therefore, defired them to choofe Dr Pringle.
As he had no children, he fettled his paternal eftate
upon the college. He had three years before built a
combination-room, a library, and a mufeum ; and in
1656 he brought the deeds of his eftate, and prefent-
ed them to the college. He was then prefent at the
firft feaft, inftituted by himfelf, to be continued an¬
nually, together with a commemoration fpeech in La¬
tin, to be fpoken on the j 8th of Odtober, in honour
of the benefactors to the college ; he having appoint¬
ed a handfome ftipend for the orator, and alfo for
the keeper of the library and mufenm, which are ftill
called by his name. He died in 1657.
This great phyfician had the happinefs, in his life¬
time, to find the clamours of ignorance, envy, and
prejudice, againft his do£lrine, totally filenced, and to
fee it univerfally eftablilhed. It has, by length of
time, been more and more confirmed, and every man
now fees and knows it from his own experience. It
appears to be of the utmoft importance in medicine ;
as it is perhaps impoffible to define health and ficknefs
in fewer words, than that the one is a free, and the o-
ther an obftrufted, circulation.—Dr Harvey was not
only an excellent phyfician, but an excellent man ; his
modefty, candour, and piety, were equal to his know¬
ledge ; the farther he penetrated into the wonders of
nature, the more he was inclined to venerate the Author
of it.
HARVEST, the time or feafon of the year in
which the corn is ripe, and fit to be taken into barns.
Harvesx-ETy,, in zoology, a large four-winged fly
of the cicada kind, very common in Italy, and erro-
neoufly fuppofed to be a grafshopper. See Cicada.
HARWICH, a town of Effex, in England, fitu-
ated in E. Lon, 1. 25. N. Lat. 52. 3. It is not large,
but is neat and well-built, and is walled and paved
with a fort of petrified clay that falls from the cliffs
in the neighbourhood. The harbour or bay is very Haflewere
large, fafe, and deep ; and is commanded by a ftrong [I
fort on the Suffolk fide, though not in that county. a in^*‘
Here is a dock belonging to the government, with all
conveniencies for building, cleaning, and refitting men
of war. A little way from the town, on a high hill
called Beacon-bill^ is a very fine light-houfe, which is
feen at a very great diftance, and is very ufeful on this
dangerous coaft. At this place the packet-boats that
pafs between England, Holland, and Germany, are
ftationed, and the town is much benefited by the paf-
fengers. The government, by a charter from king
James I. is veiled in a mayor, eight aldermen, 24 ca¬
pital burgeffes, the eledtors, and recorder. The town
has alfo an admiralty jurifdidlion within its liberties,
and the return of all writs, fines, &c.
HASLEMERE, a town of Surry, in England,
feated on the edge of the county next Hampfliire, and
fends two members to parliament. This borough is
governed by a conftable ; has one church, and about
100 low brick houfes in two paved ftreets. The num¬
ber of inhabitants is computed at about 4000. W.
Lon. o. 30. N. Lat. 51.4.
HASSELT, a handfome town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in Overyffel, feated on the river Wecht, in E.
Lon. 6. 5. N. Lat. 23. 46.
Hasselt, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weitphalia, and in the territory of Liege, fituated on
the river Demer, in E. Lon. 4. 49. N. Lat. 50. 55.
HASSIDEANS, or Assideans. See Assideans.
HASSOCK, a bafs made of ruffies, to kneel or
reft the feet upon in churches.
HASP and Staple, in Scots law, the fymbol com¬
monly ufed in burgage tenements for entering and in-
fefting an heir, by delivering into his hands the hafp
and ftaple of the door.
HASTATED leaf. See Botany, p. 2196.
HASTINGS, a town of Suffex, in England, fitu¬
ated in E. Lon. o. 36. N. Lat. 50. 50.—This town
is remarkable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood,
between Harold king of England, and William duke
of Normandy, on the 15th of Oclober 1066, in which
the former was defeated and killed, and by his death,.
William, furnamed the Conqueror, became king of
England. See England, n° 85.—The night be¬
fore the battle, the afpeA of things was very different
in the two camps. The Englifli fpentthe time in riot,
jollity, and diiorder; the Normans in filence and
prayer, and in the other duties of religion. The next
day both armies prepared for battle. The duke divi¬
ded his army into three lines : the firft, headed by Mont¬
gomery, confifted of archers and light-armed infan¬
try : the fecond, commanded by Martel, was compo-
fed of his braveft battalions, heavy-armed, and ranged
in clofc order: his cavalry, at whofe head he placed
himfelf, formed the third line ; and were fo difpofed,
that they ftretched beyond the infantry ; and flanked
each wing of the army. He ordered the fignal of
battle to found ; and the whole army, moving at once,,
and finging the hymn or fong of Roland the famous
peer of* Charlemagne, advanced, in order and with
alacrity, towards the enemy.
Harold had feizedthe advantage of a rifing ground,
and having befides drawn fame trenches to fecure his
flanks, he refolved.to ftand upon the defenfive, and ta
avoid.
HAS [ 3529 ] HAT
Haftings. avoid all aftion with the cavalry, in which he was
- inferior. The Kentifh men were placed in the van,
a poll which they had always claimed as their due;
the Londoners guarded the ftandard ; and the king
himfelf, accompanied by his two valiant brothers,
Gurth and Leofwin, difmountifig from horfeback,
placed himfelf at the head of his infantry, and expref-
fed his refolution to conquer or to perifli in the aftien.
The firft attack of the Normans was defperate, but
was received with equal valour by the Englifli : and
after a furious combat, which remained long undeci¬
ded, the former, overcome by the difficulty of the
ground, and hard preffed by the enemy, began firil
to relax their vigour ; then to give ground; and con-
fufion was fpreading among the ranks, when William,
who found himfelf on the brink of deftrudtion, haften-
ed, with a feled band, to the relief of his difmayed
forces. His prefence rellored the a&ion ; the Eng¬
lifli were obliged to retreat with lofs ; and the duke,
ordering his fecond line to advance, renewed the at¬
tack with frelh forces and with redoubled courage.
Finding that the enemy, aided by the advantage of
ground, and animated by the example of their prince,
1U11 made a vigorous relitlance, he tried a ftratagem,
which was very delicate in its management, but which
feemed advifeable in his defperate fituation, when, if
he gained not a decifive vittery, he was totally un¬
done : he commanded his troops to make a hafty re¬
treat, and to allure the enemy from their ground by
the appearance of flight. The artifice fucceeded a-
gainft thefe unexperienced troops, who, heated by
the aftion, and fanguine in their hopes, precipitantly
followed the Normans into the plain. William gave
orders, that at once the infantry fliould face about
upon their purfuers, and the cavalry make an afiault
upon their wings, and both of them purfue the ad¬
vantage which the furprize and terror of the enemy
mult give them in that critical and decifive moment.
The Englilh were repulfed with great llaughter, and
drove back to the hill ; where being rallied again by
the bravery of Harold, they were able, notwithftand-
ing their lofs, to maintain the poll and continue the
combat. The duke tried the fame ftratagem a fecond
time with the fame fuccefs ; but even after this double
advantage, he ftill found a great body of the Englilh,
who, maintaining themfelves in firm array, feemed de¬
termined to difpute the vi&ory to the laft extremity.
He ordered his heavy-armed infantry to make the af-
fault upon them ; while his archers, placed behind,
fliould gall the enemy, who were expofed by the fitu¬
ation of the ground, and who were intent in defend¬
ing themfelvts againft: the fwords and fpears of the af-
failants. By this difpofition he at laft prevailed ; Ha¬
rold was flain by an arrow, while he was combating
with great bravery at the head of his men. His two
brothers lhared the fame fate: and the Englifli, dif-
couraged by the fall of thefe princes, gave ground on.
all fidts, and were purfued with great flaughter by the
vi&orious Normans. A few troops, however, of the
vanquilhed dared ftill to turn upon their purfuers ; and
taking them in deep and miry ground, obtained fome
revenge for the flaughter and diftionour of the day.
But the appearance of the duke obliged them to feek
their fafety by flight, and darknefs faved them from
any farther purfuit by the enemy..
Thus was gained by William, duke of Normandy, Hat*
the great and decifive vi&ory of Haftings, after a bat-
tie which was fought from morning till funfet, and
which feemed worthy, by the heroic feats of valour
difplayed by both armies, and by both commanders,
to decide the fate of a mighty kingdom. William
bad three horfes killed under him ; and there fell near
fiftteen thoufand men on the fide of the Nomians. The
lofs was ftill more confiderable on that of the vanquifti-
ed ; befides the death of the king and his two bro¬
thers. The dead body of Harold was brought to Wil¬
liam, and was generoufly reftored without ranfom to
his mother. 
The town of Haftings is the chief of the cinque-
ports ; and was formerly obliged to find 21 (hips, with¬
in 40 days after the king’s fummons, well furniffied
and armed for fervice, and to maintain the crews a
fortnight at its own charge. It fends two members to
parliament, and fupplies London with abundance of
fi(h. It lies between a high cliff towards the fea,
and a high hill on the land-fide, having two ftreets,
and two parifti-churches. About the year 1377 this
town was burnt by the French; and, when it was re¬
built, it was divided into two parilhes. There was a
caftle on the bill which overlooked the town, but if is-
now in ruins.
HAT, a covering for the head, worn by the men
in moft parts of Europe. Thofe moll in efteem are
made of the pure hair of thecaftoror beaver; for they
are alfo made of the hair or wool of divers other ani¬
mals, and that by much the fame procefs.
Hats are faid to have been firft feen about the year
1400 ; at which time they became of ufe for country
wear, riding, &c.—Father Daniel relates, that when
Charles II. made his public entry into llouen in 1449^
he had on a hat lined with red-velvet, and furmounted
with a plume or tuft of feathers.—He adds, that it
is from this entry, at lead under this reign, that the
ufe of hats and caps is to be dated, which hencefor¬
ward began to take place of the chaperoons and hoods
that had been wore before.
In progrefs of time, from the laity, the clergy like-
wife took the habit; but it was looked on as a crying,
abufe, and feveral regulations were publiftied, forbid¬
ding any pried, or religious perfon, to appear in a hat
without cornets ; and enjoining them to keep to th&
ufe of chaperoons, made of black cloth, with decent
cornets: if they were poor, they were at lead to have
cornets faftened to their hats, and this upon pain of
fufpenfion and excommunication.—Indeed the ufe of
hats is faid to have been of'a longer (landing among the
ecclefiaftics of Brittany by 200 years, and efpecially
among the canons: but thefe were no other than a
kind of caps; and it was from hence arofe the fquare
caps worn in colleges, &c- Lobineau * obferves, that * Tom. T.
a bilhopof Dol, in the 12th century, zealous for good 84S*
order, allowed the canons alone to wear fuch hats;;
enjoining, that if any other perfon fhould come with
them to church, divine fervice (hould immediately
Hand ftill..
Method of Making Hats. To make the beaver-hats,
they tear off the long and (hort hair from the (kin,
with knives foitable to the occafion: after which they
proportion the quantity of the feveral forts of beaver-
hair, by mixing one third of the dry caftor to two.
thirds-.
hat [ 3530 ] HAT
Hat. , thirds of old-coat, which is a term for a /kin that has
— been worn fome time by the Indians of America, who
catch and fell them to the Europeans. The hair, fo
mixed, is carded and weighed out into parcels, ac¬
cording to the fize and thicknefs of the hat intended.
The fluff is now laid on the hurdle, with an inrtru-
ment called a bow, refembling that of a violin, but
larger ; whofe ft ring being worked with a fmall bow-
flick, and made to play on the furs, they fly, and mix
themfelves together, the duft and filth at the fame time
paffing through the chinks. Inftead of a bow, fome
hat-makers ufe a fearce of hair, through which they
pafs the fluff. Thus hats are formed of an oval figure,
ending with an acute angle at the top: with what fluff
remains, they ftrengthen them where flendereft, yet
defignedly make them thicker in the brim near the
crown, than towards the circumference, or in the crown
itfelf. They next harden the fluff, fo managed, into
more compadl flakes, by prefling down a hardened
leather upon it. This done, they are carried to the
bafon; tipon which laying one of the hardened hats,
they fprinkle it over with water, and mould it; and
the heat of the fire, with the water and prefling, em¬
body the fluff into a flight hairy fort of felt: after
which, turning up the edges all round over the mould,
they lay it by, and proceed with another; which be¬
ing in like manner reduced to the fame confiftence and
form, they are both joined together, fo as to make
them meet in an angle at top, making only one conical
cap. The next procefs is to remove the hat to a
trough, refembling a mill-hopper, which is a copper
kettle filled with water and grounds, kept hot for the
purpofe ; and, after being dipped in the kettle, the
hat is laid on the doping fide, called the plank. Here
they proceed to work it, by rolling and unrolling it
again and again, one part after another, firft with the
hand, and afterwards with a fmall wooden roller, ta¬
king care to dip it from time to time; till at length,
by thus fulling and thickening it four or five hours, it
is brought to the dimenfions intended. In this violent
labour, the workmen ufually guard their hands with
thick leather, which they call gloves. The hat thus
wrought into the form of a conical cap, is reduced in¬
to proper fhape on a block of the fize of the intended
crown, by tying it round with a firing, called a com¬
mander; after which, with a bent iron called a Jlam-
per, they gradually beat down the commander all
round, till it has reached the bottom of the block,
and what remains at the bottom below the firing forms
the brim. In this ftation it is fet to dry ; and is after¬
wards finged, by holding it over the blaze of a fire
made of ffraw or (havings : it is then rubbed with
pumice-ftone, to take off the coarfer nap ; then rubbed
over with feal-fkin, to lay the nap ftill finer; and,
laftly, carded with a fine card, to raife the fine cotton
with which the hat is to appear when finiihed : then
fitting it to the block, they tie it, cut round the edges,
and deliver it to the dyers. The dye being com¬
pleted, the hat is dyed by being hung in the roof of a
ftove heated with a charcoal-fire : and, when dry, it is
ftiffened with melted glue, or rather gum fenega, which
is fmeared over the hat with a brulh, and rubbed in
with the hand. Then, having fpread a cloth over the
fteaming bafon, which is a little fire-place raifed about
three feet high, with an iron plate laid over it, exa&ly
covering the fire, the hat is laid upon the cloth, with Hat.
the brim downwards, the cloth being firft fprinkled “
with water, to raife a ftrong fleam, to force in the ftif-
fening. When it is moderately hot, the workman
ftrikes gently orr the brim, with the flat of his hand,
to make the joinings incorporate and bind fo^s not to
appear, turning it from time to time, and at laft fetting
it on the crown. And when it has been fufficiently
fteamed and dried, it is put again on the block, bruflr-
ed, ironed, well fmoothed, and fitted for lining.
Hats make a confiderable article in commerce : Eng¬
land fupplies Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany,
with extraordinary quantities of them; and as our ma-
nufa&urers have the reputation of making the bell hats
in Europe, their importation is prohibited.
Hats are alfo made for womens wear, of chips,
ftraw, or cane, by platting, and ftwing the plats toge¬
ther ; beginning with the centre of the crown, and
working round till the whole is finiffied. Hats for
the fame purpofe are alfo wove and made of horfe-hair,
filk, &c.
Hat is alfo figuratively ufed for the dignity of car¬
dinal, or a promotion to that dignity. In this fenfe
they fay, “ to expedt the hat; to claim, or have pre-
tenfions to, the hat,” &c.
Pope Innocent IV. firft. made the hat the fymbol or
cognizance of the cardinals, enjoining them to wear a
red hat at the ceremonies and proceflions, in token of
their being ready to fpill their blood for Jefus Chrift.
Dyeing c/'Hats. The inftrudtions of Mr Colbert
diredt hats to be firft ftrongly galled, by boiling them
a long time in a decodtion of galls with a little log¬
wood, that the dye may penetrate the better into their
fubftance ; after which a proper quantity of vitriol,
and decodtion of logwood, with a little verdigreafe, are
added, afid the hats continued in this mixture alfo for
a confiderable time. They are afterwards to be put
in a frelh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and ver¬
digreafe ; and where ■the hats are of great price, or of
a hair which difficultly takes the dye, the fame pro¬
cefs is to be repeated a third time. For obtaining the
moft perfedt colour, the hair or wool is to be dyed
blue, previoufly to its being formed into hats.—The
prefent pradtice is more compendious, and affords, as
we may daily fee, a very good black. According to
Dr Lewis, it does not materially differ from that of the
Encyclopedic, which is as follows.
An hundred pounds of logwood, 12 pounds of gum,
and fix pounds of galls, are boiled in a proper quan¬
tity of water for fome hours; after which, about fix
pounds of verdigreafe, and ten of green vitriol, are
added, and the liquor kept juft fimmering, or of a heat
a little below boiling. Ten or twelve dozen of hats
are immediately put in, each on its block, and kept
down by crofs bars for about an hour and an half:
they are then taken out and aired, and the fame num¬
ber of others put in their room. The two fets of hats
are thus dipped and aired alternately, eight times each ;
the liquor being refreflied each time with more of the
ingredients, but in lefs quantity than at-firft.
This proeefs (fays Dr Lewis) affords a very good
black on woollen and (ilk (luffs as well as on hats, as
we may fee in the fmall pieces of both kinds which are
fometimes dyed by the hatters. The workmen lay
great ftrefs upon the verdigreafe, and affirm that they
can-
Hitch
Hatching.
HAT [ 3531 ] HAT
cannot dye a black hat without it: it were to be wiflied
that the yfe of this ingredient were more common in the
other branches of the black dye; for the hatters dye,
both on filk and woollen, is reckoned a finer black than
what is commonly produced by the woollen and filk
dyer.
HATCH, or Hatchway, a fquare or oblong open¬
ing in the Deck of a (hip, of which there are feveral,
forming the paflages from one deck to another, and into
the hold, or lower apartments. See Plate LXXXVIII.
where A reprefents the main hatchway of the lower
deck; NN the fore-hatchway; and OO the after¬
hatchway.—There are likewife hatches of a fmaller
kind, called fcuitles. See UU in the fame figure ; as
alfo the article Scuttle.—Hatches is alfo, though
improperly, a name applied byTailors to the covers or
Jids of the hatchway.
HATCHES, in mining, a term ufed in Cornwal,
to exprefs any of the openings of the earth either into
mines or in fearch of them. The fruitlcfs openings
are called ejfay-hatches; the real mouths of the veins,
tin hatches; and the places where they wind up the
buckets of ore, •wind hatches.
Hatches alfo denote flood-gates fet in a river, &e.
to flop the current of the water, particularly certain
dams or mounds made of rubbifh, clay, or earth, to
prevent the water that iffues from the ftream-works
and tin-walhes in Cornwal from running into thefrefti
rivers.
HATCHET, a fmall light fort of an axe, with a
bafil-edge on its left fide, and a (hort handle, as being
to be ufed with one hand.—Hatchets are ufed by va¬
rious artificers, and more particularly in hewing of
wood.
HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs,
whether by the incubation and warmth of the parent
bird, or by artificial heat, fo as to produce young
chickens alive.
The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has
long been pra&ifed in Egypt ; but it is there only
known to the inhabitants of a fingle village named
Berme, and to thofe that live at a fmall diftance from
it. Towards the beginning of autumn they fcatter
themfelves all over the country; where each perfon
ampng them is ready to undertake the management of
an oven, each of which is of a diflerent fize ; but, in
general, they are capable of containing from forty to
fourfeore thoufand eggs. The number of thefe ovens
placed up and down the country is about 386, and they
ufually keep them working for about fix months : as,
therefore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a
hen, only 21 days, it is eafy in every one of them to
hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every Ber-
mean is under the obligation of delivering to the per¬
fon who intrufts him with an oven, only two thirds of
as many chickens as there have been eggs put under
his care; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more
than two thirds of the eggs ufually produce chickens.
In order to make a calculation of the number of chic¬
kens yearly fo hatched in Egypt, it has been fuppofed
that only two thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that
each brood confifts of at lealt 30,000 chickens; and
thus it would appear, that the ovens of Egypt give life
yearly to at leail 92,640,000 of thefe animals.
This ufeful and advantageous method of hatching
eggs has been lately difeovered in France, by the in¬
genious Mr Reaumur; who, by a number of experi¬
ments, has reduced the art to certain principles. He
found by experience, that the heat neeeflary for this
purpofe is nearly the fame with that marked 32 on his
thermometer, or that marked 96 on Farenheit s. This
degree of heat is nearly that of the (kin of the hen, and,
what is remarkable, of the (kin of all other domeftic
fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds. The
degree of heat which brings about the developement
of the cygnet, the gofling, and the turkey-pout, is the
fame as that which fits for hatching the canary-fong-
fter, and, in all probability, the fmalleft humming¬
bird : the difference is only in the time during which
this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of
different birds ; it will bring the canary bird to per¬
fection in 11 or 12 days, while the turkey-pout will re¬
quire 27 or 28.
After many experiments, Mr Reaumur found, that
(loves heated by means of a baker’s oven, fucceeded
better than thofe made hot by layers of dung : and the
furnaces of glafs-houfes and thofe of the melters of me¬
tals, by means of pipes to convey heat into a room,
might, no doubt, be made to anfwer the fame pur¬
pofe. As to the form of the doves, no great nicety is
required. A chamber over an oven will do very well.
Nothing more will be neceffary but to afeertain the de¬
gree of heat; which may be done by melting a lump
of butter of the fize of a walnut, with half as much tal¬
low, and putting it into a phial. This will ferve to in¬
dicate the heat with fufficient exadnefs : for when it is
too great, this mixture will become as liquid as oil ;
and when the heat is too fmall, it will remain fixed in
a lump : but it will flow like a thick fyrup, upon in¬
clining the bottle, if the (love be of a right temper.
Great attention therefore (hould be given to keep the
heat always at this degree, by letting in frefh air if it
be too great, or (hutting the dove more clofe if it be
too fmall: and that all the eggs in the dove may equal¬
ly (hare the irregularities of the heat, it will be necef¬
fary to (hift them from the Tides to the centre ; there¬
by imitating the hens, who are frequently feen to
make ufe of their bills, to pu(h to the outer parts thofe
eggs that were neared to the middle of their neds, and
to bring into the middle fuch as lay reared the fides.
Mr Reaumur has invented a fort of low boxes, with¬
out bottoms, and lined with furs. Thefe, which he
calls artificial-parents, not only (belter the chickens
from the injuries of the air, but afford a kindly warmth,
fo that they prefently take the benefit of their dicker
as readily as they would have done under the wings of
a hen. After hatching, it will be neceffary to keep
the chickens, for fome time, in a room artfully heat¬
ed and furnifhed with thefe boxes; but afterwards they
may be fafely expofed to the air in the court-yard, in
which it may not be amifs to place one of thefe ar¬
tificial-parents to (belter them if there (hould be occa-
fion for it.
As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they
are generally a whole day after being hatched, before
they take any food at all ; and then a few crumbs of
bread may be given them for a day or two, after
which they will begin to pick up infefts and grafs for
themfelves.
But to fave the trouble of attending them, capons
may
Hatching.
hat [ 3532 ] H A U
Hatching may be taught to watch them In the fame manner as
Havanna ^ens <^0, ^-r ^eaumur afihres us, that he has feen a-
  1 bove 200 chickens at once, all led about and defended
only by three or four fuch capons. Nay, cocks may
be taught to perform the fame office; which they, as
well as the capons, will continue to do all their lives
after.
Hatching, or Hacking, in defigning, &c. the
making of lines with a pen, pencil, graver, or the like;
and the interfering or going acrofs thofe lines with
others drawn a contrary way, is called counter-hatching.
The depths and (hadows of draughts are ufually form¬
ed by hatching.
Hatching is of fingular ufe in heraldry, to diftinguiffi
the feveral colours of a fhield, without being illumined:
thus, gules Or red is hatched by lines drawn from the
top to the bottom ; azure, by lines drawn acrofs the
fhield ; and fo of other colours.
HATCHMENT, in heraldry^ the coat-of-arms of
a perfon dead, ufually placed on the front of a houfe,
whereby may be known what rank the deceafed perfon
was of when living : the whole diftinguifhed in fuch a
manner as to enable the beholder to know, whether
he was a bachelor, married man, or widower; with the
like diftin&ions for women.
HATFIELD, a town in Hartfordfhire in Eng¬
land. The kings of England had formerly a royal
palace here, where Edward VI. was educated. King
James I. exchanged the manor with Sir Robert Cecil,
afterwards earl of Salifbury, for Theobalds, in the
parifh of Cheffiunt in this country; and the lordfhip
ftill remains in that noble family, who have a very
fine feat here. The redory, which is in that earl’s gift,
is reckoned worth 8oo pounds a-year. W. Long. o.
12. N. Lat. 51. 42.
Hatfield-broad oak, a town of Efiex in Eng¬
land, feated on a branch of the river Lea, in E. Long,
o. 13. N. Lat. 51. 58.
HATTEM,a town of the United Provinces in the
duchy of Guelderland, feated on the river Uffol, in E.
Lon. 6. o. N. Lat. 53. 30.
HATTOCK, a fhock of corn containing twelve
fheaves; others make it only three (heaves laid toge¬
ther.
HATUAN, a town and fort of Upper Hungary in
-the county of Novigrod. It was taken by the Impe-
rialitts in 1685. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long.
19. 48. N. Lat. 47. 52.
HAVANNA,ra fea port town of America, in the
ifland of Cuba, and on the north-weft; part of it, op-
pofite to Florida. It is famous for its harbour, which
is fo large that it may hold 1000 vefiels ; and yet the
mouth is fo narrow, that only one fhip can enter at a
time. This is the place where all the (hips that come
from the Spanifh fettlements rendezvous on their re¬
turn to Spain. It is near two miles in circumference ;
and contains about 10,000 inhabitants, confifting of
Spaniards, Mulattoes, and Negroes. The entrance
into the harbour is well defended by forts and plat¬
forms of great guns; and the bifhop of St Jago refides
here, as well as moft men of fafhion and fortune be-
longing to the ifland. It was taken by the Britifh in
1762 ; but reftored to the Spaniards by the treaty of
peace in 1763. W. Long. 84. 10. N. Lat.-23. o.
HAVEL, a river of Brandenburg, which proceeds
from a lake in the duchy of Mecklenburg, and running Havelberg
thro’ the middle Marche, .and thro’ Brandenburg and
other towns, runs north, and falls into the Elbe.   n
HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Lower Saxony, and in the eledorate of Branden¬
burg, with a bifhop’s fee, fecularized in favour ofjhe
houfe of Brandenburg. It is feated on the river Ha¬
vel, in E. Long. 12. 43. N. Lat. 53. 4.
HAVEN, a fea-port or harbour. See Harbour.
HAVERCAMP (Sigibert), a celebrated Dutch
fcholar and critic, profeflbr of hiftory, eloquence, and
the Greek tongue, at Leyden. He was particularly
(killed in medals; and was the author of fome efteemed
works in that way, befide giving good and elegant e-
ditions of feveral Greek and Latin authors. He died
at Leyden in 1742, aged 58.
HAVERFORD-west, a town of Pembrokefhire
in South Wales, feated in W. Long. 5. N. Lat. 51.
50. It is a town and county of itfelf; and (lands com-
modioufly on the fide of a hill, and on a creek of Mil-
ford-haven, over which there is a ftone bridge. It is
a large handfome place, with feveral good houfes, and
contains three parifh-churches. It has alfo a confider-
able trade, with feveral veflels belonging to it; and
fends one member to parliament. The affizes and
county-gaol are kept here; and it had once a wall and
caftle, now demolifhed.
HAVERILL, a town of England, in the county
of Suffolk.where there is a confiderable manufa&ory of
checks, cottons, and fuftians. By the ruins of a
church and caftle ftill to be feen, it appears to have
been formerly a place of much greater confequence
than at prefent. It has now only about 300 poor clay-
houfes, and one wide ftreet not paved.
HAUL, an expreffion peculiar to feamen, imply¬
ing to pull a fingle rope, without the affiftance of
blocks or other fuch mechanical powers. When a
rope is otherwife pulled, as by the application of tackles,
or the connexion with blocks, &c. the term is changed
into bo'wjing.
To Haul the Wind, is to diredl the fhip’s courfe
nearer to that point of the compafs from which the
wind arifes. Thus, fuppofing a fhip to fail fouth-
weft, with the wind northerly, and fome particular oc-
cafion requires to haul the wind more weftward ; to
perform this operation, it is neceflary to arrange the
fails more obliquely with her keel; to brace the yards
more forward, by flackening the (larboard, and pulling
in the larboard braces, and to haul the lower fheets
further aft; and finally, to put the helm a-port, L e.
over to the larboard fide of the veffel. As foon as her
head is turned diredtly to the weftward, and her fails
are trimmed accordingly, (he is faid to have hauled
the wind four points; that is to fay, from fouth-weft
to weft. She may ftill go two points nearer to the di-
redlion of the wind, by difpofing^her fails according
to their greateft obliquity, or, in the fea-phrafe, by
trimming all Jharpt and in this fituation (he is faid to
be clofe hauled, as failing weft north-weft. ,
HAUNCH, or Hanch, the Aty, or that part of
the body between the laft ribs and the thigh.
The haunches of a horfe are too long, if when
ftandtng in the (table he limps, with his hind-legs far¬
ther back than he ought ; and when the top or onfet
of his tail is not in a perpendicular line to the! tip of
his
H A W
H A U [ 3533 ]
Havre his hocks, as it always does in horfes whofe haunches
|i are of a juft : ngth. There are fome horfes, which
Haiue. though they have too long haunches, yet commonly
walk well : fi’ch are good to climb hills, but are not
at all fure upon a defcent; for they cannot ply their
hams, and never gallop (lowly, but always nearly up¬
on a full fpeed. The aft of riding the great horfe has
not a more neceffary Idl'on than that of putting a horfe
upon his haunches; which, in other words, is called coup¬
ling him well, or putting him well together, or com¬
pact. A horfe that cannot bend or lower his haunches,
throws himftlf too much upon his fhoulder,: and lies
heavy upon the bridle.
HAVRE de Grace, a fea-port towm of France,
and capital of a diftridt of the fame name, is feated in
the province of Normandy, on the Englifh channel, in
a large plain at the mouth of the river Seine. It is a
fmall fortified town, nearly of a fquare figure, divided
into twm parts by the harbour, furrounded wdth a wall
and other works, and defended by a very llrong cita¬
del. It is one of the moft important places in France,
on account of its foreign trade and convenient harbour;
for which reafon it was made a diftinft government
from the reft of Normandy. It was furprifed in
1562, by the Proteftants, who delivered it to queen
Elizabeth ; but it was loft next year. In 1694 it was
bombarded by the Englifh, and alfo in the year 1758.
E. Long. o. 11. N. Lat. 49. 29.
HAURIANT, in heraldry, a term peculiar to
fifties ; and fignifies their (landing upright, as if they
were refrelhing themfelves by fucking in the air.
HAUTE FEUILLE (John), an ingenious mecha¬
nic born at Orleans in 1647. Though he embraced
the ftate of an ecclefiaftic, and enjoyed feveral benefi¬
ces, he applied almoft his whole life to mechanics, in
which he made a great progrefs. He had a particular
tafte for clock-wmrk, and made feveral difcoveries in it
-that w'ere of« lingular ufe. It was he who found out
the fecret ofo moderating the vibration of the balance
by means of a fmall fteel-fpring, wdnch has frnce been
made ufe of. This difcovery he laid before the mem¬
bers of the Academy of Sciences in 1674 >* anc^ thefe
watches are, by way of eminence, called pendulum-
watches •, not that they have real pendulums, but be-
caufe they nearly approach to the juftnefs of pendu¬
lums. M. Huygens perfefted this happy invention ;
but having declared himfclf the inventor, and obtained
from Lewis XIV. a patent for making watches w’ith
fpiral fprings, the abbe Feuille oppofed the regiltering
of this privilege, and publifhed a piece on the fubject
againft M. Huygens. He wrote a great number of
other pieces, moft of which are fmall pamphlets con¬
fining of a few pages, but very curious; as, 1. His
perpetual pendulum, quarto. 2. New inventions,
quarto. 3. The art of breathing under water, and
the means of preferving a flame Unit up in a fmall
place. 4. Refiedlions on machines for railing water.
5. His opinion on the different fentiments of Malle-
branche and Regis relating to the appearance of the
moon when feen in the horizon. 6. The magnetic
balance. 7. A placet to the king opihe longitude.
8. Letter on the fecret of the longitude. 9. A new
fyftem on the flux and reflux of the fea. 10. The
Hieans of making fenfible experiments that prove the
motion of the earth ; and many other pieces. He
Vol. V.
died in 1724. Hautboy
HAUTBOY, a mufical inftrument of the wind II
kind, lhaped much like the lute; only that it fpreads Hawlung'
and widens towards the bottom, and is founded thro’
a reed. The treble is two feet long; the tenor goes
a fifth lower, when blown open : it has only eight
holes; but the bafs, which is five feet long, has eleven.
The word is French, haut boss, q. d. high wood;
and is given to this inftrument becaufe the tone, of it is
higher than that of the violin.
HAW, a fort of berry, the fruit of feveral fpc-
cies of mefpilus, thence denominated hawthorns. See
Mespilus.
Haw, among farriers, an excrefcence refembling a
griftle,, growing under the nether eye-lid and eye of a
horfe, which, if not timely removed, will put it quite
out. See Farriery, $ xi. 15.
Haw, a fmall parcel of land fo called in Kent, as
a Hemphaw, or Bcanhaw, lying near the houfe, and
inclofed for thefe ufes. But Sir Edward Coke, in an
ancient plea concerning Feverlham in Kent, fays^fiiwer
are houfes.
Yi km-Finch. See Loxia.
HAWGH, or Howgh, fignifies a green plot in
a valley, as they ufe it in the north of England.
HAWK, in ornithology. See Falco.
HAWKERS, anciently were fraudulent perfons,
who went about from place to place buying and fell¬
ing brafs, pewter, and other merchandife, which
ought to be uttered in open market. In this fenfe the
word is mentioned anno 25 Hen. VIII. c. 6. and 33
ejufdem, c. 4.—The appellation hawkers feems to have
arifen from their uncertain wandering, like thofe who
with hawks feek their game where they can find it.
Hawkers, is alfo now applied to thofe who go up
and down London ftreets crying new books, and felling
them by retail. The women who furnifh the hawkers,
i. e. fell the papers by wholefale from the prefs, are
called mercuries.
HAWKING, the exercife of taking wild fowl by
means of hawks. The method of reclaiming, man¬
ning, and bringing up a hawk to this exercife, is called
falconry. See Falconry.
There are only two countries in the world where
we have any evidence that the exercife of hawking
was very anciently in vogue. Thefe are, Thrace and
Britain. In the former, it was purfued merely as the
diverfion of a particular diftridf, if we may believe . ^ x 8
Pliny f, whofe account is rendered obfcure by the dark- ‘
nefs of his own ideas of the matter. The primaeval
Britons, with a fondnefs for the exercife of hunting,
had alfo a tafte for that of hawking; and every chief
among them maintained a confiderable number of birds
for that fport. It appears alfo from a curious paffage
in the poems of Oflian *, that the fame diverfion was * Vol.\,
falhionable at a very early period in Scotland. The llS*
poet tells us, that a peace was endeavoured to be gained
by the proffer of 4 00 managed Heeds, 1-00 foreign cap¬
tives, and “ too hawks with fluttering wings, that fly
“ acrofs the Iky.” To the Romans this diverfion was
fcarce known in the days of Vefpafian ; yet it was in¬
troduced immediately afterwards. Moft probably they
adopted it from the Britons ; but we certainly know
that they greatly improved it by the introdudtion of
fpaniels into the illand. In this ftate it appears among
20 F the
HAW [ 3534 ] HAW
Hawking, the Roman Britons in the fixth century. Gildas, in
a remarkable paflage in his firft epillle, fpeaks of Ma-
glocunus, on his relinquifhing the fphere of ambition,
and taking refuge in a monaftery ; and proverbially
compares him to a dove, that haftens away at the
noiiy approach of the dogs, and with various turns
and windings takes her flight from the talons of the
hawk.
In after-times, hawking was the principal amufe-
ment of the Englifh: a perfon of rank fcarce ftirred
out without his hawk on his hand ; which, in old
paintings, is the criterion of nobility. Harold, after¬
wards king of England, when he went on a mod: im¬
portant embaffy into Normandy, is painted embarking
Biogr. Brit w‘t^1 a on his fift, and a dog under his arm:
art. Ctixton. and in an ancient pi&ure of the nuptials of Henry VI.
a nobleman is reprefented in much the fame manner;
for in thofe days, it was thought fufficient for noblemen to
nuinde their horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and leave
jludy and learning to the children of mean people. The
former were the accompli(hments of the times; Spenfer
isoakes his gallant,Sir Triftram boaft,
Ne is there hawk which mantleth her on pearch,
Whether high fowling, or accoafting low,
15ut I the meafure of her flight doe fearch,
And all her prey, and all her diet know. 3. vl. Canto i.
In fliort, this diverGon was, among the old Englifh,
the pride of the rich, and the privilege of the poor;
no rank of men feems to have been excluded the
amufement: we learn from the book of St Alban’s,
that every degree had its peculiar hawk, from the
emperor down to the holy-water clerk. Vaft was the
expence that fometimes attended this fport. In the
reign of James I. Sir Thomas Monfon is fat’d to have
given 1000I. for a caft of hawks: we are not then to
wonder at the rigour of the laws that tended to pre-
ferve a pleafure that was carried to fueh an extrava¬
gant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III. it was made
felony to fteal a hawk; to take its eggs, even in a
perfon’s own ground, was punifhable with imprifon-
ment for-a year and a day, befides a 6ne at the king’s
pleafure: in queen Elizabeth’s reign, the imprifonment
was reduced to three months; but the offender was to
find fecurity for his good behaviour for feven years, or
lie in prifon till he did. Such was the enviable ftate
of the times of old England: during the whole day
the gentry were given to the fowls of the air, and the
beafts of the field; in the evening, they celebrated their
exploits with the mod abandoned and brutifh fottifh-
nefs; at the fame time, the inferior rank of people, by
the mod unjud and arbitrary laws, were liable to ca¬
pital punifhments, to fines, and lofs of liberty, for de-
ftroying the mod noxious of the feathered tribe.
According to Olearius, the diverfion of hawking
is more followed by the Tartars and Perfians, than
ever it was in any part of Europe. II n’y avoit point
de hutte (fays he) qui n'eufi fon aigle ou fan faucon.
The falcons or hawks that were in ufe in thefe king¬
doms, are now found to breed in Wales, and inNorth-
Britaih and its illes. The peregrine falcon inhabits
the rocks of Caernarvonfhire. The famefpecies, with
the gyrfalcon, the gentil, and the gofliawk, are found
in Scotland, and the lanner in Ireland.
We may here take notice, that the Norwegian breed
was, in old times, in high edeem in England; they
were thought bribes worthy a king. JeofFrey Fitz- Hawking,
pierre gave two good Norway hawks to king John, to' '
obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting 100 wt.
of cheefe; and Nicholas the Dane was to give the Excijcqutn.
king a hawk every time he came into England, that I.46p,47o.
he might have free liberty to traffic throughout the
king’s dominions.
They were alfo made the tenures that fome of the Blunt’s
nobility held their edates by, from the crown. Thus Te'
Sir John Stanley had a grant of the Ifle of Man from nureu a'®*
Henry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs and fuc-
ceffors, by homage and the fervice of two falcons,
payable on the day of his or their coronation. And
Philip de Hadang held his manor of Combertoun in
Cambridgefhire, by the fervice of keeping the king’s
falcons.
Hawking, though an cxercife now much difufed
among us, in comparifon of what it anciently was,
does yet furnifh a great variety of fignificant terms,
which dill obtain in our language. Thus, the parts
of a hawk have their proper names.—The legs, from
the thigh to the foot, are called arms; the toes, the
petty-fingles; the claws, the pounces. - The wings are
called the fails; the long feathers thereof, the beams;
the two longed, the principal feathers; thofe next
thereto, the flags.—The tail is called the train; the
bread-feathers, the mails; thofe behind the thigh, the
pendant feathers.—When the feathers are not yet full
grown, flie is faid to be unfummed; when they are
complete, die is fumvied: —The craw, or crop, is called
the gorge:—The pipe next the fundament, where the
faces are drawn down, is called thepannel:—The dimy
fubdance lying in the pannel, is called the glut:—The
upper and crooked part of the bill is called the beak;
the nether-part, the clap; the yellow' part between the
beak and the eyes, the fear ox fere; the two fmall holes
therein, the ndres.
As to her furniture:—The leathers, with bells but¬
toned on her legs, are called bewits.—The leathern
thong, whereby the falconer holds the hawk, is called
\.he leafe, or leafs; the little draps, by which the leafe-
is fadened to the jefles; and a line or pack-thread
fadened to the leafe, in difciplining her, a creance.—
A cover for her head, to keep her in the dark, is called
a hood; a large wide hood, open behind, to be wore
at fird, rs called, a rafter hood: To draw the firings,
that the hood may be in readinefs to be pulled off, is
called unfriking the hood,—The blinding a hawk jud
taken, by running a thread through her eye-lids, and
thus drawing them over the eyes, to prepare her for
being hooded, is called feeling.—A figure or refem-
blance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is called
a lure.—Her refiing-place, when off the falconer’s fid,
is called the pearch.—The place where her meat is laid,
is called the hack; and that wherein (he is fet, while
her feathers fall and come again, the mew.
Something given a hawk, to cleanfe and purge her
gorge, is called cafting. — Small feathers given her to
make her cad,, are called plumage;—Gravel given her to
help to bring down herdomach,is called rangle: —Her
throwing up filth from the gorge after cading, is called
gleaming,—The purging of her greafe, &c. enfeaming.
—A being duffed is called gurgiting.—The inferring
a feather in her wing, in lieu ofa broken one, is callecf
itnping,—.'£\vz giving fier a leg, wing, or pinion of a
fowl
HAW [ 3535 ] HAW
Hawking, fowl to pull at, is called tiring'.—Tht neck of a bird
the hawk preys on, is called the inke: What the
hawk leaves of her prey, is called the pill, or pelf.
There are alfo proper terms for her feveral aftions.
—When (he flutters with her wings, as if ftriving to
get away, either from perch or fift, flie is faid to bate.
—When, (landing too near, they fight with each other,
it is called crabbing:—When the young ones quiver,
andjhake their wings in obedience to the elder, it is
called co’vjring:—When (he wipes her beak after feed¬
ing, (he is faid to feak'. — 'SN\izn (he deeps, (he is faid
to jouk:—From the time of exchanging her coat, till
(lie turn white again, is called her interme'wwg: —
Treading is called canuking: — When (he (Iretches one
of her wings after her legs, and then the other, it is
called mantling:—Her dung is called muting; when
die mutes a good way from her, (he is faid to fice;
when (he does it diredlly down, inftead of yerking
backwards, (he is faid lo /lime; and if it be in drops,
it is called dropping.—When (he as it were fneezes, it
is called fniting.—When (he raifes and (hakes herfelf,
(he is faid to rouze: When, after mantling, (he
crofles her wings together over her back, (he is faid
to nnarble.
When a hawk feizes, (he is faid to bind:—When,
after feizing, (lie pulls off the feathers, (he is faid to
plume. — When (he raifes a fowl aloft, and at length
defcends with it to the ground, it is called7r«^(/7^.—
When, being aloft, (he defcends to (trike her prey, it is
called Jlooping.—When (he flies out too far from the
game, (he is (aid to rake.—When, forfaking her proper
game, (he flies at pyes, crows, &c. that chance to crofs
her, it is called check.—When, miffing the fowl, (he
betakes herfelf to the next check, (he is faid to fly on
head. The fowl or game (he flies at is called the
quarry.—The dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk,
is called a pelt.—When (he flies away with the quarry,
(he is faid to <7^/77.---When in (looping (he turns two
or three times on the wing, to recover herfelf ere (he
feizes, it is called canceliering.---When (he hits the
prey, yet does not trufs it, it is called ruff. The
making a hawk tame and gentle, is called reclaiming.
---The bringing her to endure company, manning her.
—An old (launch hawk, ufed to fly and fet example
to a young one, is called a make-haiuk.
The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk
to the fport, is not eafy to be brought to any precife
fet of rules.- -It confifls in a number of little pradlices
and obfervances, calculated to familiarize the falconer
to his bird, to procure the love thereof, &c. See the
article Falconry.
When your hawk comes readily to the lure, a large
pair of luring-bells are to be put upon her; and the
more giddy-headed and apt to rake out your hawk is,
the larger mull the bells be. Having done this, and
(he being (harp-fet, ride out in a fair morning, into
fome large field, unencumbered with trees or wood,
with your hawk on your fill; then having loofened
her hood, whillle foftly, to provoke her to fly; unhood
her, and let her fly with her head into the wind; for
by that means (he will be the better able to get upon
the wing, and will naturally climb upwards, flying a
circle. After (he has flown three or four turns, then
lure her with your voice, catling the lure about your
head, having firft tied a pullet to it; and if your fal¬
con come in, and approach near you, caft out the Hawking,
lure into the wind, and, if (he (loop to it, reward Hawkwood
her. “ .
You will often find, that when (he flies from the
fid, (he will take (land on the ground: this is a fault
which is very common with foar-falcons. To remedy
this, fright her up with your wand; and when you
have forced her to take a turn or two, take her down
to the lure, and feed her. But if this does not do,
then you mud have in readinefs a duck fealed, fo that
(lie may fee no way but backwards, and that will
make her mount the higher. Hold this duck in your
hand, by one of the wings near the body; then lure
with the voice, to make the falcon turn her head; and
when (he is at a reafonable pitch, cad your duck up
juft under her; when, if (he ftrike, ftoop, or trufs the
duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her by giving
her a reafonable gorge. After you have p radii fed
this two or three times, your hawk will leave the
ftand, and, delighted to be on the wing, will be very
obedient.
It is not convenient, for the firft or fecond time, to
(hew your hawk a large fowl; for it frequently happens,
that they efcape from the hawk, and (he, not recovering
them, rakes after them: this gives the falconer trouble,
and frequently occafions the lofs of the hawk. But if
(he happens to purfueafowl, and, being unable to re¬
cover it, gives it over, and comes in again diredtly,
then caft out a fealed duck ; and if (he ftoop and trufs
it acrofs the wings, permit her to take her pleafure,
rewarding her alfo with the heart, brains, tongue, and
liver. But if you have not a quick duck, take her down
with a dry lure, and let her plume a pullet and feed
upon it. By this means a hawk will learn to give over a
fowl that rakes out, and, on hearing the falconer’s lure,
will make back again, and know the better how to
hold in the head.
Some hawks have a difdainful coynefs, proceeding
from their being high fed: fuch a hawk mud not be
rewarded, though (lie (hould kill: but you may give
her leave to plume a little; and then taking a (beep’s
heart cold, or the leg of a pullet, when the hawk is
bufy in pluming, let either of them be conveyed into
the body of the fowl, that it may favour of it; and
when the hawk has eateffthe heart, brains, and tongue
of the fowl, take out what is inclofed, call her to your
fift, and feed her with it: afterwards give her fome of
the feathers of the fowl’s neck, to (cower her, and
make her caft.
If your hawk be a (lately high-flying one, (he
ought not to take more than one flight in a morning;
and if (he be made for the river, let her not fly more
than twice: when (he is at the higheft, take her down
with youi lure; and when (he has plumed and broken
the fowl a little, feed her, by which means you will
keep her a high-flyer, and fond of the lure.
HAWKWOOD (Sir John), a famous Englilh
general, was th^ fon of a tanner at Heddingham-Sibil
in Effex, where he was born in the reign of Edward
III. He was bound apprentice to a taylor in Lon¬
don ; but being fortunately prefled into the army, was
fent abroad, where his genius foon expanded itfelf, and
furmounted the narrow prejudices which adhered to
his birth and occupation. He fignalized himfelf as a
foldier in France and Italy, and particularly at Pifa
20 F z and
HAY [ 3536 ] HAY
Hawfe and Florence. He commanded with great ability and
i! fuccefs in the army of Galeacia duke of Milan; and
 was in fuch high efteccn with Barnabas his brother,
that he gave him Domitia his natural daughter in
marriage, with an ample fortune. He died at Flo¬
rence, full of years and military fame, in 1394. See
(Hillory of) Italy.
HAWSE, or Hause, is generally underftood to
imply the iituation of the cables before the (hip’s Hem,
when (he is moored with two anchors out from for¬
ward, viz. one on the (larboard, and the other on the
larboard-bow. Hence it is ufual to fay, fhe has a
clear bawfe, or a foul hanxfe. It alfo denotes any
(mail diftance a-head of a (hip, or between her head
and the anchors employed to ride her; as, “ He has
“ anchored in our hawfe, The brig fell athwart our
V hawfe,” be.
A (hip is faid to ride with a clear hawfe, when the
cables are diredled to their anchors, without lying
athwart the (lem ; or crofling, or being twilled round
each other by the (hip’s winding about, according to
the change of the wind, tide, or current.
A foul haufe, on the contrary, implies that the cables
lie acrofs the (tern, or bear upon each other, fo as to be
rubbed and chafed by the motion of the veffel.—The
hawfe accordingly is foul, by having either a crofs, an
elbow, or a round turn. If the larboard cable, lying
acrofs the (lem, points out on the (larboard fide, while
the (larboard cable at the fame time grows out on the
larboard fide, there is a crofs in the hawfe. If, after
this, the (hip, without returning to her former pofi-
tion, continues to wind about the fame way, fo as to
perform an entire revolution, each of the cables will be
twilled round the other, and then direfted out from
the oppofite bow, forming what is called a round turn.
An elbow is produced when the (hip (lops in the mid¬
dle of that revolution, after having had a crofs : or, in
other words, if (he rides with her head northward with
a clear hawfe, and afterwajds turns quite round fo as
to diredl her head northward again, (he will have an
elbow.
HAUSE-jfifo/e/, certain cylindrical holes cut through
the bows of a (hip on each fide of the (lem, through
which the cables pafs in order to be drawn into or let
out of the veffel as occafioif'requires. They are for¬
tified on each fide by the
Hawse-P/Vc<?/, a name given to the foremoft tim¬
bers of a (hip, whofe lower ends reft on the knuckle-
timber, or the foremoft of the cant-timbers. They
are generally parallel to the (tern, having their upper
ends fometimes terminated by the lower part of the
beak-head; and otherwife, by the top of the bow,
particularly in fmall (hips and merchantmen.
HAWSER, a large rope which holds the middle
degree between the cable and tow-line, in any (hip
whereto it belongs, being a fize fmallerthan the form¬
er, and as much larger than the latter.
HAY, any kind of grafs cut and dried for the food
of cattle.
The time of mowing grafs for hay muft be regu¬
lated according to its growth and ripenefs; nothing
being more prejudicial to the crop than mowing it too
foon ; becaufe the fap is not then fully come out of
the root, and when made into hay the grafs (brinks
away to nothing. It muft not, however, be let (land
too long till it have (lied its feeds. When the tops of Hay.
the grafs look brown, and begin to bend down, and
the red honeyfuckle flowers begin to wither, you may
conclude it ripe for mowing.
Sain-Foin Hay, is of feveral forts, which may be di-
ftinguiflied by the following terms, viz. 1. The virgin.
2. The bloflbmed. 3. The full-grown. And, 4. The
threfhed hay. The firft of thefe is beyond comparifon
the belt. It muft be cut before the blofibms generally
appear ; for when it (lands till it is full blown, the
moil fpirituous and nourifliing parts of its juice are
(pent, the fap is much impoverifhed, and the faint-foin
can never recover that richnefs it had in its virgin-(late.
But this fine hay cannot well be had of uncultivated
fain-foin, becaufe that may not be much above an
handful high when it is in a condition to be cut ; it
would, then make a very light crop, and would be a
great while before it fprang up again : but the rich
will have two or three tuns to an acre, and fpring again
immediately for a fecond crop ; fo that little or none
in quantity would be loft by fo great an improvement
of its quality.
The fecond fort is that cut in the flower, which,
though much inferior to the virgin-hay, far exceeds
any other kind as yet commonly propagated in Bri¬
tain; and if it be a full crop, it may amount to three
tuns an acre. This is that fain-foin which is com¬
monly made; and the larger it is, the more nouriftiing
it is for horfes.
The next fort of fain-foin is the full grown, cut
when the blofibms are gone or going off: this alfo is
good hay, though it falls (hort by many degrees of the
goodnefs of the other two forts ; but it makes a greater
crop than either of them, becaufe it grows to its full
bulk, and (brinks little in drying.
The lad fort is the threfhed hay; which, when not
damaged by wet weather, has been found more nou¬
rifliing to horfes than coarfe water-meadow hay ; and,
when it is cut fmall by an engine, is good for cattle,
and much better than the chaff of corn. The beft
time to cut it, is when the greateft part of the feed is
well filled; the firft-blown ripe, and the laft-blown
beginning to be full.
The goodnefs of the hay depends greatly upon the
manner of ordering it. The beft hay in all England
is made of fain-foin, without ever fpreading if. This
method, though it be longer before it be finiflied, cods
lefs labour than the other. If fain-foin be laid up
pretty green, it will take no damage, provided it be
fet in fmall round ricks, with a large ba(ket drawn up
in the middle of each, to have a vent-hole through
which the fuperfluous moifture of the hay may tranf-
pire. As foon as its heating is over, thefe ricks ought
to be thatched; and all fain-foin ricks, that are made
when the hay is full dried in the cocks, ought to be
thatched immediately after the making them. That
which is laid up molt dried, will come out of the rick
of a green colour; but that which has been much
heated in the rick, will be brown.
The feed affords the owner another opportunity of
making a profit of his fain-foin : but this, if the hoe¬
ing hufbandry were general, would not be vendible ia
great quantities for planting; becaufe the ordinary
crop of an acre will produce feed enough to drill, an
hundred acres, which would not want planting for a
H A Z [ 3537 ] H A Z
Hay long time. The other ufe then of this feed is for pro-
11 vender; and it has been affirmed by fome who have
Hazard. macje tr;a]s 0f it> that three bufhels of good fain-foin
feed given to horfes, will nourilh them as much as four
buffiels of oats ; and when well ordered, it is fofweet,
that moll forts of cattle are greedy of it.
Hay-Making. Se Agricuiture, n° 152, etfiq.
Hay, a town in Brecknockfhire, in Wales, feated
near the confluence of the rivers Wye andDulas. It
was a town of good note in the time of the Romans;
it being then fortified with a caflle and a wall, which
were ruined in the rebellion of Owen Glendower. It
is at prefent a pretty good town; and the market is
large for corn, cattle, and proviGons. W. Long. o.
56. N. Lat. 52.JO.
HAYNAULT. See Hainault.
HAYS, particular nets for taking rabbits, hares,
tic, common to be bought in /hops that fell nets, and
they may be had larger or /horter as you think nt ;
from 15 to 20 fathom is a good length, and for depth
a fathom.
As rabbits often draggle abroad about mid-day for
fre(h grafs, where you perceive a number gone forth to
any remote brakes or thickets, pitch two or three of
thefe hays about their burrows ; lie clofe there : but in
cafe you have not nets enough to enclofe all their bur¬
rows, fome may be flopped up with (tones, &c. Then
fet out with the coney dog to hunt up and down at a
good diflance, and draw on by degrees to the man
who is with you, and lies clofe by the hay, who may
take them as they bolt into it.
HAYWARD, the perfon who keeps the common
herd or cattle of a town. He is appointed by the
lord’s court; and his office is to fee that the cattle
neither break nor crop the hedges of inclofed grounds.
Hayward (Sir John), an eminent Engli/h hiftorian
and biographer, in the beginning of the 17th century,
was educated in the univerfity of Cambridge, where
he took the degree of doctor of laws. In 1610, he
was appointed one of the hiftoriographers of a college
then at Chelfea ; and, in 1619, received the honour of
knighthood. He wrote, 1. The lives of the three
Norman kings of England, William I. and II. and
Henry I.. 2. The firft part of the life and reign of
king Henry IV. 3. The life and reign of king Ed¬
ward VI.; and feveral theological works. He died
in 1627.
HAZAEL, an officer belonging to Benhadad king
of Syria, caufed that prince to be put to death, and
reigned in his ftead. He defeated Joram, Jehu, and
Jehoahaz, kings of Ifrael ; and, after his death, was
fucceeded by Benhadad his fon, 852 B. C.
HAZARD, a game on dice, without tables, is very
properly fo'called; fince it fpeedily makes a man, or
undoes him.
It is played with only two dice; and as many may
play at it as can ftand round the largefl round table.
Two things are chiefly to be obferved, viz. main
and chance; the latter belonging to the caftor, and
the former, or main, to the other gamefters. There
can be no main thrown above nine,, nor under five;
fo that five,, fix, feven, eight, and nine, are the only
mains flung at hazard. Chances and nicks are from
four to ten ; thus four is a chance to nine, five to
eight, fix to feven,. feven to fix, eight to five; and
nine and ten a chance to five, fix, feven, and eight: in Haz
ffiort, four, five, fix, feven, eight, nine, and ten, are ^ea
chances to any main, if any of thefe nick it not. Now
nicks are either when the chance is the fame with the
main, as five and five, or the like; or fix and twelve,
feven and eleven, eight and twelve. Here obferve,
that twelve is out to nine, feven, and five; eleven is
out to nine, eight, fix, and five : and ames-ace and
duce-ace, are out to all mains whatever.
HAZLE, or Hazel, in botany. See Corylus.
The kernels of the fruit have a mild, farinaceous,
oily tafte, agreeable to mott palates. Squirrels and
mice are fond of them, as well as fome birds, fuch as
jays, nutbrackers. &c. A kind of chocolate has been
prepared from them, and there are inftances of their-
having been formed into bread. The oil exprefled
from them is little inferior to the oil of almonds; and
is ufed by painters, and by chemills, for receiving and
retaining odours. The charcoal made of the wood is
ufed by painters in drawing.—Some of the Highland¬
ers, where fuperftition is not totally fubfided, look up¬
on the tree itfelf as unlucky ; but are glad to get two
of the nuts naturally conjoined, which is a good omen.
Thefe they call cno-ckomhlaicb, and carry them as an
efficacious charm againft witchcraft.
Evelyn tells us, that no plant is more proper for
thickening of copies than the hazle, for which he di¬
rects the following expeditious method. Take a pole
of hazle (a/h or poplar may alfo be ufed) of 20 or 30
feet in length, the head a little lopped, into the ground,
giving it a chop near the ground to make it fuccumb;
this faftened to the earth with a hook or two, and co¬
vered with fome fre/h mould at a competent depth,
(as gardeners lay their carnations), will produce a
great number of fuckers, and thicken and furni/h a
copfe fpeedily.
H.azi.k-Earth, or Hazley-earth, a kind of red
loam, which is laid to be an excellent mixture with
other forts of earth ; uniting what is too loofe, cool¬
ing what is too hot,, and gently entertaining the moi-
fture.
HEAD, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part L
chap. ii.
Head-^c^, a moft troublefome fenfation in the
head, produced by various caufes, and attended with
different fymptoms, according to its different degrees
and the place where it is feated. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
Dragon's Head, in aftronomy, is the afcending
node of the moon or other planet.
Head of a Ship, an ornamental figure erefted on
the continuation of a /hip’s, ftem,,as being expreffive of
her name, and emblamatical of war, navigation, com,
merce, &c.
Head, is alfo ufed in a more enlarged fenfe to fig-
nify the whole front or forepatt of the fhip including
the bows on each fide : the head threefore opens the
column of water through which the (hip paffes when
advancing. Hence we fay, head-fails, head-fea, head.-
way, &c.
Thus, fig. 1. Plate CLIX. reprefents one fide of the
fore-part or bead of a 74 four gun-fliip, together
with part of the bow, keel, and gunnel. The names
of the fi veral pieces, exhibited therein, are as follow:
A A Fore-part of the keel, with a.a the twofalfe
keels
II E A
Head, keels beneath it.
A C the ftem.
a a The cat-head.
bb The fupporter of the cat-head,
cc The knight-head, or bollard-timber, of which
there is one on each fide, to fecure the inner end of
the bowfprit.
dd The haufe-holes.
ee The naval-hoods, i. e. thick pieces of plank
laid upon the bow to ftrengthen the edges of the
baufe-holes.
f The davit-chock, by which the davit is firmly
wedged while employed to fifh the anchor.
g The bulk-head, which terminates the forecaflle on
the fore-fide, being called the beak-head bulk-head by
fhipwrights.
H The gun-ports of the lower deck.
h The gun-ports of the upper deck and forecaftle.
I, I, The channels, with their dead-eyes and chain-
plates.
i The gripe, or fore-foot, which unites the keel
with the ftem, forming a part of either.
kk Thefe dotted .lines reprefent the thicknefs andde-
fcent of the different decks from the fore-part of the
(hip towards the middle. The loweft of the three dot¬
ted lines / expreffes the convexity of the beams, or the
difference between the height of the deck in the middle
of its breadth, and at the (hip’s fide. This is alfo ex¬
hibited more clearly in the Midship-/>v7#/<?; where the
red curve of the beam is delineated. N. B. Thefe
lines muft be always parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the gun-ports above and below.
m m The timbers of the head, and part of the bow-
fprit.
X The rails of the head which lie acrofs the tim¬
bers.
Q^Z Fore-part of the main-wale.
R X Fore-part of the channel-wale.
U C The load water-line.
Fig. 2. reprefents a head-view of a (hip, with the
projeftion of her principal timbers, and all her planks
laid on one fide.
It is evident that the fore-part of a (hip is called its
heady from the affinity of motion and pofition it bears
to a fifh, and in general to the horizontal fituat-ion of
all animals whilft fwimming.
By the Head; the date of a (hip, which is laden
deeper at the fore-end than the after-end.
Head-F*/?, a rope employed to faften a (hip to
a wharf, chain, or buoy, or to fome other veffel along-
fide.
Head-Z^W, a name frequently given to a cape, or
promontory.
Headmost, the fituation of any (hip or (hips
which are the mod advanced in a fleet, or line of
battle.
Head-Fc/p, that part of the bolt-rope which ter¬
minates any of the principal fails on the upper edge,
which is accordingly fewed thereto. See the article
Bolt-rope.
Head-SW/, a general name for all thofe fails which
are extended on the fore-maft and bowfprit, and em¬
ployed to command the fore-part of the (hip: fuch
are the fore-fail, fore-top-fail, fore-top-gallant-fail,
^jb, fore-ftay-fail, and the fprit-fail with its top-faih
3538 1 H E A
This term is ufed in oppofition to after-fails, viz. all
thofe which are extended on the mizen-maft, and on
the (lays between the mizen and main mafts.
Head To-windj the fituation of a (hip or boat,
when her head is turned to windward.
YiEAD-lVay, the motion of advancing at fea. It is
generally ufed when a (hip firft begins to advance ; or
when it is doubtful whether (he is in a (late of reft or
motion. It is in both fenfes oppofed to retreating,
or moving with the ftern foremoft. See the article
Stern-way.
HEALTH, is a right difpofition of the body, and
of all its parts ; confifting in a due temperature, a
right conformation, juft connexion, and ready and
free exercife of the feveral vital fundions.
Health admits of latitude, as not being the fame
in all fubjeds, who may yet be fald to enjoy health.
That part of medicine, which (hews the means of
preferring health, is termed hygieine. See Medicine.
The Greeks and Romans deified Health, reprefenf-
ing it under the figure of a woman, whom they fup-
pofed to be the daughter of Aifculapius. We find
the name of the goddefs Salas, or Health, on many
medals of the Roman emperors, with different inferip-
tions; as, salus publica, salus rerublicje, salus
AUGUSTI, &c.
Methods of prefer ving /^Health of Mariners.
See Mariner.
HEAM, in beads, is the fame with the fecundines
or after-birth in women.
HEARING. See Anatomy, n° 405.
HEARNE (Thomas), a celebrated antiquarian,
eminent for his writings and editiorfs of MSS. His
father was parilh-clerk of Little Waltham in Berk-
fhire, where he was born in 1680. He had a liberal
education by the patronage of a neighbouring gentle¬
man ; and even from a boy difeovered a ftrong pro-
penfity to the*'ftudy of antiquities. He did great fer-
vices to the Bodleian library, and died in 1735.
HEARSE, among fportfmen, a hind of the fe-
cond year of her age.
HEART, in anatomy. See there, n° 382 [385I.
Several ingenious perfons have from time to time
attempted to make eftimates of the force of the blood
in the heart and arteries; who have as widely differed
from each other, as they have from the truth, for
want of a fufficient number of data to argue upon.
This fet the truly ingenious Dr Hales upon making
proper experiments, in order to afeertain the force of
the blood in the veins and arteries of feveral animals.
If, according to DrKeil’s eftimate, the left ventri¬
cle of,a man’s heart throws out in each fyftole an ounce
or 1.638 cubic inches of blood, and the area of the
orifice of the aorta be =0.4187, then dividing the for¬
mer by this, the quotient 3.9 is the length of the cy¬
linder of blood which is formed in paffing through
the aorta in each fyftole of the ventricle ; and in the
feventy-five pulfes. of a minute, a cylinder of 292.5
inches in length will pafs: this is at the rate of 1462
feet in an hour. But the fyftole of the heart being
performed in one third of this time, the velocity of the
blood in that inftant will be thrice as much, viz. at
the rate of 4386 feet in an hour, or 73 feet in a mi¬
nute. And if the ventricle throws out one ounce in a
pulfe, then in the feventy-five pulfes of a minute, the
quantity
H E A [ 3539 ] H E A
Heart quantity of blood will be equal to 4.4ft) 11 oz. and,
in thirty-four minutes, a quantity equal to a middle-
. fized man, viz. 1581b. will pafs through the heart.
But if, with Dr Harvey and Dr Lower, we fuppofe
two ounces of blood, that is, 3.276 cubic inches, to
be thrown out at each fyftole of the ventricle, then
the velocity of the blood in entering the orifice of the
aorta will be double the former, viz. at the rate of
146 feet in a minute, and a quantity of blood equal
to the weight of a man’s body will pafs in half the
time, viz. 17 minutes.
If we fuppofe, what is probable, that the blood will
rife 17+-r fcct h'gh in a tube fixed to the carotide ar¬
tery of a man, and that the inward area of the left
ventricle of his heart is equal to fifteen fquare inches; Heart
thefe multiplied into 7-Hr feet, give 1350 cubic inches ^
of blood, which prefies on that ventricle, when it firft Keat‘
begins to contraft, a weight equal to 15.5 pounds.
What the doftor thus calculates, from fuppofition,
with regard to mankind, he aftually experimented up¬
on horfes, dogs, fallow-does, &c. by fixing tubes in
orifices opened in their veins and arteries ; by obfer-
ving the feveral heights, to which the blood rofe in
thefe tubes, as they lay on the ground; and by mea-
furing the capacities of the ventricles of the heart, and
orifices of the arteries. And, tliat the reader may the
more readily compare the faid efiimates together, he
has given a table of them, ranged in the following order.
HEARTBURNING, or Pyrosis. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HEARTH, that part ofthe pavement of a room on
which the fire is immediately placed.
HearthSee Ch 1 MNEY-Afowy.
HEAT, in phyfiology, is ufed in a double fenfe,
cither as that peculiar fenfation which is felt on the
approach of burning bodies ; or the caufe of that fen¬
fation, in which lalt fet>fe it is fynonymous with Fire.
Heat owing ^'^Pute8 which were formerly carried on with
to she : <gion regard to the nature of heat, namely, whether we were
•r & fluid, to account it merely an effedl of motion in the parts of
terreftrial bodies, or of a fluid/er/?, feem now to be
generally determined in favour of the latter opinion.
The eleftric fluid and elementary fire are commonly
thought to be the fame, for which opinion fomeproofs
are adduced under the article Electricity. The
difeovery made by Dr Black that heat is capable of
remaining in many bodies in a latent ftate, alfo con¬
firms this opinion confiderably *. The confequence * See Ezxi-
of this difeovery, however, undoubtedly is, That what/’ora/ioB,
we call beat or fire, depends not on the prefence or ;and
ahfience of that fluid diftinguifhed by the name of ele- ong?*atm‘
mentary fire, but on its adion ; juft as the phenomena
of ele&ricity depend not on the prefence or abfence of
the eleftric fluid, which is equally prefent at all times
and in all places, but on its a&ion.—Another infe¬
rence, eafily deducible from this principle is. That as
the ele&ric fluid is by its different manner of adtion
capable of producing two different and feemingly op-
pofite effedts, diftinguilhed by the names ofpofitive and
negative eledtricity ; fo doth the fame fluid, adling as
elementary fire, produce two different and feemingly
oppofite tffedls, called beat and cold.—This affertion.
wilL
H E A [ 3540 ] H E A
Heat, ■will not be thought paradoxical, when we confider that
— ocular demonllration may be given us, that a fub-
S-e Ev t ftance (namely, vapour), exceedingly cold to the touch,
por at 1- Yet contain as much heat, as would be fufficient
on, n° 9. to heat the water of which it is compofed, red hot,
did the nature of water permit it to endure an heat of
4 this kind.
Dr Martin’s The philofophers of this country who have mod
opinions recently treated the fubjedt of heat fcientifically are,
M-art'n of St Andrews, Dr Black of Edinburgh,
'and Dr Irvin of Glafgow. Dr Martin, in an effay on
the various degrees of heat in bodies, endeavours to
IhewT, that what we call heat, depends not entirely
upon the quantity of elementary fire which is poured
upon the body ai extra ; but upon certain circum-
flances arifing from the conftitution of the bodyitfelf,
and its fituation with regard to others. “ We all find
(fays he) our great heats to be in thefe places that
lie low, and have a great height of atmofphere above
them, and furrounded by eminences and rifing grounds.
If you afcend on high to the tops of very elevated
mountains, you are chilled with cold, and you find
everlafting fnows, that after thoufands of fummers
have fcarce ever been thawed, though every day ex-
pofed to the direft rays of the fun, which in fome
places are darted perpendicularly upon them. So ne-
celfary, it feems, is a long and diredl paffage through
all or the greateft part of the depth of our atmo¬
fphere, or the affiftance of its preflure, or the reflec¬
tions of rays from the earth’s own furface, to invigo¬
rate thofe rays, and to give them ftrength for warm¬
ing terreftrial bodies. To which too the particular
fulphureous nature of the low parts of the atmofphere
may not a little contribute.
“ But what if the real folar heat, both in itfelf,
and what it can communicate to us and other plane¬
tary bodies (while it is.not concentrated by burning-
glaffes, or ftrengthened by other afli(lances), be vaftly
lefs than is commonly reckoned ? All the natural heat
we meet with here on the earth we are ready to
afcribe to the heat of the fun, which perhaps has but a
fmall (hare in it, overlooking a fource of heat, which,
though often fpoke of by the theorifts of the earth, is
feldom confidered in that advantageous light I would
choofe to take it. Every body has felt or heard, that
the temperature of the air in mines or other places
deep under ground is warm, or at leaft very tolerable;
and we know from the niceft obfervations, that in the
cave of the Obfervatory at Paris, only about 90 feet
under ground, the heat keeps the thermometer at 530;
and that without any afiiftance from the fun, it be¬
ing never fenfibly increafed by the moll fcorching fea-
fons beyond its heat in the moft fevere winters that
have been felt there.—And the fame conftant and un¬
alterable degree of heat was obferved by Mr Boyle,
in a cave cut deep into the earth. And great and
even troublefome heats are faid to be obferved at
greater depths, and increafing in proportion to thefe
depths; though I could wifh that thefe heats had been
more regularly meafured and afcertained than what I
find they have yet been. So that it would feem the
body of the earth has a very great proper internal heat
independent on the fun, and very much beyond what
he without the intervention of our atmofphere could
communicate to it; fo great as, within 90 feet of its
furface, to raife the thermometer 93 divifions above Heat.
Fahreinheit’s cold mixture (of fnow and fpirit of '
nitre), or 453 divifions above what Mr Amontons » See
reckoned the lowed degree of heat*. This heat of„a/Ht:AT
the earth at its furface is fomething lefs; and beyond of the
that, its force decreafes indeed very fait, fo as to leave
the air at a fmall height above it a good deal colder;
and which we find on the very high hills to be excef-
fively cold, and not to be much warmed by the addi¬
tional heat of the fun’s diredt rays, if they be but
little altered by the earth’s furface and atmofphere.—
So then the fun, though it be not the foie or chief
fountain, is as it were the great regulator of motion,
heat, and life, to the inhabitants of this fyftem.’’ , ^
This opinion hath alfo been adopted by others, but Objeftions
will probably never come into general credit. We cer- which ?
tainly perceive the fun to be the force and fountain of |^eare
heat to the furface of the earth at leaft, as much as
we perceive a common fire to be the fource of heat to
a perfon who ftands before it. Nor is the fun’s heat
increafed or diminifhed, except by thofe very circum-
ftances which increafe or diminifh the heat of a com¬
mon fire. Though a perfon fhould ftand diredtly be¬
fore the fire, yet if a ftrong blaft of air rulhes into the
room at the fame time, he will not find himfelf warm ;
but it would be a very erroneous conclufion to infer
from thence, that the heat of the fire was lefs than
what people commonly fuppofed. If he excludes the
blaft of air by (hutting the room-door, he will find the
heat greatly increafed, though he comes no nearer the
fire than before ; and if he caufes any fubftance capa¬
ble of refledting the light ftrongly to be placed at a
fmall diftance behind him, fuch as a large piece of
tinned iron, he will then very probably feel the heat
intolerable in that very place where it was difagreeably
cold before. Now the circumftances which increafe
or diminifti the heat of the fun are quite fimilar to
thofe above-mentioned. On the top of an high moun¬
tain the air has free accefson all fides, except the fmall
point of earth where the perfon ftands; the reft of the
earth alfo is at too great a diftance to have any effedt
in diminifhing the cold by its refledtive power; and as
in thefe high regions there are commonly violent
winds, the cold is thereby greatly increafed. But when
we defcend into the plain, the air has much lefs accefs.
The immenfe body of the earth effedlually (belters us
from the air on one fide, at the fame time that by its
refledtion it adts like the piece of metal abovemention-
ed; while its inequalities in a great meafure (belter us
from the winds all around ; and hence the heat at the
foot of a mountain may be intolerable, while the cold
is equally fo at the top. It will now follow, that heat
is not properly fpeaking the mere prefence of the rays
of the fun, but their adtion after a certain manner,
without interruption from any other fubftance; and
that cold is not any privation or abfence of thefe rays,
but is occafioned by whatever prevents them from ac¬
ting in the manner abovementioned; and if there is
any fubftance in nature which conftantly tends to pre¬
vent that adtion, fuch a fubftance hcoldm theabftradt.
A fubftance of this kind is our atmofphere, or fome
principle in it * ; tho’ very poffibly that principle, as * ^ce Coli^
already hinted, may be no other than elementary fire n° 4‘
itfelf adting in a different manner.
With regard to the opinions of Dr Black and Ir¬
vine
H E A [ 3541 ] H E A
Heat, vin upon this fubjeft, it is impoflible to give fuch a
full account as could be wilhed; becaufe the gentle¬
men have not thought proper to publilh their fenti-
ments to the world. From what we have been able to
colle't, however, and which is authenticated by Dr
Black himfelf, his general opinion is, that heat is a
fubftance per fe: that when this fubftance is prefentin
any terreftrial body, in a certain degree, that body is
fenlibly hot; when a lelTer quantity of heat is prefent,
the fubftance is cold: but there is no fuch thing as a po-
fitive cold; and all thole degrees of cold known to us,
even the moft violent, are only frnaller degrees of
heat ; and of this heat the lun is to us the only fource
and fountain. For his opinions concerning fenftble a d
latent heat, fee the articles Congelation, Evapoaa-
s tion, and Fluidity.
Dr Gleg- Dr Irvin hath attempted to give a folution of the
horn’s ac- phenomena of latent heat; and though he hath not yet
Irvin^0^^ publdhed this explanation himfelf, an account of it
aions.5 ^ appeared in an inaugural diftertation De igne, pub-
liftied at Edinburgh, by Dr Cleghorn, in 1779. The
fubftance of what this gentleman hath delivered, is as
follows:
“ Heat is occafionedby a certain fluid, and not by
motion alone, as fome eminent writers have imagined :
becaufe, 1. Thofe who have adopted the hypothefis
of motion, could never even prove the exiftenceof that
motion for which they contended ; and though it (hould
be granted, the phenomena could not from it be ex¬
plained. 2. If heat depended on motion, it would
inftantaneoufly pafs through an elaftic body; but we fee
that heat pafles through bodies flowly.iike a fluid. 3. If
heat depended on vibration, it ought to be communi¬
cated from a given vibration in proportion to the quan¬
tity of matter, which is found not to hold true in fact.
On the other hand, there are nnmberlefs arguments
in favour of the opinion that heat proceeds from ele¬
mentary fire. 1. Mr Locke hath obferved, that when we
perceive a number of qualities always exifting together,
we may gather from thence, that there is really fome
fubftance which produces thefe qualities. 2. The
hypothefis of elementary fire is limple* and agree¬
able to the phenomena. 3. From fome experiments
made by Sir Ifaac Newton it appears, that bodies ac-
quire heat and cold in vacuo, until they become of the
fame temperature with the atmofphere ; fo that heat
exifts in the abfence of all other matter, and is there¬
fore a fubftance by itfclf.
“ Our fenfes are no juft meafures of the degrees of
* See Cold, heat and cold*:—but the thermometer truly fhews
■n° *• the increafe or diminution of heat in the fame body,
•w/iile it preferves the fame form ; but this it will only
do within certain limits. For when fluids are on the
point of freezing, they contradt irregularly, and ex¬
pand in the fame manner when brought near the boil¬
ing point. The thermometer, however, cannot (hew
the abfolute quantity of heat contained in any body,
becaufe the beginning of the thermometrical fcale by
no means denotes the total abfence of heat. For the
fame reafon, it cannot even (hew us the proportion
between the quantities of heat contained in two dif¬
ferent bodies; but Dr Black hath difeovered a very
ingenious and accurate method of (hewing this laft.
“ It is univerfally known, that when two fubftan-
ces of different temperatures are mixed together, the
Vol. V.
one lofes and the other acquires heat, till they both Heat,
appear of the fame temperature. Let, therefore, any “
quantity of water be mixed with an equal bulk of any
other fubftance, either hotter or colder than itfelf, and
obferve what happens on the mixture. If the one
gains as much as the other lofes, both of them contain
the fame quantity of heat, when in their natural Rate ;
but if the one gains more than the other lofes, then their
natural quantities of heat differ in the fame proportior.
“ If any body, heated beyond the common tem¬
perature of the air, is expofed to it, the heat flows out
from it into the atnapfphere, and difpofes itfelf equally
around, till the air becomes • f the fame temperature
with itfelf. The fame happens to bodies fufpended in
vacuo. Hence it is juflly concluded, there exifts be¬
tween the particles of heat a repulfive power, by which
they mutually recede from each other.
“ Notwithftanding this repulfive power, however,
the quantities of heat contained indifferent fubftances
even of the fame temperature, are found to be altoge¬
ther different. This is fufftciently proved by fome ex¬
periments made by Fahreinheit and Boerhaave, and
ftill further confirmed by others made by the learned
Dr Black. He took equal bulks of water and mer¬
cury ; and having heated the mercury 50° above the
other, mixed them together as quick as poffible. The
temperature of the mixture was 20 degrees above the
original temperature of the water. Again, having
made the water 50° hotter than the mercury, the tem-
peraturf of the mixture was 30° above the original
temperature of the mercury. Hence it appears that
the quantity of heat in water is to that in mercury when
both are of an equal temperature, as 3 to 2. By fi-
milar experiments he hath alfo determined the quan¬
tities of heat contained in a great many different bo¬
dies ; fo that now it appears that the quantity of heat
is fcarce ever the fame in any two different bodies;
and hence we may conclude, that terreftrial bodies have
a power of attraifting heat, and that this power is dif¬
ferent in different fubftances.
“ From thefe principles it evidently follows, that
heat is diftributed among bodies dire&ly in proportion
to their attradring powers, and inverfely according to
the repulfive power between the particles of heat them-
felves.-- Such is the diftribution of heat among bodies
in the neighbourhood of each other; and which is call¬
ed the equilibrium of heat, becaufe the thermometer
(hews no difference of temperature among them. For,
feeing the heat is diftributed according to the attraft-
ing power of each, the thermometer having alfo a
proper attradlive power of its own, can (hew no dif¬
ference in the quantity of heat contained in each ; for
which reafon, all bodies in the neighbourhood of each
other are foon reduced to the fame temperature. Hence
we can neither affent to the opinion of Boerhaave,
who fuppofed that heat was diftributed among bodies
in proportion to their bulks; nor to the hypothefes of
others, who imagined that they were heated in pro¬
portion to their denfities. For the thermometer (hews
only the quantity of heat going out of a body, not
that wbicb is really contained in it ; and both the a-
bovementioned hypothefes are overturned by the expe¬
riments already recited.
“ This equilibrium of heat may be broken while
the quantity of heat in the different bodies 'remains
20 G the
Heat.
* See
Congclafioi
Cold, n° 8
H E A [ 3542 ] H E A
the fame. For feeing the heat is diftributed through
ali bodies dire&ly in proportion to their attraftion of
it, and inverfely in proportion to the repulfion of the
igneous pattides ; if in any body the former is dimi-
nifhed, or the latter augmented, the fire will flow out
of the body until the equilibrium is again reftored, and
then the heat is faid to generated. On the contra¬
ry, if the attra&ion of any body towards heat is aug¬
mented, or the repulfion between its particles diminilh-
ed, then heat will flow into the body, and cold is faid
to be generated.—This is explained by an experiment
of Dr Cullen's. A thermometer fufpended in the re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, defeended fome degrees while
the air was exhaufting, but quickly recovered the
temperature of the external atmofphere; and when
the air was again admitted, it afeended beyond the
temperature of the external air. While the air was
exhaufting, the thermometer defeended, becaufe the
air which remained being rarified, the repulfion be¬
tween the particles of fire contained in it wasdiminifti-
ed, and therefore the heat flowed out from the ther¬
mometer; but being allowed to remain fora ftiort time
in vacuo, it acquired the temperature of the extrrnal
air, and the equilibrium was reftored. When the ex¬
ternal air was admitted, then that which had remain¬
ed in the receiver, and acquired the temperature of
the external air, being fuddenly comprefled, the repul¬
fion between the igneous particles was increafed, and
the heat entering into the thermometer caufed it rife.
From other experiments alfo it appears, that tlse tem¬
perature of the air becomes hotter by condenfation,
and colder by rarefa&ion ; the reafon of which is ma-
nifeft from the principles already laid down.
“ Fluidity and evaporation are juftly reckoned ge¬
neral effedls of heat; for there is fearce any body
which cannot be liquefied, and even carried off into
vapour by an intenfe heat. The fluidity of water is
univerfally known to depend on heat. Mercury like-
w'ife, by an intenfe cold, may be deprived of its fluidi¬
ty *. Air is a kind of vapour which always becomes
denfer by a diminution of its heat; and it is not im-
pr6bable, that by a very great diminution of its heat
the air itfelf might become folid ; and this conclufion
is confirmed by the analogy of other vapours.
“ Thefe phenomena may be explained from the
principles already laid down. For the particles of all
folids are conne&ed by the attraction of cohefion; of
which, as well as of every other attraftion, the nature
is fuch, that if any new attra&ion is induced, the
former is weakened. As much heat, therefore, may
be added to a body as may increafe its power of at¬
tracting heat to fuch a degree, that the attraction of
cohefion will be totally diffolved, and the particles will
eafily Aide over one another, in which cafe the body
becomes fluid. If the fire is ftill kept up, that fluid
becomes rarer, the heat communicates the repulfion
between its own particles to thofe of the fluid, which
is now raifed in vapour. Again, this vapour by a di¬
minution of the heat is converted into a fluid, and by
a ftill farther diminution remains perpetually contraft-
ed into the form of a folid.
“ If indeed fuch is the power of bodies to attract
heat, and fuch the nature of heat as has been already
laid down, we might conclude a priori, that the force
by which any fubftance attrafls heat would be increa¬
fed while it was melting, or going off in vapour ; that Heat,
is, that liquefaCtion or evaporation would produce cold:
and on the other hand, that when vapour was reduced
into a liquid, or any fluid congealed into a folid, its
power of attracting heat would be dinunifhed ; and
therefore heat, according to the common phrafe, would
ht generated. For when, by the folution of the body,
the attraction of cohefion is taken away, the attrac¬
tion of the body f6r heat is increafed. And when
evaporation takes place, the body, and therefore the
heatjiwhich is in it, becomes more rare ; the confequencc
of which is, that the repulfive power between the par¬
ticles of fire is dirninilhed, the equilibrium is taken
off, and the heat enters the vapour on all iides.
“ The learned philofopher Dr Black was the firft
who demonftrated experimentally that heat entered
bodies in great quantity while they liquefy or are
converted into vapour ; and that the fame quantity
flowed out of them again while they were condenfing
into fluids, or congealing into folids ; and from this
principle he hath explained a great number of phseno-
tnena, in which heat or cold were formerly faid to be
enerated. The heat, as long as it is inherent in thefe
odies, he calls latent; becaufe, while it enters the
body, it does not change its fenfible temperature; nor,
after it has entered, does it affed the thermometer:
and he was of opinion, that upon a certain quantity of
latent heat the ftates of fluidity and vapour principally
depended.
“ But an ingenious phyficiau (Dr Irvin, profeffor
of chemiftry at Glafgow,) having made many experi¬
ments in order to find out the quantity of heat con¬
tained in different bodies, according to Dr Black’s
method, hath obferved, thafthe fame body, under dif¬
ferent forms, fhews different difpofitions' with refpeft
to heat; that ice, for inftance, mixed with mercury
20 degrees colder than itfelf, leffened the cold of the
mixture in a fmaller degree, or imparted to it a fmaller
quantity of heat than water mixed with mercury 20
degrees colder than itfelf. Hence that learned gentle¬
man hath concluded, that the great quantity of heat
which is found to enter into bodies while they evapo¬
rate, or are reduced to a fluid ftate, is abforbed by
them becaufe of their change of form, and confequently
of their difpofition towards heat; and.hence that the
entrance of the heat is not to be accounted the caufe,
but the ejfett or confequettce, of fluidity or vapour. This
opinion indeed feems more probable, and agreeable to
the principles already laid down, than the other. But
we muft carefully remember, that the thermometer
can only meafure that quantity of heat which flows
out from bodies, not that which enters into them. If,
therefore, a quantity of heat in vapour affe&s the ther¬
mometer lefs than an equal quantity in water, we are
thence to conclude, that vapour has a ftronger attrac¬
tion for heat than water, and therefore the thermo¬
meter attradls a fmaller quantity of heat from it than
from water. When melting ice abforbs a great quan-
tity of heat, which yet does not affed the thermome¬
ter; and when water converted into ice, throws out
a great quantity of heat upon the thermometer or
other bodies around it; thefe phenomena are eafily
explained from the greater attradion which water has
for heat.
“ The increafe of the attradion which water has
fop
H E A [ 354."! ] H E A
Heat. for heat, arifes from the folution of its attra&ion^of
cohefion, as appears probable from analogy. But
heat rulhes into vapour, betaufe it is diftributed among
bodies dire&ly in proportion to their attractive powers,
and inverfely in proportion to the repulfive power be¬
tween its own particles. When water is converted
into vapour, its parts are removed to a diftance from
each other, and confequently the particles of heat.
The repulfion between the latter, therefore, is dimi-
nilhed; the heat flows into the vapour, until the re-
pullion between its particles with refpeCt to the at-
tra&ing power of .the body becomes the fame as be¬
fore; whence we plainly fee the reafon why vapour
abforbs the greater quantity of heat in proportion as
it is. more expanded.
“ That heat accompanies the rays of the fun, is be¬
yond all doubt; but whether the fun communicates
heat to the rays of light, or whether they attraft it
from the air, is with me a matter of uncertainty. If
heat is derived from the fun, how comes it to pafs that
the earth is no hotter after having received fuch an im-
menfe quantity of heat for fo many ages? If the heat
is communicated from the earth to the air, and is not
again carried off from thence, why is the atmofphere
fo cold in its upper parts; or why has not the equili¬
brium of heat yet pervaded the whole atmofphere ? If
the rays of light have received heat from the fun him-
felf, why does not an equal quantity of heat accom¬
pany the fame quantity of light at all different di-
itances from the earth? —Thefe, and other objections,
fhew, that heat does not flow from the fun; and fome
of them plainly fhew, that heat is attracted from the
atmofphere; which thought we fhall now profecute a
little farther.
“ Heat is of fuch a nature, as I have already fhewn,
that, when accumulated, it diffufes itfelf all around,
and joins, with bodies in proportion to their attractive
powers; but if the rays of light are collected into a
focus in the air, and no more heat is added to the air, the
quantity of heat in the collected rays is not increafed in
proportion to their own attraction, more than of the air
in proportion to its attraction. But if they are in cqui-
Ubrio-diS to their heat, before the collection by the focus,
this fhews, that heat has entered the rays of light from
the atmofphere, feeing their temperature increafes by
condenfation. But that the rays of the fun really do at¬
tract heat from the atmofphere, feems to be proved by
the obfervations of De Luc; who hath obferved, that the
heat is very much, and very fuddenly, decreafed before
fun-rifing; which fhews, that the rays of the fun, fweep-
ing along at a fmall diftance above the earth, abftraCf ed
the heat from that part of the atmofphere, which
therefore flowed from the lower parts to fupply the
place of that which was taken away.”
From this laft paragraph it feems natural to con-
to DrCl"*- c^u^e’ t^iat t*ie fun’ mAead of being the fource of heat,
horn’s doc- *s really a fource of cold ; and the atmofphere the
trine. only refervoir of heat to us. But, on this fuppofition,
it feems difficult to conceive how the heat of the at-
mofphere could remain the fame in quantity, even for
a Angle moment. The rays of the fun, it is faid,
cool the atmofphere, and carry off its heat; while
they fweep along it at a little diftance from the fur-
face of the earth. But this they are perpetually do¬
ing. While the fun, for inftance, is finning dire&ly
upon Britain, his rays are cooling the atmofphere
above America. But thefe rays which thus pafs '
through the atmofphere without touching the earth’s
furface, fly into the moft remote regions of fpace, and.
confequently muft carry the heat of our atmofphere
along with them, where it muft be for ever loft to us.
Thus the general quantity of heat would be perpe¬
tually diminiihing; and in fuch a number of ages as
have intervened from the beginning of the world, it
muft have been totally diffipated, or diffufed through
fpaces to which our earth and its atmofphere bear not
the proportion of I to 10,000,000,000.
His explanation of Dr Black’s principle of latent
heat is, perhaps, equally liable to objetftion. We
fhall for a moment allow, that the abforption of heat
is the confequence, and not the caufe, of fluidity and va¬
pour: but what then is the caufe? It feems undenia¬
ble, that the caufe is a quantity of heat, greater than
what the body is naturally fitted to contain, forced
upon it ab extra: but this heat, the moment it enters
the body, is to appearance loft and annihilated, while
the body changes its form. Hew is it poffible, then,
to affign another caufe for the change of form in the
body, than its abforption of the quantity of heat which
was forced upon it ab extra?—To fay that the body
now attracts heat from the atmofphere in greater quan¬
tity than it did before, and which enters it copioufly,
cannot be admitted. The body did not originaily at-
traft the heat; it was plainly forced upon it; a quan¬
tity of heat entered it, and changed its form. This
quantity therefore remains within the body, and nei¬
ther attra&s nor repels that which is in the atmo¬
fphere. The body can attraA no more, unlefs that
which has already entered was to be thrown out; and
therefore the coldnefs of vapour cannot be owing to
its attra&ion of heat from the atmofpheje: neither is it
owing to its attra£Hng heat more than water does; for
vapour may be heated in fuch a manner, that it will
p^rt with heat as readily as water, or any other
fubftance whatever. Nor does the experiment
adduced in favour of this doftrine feem concluflve.
Ice communicates lefs heat to mercury 20 degrees
colder than itfelf, than water does; but for this two
reafons may be affigned. 1. When bodies are intenfeiy
heated, they part with their heat;very readily, and in
great quantity; but as the heat decreafes, it alfo flies
off, or is communicated to furrounding bodies more
flowly and with more difficulty than before. Water
always contains a greater quantity of heat than ice,
and therefore ought to part with an equal quantity of
heat more readily and eaflly than ice does. 2. When
water is cooled to 32 degrees, it freezes ; when juft
above 32 degrees, it becomes fluid ; and, with every
degree of heat fuperior to that, evaporates. If water
heated to 212 degrees, or near it, is placed within the
receiver of an air-pump, and the air exhaufted, a great
quantity of fleam iffues from it, and the heat of the
water fuddenly decreafes 1098 or 100 degrees. Hence
it is plain, that 112 degrees of the heat of boiling
water is contained, not in the water itfelf, but in the
fleam detained among its particles by the preffure of
the atmofphere. Had this water, therefore, been
mixed with mercury much colder than itfelf, a quan¬
tity of the"fleam would have been condenfed by the
coldnefs of the metal. But fleam cannot be condenfed
20 G 2 without
H E A [ 3544 ] H E A
Heat. without giving out, not only Its fenfible heat, but that
which is latent alfo; and hence we may eafily fee why
water communicates degrees of heat fo much greater in
proportion than ice does.
Laflly, The principle on which the whole do&rine
is founded, does not feem to agree either with the phe¬
nomena of nature, or with the conclufions which mull
be drawn from itfelf. It is faid, that fire tends to
diffufe itfelf equally on all bodies in the neighbour¬
hood of one another. But does this hold in fadt?
Heat has a difpofition to afeend; and that not only in
the atmofphere, but in vacuo, and through folid bo¬
dies. If a bar of iron, red-hot at one end, is fet to
cool with its red part undermoft, the heat will afeend
farther and quicker through it, than it will defeend if
the iron is placed the contrary way. The argument,
therefore, for the repulfive power between the particles
of heat does not hold, nor that for the attradiion be¬
tween the particles of heat and thofe of other matter.
Though different bodies contain different quantities of
heat, this difference may be occafioned otherwife than
by attraction. We have already feen, that a certain
quantity of heat abforbed by wster in the Hate of ice,
is the caufe of its fluidity. The fame is the cafe with
mercury; but the latter can remain fluid with much
lefs heat than water can. It muff, however, be ad¬
mitted, that the fubftances we call ’water and mercury
are only fo in confequence of the adlion of heat.
Thus, water deprived of a certain quantity of heat, is
no longer <water, but a kind of glafs; and mercury is
no longer mercury, but a folid metal. Now, let us
fuppofe, that ice at 32 degrees is applied to a quantity
of mercury at 32 ; we know that the ice is only water
deprived of a quantity of its natural heat, and of con¬
fequence it ought to have a violent attradlion for that
quantity which has been forced from it. The mercury
has a great deal of heat to fpare, yet the ice attrafls none
from it; neither will the fluid water attradl heat from
mercury of the fame temperature, though the one is
faid to attradl it more ftrongly than the other. That
water fhould be heated by mercury hotter than itfelf,
is not wonderful; nor can we account this an effeft of
attraction, becaufe the fuperfluous quantity of heat
would not remain in the mercury, though the water
9 was not applied to it.
Explana- From thefe, and a multitude of other confiderations,
tion of the we would conclude, that heat itfelf, and not the at-
phenomena tra(q;ve ang repulfive power fuppofed by Dr Cleghorn
otherprin- anc* others» *s the adtive principle which has fo great a
ciples. lhare in the operations of nature. The principles on
which the a&ions of heat depend, may perhaps be ex¬
plained in a lefs exceptionable manner, from the fol¬
lowing propofitions.
1. It is in all cafes obferved, That when light pro¬
ceeds in confiderable quantity from a point, diverging
as the radii of a circle from its centre, there a confi¬
derable degree of heat is found to exift, if an opaque
body, having no great refleCtive power, is brought near
that point.
2. This adtion of the light, therefore, may be ac¬
counted the ultimate caufe of heat, without having re-
courfe to any farther fuppofitions ; becaufe nothing
elfe befides this adtion is evident to ourfenfes.
3. If the point from which the rays are emitted is
placed in a tranfparent medium, fuch as air or water,
that medium, without the prefence of an opaque body, Heat,
will not be heated.  
4. Another caufe of heat, therefore, is therefiftance
of the parts of that body on which which the light
falls, to the adlion mentioned in Prop. 1. Where
this refiftance is weak, as in the cafes juft mentioned,
the heat is either nothing, or very little.
5. If a body capable of refledling light very copioufly
is brought near the lucid point, it will not be heated *. * gee
6. A penetration of the light, therefore, into the the article
fubftance of the body, and likewife a confiderable de- ®URN'
gree of refiftance on the part of that body to the adlion ING‘
of the light, are the requifites to produce heat.
7. Thofe bodies ought to conceive the greateft
degrees of heat, into whofe fubftance the light can
bell penetrate, e. which have the leaft reftediive
power, and which moil ftrongly refill its adlion ;
which is evidently the cafe with black and folid fub-
llances.
8. By heat all bodies are expanded in their dimen-
fions every way, and that in proportion to their bulk
and the quantity of heat communicated to them.
9. This expanfion takes place not only by an addi¬
tion of fenftble heat, but likewife of that which is la¬
tent. Of this laft we have a remarkable inftance in
the cafe of fnow mixed with fpirit of nitre. The fpirit
of nitre contains a certain quantity of latent heat,
which cannot be feparated from it without effedling a
change on the fpirit itfelf ; fo that, if deprived of
this heat, it would no longer be fpirit of nitre.—
Befides this, it contains a quantity of fenfible heat, of
a great part of which it may be deprived, and yet re¬
tain its charadleriftic properties as nitrous acid. When
it is poured upon fnow, the latter is immediately melted
by the adlion of the latent heat in the acid. The
fnow cannot be melted or converted into water, with¬
out imbibing a quantity of latent heat, which it re¬
ceives immediately from the acid which melts it. But
the acid cannot part with this heat without decompo-
fition; to prevent which, its fenfible heat occupies the
place of that which has entered the fnow and liquefied it.
The mixture then becomes exceedingly cold, and the
heat forces into it from all the bodies in the neigh¬
bourhood ; fo that, by the time it has recovered that
quantity of fenfible heat which was loft, or arrived at
the temperature of the atmofphere around it, it will
contain a confiderably larger quantity of heat than it
originally did, and is therefore obferved to be ex¬
panded in bulk. Another inftance of this expanfive
power of latent heat is in the cafe of fteam, which al¬
ways occupies a much larger fpace than the fnbftance
from which it was produced ; and this whether its
temperature is greater or lefs than the furrounding
atmofphere.
10. The difference between latent and fenfible heat,
then, as far as we can perceive, is, that the expanfive
power of the firft is directed only againft the particles
of which the body is compofed ; but that of the fe-
cond is dire&ed alfo againft other bodies. Neither
doth there feem to be any difference at all between
them farther than in quantity. If water, for inftance;
hath but a fmall quantity of heat, its parts are brought
near each other, it contrails in bulk, and feels cold.
Still, however, fome part of the heat is detained a-
mong the aqueous particles, which prevents the fluid
from
H E A [ 3545 ] H E A
Heat. from congealing into a folid mafs. But, by a conti-
miation of the contrafting power of the cold, the par¬
ticles of water are at la(t brought fo near each other
that the internal or latent heat is forced out. By this
difcharge a quantity of air is alfo produced, the water
is congealed, and the ice occupies a greater fpace than
the water did; but then rt is full of air-bubles, which
are evidently the caufe of its expanfion. The heat
then becomes fenjtble, or, as it were, lies on the out-
fide of the matter; and confequently is eafily diffipated
into the air, or communicated to other bodies. Ano¬
ther way in which the latent heat may be extricated
is by a conftant addition of fenfibleheat. In this cafe the
body is firft raifed into vapour, which for fome time
carries off the redundant quantity of heat. But as the
quantity of this heat is continually increafed, the tex¬
ture of the vapour itfelf is at laft totally deftroyed.
It becomes too much expanded to contain the heat,
which is therefore violently thrown out on-allfides
into the atmofphere, and the body is faid to burn, or
be on fire. See Flame and Ignition.
i i. Hence it follows, that thofe bodies which have
the lead {hare of latent heat, appear to have the greateft
quantity of fenfibie heat ; but this is only in appear¬
ance, for the great quantity they feem to contain is
owing really to their inability to contain it. Thus,
if we can fuppofe a fubftance capable of tranfmitting
heat through it as faft as it received it ; if fuch a fub¬
ftance was fet over a fire, it would be as hot as the
fire itfelf, and yet the moment it was taken off, it
would be perfefUy cool, on account of its incapacity
to detain the heat among the particles of which it was
compofed.
12. The heat, therefore, in all bodies, confifts in
a certain violent aftion of the elementary fire within
them tending from a centre to a circumference, and
thus making an effort to feparate the particles of the
body from each other, and thereby to change its form
or mode of exiftence. When this change is effefted,
bodies are faid to be difiipated in vapour, calcined,
vitrified, or burnt, according to their different natures.
13. Inflammable bodies are fuch as are eafily raifed
in vapours ; that is, the fire eafily penetrates their
parts, and combines with them in fuch quantity, that,
becoming exceedingly light, they are carried up by
the atmofphere. Every fucceeding addition of heat
to the body increafes alfo the quantity of latent heat
in the vapour, till at laft, being unable to refift its ac¬
tion, the heat breaks out all at once, the vapour is
converted into flame, and is totally decompyfed. See
the article Flame, and Prop. 10.
14. Uninflammable bodies are thofe which have
their parts more firmly conn eft ed, or otherwife dif-
pofed in fuch a manner, that the particles of heat can¬
not eafily combine with them or raife them into va¬
pour.
15. Heat therefore being only a certain mode of
the aftion of elementary fire, it follows, that the ca¬
pacity of a body for containing it, is only a certain
conftitution of the body itfelf, or a difpofition of its
parts which can allow the elementary fire contained in
it to exert its expanfive power upon them without be¬
ing diffipated on other bodies. Thofe fubft'ances
which allow the expanfive power of the fire to operate
on their own particles are faid to contain a great deal of
heat; but thofe which throw it away from themfelves Heat,
upon other bodies, though they feel very hot, yet '
philofophically fpeaking they contain very little.
16. What is called the quantity of heat contained
in any fubftance, if we would fpeak with the ftrifteft
propriety, is only the apparent force of its aftion ei¬
ther upon the parts of the body itfelf, or upon other
bodies in its neighbourhood. The expanfive force of
the elementary fire contained in any body upon the
parts of that body is the quantity of latent heat con¬
tained in it; and the expanfive force of the fire exerted
upon other bodies which touch or come near it, is the
quantity of fenfibie heat it contains.
17. If what we call <5^/confifts only in a certain
aftion of that fluid called elementary fire, namely, its
expanfion, or afting from a centre to a circumference,
it follows, that if the fame fluid aft in a manner dt-
reftly oppofite to the former, or prefs upon the par¬
ticles of a body as from a circumference to a centre, it
will then produce effefts direftly oppofite to thofe of
heat, i. e, it will then be abfolute cold, and produce all
the effefts already attributed to Cold. See that article.
18. If heat and cold then are only two different
modifications of the fame fluid, it follows, that if a hot
body and a cold one are fuddenly brought near each
other, the heat of the one ought to drive before it a part
of the cold contained in the other, i. e. the two por¬
tions of elementary fire afting in two oppofite ways,
ought in fome meafure to operate upon one another
as any two different bodies would when driven againft
each other. When a hot and a cold body therefore
are brought near each other, that part of the cold
body fartheft from the hot one ought to become colder
than before, and that part of the hot body farthefl
from the cold one ought to become hotter than be¬
fore-
19. For the fame reafon, the greateft degree of cold
in any body ought to be no obftacle, or at leaft very-
little, to its conceiving heat, when put in a proper
fituation. Cold air, cold fuel, &c. ought to become
as intenfely heated, and very nearly as foon, as that
which is hotter.
The two laft; propofitibns are of great importance.
When the firft of them is thoroughly eftablifhed, it will
confirm beyond a doubt, that cold is apofitive as well
as heat; and that each of them has a feparate and
diffinft power, of which the aftion of its antagonift
is the only proper limit; i. e. that heat can only limit
the power of cold, and vice verfa. A ftrong confir¬
mation of this propofition is the experiment related by
M. Geoffroy ; an account of which is given under the
article Cold, n° 5. Another, but not fo well authen¬
ticated, is related under the article Congelation,
n° 11.—De Luc’s obfervation alfo, mentioned by Dr
Cleghorn affords a pretty ftrong proof of it; for if
the lower parts of the atmofphere are cooled by the
paffage of the fun’s rays at fome diftance above, and
it hath been already fhewn that they do not attract
the heat from the lower parts, it follows, that they
muft expel part of the cold from the upper regions 
The other propofition, when fully eftablifhed, will prove,
that heat and cold are really convertible into one ano¬
ther; which indeed feems not improbable, as we fee
that fires will burn with the greateft fiercenefs during
the time of intenfe frofts, when the coldeft air is ad¬
mitted
H E A [ 3546 ] H E A
Heat. mitted to them ; and even in thofe difmal regions of
Siberia, when the intenfe cold of the atmofphere is
fufficient to congeal quickfilver, it cannot be doubted
that fires will burn as well as in this country ; which
could not happen if heat was a fluid per je, and capable
of being carried off, or abfolutely diminifhed in quan¬
tity, either in any part of the atmofphere itfel'f, or in
fuch terreftrial bodies as are nfed for fuel-
This theory of heat, if found admiffible by philo-
fophers, would introduce a greater fimplicity into na¬
tural philofophy, and explain the phenomena of na¬
ture in a manner much more eafy and lefs liable to
objection, than hath yet been done : we would then fee
the phenomena of attraftion, repulfion, eledlricity,
fire, light, ignition, &c. &c. to be only as many dif¬
ferent effects of one etherial fluid, which the Deity
hath appointed to be the firft of all fecondary caufes,
and to alter, modify, compound, and feparate, the
different parts of terreflrial fubftances, as we daily fee
done by the different natural agents.
Heat of Burning Bodies. See Ignition.
Heat of Chemical Mixtures. This is a pheno¬
menon neceffarily refulting from the change of form
produced in the different fubftances which arp mixed
together ; and the manner in which it happens may
be eafily underftood from the example of oil of vitriol
and water. If equal quantities of concentrated vi-
tridlic acid and water are mixed together, a very great
degree of heat immediately takes place; infomuch,
that if the veffel which contains the mixture is made
of glafs, it will probably break ; and after it is cold,
the mixture will be found to have fhrunk in itsdimen-
fions, or will occupy lefs fpace than the bulk of the
water and acid taken feparately. In this cafe we
know that the water, while in its fluid ftate, hath as
much latent heat as it can contain ; 7. e. the elemen¬
tary fire within it expands, or feparates its parts from
each other, as much as is confiftent with the conflitu-
tion of the body. If any more is added, it cannot be
abforbed, or direft its force upon the particles of the
water without railing them in vapour : of confequence,
part of this additional expanfive power will be em¬
ployed in the formation of vapour, and the reft will
be difcharged upon the neighbouring bodies; i. e. will
be converted into fenfible heat. The vitriolic acid, in
its concentrated ftate, contains a great quantity of la¬
tent heat which is neceffary to preferve its fluidity.
But when it is mixed with the fluid water, the latent
heat contained in the latter is abundantly fufficient for
both : of confequence, the great expanfive power in
the oil of vitriol itfelf becomes now totally ufelefs,
and therefore exerts its force upon the neighbouring
bodies ; and when the mixture returns to the original
temperature of the oil of vitriol and water* it (hews a
lofs of fubftance by its diminution in bulk. This may
ferve to explain all cafes in chemiftry where heat or
cold is produced: and it will generally be found, that
where bodies, by being mixed together, produce heat,
they flirink iq their dimenfions ; but when they pro¬
duce cold, they are enlarged.
Heat ofClitnates. See Heat, n° 2 ; and America,
n° 3 — 24.
Methods of Meafuring'H.iLA.T. See Thermometer.
Expanfton of Metals by Heat. See Pyrometer.
Degrees c/Heat which Animals are capable of bear¬
ing. The ancients were of opinion that all countries Heat,
lying within the tropics were uninhabitable by reafon
of their heat ; but time has difeovered their miftake,
and it is now found that no part of the world is too
hot for mankind to live in. The learned profefibr
Boerh ,ave, in his oh miftry, relates certain experi¬
ments made with great accuracy by the celebrated
Fahrenheit, and others, at his ddire, on this fubjeft,
in a fugar-baker’s office ; where the heat, at the time
of making the experiments, was up to 146 degrees
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. A fparrow, fubjedfed
to air thus heated, died, after breathing very iabo-
rioufly, in lefs than feven minutes. A cat refifted
this great heat fomewhat above a quarter of an hour;
and a dog about 28 minutes, difeharging, before his
death, a confiderable quantity of a ruddy-coloured
foam, and exhaled a (tench fo peculiarly offenfive, as
to throw one of the affiftadtsintoa fainting fit. This
diftblution of the humours, or great change from a
natural ftate, the profeffor attributes not to the heat
of the ftove alone, which would not have produced
any luch effedt on the flefli of a dead animal; but like-
wife to the vital motion, by which a ftill greater de¬
gree of heat, he fuppofes, was produced in the fluids
circulating through the lungs, in confequence of which
the oils, falls, and fpirits of the animal became fo
highly exalted.
Meffieurs Du-Hamel and Tillet having been fent
into the province of Augomois, in the years 1760 and
1761, with a view of endeavouring to deftroy an in-
fedl which confumed the grain of that province, ef-
fedfed the fame in the manner related in the Memoirs
for 1761, by expofing the affedled corn, with the
the infedls included in it, in *an oven, where the heat
was fufficient to kill them without injuring the grain.
This operation was performed at Rochefoucalt, in a
large public oven, where, for (Economical views, their
firft ftep was to aflure themfelves of the heat remain¬
ing in it, on the day after bread had been baked in
it. This they did, by conveying in a thermometer
on the end of a (hovel, which, on its being withdrawn,
indicated a degree of heat confiderably above that of
boiling water: but M. Tillet, convinced that the
thermometer had fallen feveral degrees in drawing to
the mouth of the oven, and appearing under fome
embarraffment on that head, a girl, one of the atten-*
dants on the oven, offered to enter, and mark with a
'pencil the height at which the thermometer (food with¬
in the oven. The girl fmiled on M. Tillet’s appear¬
ing to hefitate at this ftrange propofition ; and enter¬
ing the oven, with a pencil given her for that pur-
pofe, marked the thermometer, after Haying two or
three minutes, (landing at 100 degrees of ReaumurV
fcale, or, to make nfe of a fcale better known in this
country, at near 260 degrees of Fahrenheit’s. M.
Tillet began to exprefs an anxiety for the welfare
of Ins female affiftant, and to prefs her return. This
female falamander, however, affuring him that (he felt
no inconvenience from her fituation, remained there
10 minutes longer ; that is, near the time when Boer-
haave’s cat parted with her nine lives, under a much
lefs degree of heat; when the thermometer (landing
at 288 degrees, or 76 degrees above that of boiling
water, (lie came out of the oven, her complexion in¬
deed confiderably heightened, but her refpiration by
no
H E A
Heat, means quick or laborious. After M. Tiilet’s return
  to Paris, thefe experiments were repeated by Monf.
Marantin, commifiaire de guerre, at Rochefoucault,
an intelligent and accurate obferver, on a fecond girl
belonging to the oven ; who remained in it, without
much inconvenience, under the fame degree of heat,
as long as her predeceffor; and even breathed in air
heated to about 325 degrees, for the fpace of five
minutes.
M. Tillet endeavoured to clear up the very appa¬
rent contrariety between thefe experiments and thofe
made under the diredfion of Boerhaave, by fubjedting
various animals, under different circumrtances, to great
degrees of heat. From his experiments, in fome of
which the animals were fwaddled with clothes, and
were thereby enabled to refift for a much longer time
the effedfs of the extraordinary heat, he infers, that
the heat of the air received into the lungs was not, as
was fuppofed by Boerhaave, the only or principal
canfe of the anxiety, laborious breathing, and death,
of the animals on whom his experiments were made;
but that the hot air, which had free and immediate
aecefs to every part of the furface of their bodies, pe¬
netrated the fubltance on all fides, and brought on a
fever, from whence proceeded all the fymptoms: on
the contrary, the girls at Rochefoucault, having their
bodies in great meafure protedfed from this adtion by
their clothes, were enabled to breathe the air, thus
violently heated, for a long time without great incon¬
venience. In fadt, we fhould think too, that the bulk
of their bodies, though not thought of much confe-
quence by M. Tillet, appears to have contributed not
a little to their fecurity. In common refpiration, the
blood, in its paffage through the lungs, is cooled by
being brought into contadl with the external infpired
afr: In the prefent experiments, on the contrary, the
veficles and veffels of the lungs receiving at each in-
fpiration an air heated to 300 degrees, mult have been
continually cooled and refrefhed, as well as the fubcu-
taneous vefiels, by the fucceffive arrival of the whole
mafs of blood contained in the interior parts of the
body, whofe he^t might be fuppofed at the beginning
of the experiment not to exceed too degrees. Not
to mention, that M. Tibet’s two girls may not poffibly
have been fubjedted to fo great a degree of heat as
that indicated by the thermometer ; which appears to
us to have always remained on the Ihovel, in contadl
with the earth.
Thefe experiments foon excited other philofophers
to make fimilar ones, of which fome very remarkable
ones are thofe of Dr Dobfon at Liverpool, who gives
the following account of them in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions, vol. Ixv.
“ I. The fweating-room of our public hofpital at Li¬
verpool, which is nearly a cube of nine feet, lighted
from the top, was heated till the quickfdver Hood at
2240 on Fahrenheit’s fcale, nor would the tube of the
thermometer indeed admit the heat to be railed higher.
The thermometer was fufpended’ by a firing fixed to
the wooden frame of the ficy-light, and hung down
about the centre of the room. Myfelf andfeveral o-
H E A
thers were at this time inclofed in the ftove, without Heat,
experiencing any oppreffive or painful fenfation of heat-'
proportioned to the degree pointed out by the thermo¬
meter. Every metallic about us foon became very hot.
“ II. My friend Mr Park, an ingenious furgeon
of this place, went into thefiove heated to 202°. Af¬
ter ten minutes, I found the pulfe quickened to 120.
And to determine the increafe of the animal-heat, a-
nother thermometer was handed to him, in which the
quickfilver already ftood at 98° ; but it rofe only to
99L, whether the bulb of the thermometer was in¬
clofed in the palms of the hands, or received in the
the mouth (a). The natural ftate of this gentleman’s
pulfe is about 65.
“ III. Another gentleman went through the fame
experiment in the fame circumftances, and with the
fame effeifts.
“ IV. One of the porters to the hofpital, a heal¬
thy young man, and the pulfe 75, was inclofed in the
ftove when the quickfilver hood at 210° ; and he re¬
mained there, with little inconvenience, for 20 minutes.
The pulfe, now 164* and the animal-heat, determi¬
ned by another thermometer as in the former experi¬
ments, was 1014,
“ V. A young gentleman of a delicate and irrita¬
ble habit, whofe natural pulfe is about 80, remained
in the ftove ten minutes when heated to 2240. The
pulfe rofe to 145, and the animal-heat to 102°. This
gentleman, who had been frequently in the ftove during
the courfe of the day, found himfelf feeble, and dif-
pofed to break out into fweats for 24 hours after the
experiment.
“ VI. Two fmall tin veflels, containing each the
white of an egg, were put into the ftove heated to
2240. One of them was placed on a wooden feat
near the wall, and the other fufpended by a firing a-
bout the middle of the ftove. After ten minutes,
they began • to coagulate; but the congulation was
fenfibly quicker and firmer in that which was fufpend¬
ed, than in that which was placed on the wooden feat-
The progrefs of the coagulation was as follows : it
was firft formed on the fides, and gradually extended
itfelf; the whole of the bottom was next coagulated?
and laft of all, the middle part of the top.
“'VII. Part of the ftiell of an egg was peeled a-
way, leaving only the film which furrounds the white ?
and part of the white being drawn oat, the film funk
fo as to form a little cup. This cup was filled with
fome of the albumen ovi, which was confequently de¬
tached as much as poffible from every thing but the
contaft of the air and of the film which formed the
cup. The lower part of the egg ftood upon fome
light tow in a common gallipot, and was placed on
the wooden feat in the ftove. The quickfilver in the
thermometer ftill continued at 2240. After remain¬
ing in the ftove foran hour, the lower part of the egg1
which was covered with the ftiell, was firmly coagu¬
lated ; but that which was in the little cup, was fluid
and tranfparent. At the end of another hour it Was
ftill fluid, except on the edges where it was tfimneft ;
and here it was ftill'tranfparent ? a fufficient proof that
(a) The fade of the thermometer, which was fufpended by the firing: about the middle of the room, was of metal ?
this was the only one I could then procure, on which the degrees ran fo high as to give any fcope to the experiment .
The fcale of the other thermometer, which was employed for afeertaining the variations in the animal-heat, was of
hrory.
[ 3547 1
H E A [ 3548 ] H E A
Heat. Jt vvas dried, not coagulated.
~ ; “ VIII. A piece of bees-wax, placed in the fame
fituation with the albumen ovi of the preceding expe-.
riment, and expofed to the fame degree of heat in
the ftove, began to melt in five minutes : another
piece fufpended by a firing, and a third piece put in¬
to the tin veffel and fufpended, began likewife to li¬
quefy in five minutes.”
Even thefe experiments, though more accurate
than the former, do not fhew the utmoft degrees
of heat which the human body is capable of endu-.
ring. Some others, flill more remarkable, (as in them
the body was expofed to the heat without clothes),
by Drs Fordyce and Blagden, are alfo recorded in the
Philofophical Tranfa&lons. They were made in rooms
heated by flues in the floor, and by pouring upon it
boiling water. There'was no chimney in them, nor
any vent for the air, excepting through crevices at the
door. In the firft room were placed three thermome¬
ters, one in the hottefi part of it, another in the cool-
eft part, and a third on the table, to be ufed occafion-
ally in the courfe of the experiment. Of thefe ex¬
periments, the two following may be taken as a fpe-
cimen.
“ About three hours after breakfaft, Dr Fordyce
having taken off all his clothes, except his fhirt, and
being furnifhed with wooden fhoes tied on with lift,
went into one of the rooms, where he ftaid five mi¬
nutes in a heat of 90°, and begun to fweat gently.
He then entered another room, and flood in a part of
it heated to 1 io°. In about half a minute his fhirt
became fo wet, that he was obliged to throw it afide,
and then the water poured down in ftreams over his
whole body. Having remained in'this heat for ten
minutes, he removed to a part of the room heated
1200 ; and after flaying there 20 minutes, found that
the thermometer placed under his tongue, and held in
his hand, flood juft at too0, and that his. urine was
of the fame temperature. His pulfe had gradually
rifen to 145 pulfations in a minute. The external cir¬
culation was greatly increafed, the veins had become
very large, and an univerfal rednefs had diffufed itfelf
all over the body, attended with a ftrong feeling of
heat; his refpiratian, however, was little afledled. He
concluded this experiment by plunging in water heated
to TOO0 .; and after being wiped dry, was carried home
in a chair; but the circulation did not fubfide for two
hours.
“ Dr Blagden took off his coat, waiftcoat, and
fhirt, and went into one of the rooms, as foon as the
thermometer had indicated a degree of heat above
that of boiling water. The firft impreflion of this
hot air upon his body was exceedingly difagreeable, but
in a few minutes all his uneafinefs was removed by the
breaking out of a fweat. At the end of 12 minutes
he left the room very much fatigued, but no otherwife
dlfordered. His pulfe beat 136.in a minute, and the
thermometer had rifen to 220 degres.”
In others of thefe experiments it was found, that a
heat even .of 260° of Fahreinheit’s thermometer could
be fubmitted to with tolerable eafe. But it muft be
obferved, that in thefe great heats every piece of me¬
tal they carried about with them become intolerably
hot. Small quantities of water placed in metalline
vpficls quickly boiled; but in a common earthen vef¬
fel it required an hour andean half to arrivd at a tern- Heat,
perature of 140°, nor could it ever be brought near
the boiling point. Neither durft the people, who with
impunity breathed the air of this very hot room at
264 degrees, bear to put their fingers into the boiling
water which indicated only a heat of'212°. So far
from this, they could not bear the touch of quiekfil-
ver heated only to 120°, and could but juft bear fpi-
rit of wine at 130°.
Atiimal- Heat. Of this there are various degrees;
fome animals preferving a heat of ioo° or more in all
the different temperatures of the atmofphere; others
keep only a few degrees warmer than the medium
which furrounds them ; and in fome of the more im-
perfeil animals, the heat is fcarcely one degree above
the air or water in which they live.
The phenomenon of animal-heat hath, from the
earlieft ages, been the fubjeft of philofophical difeuf-
fion ; and, like moft other fubje<fts of this nature, its
caufe is not yet afeertained. The heft treatifes that
have appeared on the fubjetft are thofe of Dr Du-
gud Ldlie, publiftted in 1778 ; and Mr Adair Craw¬
ford, in 1779. From the firft of thefe performances,
the following account of the different opinions on this
fubjesft is extrafted. ,
“ The ancients poffeffed not the requifites for mi- Opinions of
nutely inveftigating the fcience of nature ; and, prone the ancients
to fuperftition, attributed every phenomenon which e-
luded their inveftigation, to the influence of a fuper- j]eat<
natural power. Hippocrates, the father and founder
of medicine, accounted animal-heat a myftery, and be-
ftowed on it many attributes of the deity. In treat¬
ing of that fubjeA, he fays in exprefs terms, “ what
we call heat, appears tometobe fomething immortal,
which underftands, fees, hears, and knows every thing
prefent and to come.”—Ariftotle feems to have confi-
dered the fubjeift particularly, but nothing is to be
met with in his works that can be faid to throw light
upon it.—Galen tells us that the difpute between the
philofophers and phyilcians of his time was, “ whether
animal-heat depended on the motion of the heart and
arteries; or whether, as the motion of the heart and
arteries was innate, the heat was not alfo innate.”
Both thefe opinions, however, he reje&s ; and attempts
a folution of the queftion on his favourite fyftem,
namely, the peripatetic philofophy : but his leading
principles being erroneous, his deduftions are of courfe
inadmiffible. t
“ To enter into a minute detail of all the opinions Of the mo-
offered by the moderns on the caufe of animal-heat, dems.
would far exceed our limits. Moft of them, howe¬
ver, may be referred to one or other of the three ge¬
neral caufes of heat, viz. mixture, fermentation, and
mechanical means, each of which we fhall particular¬
ly confider.
“ 1. Chen A cal mixture. When chemical philofophy
firft came into vogue, and prevailed in the theory as
well as pra&ice of medicine, almoft every operation in
the animal machine was faid to be the effefl of fer¬
ment or mixture. From obferving, that on the mix¬
ing of certain bodies far below the temperature of
the human body, a degree of heat fometimes rifing to
a&ual inflammation was produced; they, without fur¬
ther inveftigation, pronounced mixture the foie caufe
of animal heat. Various, however, were the opinions,
not
Heat.
H E A [ 3549 ] H E A
Heat, not only refpe&ing the place where the mixture hap-
pened, but alfo concerning the nature'of the fluids of
which it confifted. Van Helmont, Sylvius-, and feve-
ral others, fuppofed that the mixture took place in
the inteftinal tube; and afcribed it to an effervtfc'ence
between the pancreatic juice and the bile. Others
difcoveredacids in one place, and alkalies in another;
but the general opinion for near two centuries was,
That acefcent fluids taken in, meeting with others of
an alkaline nature already prepared in the body, gave
rife to the degree of heat peculiar to animals. But
thofe who are in the lead acquainted with the laws Of
the animal ceconomy, need not be told that thefe opi¬
nions are mere conjeftures, founded on fafts gratui-
toufly aflumed. No experiments have (hewn either an
acefcency or alkalefcency in the bile that is fufficient
to unite with the other animal juices, and generate
the heat -of animals. But though we fhould admit
the fuppofition in its full extent, flill it would by no
means be fufficient to account for the ftability of ani¬
mal heat in different climates and feafons; its equa¬
bility all over the body when in health; its partial in-
creafe in topical inflammations ; or hardly indeed for
any one phaenomenon attending its produflion.
“ Since, then, it appears that the fluids fuppofed to
be-mixed, the place in which the mixture is made, and
every other circumftance relating to it, are neither
afcertained nor feconded by analogy, none will, we
prefume, hefitate to rejeft every hypothejjj. of the
caufe of animal-heat founded on the effeaFof mix¬
ture.
“ 2. Fermentation. When a more accurate and ex-
tenfive knowledge of the various operations of nature
had convinced phyflologifts of the abfurdity of ex¬
plaining the vital funflions of animals, and the feveral
changes which take place in the living body by the
effe&s of chemical mixture, fermentation was fubfti-
tuted in its (lead. All bad obfervcd, that fermenta¬
tion was generally accompanied by heat; and few
were ignorant, that that identical procefs, or one ex¬
tremely fimilar to it, was conftantly going forward in
living animals ; and it was not without feme appear¬
ance of truth, that phyfiologifts attributed animal-heat
to that caufe.
“ Formerly there were various modifications of this
opinion ; but of late it has been chiefly confined to
one fpecies of fermentation, viz. the putrefa&ive,
which indeed is more confentaneous to experience and
found philofophy. For although animal-fubftances
are either dire&ly or indireftly produced from vege¬
tables, as all animals live on vegetables, or on animals
that have lived on them; and though they may be ul¬
timately refolved into the fame principles; yet they are
certainly combined in a different manner: for they con-
ftitute compounds, the natures of which are effentially
different; and of the three ftages of fermentation, the
vinous, acetous, and putrid, the laft is the only one to
which they (hew a tendency. Milk indeed tends to the
acetous, and even to the vinous fermentation; but as
it can hardly be confidered as perfectly animalized, it
ought not to be confidered as an exception to the ge¬
neral pofition. And though it be readily admitted, that
animal matter is extremely apt to putrefy, and that even
in the living body there is a tendency to that procefs;
yet it may be fhewn, that the degree to which it
Vol. V.
takes place can have little or no fliare hi generating
the heat of animals. In the firft place, the effe& of'
any degree of putrefadlibn in producing heat, is to
this day fo ill afcertained, that, with many ingenious
philofophers ft is altogether problematical, whether or
not animal fubftances, during the putrefa&ive procefs,
do ever generate heat. Neither M. Beaume nor Dr
Pearfon, who made feveral accurate experiments with
a view to afeertain this point, could, by the affiftance
of the mo ft fenfible thermometers, difeover the le'affi
difference betwixt the temperature of the putrefying
mixtures, and the furrOufiding medium ; anq were the
putrefa&ion of animal-fubffanceS .really attended with
the generation of heat, We might expddt to find it
greater in proportion to the bulk of the putrefying mafs.
This, however, is not the cafe; for it has often Been
found, that the largeft i«affe;s of animal inatfer, Tuch as
the carcafe of a large whale, laid out and expofed to
the air in fuch a putrid cbriditiofi as to affedl all the
Neighbourhood with an intolerable ftench, did not to
the perforis handling it feel fenfibly hotter than the
circumambient air. But what at once overturns every
thing that can be advanced in favour of the generatiori
of animal-heat on the principles of putrefadfion is,
that heat is far more con'fiderable in a living than in a'
dead body ; and no rational', phyfidlogift will deny;
that the putrid fermentatioA is going forward more
rapidly in the latter than in the former.
“ 3. The mechanical generation of heat. This opinion
firft: took took its rife frdm an obfervatidti, that ani¬
mal-heat generally keeps pace with the Hate of the
circulation: while the adtion of the heart and arteries
continues unimpaired, a high degree of animal-heat is
produced; but when that adtion becomes more lan¬
guid, the heat of the animal is diminiffied alfo. This,
till very lately, was the favourite opinion of pbyficians,
and was introduced immediattly after Harvey had
difeovered the circulation of the blood, and indeed
feems to be fupported by many finking fa&s. Phy¬
flologifts looked Upon it as a matter almoft capable of
mathematical demonftration; yet they could not agree
whether the heat of animals is occafioned by the fric¬
tion of the blood againft the veffels which cbntaig it*
or by the internal fridtion and agitation of the particles
among one another. Various hypothefes ‘accordingly
were framed, and many ingenious arguments brought in
fupport of them: but all fuppdfitibns of the mechanical
kind are overthrown by fome thermbmetriGal qbfefva-
tions of De Haen and others, from which it appeared,
that the heat of the body was, fometimes greater than is
ritual tvith healthy people, ;at the time the perfon was
juft expiring, when the adlion of the veffels’was very
weak ; nay, even after he wris dead, when it,had en¬
tirely Creafed. The abovemeritioned phyfician relates
two very remarkable ''cafes of this kind. In the one, he
found that the temperature of his patient, which du¬
ring the courfe of an inflammatory fever had never
exceeded 103 degrees, at the time he expired, and for
two minutes after, flood at 106. From the other it
appeared, that the neat of a perfon who was dying
of a lingering diftemper, rofe in the laft agony from
ICO to 101, and continued there ftationary for two
hours; and, even at the expiration of 15 hours, had
only fallen to 85°, though the furrounding medium
did not exceed 6o°. The examples alfo of thofe who
20 H are
H E A t 35
t&at. are fuffocated by fixed air, entirely overturn not only
’ the mechanical fyftem, but almoit every other which
hath yet appeared on the fubje&. [See the article
^ Blood, n° 31.3
Dr Cullen’s “ One or other of the abovementioned hypothefes
opinion, continued to be adopted by phyficlans, till Dr Cullen
with ob- attempted a folution on a new let of principles; but,
Jct ' attentive to the diffidence with which novel opinions
ought to be broached, he delivered his as little more
Jnftit. of than a mere conje&ure. 1 May it not (fays he) be
Medicine, fuppofed, That there is fome circumftance in the vital
p. ij.4- principle of animals, which is in common to thofe of
the fame clafs, and of like ceconomy; and which de¬
termines the effedt of motion upon the vital principle
to be the fame, though the motion adding upon it may
be in different circumflances ?’ The do&or w'as
driven to this fuppofition from the difficulty he found
in explaining how fo many animals of a different age,
fize, and temperament, fhould poffefs very nearly the
fame degree of heat; and in which it is impoffible to
fhew, that the motion of the blood in all its circum-
ftances, is exadlly the fame ; or that in the different
animals in which the degree of heat is confiderably
different, the motion of the circulating mafs is, in each,
correfpondent to the difference of temperature. But,
granting that the degree of heat does not always ob¬
tain in an exaft ratio with the motion of the blood,
and that this is an infuperable obje&ion to its mecha¬
nical generation, yet there appear no plaufible grounds
for fuppofing that the effect of motion may be the
fame, wh,ile the motion afting upon it is in different
circumftances. . By this Dr Cullen means. That the
different temperature of different animals is owing to a
difference of the vital principle, infomuch that the ve¬
locity of the blood may be the fame in a frog as in a
man; and yet, in confequence of the different vital
principle, the heat produced may be different. The
fads upon which he feems to lay the greateft ftrefs
are,. That neither where the furfounding medium con-
fiderably furpaffes the temperature of the living body,
nor where It is far below it, is there any fenfible change
in the heat of animals. Thefe, and fome fimilar fadfs,
in appearance countenance his hypothefis; yet we have
no folid reafon for imagining the principle of life to
be different in different animals. And how are we to
conceive, that the fame degree of motion fhould in one
clafe of animals always produce a certain degree of
heat, and in another clafs as regularly a different one?
A propofition of fuch a nature fhould, no doubt, re¬
quire the moft obvious fadls and conclufive arguments
to eftablifh it; but, in the prefent inllance, we do not
perceive any probable reafon, even from analogy..
Befides, to fay that the principle of life can generate
heat or cold, independent of chemical or mechanical
means, is contrary to experience, and feems in itfelf
abfurd.
“ In the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, Dr Hunter, after reciting fome experiments
concerning animal-heat, afferts, That certain animals,
entirely deffitute of nerves, are endowed with a power
of generating their own heat; and this he brings as
an arguvientum cruets againff thofe who account the
nervous fyftem the feat of animal-heat. If this is
'''■ally a fa&, it muff, no doubt, have all the weight
he aferibes to it ; but it is plain that no ftrefs can be
>-0 ] H E A
laid upon it, unlefs it was better afeertained, which it Heat,
is evident it never can be. For though we can pofi- ’
lively affert that nerves exift where we fee them, yet
we cannot affirm with equal certainty that they do not
alfo exift where we are not abl^ to difeover them. For
all anatomifts allow, that there are thoufands of nervous
filaments fo finely interwoven into the compofition of
the more perfect animals of every fize, that they elude
not only the knife and naked eye, but even the beft
optical inftruments hitherto invented. Since then we
admit the prefence of nerves in one tribe of animals,
though we can only perceive them in their effe&s ;
what folid reafon have we to deny them in another,
in which we have the very fame evidence, viz. certain
indications of fenfe and motion ?
“ Another theory, and perhaps the Left fupported 4
which hath yet appeared on the fubjed, is that of Dr nr Black’s
Black. That excellent chemift having obferved, That opinion,
not only breathing animals are of all others the warm-
eft, but alfo that there fubfifts fueh aclofe and ftriking
connexion between the ftate of refpiration and the de¬
gree of heat in animals, that they appear to be in an
exa& proportion to one another, was led to believe,
that animal-heat depends on" the ftate of refpiration ^
that it is all generated in the lungs-by the aftion of
the air upon the principle of inflammability, in a man¬
ner little diffimilar to what he fuppofed to occur in
adual inflammation ; and that it is thence diffufed
by meanjyaf the circulation over the reft of the vital
fyftem. ^
“ This opinion is fupported by many forcible argu¬
ments. 1. It is pretty generally known to naturaliffs,
that a quantity of mephitic phiogifticated air is con-
ftantly exhaling from the lungs of living animals.—
Since, therefore, atmofpheiical air, by palling through
the lungs, acquires the very fame properties as by paf-
fing through burning fuel, or by being expofed to any
other procefs of phlogiftication, it is obvious, that the
change which the common air undergoes in both cafes,
muff be attributed to one and the fame caufe, viz. its,
combination with phlogifton. 2. It has likewife been
urged in favour of the fame hypothefis, That the ce¬
lerity with which the principle of inflammability is
feparated in refpiration, is very clofely connected with
the degree of heat peculiar to each animal. Thus,
man, birds, and quadrupeds, vitiate air very fall; fer-
pents, and all the amphibious kind, very flowly; and
the latter are of a temperature inferior to the former,
and breathe lefs frequently. 3. The moft cogent ar¬
guments that have been brought in fupport of this
opinion are, That no heat is generated till the fundlion
of refpiration is eftablilhed ; and that the foetus in
utero derives all its heat from the mother.”
Upon this theory our author makes the fol¬
lowing obfervations, which we flialJ give in his own
words. j
_ “ Thefe arguments may, perhaps, on a fuperficial Objections
view of the queftion, appear conclufive; but a found to it.
reafoner, who fhall coolly and impartially weigh every
circumftance, will, I am confident, allow that they
only afford a very ambiguous and imperfed evidence of
the do&rine they are meant to eftablilh; and the fub-
fequent aniinadverfions on Dr Black’s theory at large,
will, it is hoped, fuffice to fhew, that it is not only
fount^d on dubious and controvertible principles, but
tiuU.
H E A [ 35 ci 1 H E A
that it is, in every point of light, clogged with unfur-
mountable difficulties.
“ I. Many and various are the proofs which evince
the improbability of the lungs being the fource or ela-
boiatory of animal-heat: for, though it be granted,
that there fubfifts a very ftriking connexion between
the Hate of refpiration and the degree of heat in ani¬
mals, and that they are even in proportion to one ano¬
ther; yet it by no means enfues, that the former is
pofitively the caufe of the latter. For, were that
really the cafe, it is obvious, that thofe animals which
are deftitute of the organs of refpiration would gene¬
rate no heat. That, however, is not true in fa&: for
thofe filhes which are even deftitute of gills, appear
from various experiments to be warmer than the ordi¬
nary temperature of the element in which they live;
an irrefragable proof that the fun&ion of refpiration
is not abfolutely neceflary to the produflion of heat in
animals.
“ II. If the heat of living animals be generated
folely in the lungs, two things neceflarily follow: the
firft, That it can only be communicated to the other
parts of the body through the channel of the arterial
fyftem ; the fecond, That the heat muft decreafe as it
recedes from its fuppofed centre. And a clear and fa-
tisfa&ory evidence of both thefe points will, no doubt,
be deemed requifite to render Dr Black’s opinion in
any degree probable. So far, however, are we from
meeting with thofe pofitive and convincing proofs
which we had reafon to expeft, that we are not pre-
fented with a fingle plaufible argument in favour of
either of the points. On the contrary, it is more con¬
formable to fadls, that the venal blood is, if not warmer,
at leafl: as warm as the arterial. Dr Stevenfon, an
ingenious and accurate phyfiologift, with a view to
afcertain this matter, laid bare the jugular vein and
carotid artery of a calf, and then tied and cut them off
at once, in order to let equal quantities of blood flow,
in a given time, into veffels of an equal capacity, in
each of which he had placed a well-adjufted thermo¬
meter ; the refult of the experiment was, That the
thermometer immerfed in the venous blood rofe feveral
degrees above that placed in the arterial. But though
it is probable that there is not fuch a difference as that
experiment feems to make, yet feveral reafons incline
me to think, that the venous blood, inftead of being
colder, as Dr Black maintains, is in faft fomewhat
warmer, than the arterial; and what entirely overturns
his opinion is, That no experiment, though many have
been made, has ever ftiewn that the temperature of
the blood is higher in the left ventricle of the heart
than in the right, which mull neceffarily be the cafe,
were all the heat of the animal-body generated in the
lungs.
“ III. Having thus rendered it improbable that
the generation of animal-heat (hould be entirely con¬
fined to the lungs, we ftiall venture a ftep farther, and
endeavour to (hew, that the vital fluid, fo far from
acquiring all its heat in the pulmonary fyftem, com-
municates no inconfiderable portion of what it had re¬
ceived in the courfe of the circulation to the air al¬
ternately entering into that organ and iffuing from it.
Various are the arguments which tend to evince this
opinion. Were the blood heated in the lungs, we
fliould certainly need lefs of their fun&ion in a warm
than in a cold atmofphere : but we are taught by ex¬
perience, that when the air is extremely hot, and we
wilh to be cooled, we breathe full and quick ; and
that when it is intenfely cold, our refpiration is flow
and languid; w-hich, were the blood heated in the
lungs by the adlion of the air upon it, furely fliould
not be the cafe. It is therefore more confonant with
reafon and experience, that the air which we infpire,
by carrying off a quantity of evolved phlogiffon from
the lungs, rather contributes to diminilh than increafe
the heat of breathing animals. Refpiration, for this
reafon, has been very properly compared, by an in¬
genious phyfiologift, Dr Duncan of Edinburgh, to
the blowing of bellows on a hot body. In both cafes
a confiderable degree of heat is communicated to the
air: but in neither can the air be faid to generate
any heat ; for if it did, the heat of breathing animals
fhould increafe in proportion to the quantity of air in¬
haled, and a piece of inert matter heated to a certain
degree fliould become hotter by ventilation.
“ IV. The foetus in utero, according to Dr Black’s
hypothefis, generates no heat. The arguments by
which he fupports that pofition, how ingenious foever
they may be, feem not fufficiently cogent to produce
conviftion ; and as the queftion from its nature hardly
admits of any direfl experiment, our reafoning upon
it muff- neceffarily be analogical. Hence arifes our
embarraffment; for, as the difcovering of analogies
depends on the quicknefs and fertility of fancy, and
the truth of all analogical ratiocination on the acute-
nefs and nicety of judgment, tw o powers of the foul
feldom united in an eminent degree, we cannot won¬
der that arguments of this kind, which to one man
feem unanfwerable, fliould to another appear futile.
“ The only plaufible objedlion to the generation
of heat in the foetus, is, the fuppofition that it would
in a fliort time accumulate in fuch a manner as to be¬
come incompatible with life.
“ This argument, however, is more fpecious than
folid ; for, granting that the circulation which is car¬
ried on between the foetus and the mother, tranfmit'S
very nearly the temperature of her blood, that by
no means entirely fuperfedes the neceffity of heat be-
ing generated in it. Various reafons lead to this opi¬
nion.— It is an axiom, that heat decreafes as it recedes
from the fource from which it fprang. Now, if we
admit for a moment Dr Black’s opinion, and believe
the heat of animals to be generated folely in the lungs,
is it not obvious, that before it reaches the uterus,
paffes through the very minute tubes by which that
organ is connedted to the placenta, circulates through
the umbilical veffels, and pervades the extreme parts
of the fcetus, it muft; be too much diminifhed to fup-
port that equilibrium which obtains in every part of
the living fyftem. Befides, as the foetus in utero may
properly enough be accounted a part of the mother,
the fame obje&ions that are brought againft the ge¬
neration of heat in it would hold equally good againft
the produdtion of heat in any part or organ of her
body, except the lungs. But fuch a multitude of
accurate thermometrical obfervations have evinced the
partial increafe of heat in local inflammations, that
no room is left to doubt, that in every individual part
of the vital frame heat is generated ; and if the fcetus
be, from any caufe whatever, liable to topical inflam-
20 H 2 mation,
Heat.
H E A
Heat.
Dr Du-
gud’s the-
Objeftions
to it.
8
Mr Craw¬
ford’s the-
ory.
H E A f 3552 ]
nut loti) a thing which dq phyfiologifi: has ever pve-
tended to deny, what (hadow of reafon is there for
doubting that fuch affe&ions are accompanied with
the fame effe&s before as after birth, and confequently
with a partial increafe of heat
Our author having now, as he fuppofes, reflated tl]e
opinions of others, after Ihewing that heat though
generated cannot accumulate in the foetus,, proceeds to
lay down his own theory, which depends on the fol¬
lowing principles.
x. That the blood does contain phlogillon.
2. That this phlogilton is evolved, extricated,o r
brought into a date of a&ivity and motion by the ac¬
tion of the blood-veffels to which it is fubje&ed in
the courfe of circulation.
3. That the evolution of phlogifton is acaufe which
throughout nature produces heat, whether that heat
be apparently excited by mixture, fermentation, per-
cuffion, fridf ion, inflammation, ignition, or any iimif
lar caufe.
4. That this heat, which muft be produced in con¬
sequence of the evolution of the phjpgifton from the
blood of different animals, is in all probability equal to
the higheft degree of heat which thefe animals in any
cafe poflefs.'
The fir(l and fecond of thefe propofitions will rea¬
dily be granted: but the third is liable to a very great
objection, namely, that from putrefying bodies, phlor
gillon is evolved in quantity fuffleient to reduce to their
metallic form the calces of fome metals expofed to the va¬
pour, as Dr Dugud hath achnovyledged ; yethe him-
felf affirms,That no fenfible heat is produced by putre-
fyiaganimal-fubftances. To this he is obliged to reply,
that phlogiftpn is extricated more flowly from mixtures
undergoing the putrid fermentation, than from fuch as
are undergoing the vinous and acetous ones ; and that
the volatile alkali produced from putrefying fubftances
likewife hinders the aftion of the phlogifton. But
the firft: part of this anfvver is not proved, and is what
he himfelf calls only a probable conjecture. Neither doth
the fecond appear to be well founded : for putrefying
fubftances, urfne excepted, afford but little volatile
alkali; and even putrid urine itfelf, which affords fuch
a large portion, is not colder than other putrid matters.
It is however needlefs to infift farther on this theory,
fince his fundamental prinpiple, namely, That the ve¬
nous blood is warmer than the arterial, hath been
fhewn to be falfe by Mr Adair Crawford, of whofe
hypothefis we muft now give an account.
This gentleman, who, in his general doilrine ofheat,
feems to agree with Dr Irvin of Glafgow, begins with
an explanation of his terms. The words beat and
fire, he tells us, are ambiguous. Heat in common
language has a. double fignification. It is ufed indif-
criminately to exprefs a fenfation of the mind, and an
unknown principle, whether we call it a quality or a
fubflance, which is the exciting caufe of that fenfation.
The latter, he, with Dr Irvin, calls abfolute heat;
\.\\z former, fen/jble beat. The following are the ge¬
neral fa£s upon which his experiments are founded.
1. Heat is contained in great quantities in all
bodies when at the common temperature of the at-
mofphere.
2. Heat has a conftant tendency to diffufe itfelf
oyer all bodies, till they are brought to the fame de¬
gree of fenfible heat.
3. If the parts of the fame hqmogeneouskody have
the fame degree of fenfible heat, the quantities of ab-
folute heat will be proportionable to the bulk or quan¬
tity of matter. Thus the quantity of abfolute heat
contained in tw7o pounds of water, muft be conceived
to be double of that which is contained in one pound,
when at the fame temperature.
4. The mercurial thermometer is an accurate mea-
fure of the comparative quantities of abfolute heat
which are communicated to the fame homogeneous
bodies or feparated from them, as long as fuch bo¬
dies continue in the fame form. If therefore the fen¬
fible heat of a b6dy, as meafured by the mercurial
thermometer, were to be diminiftied the one half, or
the one third, or in any given proportion, the abfo-
lutc heat would be diminifhed in the fame proportion.
5. The comparative quantities of abfolute heat
which are communicated to different bodies, or fepara¬
ted from them, cannot be determined in a direef man-
by the, thermometer. Thus, if the temperature of a
poupd of mercury be raifed one degree, and that
of a pound of water one degree, as Indicated by the
thermometer, it does not by any means follow, that
equal quantities of abfolute heat have been communi¬
cated to. the water and the mercury. [See Heat and
Thermometer.j—If a pint of mercury at too0 be
mixed with an ecpial bulk of water at 50°, the change
produced in the heat of the mercury will be to that
produced in the water, as three to two : from which
it may be inferred, that the abfolute heat of a pint of
mercury is to that of an equal bulk of water, as two
to three ; or, in other words, that the comparative
quantities of their abfolute heats are reciprocally pro¬
portionable to the changes which are produced in their
fenfible heats, when they are mixed together at diffe¬
rent temperatures. This rule, however, does not ap¬
ply to thofe mixtures which generate fenfible heat or
cold by chemical action.
From the above pofition, fays Mr Crawford, it fol¬
lows, that equal weights of heterogeneous fubftances,
as air and water, having the fame temperature, may
contain unequal quantities of abfolute heat. There
muft, therefore, be certain effential differences in the
nature of bodies, in confequence of which fome have
the power of colleding and retaining the element of
fire in greater quantities than others, and thefe diffe¬
rences he calls throughout his treatife the capacities of
bodies for containing heat.
Having premifed thefe general fads, our author
gives an account of a number of experiments made,
in order to afeertain the quantity of abfolute heat
contained in different bodies. Thefe experiments
were made by mixing the bodies to be examined with
water, heated to different degrees; and by the tem¬
perature of the mixture, he found the proportion of
the capacity of the bodies for containing heat, to wa¬
ter, and, of confequence, to one another. Thus he
found the capacity of wheat for containing heat to
be to that of water, as 1 to 2.9 ; and, of confequence,
the abfolute heats of the two fubftances to be in the
fame proportion. The abfolute beat of oats to that
of water he found as 1 to 2-f; of barley, as 1 to 2.4;
of beans, as 1 to j.6 ; of flefh, as 1 to 1.3; of milk,
as x to 1, i ; and of a mixture of venous and arterial
blood
H E A [ 3553 ] H E A
Heat. blood from a flieep, as 25.410 24.4. By other cxperi-
ments he deterniined, that the abfolute heat of venous
blood was to that of water, only as 100 to 112,
whereas the abfolute heat of arterial blood was to
that of water, as 100 toi 97.08.
By experiments made with' air of different kinds
contained in bladders,and i mover fed in water, he found
that the abfolute heat of atmqfpherical air was exceed-
ingly great, being to that of water as 18.6 to 1 ;
that of dephlogifHcated air was ftill greater, being to
the heat of common atmofpherical air as 4.6 to r.
The heat of phlogidicated and fixed air was much lefs ;
that of the latter* particularly, being to the heat of at-
mofpherical air only as x to 67.
From other experiments made on metals, Mr Craw¬
ford concludes, that the abfolute heat of tin, in its
metallic ftate, is to that of water as 1 to 14.7 ; but the
heat of calcined tin is to that of water as 1 to 10.4. In
like manner, the heat of iron was to that ofwater on¬
ly as 1 to 8 ; but that of the calx of iron was to the
heat ofwater as 1 to 3.1, &c. And from thefe expe¬
riments he is of opinion, that the more phlogifton that
is added to any body, the lefs is its capacity for con¬
taining heat.
From thefe experiments our author deduces the fol¬
lowing theory of animal-heat.—“ It has been pro¬
ved, that the air, which is exfpired from the lungs of
animals, contains lefs abfolute heat than that which
is inhaled in infpiration. It has been fhown, parti¬
cularly, that, in the prbcefs of refpiration, atmofphe¬
rical air is converted into fixed air ; and that the ab¬
folute heat of the former is to that of the latter, as
67 to x.
“ Since, therefore, the fixed air which is exhaled by
exfpiration is found to contain only the one fixty-
feventh part of the heat which was contained in the
atmofpherical air previous to infpiration, it follows,
that the latter muft neceffarily depofit a very great
proportion of its abfolute heat in the lungs. It has
moreover been (hown, that the abfolute heat of florid
arterial blood is to that of venous as 114 to 10.
And hence, as the blood, which is returned by the
pulmonary vein to the heart, has the quantity of its
abfolute heat increafed, it is evident that it muft have
acquired this heat in its paflage through the lungs.
We may conclude, therefore, that in the procefs of
refpiration, a quantity of abfolute heat is feparated
from the air and abforbed by the blood.
“That heat is feparated from the air in refpiration,
is farther confirmed by the experiment with phlogifti-
cated air; from which, compared with Dr Prieftley’s
difcoveries, it is manifeft, that the power of any fpe-
cies of air in fupporting animal-life, is nearly in pro¬
portion to the quantity of abfolute heat which it con¬
tains, and is confequently proportionable to the quan¬
tity which it is capable of depofiting in the lungs.
“ The truth of this conclufion will perhaps appear
in a clearer light from the following calculation, by
which we may form feme idea of the quantity of heat
yielded by atmofpherical air when it is converted in¬
to fixed air, and alfo of that which is abforbed du¬
ring the converfion of venous into arterial blood.
“ We have feen, that the fame heat, which xai-
fes atmofperical air one degree, will raife fixed air
nearly 67 degrees ; and confequently, that the fame
heat, which raifes atmofpherical air any given num¬
ber of degrees, will raife fixed air the fame number of
degrees multiplied by 67. In the Peterfburgh ex¬
periment of freezing quickfilver, the heat was dimi-
nifhed 200 degrees below the common temperature of
the atmofphere. We are therefore certain, that at¬
mofpherical air, when at the common temperature df
the atmcfpHere, contains at leaft 200 degrees of heat.
Hence, if a certain quantity of atmofpherical air, not
in contadt with any body that would immediately car¬
ry off the heat, fliould fuddenlybe converted into fix¬
ed air, the heat which was contained in the former
would raife the latter 200 degrees multiplied by 67,
or 13400 degrees. And the heat of red hot iron be¬
ing 1050, it follows that the quantity of heat, which
is yielded by atmofpherical air when it is converted
into fixed air, is fuch, (if it were not diffipated), as
would raife the air fo changed to more than 12 times
the heat of red-hot iron.
“ If, therefore, the abfolute heat which is difenga-
ged from the air in refpiration, were not abforbed by
the blood, a very great degree of fenfible heat would
be produced in the lungs.
“ Again, it has been proved, that the fame heat
which raifes venous blood 115 degrees, will raife ar¬
terial only 10a degrees ; and confequently, that the
fame heat, which raifes venous blood any given num¬
ber of degrees, will raife arterial a lefs number, in
the proportion of 100 to 115, or 20 to 23. But we
know that venous blood contains at leaft 230 de¬
grees of heat. Hence, if a certain quantity of
venous blood, not in contaA with any body that
would immediately fupply it with heat, fhould fud-
denly be converted into arterial, the heat which was
contained in the former would raife the latter only-lx
of 230 degrees, or 200 degrees ; and confequently
the fenfible heat would fuffer a diminution, equal to
the difference between 230 and 200, or 30 degrees.
But the common temperature of blood is 96 : when,
therefore, venous blood is converted into arterial in the
lungs, if it were not fupplied by the air with a quan¬
tity of heat proportionable to the change which it
undergoes, its fenfible heat would be diminilhed 30
degrees, or it would fall from 96 to 66.
“ That a quantity of heat is detached from
the air, and communicated to the blood, in refpifa-
tion, is moreover fupported by the experiments-
with metals and their calces: from which it ap¬
pears, that when bodies are joined to phlogifton,
they lofe a portion of their abfolute heat ; and that,
when the phlogifto'n is again difengaged, they re-
abforb an equal portion of heat from the furrounding
bodies.
“ Now it has been demonftratedby Dr Prieftley, that
in refpiration, phlogifton is feparated from the blood
and combined with the air. During this procefs,
therefore, a quantity of abfolute heat muft neceffarily
be difengaged from the air, by the aftion of the phlo¬
gifton ; the blood, at the fame moment, being left at
liberty to unite with that portion of heat which the
air had depofited.
“ And hence animal-heat feents to depend upon a
procefs fimilar to a chemical eledtive attradiion. The
air is received into the lungs, containing a great quan¬
tity of abfolute heat. The blood is returned from;
the
H E A [ 3554 ] H E A
the extremities, highly impregnated with plilogifton. blood, will have their capacity for containing heat in- Heat.
The attraflion of the air to the phlogifton, is greater creafed ; and therefore, that a part of the abfolute "~
than that of the blood. This principle will, there- heat which is feparated from the blood will be ab-
fore, leave the blood to combine with the air. By the forbed.
addition of the phlogifton, the air is obliged to depo- “ But from the quantity of heat, which becomes
fit a part of its abfolute heat ; and as the capacity of fenfible in the courfe of the circulation, it is manifetl
the blood is at the fame moment increafed by the fe- that the portion of heat which is thus abforbed is
paration of the phlogiiion, it will inftantly unite with very inconliderable.
that portion of heat which had been detached from “ It appears, therefore, that the blood, in its pro-
the air. grefs through the fyllem, gives out the heat which it
“ We learn from Dr Prieftley’s experiments with re- had received from the air in the lungs: a fmall portion
fpeft to refpiration, that arterial blood has a ftrong at- of this heat is abforbed by thofe particles which im-
tra&ion to phlogifton: it will confequently, during part the phlogifton to the blood ; the reft becomes re-
the circulation, imbibe this principle from thofe parts dundant, or is converted into moving and fenfible heat.” ?
which retain it with leaft force, or from the putrefcent Mr Crawford’s theory, which doth not effentially The fubjea
parts of the fyftem : and hence the venous blood, differ from Dr Black’s, feems to be the beft that hath dill uncer-
when it returns to the lungs, is found to be highly yet appeared. There is, however, one difficulty which tain*
impregnated with phlogifton. By this impregnation, feems common to them all, and which, even on Mr
its capacity for containing heat is diminilhed. In pro- Crawford’s principles, feems not to admit of folution.
portion, therefore, as the blood, which had been de- If animal-heat entirely depends on fomething peculiar
phlogifticated by the procefs of refpiration, becomes to a living body, why doth it fonvetimes continue af-
again combined with phlogifton in the courfe of the ter life hath ceafed ? If heat depends on the evolution
circulation, it will gradually give out that heat which of phlogifton by the adlion of the bloqd-vtffels, accord-
it had received in the lungs, and diffufe it over the ing to Dr Dugud, why ftiould it remain when thefe
whole fyftem. veffels ceafe to a<ft, as, according to Dr Dugud him-
“ Thus it appears, that, in refpiration, the blood felf, it fometimes doth ? If, according to Mr Crawford,
is continually difcharging phlogifton and abforbing it is every moment attra&ed from the air, why is it
heat; and that, in the courfe of the circulation, it is not always in proportion to the refpiration ? Or, iffix-
continually imbibing phlogifton and emitting heat. ed air contains fuch a fmall proportion of abfolute
“ It may be proper to add, that as the blood, by heat as, by Mr Crawford’s experiments, it feems to do,
its. impregnation with phlogifton, has its capacity for why doth it impart fuch a ftrong and lafting degree of
containing heat diminilhed ; fo on the contrary, thofe heat to the bodies of thofe who are killed by it ? See
parts of the fyftem from which it receives this prin- the article Blood, n° 31. The conjefture mentioned
ciple, will have their capacity for containing heat in- under that article, n° 32, is therefore ftill probable,
creafed, and will confequently abforb heat. namely, that animal-heat is occafioned by the elaftic
“ Now if the changes in the capacities, and the principle of fixed air; tho’ in what manner it is occa-
quantities of matter changed in a given time, were fioned, feems to be problematical,
fuch, that the whole of the abfolute heat feparated Internal Heat of the Earth. That there is a very
from the blood were abforbed, it is manifeft that no confiderable degree of heat always felt in digging to
part of the heat which is received in the lungs would great depths in the earth, is agreed upon by all natu-
become fenfible in the courfe of the circulation. ralifts : but the quantity of this heat hath feldom been
“ That this, however, is not the cafe, will, I think, meafured in any part; much lefs is it known, whether,
be evident from the following confiderations: in digging to an equal depth in different parts of the
“ We know that fenfible heat is produced by the earth, the heat is found always the fame. In digging
circulation of the blood ; and we have proved by ex- mines, wells, &c. they find that at a little depth below
periment, that a quantity of abfolute heat is commu- the furface it feels cold. A little lower it is colder
nicated to that fluid in the lungs, and is again difen- ftill, as being beyond any immediate influence of the
gaged from it in its progrefs through the fyftem. If, fun’s rays; infomuch, that water will freeze almoft at
therefore, the whole of the abfolute heat, which is any feafon of the year : but when we go to the depth
feparated from the blood, were abforbed by thofe parts of 40 or 50 feet, it begins to grow warm, fo that no
of the fyftem from which it receives the phlogifton, it ice can bear it; and then the deeper we go, ftill the
would be neceffary to have recourfe to fome other greater the heat, until at laft refpiration grows diffi-
caufe, to account for the fenfible heat which is pro- cult, and the candles go out.
duced in the circulation. But, by the rules of philo- This heat of the earth hath been varioufly explain-
fophifing, we are to admit no more caufes of natural ed. Some have had recourfe to an immenfe body of
things than fuch as are both true and fufficient to fire lodged in the centre of the earth, which they con-
explain the appearances; for nature delights in fim- fider as a central fun, and the great principle of the
plicity, and affe&s not the pomp of fuperfluous cau- generation, vegetation, nutrition, &c. of foffil and
fes. vegetable bodies. But Mr Boyle, who had been at the
“ We may, therefore, fafely conclude, that the ah- bottom of fome mines himfelf, fufpeds that this degree
folute heat which is feparated from the air in refpira- of heat, at leaft in fome of them, may arife from the
tion, and abforbed by the blood, is the true caufe of peculiar nature of the minerals generated therein. To
animal-heat. confirm this, he inftances a mineral of a vitriolic kind,
“ It muft neverthelefs be granted, that thofe parts dug up in large quantities in many parts of England,
of the fyftem which communicate pbogifton to the which by the bare affufion of common water will grow
fo
H E A [ 3555 ] H E B
H«t. fo hot, that it will almoft take fire.—Thefe hypothe-
 fes are liable to the following obje&ions. I. If there
. is within the earth a body of aftual fire, it feems dif¬
ficult to (hew why that fire fhould not confume and
moulder away the outer fhell of earth, till either the
earth was totally deftroyed, or the fire extinguilhed.
2. If the internal heat of the earth is owing to the
a&ion of water upon mineral fubftances, that aftion
thro’ time muft have ceafed, and the beat have total¬
ly vanifhed; but we have no reafon to think, that the
heat of the earth is any thing lefs juft now than it was
a thoufand years ago. The phenomenon is eafily ex¬
plained by the propofitions laid down under the article
Heat. If heat is nothing elfe than a certain mode of
a&ibn in the ethereal fluid, or the matter of light, by
which it flows out from a body in all direftions as ra¬
dii drawn from the centre to the circumference of a
circle ; it will then follow, that if an opaque body
abforbs any cohfitlerable quantity of light, it muft ne-
ceifarily grow hot. The reafon of this is plain. The
body can hold no: more than a certain quantity of e-
thereal matter ; if more is Continually forcing itfelf in,
that which has already entered muft go out. But it
cannot eafily get out, becaufe it is hindered by' the
particles of the body among which it is detained. It
makes an effort therefore in all diredtiors to feparate
ttiefe particles from each other; and hence the body ex¬
pands, and the effort of the fluid to efcape is felt when
we put our hands on the body, which we then fay is
hot. Now as the earth is perpetually abforbing the
ethereal matter, which comes from the fun in an im-
menfe ftream, and which we call his lights it is plain,
that every pore of it muft have been filled with this
matter long ago. The quantity that is lodged in the
earth, therefore, muft be contitHiafly endeavouring to
feparate its particles from each other, and ccnfequent-
)y mu ft1 make it hot. The atmofphere, which is perpe-
fnally receiving that portion of the ethereal matter
which iffhes from the earth, counterafts the force of
the internal heat, and cools the external furface of the
earth, and for a confiderable way down; and hence the
earth for 20 or 30 feet down, fhews none of that heat
which is felt at greater depths. See Heat.
Heat, in medicine. Great heats are not fo much
the immediate, as the remote, caufe of a general fick-
nefs, by relaxing tTie fibres, and difpofing the juices to
putrefaction ; especially among foldiers and perfons
expofed the whole day to the fui* : for the greateft;
heats are feldom found to produce epidemic difeafes, till
the perfpiration is flopped by wet clothes, fogs, dews,
damps, See.; and then fome bilious or putrid diftemper
is the certain confequence, as fluxes and ardent inter¬
mitting fevers. Neverthelefs, it muft be allowed, that
heats have fometiroes been fo great as to prove the
more immediate caufe of particular diforders ; as when
centinels have been placed without cover, or frequent
reliefs in fcorching heats; or when troops march or are
exercifed in the heat of the day ; or when people im-
prudently-lie down and fleep in the fun. All thefe
circumftances are apt to bring on diftempers, varying
according to the feafon of the year. In the begin¬
ning of Summer,thefe errors produce inflammatory fe¬
vers ; and in autumn, a remitting fever or dyfentery.
To prevent, therefore, the effects of immoderate heats,
commanders have found it expedient fo to order the
marches, that the men come to their ground before the Heath
heat of the day; and to give ftridft orders, that none
of them fleep out of their tents, which, in fixed en- 6 rai n
campments, may be covered with boughs to fliade them
from the fun. It is likewife a rule of great importance
to have the foldiers exercifed before the cool of the
morning is over ; for by that means not only the fultry
heats are avoided, but the blood being cooled, and the
fibres braced, the body will be better prepared to bear
the heat of the day. Laftly, in very hot weather, it
has often been found proper to Ihorten the centinels
duty, when obliged to ftand in tbe fun.
HEATH, in botany. See Erica.
Berry-bearing Heath. See Empetrum.
HEATHENS, in matters of religion. See Pa¬
gans.
HEAVEN, literally fignifies the expanfeof the fir¬
mament, fnrrounding our earth, and extended every
way to an immenfe diftance.
The Hebrews acknowledged three heavens: the firft;
the aerial heaven, in which the birds fly, the winds
blow, and the fhowers are formed ; the fecond, the fir¬
mament, in which the ftars are placed ; the third, the
heaven of heavens, the refidence of the Almighty, and
the abode of faints and angels.
Heaven is coniidered by Chriftian divines and philo-
fophers, as a place in fome remote part of infinite
fpace, in which the omniprefent Deity is faid to af¬
ford a nearer and more immediate view of himfelf,
and a more fenfible manifeftation of his glory, than
in the other parts of the univerfe. This is often call¬
ed the empyrean, from that fplendor with which it
is fuppofed to be invefted; and of this place tbe in-
fpired writers give us the moft noble and magnificent
deferiptions.
The Pagans confidered heaven as the refidence only
of the etleftia! gods, into which no mortals were ad¬
mitted after death, unlefs they were deified. As for
the fouls of good men, they were configned to the ely-
fian fields. See Elysian-Z/V/^/.
HEBDOMARY, a folemnity of the ancient
Greeks, in honour of Apollo, in which the Athenians
fung hymns to his praife, and carried in their hands
branches of laurel. The word fignifies the feventb
day, this folemnity being obferved on the Ceventh day
of every lunar month.
HEBE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of Juno
without a father, was the goddefs of Youth, and cup¬
bearer to Jupiter ; who afterwards difplaced her, and
put Ganymede in her room. When Hercules was
made a god, (he was married to him, and then (he re-
ftored lolaus to his former youth. See Iolaus.
HEBER, the fon of Salah, and father of Peleg,
from whom the Hebrews derived their name, accord-
ing to Jofephus, Eufebius, Jerome, Bede, and moft
of the interpreters of the facred writings; but Huet bi-
(hop of Avranches, in his Evangelical Demonftration,
has attempted to prove, that the Hebrews took their
name from the word heber, which fignifies beyond, be¬
caufe they came from beyond the Euphrates. Heber
is fuppofed to have been born 2281 years B. C. audio
have lived 464 years.
HEBRAISM, an idiom, or manner of fpeak-
ing, peculiar to the Hebrew language. See the next
article.
HE.
H E B [ 355^ ] H E B
Hebrew HEBREW, or Hebrew Language, that fpoken
II by the ancieat Tews, and wherein the old Teftament is
Hebndes^ vvrote.
This appears to be the mod ancient of all the langua¬
ges in the world, at lead we know of none older; and
fome learned men are of opinion, that this is the lan¬
guage in which God fpoke to Adam in Paradife.
The books of the Old Tedament are the only pieces
to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure He¬
brew ; and the language of many of thefe is extreme¬
ly fublime : it appears perfectly regular, and particu¬
larly fo in its conjugations. Indeed, properly fpeak-
ing, it has but one conjugation; but this is varied in each
feven or eight different ways, which has the effeft of
fo many different conjugations, and affords a great
variety of expreffions to reprefent by a fingle word
the different modifications of a verb, and many ideas
which in the modern and in many of the ancient and
learned languages cannot be expreffed without a peri-
phrafis.
The primitive words, which are called roots, have
feldom more than three letters or two fyllables.
In this language there are 22 letters, only five of
which are ufually reckoned vowels, which are the fame
with ours, viz. a, e, 0, u ; but then each vowel is
divided into two, a long and a fliort, the found of the
former being fomewhat grave and long, and that of
the latter fhort and acute: it muff however be remark¬
ed, that the two laft vowels have founds that differ in
other refpefts befides quantity and a greater or lefs
elevation. To thefe to or 12 vowels may be added o-
thers, called yeTTM-TOwe/j-j which ferve to connedl the
confonants, and to make the eafier tranfitions from one
to another. The number of accents in this language
are, indeed, prodigious : of thefe there are near 40,
the ufe of fome of which, notwithftanding all the in¬
quiries of the learned, are not yet perfedlly known. We
know, in general, that they ferve to diftinguilh the
fentences like the points called commas, femicolons, &c-
in our language ; to determine the quantity of the fyl¬
lables ; and to mark the tone with which they are to
be fpoken or fung. It is no wonder, then, that there
are more accents in the Hebrew than in other lan¬
guages, lince they perform the office of three different
things, which in other languages are called by different
names.
HEBREWS, the defendants of Heber, common¬
ly called Jews. See Heeer and Jews.
Hebrews, or Epijlle to the Hebrews, a canonical
book of the New Teiiament.
. Though St Paul did not prefix his name to this e-
piftle, the concurrent tellimony of the beft authors
ancient and modern afford fuch evidence of his being
the author of it, that the objedlions to the contrary
are of little or no weight.
The Hebrews, to whom this epiftle was wrote,
were the believing Jews of Paleftine ; and its defign
was to convince them, and by their means all the
Jewiffi converts vvherefoever difperfed, of the infuf-
iiciency and aboliffiment of the ceremonial and ri¬
tual law. , _
HEBRIDES, the general name of fome iflands ly¬
ing to-the north-weft of Scotland, of which kingdom
they conftitute a part. They are fituated between the
55th and 59th degrees of latitude, are fuppofed.to be
about 300 in number> and to contain 48,000 inhahi- Hebrides.
tants. The names of the largeft are Skie, Mulk,   
Ilay, and Arran. Of thefe illands Mr Pennant hath
given the following hi ft or y.
“ The leifure of a calm gave ample time for re- 7-oar
fte&ion on the hiftory and great events of the iflands Scotland,
now in view, and of the others the objedts of the voy- u- 200.
age. In juftice to that able and learned writer, the
rev. Dr John Macpherfon, late minifter of Slate in
Skie, let me acknowledge the affiftance I receive from
his ingenious effay on this very fubjeft : for his labours
greatly facilitate my attempt; not undertaken without
confulting the authors he refers to; and adding num¬
bers of remarks overfeen by him, and giving a confi-
derable continuation of the hiftory. It would be an
oftentatious talk to open a new quarry, when fueh
heaps of fine materials lie ready to my hand.
“ All the accounts left us by the Greek and Ro¬
man writers are inveloped with obfcurity : at all times
brief, even in their defcriptions of places they had ea-
fieft accefs to, and might have described with the moft:
fatisfadlory precifion; but in remote places, their rela¬
tions furnilh little more than hints, the food for con-
jedlure to the vifionary antiquary.
“ That Pytheas, a traveller ^mentioned by Strabo,
had vifited Great Britain, I would wiffi to make only
apocryphal. He afferts, thathe vifited the remoter parts;
and that he had alfo feen Thule, the land of romance
amongft the ancients: which all might pretend to have
feen ; but every voyager, to fwell his fame, made the
ifland he faw laft, the Ultima Thule of his travels. If
Pytheas had reached thefe parts, he might have ob-
ferved, floating in the feas, multitudes of gelatinous
animals, the medufa of Linnaeus, and out of thefe have
formed his fable: he made his Thule a compofition of
neither earth, fea, nor air; but like a compofition of them
all; then, catching his fimile from what floated before
him, compares it to the lungs of the fea, the Ariftote-
lian idea of thefe bodies; and from him adopted by
naturalifts, fucceffors to that great philofopher. Strabo
very juftly explodes thefe abfurd tales; yet allows him
merit in deferibing the climate of the places he had
feen. As a farther proof of his having vifited the He¬
brides, he mentions their unfriendly fky, that prohibits
the growth of the finer fruits; and that the natives are
obliged to carry their corn under fttelter, to beat the
grain out, left it fhould be fpoiled by the defeft of fun
and violence of the rains. This is the probable part
of his narrative; but when the time that the great
geographer wrote is confidered, at a period that thefe
iflands had been negle&ed for a very long fpace by the
Romans, and when the difficulties of getting among a
fierce and unfriendly nation muft be almoft iniuperable,
doubts innumerable, refpedling the veracity of this
relater, muft arife. All that can be admitted in favour of
him is, That he was a great traveller: and that he might
have either vifited Britain, from fome of the nations
commercing with our ifle; or received from them ac¬
counts, which he afterwards dreffed out, mixed with
the ornaments of fable. A traffic muft have been car¬
ried on with the very northern inhabitants of our iflands
in the time of Pytheas; for one of the articles of com¬
merce mentioned by Strabo, the ivory bits, were made
either of the teeth of the walrus, or of a fpecies of
whale native of tha northern .feas.
“ The
H E B
H E B [ 3557 1
Hebride?. te The geographer Mela, who flouriflied in the reign
' of Claudius, is the next who takes notice of our lefler
iflands. He mentions the Orcades as confiding of 30;
the iEmodEe of feven. The Romans had then made a
conquelt of the former, and might have feen the latter:
but, from the words of the hiftorian, it is probable that
the Shetlands iflands were thofe intended; for he in¬
forms us, that the “ iEmodas were cartied out over
againft Germany:” the iite of the Hebrides will not
admit this defeription, which agrees very well with
the others; for the ancients extended their Germany,
and its imaginary iflands, to the extreme north.
“ Pliny the elder is the next that mentions theft re¬
mote places. He lived later than the preceding wri¬
ters, and of courfe his information is fuller: by means
of intervening difeoveries, he has added ten more to
the number of the Orcades ; is the firft writer that
mentions the Hcebudes, the iflands in queftion ; and
joins in the fame line the iEmodae, or, as it is in the
beft editions more properly written, the Acnwd*, or
extreme point of the Roman expeditions to the north,
as the Shetland ifles in the higheft probability were.
Pliny and Mela agree in the number of the iEmodas,
or Acmodae : the former makes that of the Hoebudes
30; an account extremely near the truth, dedu&ing
the little ifles, or rather rocks, that furround mod of
the greater, and many of them fo indi(ltn& as fcarcely
to be remarked, except on an a&ual furvey.
“ Solinus fucceeds Pliny. If be, as is fuppofed, was
cotemporary with Agricola, he has made very ill ufe
of the light he might have received from the expedi¬
tions of that great general : his officers might have
furnifhed the hiftorian with better materials than thofe
he has communicated. He has reduced the number of
the Hcebudes to five. He tells us, that “ the inhabi-
“ tants were unacquainted with corn: that they lived
“ only on fifh and milk : that they had one king, as
“ the iflands were only feparated from each other by
“ narrow ftraits: that their prince was bound by cer-
“ tain rules of government, to do juftice ; and was
“ prevented by poverty from deviating from the true
“ courfe, being fupported by the public, and allowed
“ nothing that he could call his own, not even a wife ;
“ but then he was allowed free choice, by turns one
“ out of every diftrift, of any female that caught his
“ his affeflion ; which deprived him of all ambition a-
“ bout a fucceflbr.
“ By the number of thefe iflands, and by the mi¬
nute attention given by the hiftorian to the circum-
ftance of their being feparated from each other by very
narrow ftraits, I fhould imagine, that which is now
called the Long ifland, and includes Lewis, North Uift,
Benbecula, South Uift, and Barra, to have been the
five Hoebudes of Solinus ; for the other great iflands,
fuch as Skie, &c. are too remote from each other to form
the preceding very charafteriftic defeription of that
chain of iflands. Thefe might naturally fall under the
rule of our petty prince ; almoft the only probable part
of Solinus’s narrative.
“ After a long interval appears Ptolemy, the E-
gyptian geographer. He alfo enumerates fiveEbudse;
and has given each a name: the weftern, Ebuda; the
eaftern, Ricina, Maleos, Epidium. Cambden con-
je&ures them to be the modern Skie, Lewis, Rathry
or Racline, Mull, and Hay : and I will not controvert
Vol. V.
his opinion. Hebrides.
“ The Roman hiftorians give very little light into “ *~
the geography of thefe parts. Tacitus, from whom
molt might have been expedled, is quite filent about
the names of places ; notwithftanding, he informs ns,
that a fleet by the command of Agricola performed
the circumnavigation of Britain. All that he takes
notice of is the difeovery and the conqueft of the
Orkneys : it fhould feem, that with the biographers
of an ambitious nation, nothing feemed worthy of no¬
tice, but what they could dignify with the glory of
victory.
“ It is very difficult to affign a reafon for the change
of name from Ebudte to Hebrides : the laft is modern ;
and feems, as the annotator on Dr Macpherfon fuppo-
fes, to have arifen from the error of a tranferiber, who
changed the m into ri.
“ From all that has been collefted from the an¬
cients, it appears, that they were acquainted with little
more of the Hebrides than the bare names: it is pro¬
bable, that the Romans, cither from contempt of fuch
barren fpots, from the dangers of feas, the violence of
the tides, and horrors of the narrow founds, in the inex¬
perienced ages of navigation, never attempted their
conqueft, or faw more of them than what they had in
fight during the few circumnavigations of Great Bri¬
tain, which were expeditions more of oftentation than
of utility.
“ The inhabitants had probably for fome ages
their own governors; one little king to each ifland,
or to each groupe as neceflity required. It is reafon-
able to fuppofe, that their government was as much
divided as that of Great Britain, which, it is well
known, was under the dire&ion of numbers of petty
princes before it was reduced under the power of the
Romans.
“ No account is given in hiftory of the time thefe
iflands were annexed to the government of Scotland.
If we may credit our Saxon hiftorians, they appear to
have been early under the dominion of the Piets ; for
Bede and Adamnanus informs, that foon after the arri¬
val of St Columba in their country, Brudeus, a Piftilh
monarch, made the faint a prefent of the celebrated
ifland of Iona.
“ But neither the holy men of this ifland, nor the
natives of the reft of the Hebrides, enjoyed a perma¬
nent repofe after this event.
“ The firft invafion of the Danes does not feem to
he eafily afeertained. It appears that they ravaged Ire¬
land, and the ifle of Rathry, as early as the year 735.
In the following century, their expeditions became
more frequent: Harold Harfager, or the light-haired,
purfued, in 875, feveral petty princes, whom he had
expelled out of Norway; who had taken refuge in the
Hebrides, and molefted his dominions by perpetual
defeents from thofe iflands. He feems to have made,
a rapid conqueft : he gained as many viflories as he
fought battles; he put to death the chief of the pirates,
and" made an indiferiminate flaughter of their follow¬
ers. Soon after his return, the iflanders repoflefled
their ancient feats: and, in order to reprefs their in-
fults, he fent Ketil the fiat-nojed, with a fleet and fome
forces for that purpofe. He foon reduced them to
terms, btit made his vidtories fubfervient to his own
ambition; he made alliances with the reguli he had
20 I fub-
H E B [ 3558 ] H E B
Hebrides, fulxlued; he formed intermarriages, and confirmed to
' them their old dominions. This effefted, he fent badk
the fleet to Harold ; openly ^declared himfelf inde¬
pendent ; made himfelf prince of the Hebrides ; and
caufed them to acknowledge him as fuel), by the pay¬
ment of tribute and the badges of vaffalage. Ketil
remained, during life, mafter of the iflands ; and his
fubjefts appear to have been a warlike fetof freeboot¬
ers, ready to join with any adventurers. Thus when
Eric, fon of Harold Harfager, after being driven out
of his own country, made an invafion of England, he
put with his fleet into the Hebrides, received a large
reinforcement of people fired with the hopes of prey,
and then proceeded on his plan of rapine. After the
death of Ketil, a kingdom was in after-times compo-
fed out of them, which, from the refidence of the little
monarch in the ifle of Man, was ftyled that of Man.
The iflands became tributary to that of Norway for a
confiderable time, and princes were fent from thence
to govern ; but at length they again (hook off the
yoke. Whether the little potentates ruled indepen¬
dent, or whether they put themfelves under the pro-
teftion of the Scottiih monarchs, does not clearly ap¬
pear ; but it is reafonable to fuppofe the laft, as Do-
nald-bane is accufed of making the Hebrides the price
of the affiftance given him by the Norwegians againft
his own fubjefts. Notwithftanding they might occa-
fionally feek the protection of Scotland, yet they ne¬
ver were without princes of their own : policy alone
diredfed them to the former. From the chronicles of
the kings of Man we learn, that they had a fucceflion
of princes.
“ In 1089 is an evident proof of the independency
of the iflanders on Norway; for, on the death of Lag-
man, one of their monarchs, they fent a deputation to
O’ Brian king of Ireland, to requeft: a regent of royal
blood to govern them during the minority of their
young prince. They probably might in turn com¬
pliment in fome other refpedfs their Scottifli neigh¬
bours : the iflanders muft have given them fome pre¬
tence to fovereignty ; for,
“ In 1093, Donald-bane, king of Scotland, calls
in the affiftance of Magnus the Barefooted, king of
Norway, and bribes him with the promife of all the
iflands. Magnus accepts the terms ; but at the fame
time boafts, that he does not come to invade the ter¬
ritories of others, but only to refume the ancient rights
of Norway. His conquefts are rapid and complete ;
for, befides the iflands, by an ingenious fraud he adds
Cantyre to his dominions.
“ The Hebrides continued governed by a prince
dependent on Norway, a fpecies of viceroy appointed
by that court; and who paid, on afluming the dignity,
ten marks of gold, and never made any other pecuni¬
ary acknowledgment during life : but if another vice¬
roy was appointed, the fame fum was exadfed from
him. Thefe viceroys were fometimes Norwegians,
fometimes natives of the ifles. In 1097 We find, that
Magnus deputes a nobleman of the name of Inge-
mund: in after-times we learn, that natives were ap¬
pointed to that high office. Thus were the Hebrides
governed, from the conqueft by Magnus, till the year
1263, when Acho, or Haquin, king of Norway, by
an unfortunate invafion of Scotland, terminating in
his defeat at Largs, fo weakened the powers of his
kingdom, that his fucceffor Magnus IV. was content Hebrides,
to make a ceffion of the iflands to Alexander III.;
but not without ftipulating for the payment of a large
fum, and of a tribute of a hundred merks for ever, which
bore the name of the annual of Norway. Ample
provifion was alfo made by Magnus in the fame trea¬
ty, for the fecurity of the rights and properties of his
Norwegian fubje&s, who chofe to continue in the ifles;
where many of their pofterity remain to this day.
“ Notwithftanding this revolution, Scotland feems to
have received no real acquifition of ftrength. The
iflands (till remained governed by powerful chieftains,
the defcendents of Somerled, thane of Heregaidel,
or Argyle, who, marrying the daughter of Olave,
king of Man, left a divided dominion to his fons Du-
gal and Reginald : from the firft were defcended the
Macdougals of Lorn ; from the laft, the powerful
clan of the Macdonalds. The lordftiip of Argyle,
with Mull, and the iflands north of it, fell to the ihare
of the firft ; Hay, Cantyre, and the fouthern ifles,
were the portion of the laft : a divifion that formed
the diftinftion of the Sudereys and Nordereys, £as far¬
ther noticed in the article Iona.]
“ Thefe chieftains were the fcourges of the kingdom:
they are known in hiftory but as the devaftations of a
tempeft ; for their paths were marked with the moft
barbarous defolation. Encouraged by their diftance
from the feat of royalty, and the turbulence of the
times, which gave their monarchs full employ, they
exercifed a regal power, and often affumed the title ;
but are more generally known in hiftory by the ftyle
of the lord of the ifes, or the earls of Rofs; and
fometimes by that of the Great Macdonald.
“ Hiftorians are filent about their proceedings,
from the retreat of the Danes, in 1263, till that of
1335, when John, lord of the ifles, withdrew his al¬
legiance. In the beginning of the next century his
fuccefibrs were fo independant, that Henry IV. en¬
tered into a formal alliance with the brothers Donald
and John. This encouraged them to commit frelh
hoftilities againft their natural prince. Donald, under
pretence of a claim to the earldom of Rofs, invaded
and made a conqueft of that county; but penetrating
as far as the fhire of Aberdeen, after a fierce but un-
decifive battle with the royal party, thought proper
to retire, and in alittletime to fwear allegiance to his
monarch James I. But he was permitted to retain
the county of Rofs, and aflume the title of earl. His
fucceflbr, Alexander, at the head of 10,000 men, at¬
tacked and burnt Invernefs; at length, terrified with
the preparations made againft him, he fell at the royal
feet, and obtained pardon as to life, but was com¬
mitted to ft rift confinement.
“ His kinfman and deputy, Donald Balloch, re¬
lenting the imprifonment of his chieftain, excited ano¬
ther rebellion, and deftroyed the country with fire
and fword : but on his flight was taken and put ta
death by an Irilh chieftain, with whom he fought
proteftion.
“ Thefe barbarous inroads were very frequent with
a fet of banditti,, who had no other motive in war but
the infamous inducement of plunder.
“ In the reign of James II. in the year 1461*
Donald, another petty tyrant, an earl of Rofs, and
lord of the ifles, renewed the pretence of independency;.
fur-
H E B
Hebrides, furprifed the caftle of Invernefs ; forced his way as far
1 ‘ as Athol; and obliged the earl and countefs, with the
principal inhabitants, to feck refuge in the church of
St Bridget, in hopes of finding fecurity from his
cruelty by the fandtity of the place : but the barba¬
rian and his followers fet fire to the church, put the
ecclefiaflics to the fword, and, with a great booty,
carried the earl and countefs prifoners to his caftle of
. Claig, in the ifiand of Hay. In a fecond expedition,
immediately following the firft, hefutfered the penalty
of his impiety : a temped overtook him, and over¬
whelmed mod of his affbeiates; and he, cfcaping to
Invernefs, p'erilhed by the hands of an Irifh harper :
his furvtving followers returned to Hay, conveyed the
earl and countefs of Athol to the fanftuary they had
violated, and expiated their crime by redoring the
plunder, and making large donations to the {brine of
the offended faint.
“ John, fucceffor to the lad earl of Rofs, entered
into alliance with Edward IV. and fent ambaffadors to
the court of England, where Edward empowered the
biftiop of Durham and earl of Wincheder to conclude
a treaty with him, another Donald Balloch, and his
fon and heir John. They agreed to ferve the king
with all their power, and to become his fubjeftsr the
earl was to have a hundred marks derling for life in
time of peace, and two hundred pounds in time of war;
and thefe ifland allies, in cafe of the conqued of Scot¬
land, were to have confirmed to them all the poffef-
fions benorth of the Scottidi fea ; and in cafe of a
truce with the Scottidi monarch, they were to be in¬
cluded in it. But about the year 1476, Edward,
from a change of politics, courted the alliance of
James III. and dropt his new allies. James, deter¬
mined to fubdue this rebellious race, fent againd
them a powerful army, under the earl of Athol; and
took leave of him with this good wifh, Furth, For¬
tune, andfill the fetters ; as much as to fay, “ Go forth,
be fortunate, and bring home many captiveswhich
the family of Athol have ufed ever fince for its motto.
Rofs was terrified into fubmiffion; obtained his pardon ;
but was deprived of his earldom, which by aft of par¬
liament was then declared unalienably annexed to the
crown : at the fame time the. king reftored to him
Knapdale and Cantyre, which the earl had refigned ;
and invefted him anew with the lordfhip of the ifies,
to hold them of the king by fervice and relief.
“ Thus the great power of the ides was broken :
yet for a confiderable time after, the petty chieftains
were continually breaking out into fmall rebellions,
or harraffed each other in private wars; and tyranny
feems but to have been multiplied. James V. found
it neceffary to make the voyage of the ifles in perfon,
in 1536; feized and brought away with him feveral
of the moft confiderable leaders; and obliged them to
find fecurity for. their own good behaviour, and that
of their vaffals. The names of thefe chieftains were
(according to Lindefay), Mydyart, Mac-connel, Mac-
loyd of the Lewis, Mac-niel, Mac-lane, Mac-intojh,
John Mudyart, Mac-kay, Mac-kenzie, and many
others : but by the names of fome of the above, there
feem to have been continental as well-as infular male-
H E B
contents. He examined the titles of their holdings ; Hebrides,
and finding feveral to have been ufurped, re-united
their lands to the crown. In the fame voyage he had
the glory of caufing a furvey to be taken of the coalts
of Scotland, and of the iflands, by his pilot Alexan¬
der Lindefay ; which were publifhed in 1583, at Paris,
by Nicholas de Nicholay, geographer to the French
monarch.
“ The troubles that fucceeded the death of James
occafioned a negleft of thefe infulated parts of the
Scottilh dominions, and left them in a ftate of anarchy.
In 1614, the Mac-donalds made a formidable infur-
reftion, oppugning the royal grant of Cantyre to the
earl of Argyle and his relations. The petty chief¬
tains continued in a fort of rebellion ; and the fword
of the greater, as ufual in weak government, was em¬
ployed againfi: them : the encouragement and protec¬
tion given by them to pirates, employed the power of
the Campbells during the reign of James VI. and the
beginning of that of Charles I. (a).
“ But the. turbulent fpirit of the old times conti¬
nued even to the prefent age. The heads of Clans
were by the divifions, and a falfe policy that predo¬
minated in Scotland during the reign of William III.
flattered with an unreal importance ; inftead of being
treated as bad fubjefts, they were courted as defir-
able allies: inllead of feeling the hand of power,
money was allowed to bribe them into the loyalty of
the times. They would have accepted the fubfidies,
notwithftanding they detefted the prince that offered
them. They were taught to believe themfelves of
fuch confequence, that in thefe days turned to their
deftruftion. Two recent rebellions gave legiflature a
late experience of the folly of permitting the feudal
fyftem to exift in any part of its dominions. The aft
of 1748, for abolifhing heretable jurifdiftions, at once
deprived the chieftains of all power of injuring the
public by their commotions. Many of thefe Reguli
fecond this effort of legiflature, and negleft no op¬
portunity of rendering themfelves hateful to their un¬
happy vaffals, the former inftruments oftheir ambition.”
“ The fituation of thefe iflands in the great Atlantic ^
ocean renders the air cold and moift in the greater Mod
part of them. In the molt northerly ifles the fun, at i. 430, &c.*
the fummer folftice, is not above an hour under the
horizon at midnight, and not longer above it at mid¬
day in the depth of winter. The foil of the Hebrides
varies alfo in different ifles, and in different parts of
the fame ifland: fome are mountainous and barren,
producing little elfe than heath, wild myrtle, fern,
and a little grafs; while others, being cultivated and
manured with fea-weed, yield plentiful crops of oats
and barley.
“ Lead mines have been difeovered in fome of thefe
iflands, but not worked to much advantage ; the peo¬
ple being unfkilful, and fuel extremely fcarce : others
have been found to contain quarries of marble, lime-
ftone, and free-ftone ; nor are they deftitute of iron,
talc, cryftals, and many curious pebbles, fome of
which emulate the Bfafilian topaz.
“ With refpeft to vegetables, over and above the
plentiful harvefts of corn that the natives earn from
20 I 2 agti-
(a) In the beginning of the laft century the flanders were continually harrafling Ireland with their plundering in-
vafiors, or landing there to fupport rebellions: at length it was made treafon to receive thefe Hebridian Redlhanks,
as they were ftyled.
[ 3559 1
H E B [ 3560 1 H E B
Hebrides, agriculture, and thepot-berbsandroots that are planted
in gardens for the fuftenance of the people, thefe
iflands produce fpontaneoufly a variety of plants and
fimples, ufed by the iflanders in the cure of their dif-
eafes; but there is hardly a flirub or tree to be feen,
except in a very few fpots, where fome gentlemen have
endeavoured to rear them with much more trouble
than fuccefs.
“ The animals, both of the land and fea, domeftic
and wild, quadrupeds, fowls, and fifhes, found in
and about thefe iflands, are of the fame fpecies, fize,
and configuration, with thofe of the Orkneys.
“ The people inhabiting thefe iflands are of the
fame race with thofe who live in the Highlands of
Scotland ; fpeak the fame language, wear the fame
habit, and obferve the fame cuftoms. [See the article
Highlands.3
“ The commodities which may be deemed the fta-
ples of this country, are black cattle, flieep, ami
jfifh, which they fell to their fellow-fubjedls of Scot¬
land. Part of the wool they work up into knit-ftoc-
kings, coarfe cloth, and that variegated fluff called
tartan. They likewife fait mutton in the hide, and ex¬
port it in boats, or barklings, to different parts of the
main land. Cod, ling, mackerel, whiting, haddock,
und foies, are here caught in abundance, together with
a fmall red cod, remarkably voracious, of a very deli¬
cate flavour: there are likewife two kinds of white
fifh, which feem to be peculiar to this coaft, known by
the names of lithe and cea, efteemed good eating : but
the greatefl treafure the ocean pours forth, is the pro¬
digious quantity of herrings, which, at one feafon of
the year, fwarm in all the creeks and bays along the
wellern fhore of Scotland. Thefe are counted the lar-
geft, fattell, and fineft herrings caught in any part
of the northern feas. This fifhery employs a great
number of hands, and brings a confiderable advantage
to the kingdom. The fifh are caught, cured, barrel¬
led up, and exported : but whether from want of fkill,
or a proper fait for pickliug, the Scotch-cured her¬
rings of this coafl, though fuperior to all others in
their natural ftate, are counted inferior to thofe which
are dreffed and pickled by the Dutch fifhermen.
“ How mean and contradied foever the commerce
and produce of thefe iflands may be at prefent, they
are, perhaps, more capable of improvement, in both
articles, than any part of the Britilh dominions in Eu¬
rope. The inhabitants are fo little fkilled in hufban-
dry, that the foil, though generally good in the low
grounds, yields nothing but fcanty crops of oats and
barley ; and great tra&s of land lie altogether unculti¬
vated. If a very fmall number of judicious farmers
would fettle in fome of the mod confiderable iflands,
they would foon raife fuch harvefts as would enrich them-
felves; employ and maintain all the idle people, a great
number of whom are obliged to repair to foreign coun¬
tries for fubfiftence; afford fufficient bread for the inha¬
bitants, and even fupply the barren parts of the oppofite
continent. The foil, in many places, would produce
wheat, and in almoft every where would give good
pafturage, infomnch that, with proper culture, the
people might provide hay and fodder for their cattle,
which, during the feverity of the winter, die in great
Bumbers for want of provifion. Improvements of this
kind would be the more ea’fily made, as the fea-fhore Hebri.lesr,
abounds with (hells for lime, and fea weeds for ma-
nure ; and the labourers would be eafily fubfifted by
the fifh that fwarm, not only in the ocean which fur-
rounds thefe iflands, but likewife in the numerous lakes
and rivers of frefh water. Martin declares, that lie
knew 100 families in this country maintained by as
many little farms, the rent of each not exceeding 5 s.
one (heep, and a few pecks of oats.
“ The commerce of thefe iflands might be extend¬
ed in fuch a manner as to render them a ftaple of
trade, and an excellent nurfery for feamen. They are
furnifhed with an infinite number of bays, creeks, and
harbours, for the convenience of navigation : the
inhabitants are numerous, ilrong, adlive, and every
way qualified for the life of a mariner. The fea af¬
fords myriads of fifh for exportation : the lands
might afford plenty of pafturage for black cattle, hor-
fes, and (heep, as well as plenteous harvefts of corn,
and other grain : woollen and linen manufadlures might
be profecuted to great advantage, where labour is
cheap and provifions are reafonable. The iflands af¬
ford good ftone and lime; and fotne parts of the oppo¬
fite main land, timber for building: they have plenty
of fuel, not Only for the ordinary purpofes of life, but
alfo for falt-pans, which might be eretted on different
parts of the coaft ; and for burning fea-ware for the
ufe of a glafs or foap manufa&ure. Finally, the fi-
tuation of thefe iflands is fo commodious for trade,
that the navigator is immediately in the open fea, and
almoft; in the neighbourhood of Denmark, Sweden,
Hamburgh, Holland ; nay, with a favourable wind,
he can reach the coafts of France and Spain in a
week’s failing; if he is bound for the Britifh planta¬
tions, or indeed for any part of the known globe, he
is at once difencumbered of the land, and profecutes
his voyage thro’ the open fea without obftru&ion or
difficulty.”
New Hebrides, a clufter of iflands lying in the
Great South Sea, or Pacific Ocean. The northen if¬
lands of this archipelago were firft difeovered by that
great navigator Quiros in 1606, and, not without rea-
fon, confidered as a part of the fouthern continent,
which at that time, and till very lately; was fuppofed
to exift. They were next vifited by M. de Bougain¬
ville in 1768, who, befides landing on the ifland of
Lepers, did no more than difeover that the land was
not conne&ed, butcompofed of iflands, which he call¬
ed the Great Cyclades. Captain Cook, befides afeer-
taining the extent and fituation of thefe iflands, added
the knowledge of feveral in this group which were be¬
fore unknown : he explored the whole clufter; and think¬
ing himfelf thereby entitled to affix to them a gene¬
ral appellation, he named them the New Hebrides.
They are fituated between latitudes of 14 deg. 25
min. and 20 deg. 4 min. fouth ; and between 166
deg. 41 min. and 170 deg. 21 min. eaft longitude;
and extend one hundred and twenty-five leagues in the
direftion of north-north-weft, and fouth-fouth-eaft.
The moll northern part of this archipelago was
called by M. de Bougainville the Peak of the Etoile.
The whole clufter conliflsof the following iflands; ibme
of which have received names from the different Euro¬
pean navigators ; others retain the names which they
bear
H E C [ 3561 ] H E D
Hebron bear among the natives, viz. Tierra del Efperitu San-
II to, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, Ifle of Lepers, Au-
TTecatom- rora> Whitfontide, Ambrym, Immer, Apee, Three
*io,ls‘ Hills, Sandwich, Montagu, Hinchinbrook, Shep¬
herd, JEorramanga, Irronan, Annatom, and Tanna.
HEBRON (anc. geog.), a very ancient city fitua-
ted in the hilly country of the tribe of Judah to the
foutb. Its move ancient name w&s Kiriatb \/irba> or
Cariuth Arba. In antiquity this city vied with the
moft ancient cities of Egypt, being feven years priors
to Zoan, tranflattd Tanis by the feventy. Jofephus
makes it not only older than Tanis, but even than
Memphis. It flood to the weft of the lake Afphahites,
and was for forne time the royal refidence of David.
After the captivity, it fell into the hands of the E-
domite-s, as did all the fouth country of Judaea.
HECATE, in Pagan worfhip, a goddefs called
Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Hecate in the
infernal regions. But others reprefent her as a diftinft
deity. She was the goddefs of the infernal regions,
and of inevitable fate. She prefided over ttreets and
highways, for which reafon (he was called Trivia ; and
and the doors of houfes being under her protection, (he
was called Propylea. She was alfo famous for her fkill
in poifonous roots and herbs, inchantments, and magi¬
cal arts, in the pradice of which her name was con-
ftantly invoked.
HECATOMB, Hecatombe, in antiquity, a fa-
crihce of 100 beafts of the fame kind, at ico altars,
and by 100 priefts or facrificers.—The work is form¬
ed of the Greek tx-*3e/tfiyi which properly fignifies a
fumptuous or magnificent facrifice.—Others derive it
from the Greek Voitov, eentum, “ a hundred, and £«r,
bos, “ bullock,” &c. ; on which footing the heca¬
tomb fhould be a facrifice of 100 bullocks.—Others de¬
rive the word from tx-mov, and pes, “ foot and
on that principle hold, that the hecatomb might con-
fift of only 25 four-footed beafts. They add, that it
did not matter what kind of beafts were chofe for vic¬
tims, provided the quota of feet were but had.
Pythagoras is faid to have facrificed a hecatomb to
the mufes, of 100 oxen, in joy and gratitude for his
difeovering the demonftration of the 47th propofition
of the firft book of Euclid, viz. that, in a redangled
triangle, the fquare of the hypothenufe is equal to the
fquares of the two other fides.
For the origin of hecatombs: Strabo relates, that
there were too cities in Laconia, and that each city
ufed to facrifice a bullock every year for the common
fafety of the country ; whence the inftitution of the ce¬
lebrated facrifice of too vidims, called hecatombs. Ci¬
thers refer the origin of hecatombs to a plague, where¬
with the 100 cities of Peloponnefus were afflided; for
the removal whereof, they jointly contributed to fo
fplendid a facrifice.
Julius Capitolinus relates, that for a hecatomb they
ereded 100 altars of turf, and on thefe facrificed 100
ftieep, and 100 hogs. He adds, that when the em¬
perors offered facrifices of this kind,, they facrificed
100 lions, 100 eagles, and 100 other beafts of the
like kind.
HECATOMPOLIS, (anc. geog.), a furname of
the ifland of Crete, from its too cities. The territory
of Laconia alfo had anciently this name, for the fame
reafon j and the cuflom of thefe too cities was to fa¬
crifice a hecatomb annually. ' Hecatom-
HECATOMPYLOS, (anc. geog.) the metropolis P>los
of Parthia, and royal refidence of Arfaces, fituated at Hedera
the fprings of the Araxes. Thebes, in Egypt, had *——•——
alfo the fame name, from its too gates.
HECK, an engine to take filh. A falmon heck is a
a grate for catching that fort of iifh.
HECTIC fever. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
HECTOR, the fon of Priam and Hecuba, and the
father of Aftyanax, is celebrated for the valour with
which he defended the city of Troy againft the Greeks.
He was killed by Achilles, who dragged his body, fa¬
ttened to his chariot, thrice round the walls of Troy,
and afterwards reftored it to Priam for a large ran-
fom. See Troy.
HEDERA, Ivy, in botany, a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs oF
plants.
Species. 1. The helix, or common ivy, grows na¬
turally in many parts of Britain ; and, where it meets
with any fupport, will rife to a great height, fending
out roots on every fide, which ftrike into the joints of
walls or the bark of trees. If there is no fupport, they
trail on the ground, and take root all their length, fo
that they clofely cover the furface, and are difficult to
eradicate. While thefe ftalks are fixed to any fupport,
or trail upon the ground, they are flenderand flexible;
but when they have reached to the top of their fup¬
port, they fhorten and become woody, forming them-
felves into large bufhy heads, and their leaves are lar¬
ger, more of an oval fhape, and not divided into lobes
like the lower leaves, fo that it hath a quite different
appearance. There are two varieties of this fpecies,
one with filver-ftriped leaves, the other with yellowifli
leaves on the top of the branches ; and thefe are fome-
times admitted into gardens. 2. The quinquefolia, or
Virginia creeper, is a native of all the northern parts
of America. It was firft brought to Europe from Ca¬
nada ; and has been long cultivated in the Bn'tifh gar¬
dens, chiefly to plant againft walls or buildings to co¬
ver them: which thefe plants will do in a fhort
time ; for they will flioot almoft 20 feet in one year,
and will mount up to the top of the higheft build¬
ing : but as the leaves fall off in autumn, the plants
make but an indifferent appearance in winter, and
therefore are proper only for fuch fituations as will not
admit of better plants ; for this will thrive in the midft
of cities, and is not injured by fmoke or the clofenefs
of the air.
Culture. The firft fpecies is eafiiy propagated by
its trailing branches, and will thrive in almoft; any foil
or fituation. The fecond may be propagated by cut¬
tings ; which if planted in autumn in a fliady border
will take root, and by the following autumn will be
fit to plant in thofe places where they are defigned to
remain.
Ufes. The roots of the ivy are ufed by leather-cut¬
ters to whet their knives upon. Apricots and peaches
covered with ivy during the month of February, have
been obferved to bearfruit plentifully. The leaves have
a naufeous tafte; Haller fays, they are given to chil¬
dren in Germany as a fpecific for the atrophy. The
common people of England apply them to ifi’ues; and
an ointment made from them is in great efteem among
H E D
Hederaceae,
Hedges.
H E D [ 3562 ]
the Highlanders of Scotland as a ready cure for burns.
The berries have a little acidity. When fully ripe, a
dofe of them has been recommended in the plague. In
warm climates, a refinous juice exfudes from the (talks,
which is faid to be a powerful refolvent and difcutient,
and an excellent ingredient in platters and ointments
adopted for thofe purpofes. Horfes and fheep eat* the
plant; goats and cows refufe it.— Cafpar Bauhine
and Tournefort mention a fort of ivy that grows in
many of the iflands of the Archipelago, to which they
have given the name of the ivy, becaufe the an¬
cients are far'd to have made crowns of this plant for
adorning the brows of their poets. By others it is
called hedera dionyfias, becaufe they made ufe of the
fame fort of ivy in their public rejoicings and feafts
in honour of Bacchus. The berries are of a fine gold
colour, whence this fpecies has been termed by others
chryfocarpos.
HEDERACEiE, (from hedera “ ivy.”) The name
of the 46th order in Linnasus’s fragments of a natural
method, confiding of ivy, and a few other genera
which from their general habit and appearance feem
nearly allied toil. See Botany, p. 1315.
HEDGES, in agriculture, are either planted to
make fences round inclofures, or to divide the feveral
parts of a garden. When they are defigned as out¬
ward fences, they are planted either with hawthorn,
crabs, or black-thorn ; but thofe hedges which are
planted in gardens, either to furround wildernefs-quar-
ters, or to fcreen the other parts of a garden from
fight, are planted according to the fancy of the own¬
er; fome preferring ever-greens, in which cafe the hol¬
ly is belt; next the yew, then the laurel, lauruftinus,
phillyrea, &c. Others prefer the beech, the hornbeam,
and the elm.
Before planting, it is proper to confider the nature
of the land, and what fort of plants will thrive bell
in it; and alfo, what is the foil from whence the plants
are to be taken. As for the fize, the fets ought to be
about the thicknefs of one’s little finger, and cut with¬
in about four or five inches of the ground ; they ought
to be frelh taken up, ftraight, fmooth, and well root¬
ed. Thofe plants that are raifed in the nurfery, are
to be preferred.
In planting outfide hedges, the turf is to be laid,
with the grafs-fide downwards, on that fide of the
ditch the bank is defigned to be made ; and fome of
the bell mould (hould be laid upon it to bed the quick,
which is to be fit upon it a foot afunder. When the
firft row of quick is fet, it mull be covered with mould;
and when the^bank is a foot high, you may lay ano¬
ther row of fets againll the fpaces of the former, and
cover them as you did the others: the bank is then
to be topped with the bottom of the ditch, and a dry
or dead-hedge laid, to lhade and defend the under¬
plantation. Stakes Ihould then be driven into the
loofe earth, fo low as to reach the firm ground: thefe
are to be placed at about two feet and a half dillance:
and in order to render the hedge yet ftronger, you
may edder it, that is, bind the top of the Hakes with
fmall long poles, and when the eddering is finilhed,
drive the Hakes anew.
The quick mult be kept conftantly weeded, and fe-
cured from being cropped by cattle; and in February
it will be proper to cut it within an inch of the ground,
which will caufe it ftrike root afrelh, and help it much
in the growth.
The crab is frequently planted for hedges; and if -
the plants are raifed from the kernels of the fmall wild
crabs, they are much to be preferred to thofe raifed
from the kernels of all forts of apples without dillinc-
tion ; becaufe the plants of the true fmall crab never
Ihoot fo ftrong as thofe of the apples, and may there¬
fore be better kept within the proper compafs of an
hedge.
The black-thorn, or floe, is frequently planted for
hedges : and the bell method of doing it, is to raife
the plants from the Hones of the fruit, which Ihould
be fown about the middle of January, if the weather
will permit, in the place where the hedge is intended ;
but when they are kept longer out of the ground, it
will be proper to mix them with fand, and keep them
in a cool place. The fame fence will do for it when
fown, as when it is planted.
The holly is fometimes planted for hedges; but
where it is expofed, there will be great difficulty in
preventing its being deHroyed : otherwife, it is by far
the moH beautiful plant; and, being an ever-green, will
afford much better Ihelter for cattle in winter than any
other fort of hedge. The beff method of railing thefc
hedges, is to fow the Hones in the place where the
hedge is intended; and, where this can be convenient¬
ly done, the plants will make a much better progrefs
than thofe that are tranfplanted : but thefe berries
fliould be buried in the ground feveral months before
they are fown. The way to do this, is to gather the
berries about Chrifimas, when they are ufually ripe,
and put them into large flower-pots, mixing fome fand
with them ; then dig holes in the ground, into which
the pots muH be funk, covering them over with earth,
about ten inches thick. In this place they muff re¬
main till the following Oftober, when they Ihould be
taken up, and fown in the place where the hedge is
intended to be made. The ground Ihould be well
trenched, and cleared from the roots of all bad weeds,
bulhes, trees, Sec. Then two drills Ihould be made,
at about a foot diHance from each other, and about
two inches deep, into which the feeds Ihould
be fcattered pretty clofe, lell fome Ihould fail. When
the plants grow up, they muH be carefully weeded :
and if they are defigned to be kept very neat, they
fliould be cut twice a year, that is in May and in Au-
guH ; but if they are only defigned for fences, they
need only be ftieered in July. The fences for thefe
hedges, while young, Ihould -admit as much free air as
poffible : the belt fort are thofe made with polls and
rails, or with ropes drawn through holes made in the
poHs ; and if the ropes are painted over with a com-
pofition of melted pitch, brown Spanifli colour and
oil, well mixed, they will laff fiveral years.
Hedges for ornament in gardens are fometimes
planted with ever-greens, in which cafe the holly is
preferable to any other: next to this, moH people
prefer the yew ; but the dead colour of its leaves
renders thofe hedges lefs agreeable. The laurel
is one of the moH beautiful ever-greens; but the
flioots are fo luxuriant that it is difficult to keep it in
any tolerable Ihape ; and as the leaves are large, to
prevent thedifagreeable appearance given them by their
being cut through with the fheers, it will be the bell
way to prune them with a knife, cutting the Ihoots
juH down to a leaf. The lauruHinus is a very fine
Hedges.
H E D [ 3563 ] H E D
Hedges, plant for tills purpofe ; but the fame obje&ion may
■“ be made to this as to the laurel: this, therefore,
ought only to be pruned with a knife in April, when
the flowers are going off; but the new fhoots of the
fame fpring muff by no means be fhortened. The
fmall-leaved and rough-leavedf lauruftinus are the bed
plants for this purpofe. The true phillyrea is the
next bed plant for hedges, which may be led up to
the height of 10 or 12 feet; and if they are kept nar¬
row at the top, that there may-be not too much width
for the fnovv to lodge upon them, they will be clofe
and thick, and make a fine appearance. The ilex,
or ever-green oak, is alfo planted for hedges, and is
a fit plant for thofe defigned to grow very tall.—The
deciduous plants ufually planted to form hedges in
gardens are, The hornbeam, which may be kept neat
with lefs trouble than mod other plants. The beech,
which has the fame good qualities as the hornbeam ;
but the gradual falling of its leaves in winter caufes a
continual litter. The fmall-leaved Englifh elm is a
proper tree for tall hedges, but thefe fliould not be
planted clofer than eight or ten feet. The lime-tree
has alfo been recommended for the fame purpofe ; but
after they have dood fome years, they grow very thin
at bottom, and their leaves frequently turn of a black
difagreeable colour.
Many of the flowering Ihrubshave alfo been planted
in hedges, fuch as rofes, honeyfuckles, fweet-briar,
&c. but thefe are difficult to train ; and if they are
cut to bring them within compafs, their flowers, which
are their greated beamy, will be entirely dedroyed.
Mr Anderfon who hath treated the fubjeft of hedg¬
ing very particularly, is of opinion, that fome other
plants befides thofe abovementioned, might be ufefully
employed in the cohftru&ion of hedges. Among thefe
he reckons the common willow. This, he fays, by
no means requires the wetnefs of foil which is common-
fE/fays on fuppofed. “ It is generally imagined, (fays he,)
Agriculture, the willow can be made to thrive no where except
L $4, &c. in wet or boggy ground : but this is one of thofe vul¬
gar errors, founded upon inaccurate obfervation, too
often to be met with in fubje&s relating to rural af¬
fairs ; for, experience has fufficiently convinced me,
that this plant will not only grow, but thrive, in any
rich well-cultivated foil, (unlefs in particular circum-
dances that need not here be mentioned), even altho*
it be of a very dry nature. It could not, however, in
general, be made to thrive, if planted in the fame man¬
ner as thorns ; nor would it, in anyrefpeft, be proper
to train it up for a fence in the fame way as that plant.
The willow, as a fence, could feldom be fuccefsfully
employed, but for dividing into feparate inclofures any
extenfive field of rich ground: and, as it is always ne-
ceffary to put the foil into a$ gbod order as poffible be¬
fore a hedge of this kind is planted in it, the eafieft
method of putting it into the neceffary high tilth, will
be to mark off the boundaries of your feveral fields in
the winter, or early in the fpring, with a defign to give
a complete fallow to a narrow ridge, fix or eight feet
broad, in the middle of which the hedge is intended
to be planted the enfuing winter. This ridge ought
to be frequently ploughed during the fummer-feafon,
and in autumn to be well manured with dung, or lime,
or both, (for it cannot be made too rich) and be.neatly
formed into a ridge before winter.
“ Having prepared the ground in this manner, it Hedg
will be in readisefs to receive the hedge, which ought
to be planted as early in winter as can be got conve¬
niently done ; as the willow is much hurt by being
planted late in the fpring. But before you begin to<
make a fence of this kind, it will be neceflary to pro¬
vide a fufficient number of plants: which will be belt
done by previonfly rearing them in a nurfery of your
own, as near the field to be inclofed as you can conve¬
niently have it; for, as they are very bulky, {he car¬
riage of them would be troublefome if they were
brought from any confiderable diftance. The beft
kinds of willow for this ufe, are fuch as make the
longeft and ftrongeft (hoots, and are not of a brittle
nature. All the large kinds of hoop-willows may be
employed for this ufe ; but there is another kind with,
ftronger and more taper (hoots, covered with a dark
green bark when young, which, upon the older fhoots,
becomes of an afli-gray, of a firm texture, and a little
rough to the touch. The leaves are not fo long, and
a great deal broader than thofe of the common hoop-
willow, pretty thick, and of a dark-green colour.
What name, this fpecies is ufually known by, I cannot
tell ; but, as it becomes very quickly of a large fize at
the root, and is ftrong and firm, it ought to be made
choice of for this purpofe in preference to all other
kinds that I have feen. The (hoots ought to be of
two or three years growth before they can be properly
ufed, and (hould never be lefs than eight or nine feet in
length. Thefe ought to be cut over clofe by the
ground immediately before planting, and carried to
the field at their whole length. The planter having
ftretched a line along the middle of the ridge which
was prepared for their reception, begins at one end
thereof, thrufting a row of thefe plants firmly into the
ground, clofe by the fide of the line, at the diftance of
18 or 20 inches from one another; making them all
flant a little to one fide in a dire&ion parallel to the
line. This being finiflied, let him begin at the oppo-
fite end of the line, and plant another row in the inter¬
vals between the plants of the former row; making
thefe incline as much as the others, but in a dire&ion
exadly contrary; and then, plaiting thefe ba(ket-ways,
work them into lozenges like a net, faftening the tops
by plaiting the fmall twigs with one another, which
with very little trouble may be made to bind together
very firmly. The whole, when finifhed, affumes a
very beautiful net-like appearance, and is even at firfl:
a tolerable good defence : and, as thefe plants im¬
mediately take root and quickly increafe in fize, it
becomes, after a few years, a very ftrong fence
which nothing can penetrate. This kind of hedge
I myfelf have employed; and find that a man may
plant and twift properly about a hundred yards in a
day, if the. plants be laid down to his hand : and, in
a fituation fuch as I have defcribed, I know- no kind
of fence which could be reared at fuch a fmall expence,,
fo quickly become a defence, and continue fo long
in good order. But it will be greatly improved by
putting a plant of eglantine between each two plants
of willow, which will quickly climb up and be fup-
ported by them ; and, by its numerous prickles would
effeffually preferve the defencelefs willow from being
browfed upon by cattle.
“ As it will be neceffary to keep the narrow ridgej
upon..
H E D [ 3564 ] H E D
Hedges, upon which the hedge is planted in culture for one
year at leaft, that the plants of eglantine may not be
choked by weeds, and that the roots of the willow
maybe allowed to fpread with the greater eafe in the
tender mold produced by this means, it will be proper
toftir the earth once or twice by a gentle horfe-hoe in
the beginning of fummer; and, in the month of June,
it may be fovved with turnips, or planted with cole-
- worts, which will abundantly repay the expence of
the fallow.”
The fame author alfn gives the following ufeful di¬
rections for planting hedges in fituations very much
expofed to the weather, and recovering them when on
Vd IT point of decaying. “ Thofe who live in an open
p. Ifij &c. uncultivated country, have many difficulties to encoun¬
ter, which others who inhabit more warm and fhelter-
ed regions never experience ; and, among thefe diffi¬
culties, may be reckoned that of hardly getting hedges
to grow with facility. For, where a young hedge is
much expofed to violent and continued gufts of wind,
no art will ever make it rife with fo much freedom, or
grow with fuch luxuriance, as it would do in a more
fheltered fituation and favourable expofure.
“ But, although it is impoffible to rear hedges, in
this fituation, to fo much perfection as in the others,
yet they may be reared even there, with a little atten¬
tion and pains, fo as to become very fine fences.
“ It is advifeable, in all cafes, to plant the hedges
upon the face of a bank.; but it becomes abfolutely
neceffary in fuch an expofed fituation as that I have
now defcribed : for the bank, by breaking the force
of the wind, fcreens the young hedge from the violence
of the blaft, and allows it to advance, for fome time at
firft, with much greater luxuriance than it otherwife
could have done.
“ But, as it may be expe&ed foon to grow as high
as the bank, it behoves the provident hufbandman to
prepare for that event, and guard, with a wife forecaft,
againll the inconvenience that may be expe&ed to
arife from that circumftance.
“ With this view, it will be proper for him, inftead
of making a fingle ditch, and planting one hedge, to
raife a pretty high bank, with a ditch on each fide of
it, and a hedge on each face of the bank; in which fi¬
tuation, the bank will equally fhelter each of the two
hedges, while they are lower than it; and, when they
at length become as high as the bank, the one hedge
will in a manner afford fhelter to the other, fo as to
enable them to advance with much greater luxuriance
than either of them would have done fingly.
“ To effeftuate this ftill more perfedly, let a row
of fervice-trees be planted along the top of the bank,
at the dillance of 18 inches from each other, with a
plant of eglantine between each two fervices. This
plant will advance, in fome degree, even in this expo-
fed fituation ; and, by its numerous {hoots, covered
with large leaves, will effectually fcreen the hedge on
each fide of it, which, in its turn, will receive fome
fupport and fhelter from them, fo that they will be
enabled to advance all together, and form, in time, a
clofe, ilrong, and beautiful fence.
“ The fervice is a tree but little known in Scotland;
although it is one of thofe that ought perhaps to be
often cultivated there in preference to any other tree
whatever, as it is more hardy, and, in an expofed fitu¬
ation, affords more ffielter to other plants than almofl Hedges,
any other tree I know : for it fends out a great many '
ftrong branches from the under part of the ftem,
which, in time, a flume an upright dire&ion, and con¬
tinue to advance with vigour, and carry many leaves to
the very bottom, almoft as long as the tree exifts . fo
that, if it is not pruned, it rifes a large clofe 1)001, till
it attains the height of a foreft-tree.
“ It is of the fame genus with the rawn-tree—and
has a great refemblance to it both in flower and fruit;
its branches are more waving and pliant—its leaves un¬
divided, broad and round, foraewhat refembling the
elm, but white and mealy on the under fide. It de-
ferves to be better kuown than it is at prefent.
“ But if, from the poornefs of the foil in which
your hedge is planted, or from any other caufe, it
fhould fo happen, that, after a few years, the hedge
becomes fickly, and the plants turn poor and ftinted
in appearance, the eafieft and only effeSual remedy for
that difeafe, is to cut the Items of the plants clean over,
at the height of an inch or two above the ground ; af¬
ter which they will fend forth much ftronger {hoots
than they ever would have done without this operation.
And, if the hedge be kept free of weeds, and trained
afterwards in the manner above defcribed, it will, in
almoft every cafe, be recovered, and rendered frefli and
vigorous.
“ This amputation ought to be performed in au¬
tumn, or the beginning of winter ; and, in the fpring,
when the young buds begin to fhow themfelves, the
flumps ought to be examined with care, and all the
buds be rubbed off, excepting one or two of the ftrong-
eft and beft placed, which fhould be left for a ftem.
For, if the numerous buds that fpring forth round the
ftem are allowed to fpring up undifturbed, they will
become in a few years as weak and ftinted as before;
and the hedge will never afterwards be able to attain
any confiderable height, ftrength, or healthfulnefs.—
I have feen many hedges, that have been repeatedly cut
over, totally ruined by this circumftance not having
been attended to in proper time.
“ If the ground for 16 or 20 feet on each fide of
the hedge be fallowed at the time that this operation
is performed, and get a thorough dreffing with rich
manures, and be kept in high order for fome years
afterwards by good culture and meliorating crops, the
hedge will profper much better than if this had been
omitted, cfpecially if it has been planted on the level
ground, or 011 the bank of a fhallow ditch.
“ It fometimes happens, that a hedge may have
been long negle&ed, and be in general in a healthy
ftate, but full of gaps and openings, or fo thin and
ftraggling, as to form but a very imperfe£I fort of
fence. On thefe occafions, it is in vain to hope to fill
up the gaps by planting young qnicks; for thefe would
always be outgrown, choaked, and ftarved, by the old
plants: nor could it be recovered by cutting clear over
by the roots, as the gaps would ftill continue where
they formerly were. The only methods that I know
of rendering this a fence are, either to mend up the
gaps with dead wood, or to plajb the hedge ; which
laft operation is always the moit eligible, where the
gaps are not too large to admit of being cured by this
means.
“ The operation I here call plajhing, may be de¬
fined,
H E D [ 3565 ] H E D
Hedges, fined, “ a wattling made of living wood.” To form
this, fome Items are firft feleded, to be left as ftakes at
proper diftances, the tops of which are all cut over at the
height of four feet from the root. The draggling fide-
branches of the other part of the hedge are alto lopped
away. Several of the remaining plants are then cut
over, clofe by the ground, at convenient diftances ; and
the remaining plants are cut perhaps half through, fo
as to permit them to be bent to one fide. They are
then bent down alrooft to a horizontal petition, and
interwoven with the upright ftakes, fo as to retain
them in that pofition. Care ought to be taken, that
thefe be laid very low, at thofe places where there were
formerly gaps ; which ougjht to be farther ftrengthened
by fome dead ftakes or truncheons of willows, which
will frequently take root in this cafe, and continue to
live. And fometimes a plant of eglantine will be able
to overcome the difficulties it there meets with, ftrike
root, and grow up fo as to ftrengthen the hedge in a
moft effe'dlual manner.
“ The operator begins at one end of the field, and
proceeds regularly forward, bending all the ftems in
one direfl'ion, fo that the points rife above the roots of
the others, till the whole wattling is completed to the
fame height as the uprights.
“ An expert Operator will perform this work with
much greater expedition, than one who has not feen it
done could eafily imagine. And, as all the diagonal
wattling® continue to live and fend out (hoots from
many parts of thefr ftems, and as the. Upright (hoots
that rife from the flumps of thofe plants that have been
cut over quickly ruflv up through the whole hedge,
thefe ferve to unite the whole into one entire mafs,
that forms a ftrong, durable, and beautiful fence.
“ This is the heft method, of recovering an old ne-
glefted hedge, that hath as yet come to my knowledge.
“ In fome cafes it happens that the young (hoots of
a hedge are killed every winter; in which cafe it foon
becomes dead and unfightly, and can never rife to any
confiderable height. A remedy for this difeafe may
therefore be wifhed for.
“ Young hedges are obferved to be chiefly affedled
with this diforder; and it is almoft always occafioned
by an injudicious management of the hedge, by means
of which it hafe been forced to fend out too great a
number of (hoots in fummer, that are thus rendered fo
fmall and weakly as to be unable to refill the fevere
weather in winter.
It often happens that the owner of a young hedge,
with a view to render it very thick and clofe, cuts it
over with the (hears a few inches above the ground the
firft winter after planting;' in conftquence of which,
many fmall (hoots fpring out from each of the ftems
that has been cut over:—Each of which, being after¬
wards cut over in the fame manner, fends forth a dill
greater number of (hoots, which are fmaller and fmailer
in proportion to their number.
“ If the foil in which the hedgtfhas been planted is
poor, in confequence of this manag-ement, the branches,
after a few years, become fo numerous, that the hedge
is unable to fend out any (hoots at all, and the utmoft
exertion of the vegetative powers enables it only to
put forth leaves. Thefe leaves are renewed in a fickly
ftate for fome years, and at laft ceafe to grow at all—
the branches become covered with fog, and the hedge
Vox.. V.
perifties entirely. JIc
“ But if the foil be very rich, notwith(landing this
great multiplication of the ftems, the roots will (till
have fufficient vigour to force out a great many fmall
(hoots, which advance to a great length, but never at¬
tain a proportional thicknefs. And, as the vigour of
the hedge makes them continue to vegetate very late in
autumn, the frofts come on before the tops of thefe
dangling (hoots have attained any degree of woody
firmnefs, fo that they are killed almoft entirely by it;
the whole hedge becomes covered with thefe long dead,
(hoots, which are always difagreeable to look at, and
nfually indicate the approaching end of the hedge.
“ The caufes of the diforder being thns explained,
it will readily occur, that the only radical cure is am¬
putation ; which, by giving an opportunity to begin
with training the hedge anew, gives us alfo an oppor¬
tunity of avoiding the errors that occafioned it. In
this cafe, care ought to be taken to cut the plants as
clofe to the ground as poffible, as thefe the ftems will
be lefs numerous than at any greater height. And
particular attention ought to be had to allow very few
(hoots to arife from the ftems that have been cut over,
and to guard carefully againft (hortening them.
“ But as the roots, in the cafe here fuppofed, will
be very ftrong, the (hoots that are allowed to fpring
from the ftems will be very vigorous, and there will be
fome danger of their continuing to grow later in the
feafon than they ought in fafety todo ; in which cafe,
fome part of the top of the (hoot may perhaps be kill¬
ed the firft winter, which ought if poffible to be pre¬
vented. This can. only be effedtually done by giving
a check to the vegetation in autumn, fo as t<? allow the
young (hoots to harden in the points before the winter
approaches. If any of the leaves or branches of a tree
are cut away while it is in the ftate of vegetation, the
whole plant feels the lofs, and it fuffers a temporary
check in its growth in proportion to the lofs that it
thus futtains. To check, therefore, the vigorous vege¬
tation at the end of autumn, it will be prudent to
choofe the beginning of September for the time of
lopping off alt the fupernumerary branches from the
young hedge, and for clipping off the fide-branches
that have fprung out from it; which will, in general,
be fufficient to give it fuch a check in its growth at
that feafon, as will prevent any of the (hoots from ad¬
vancing afterwards. If the hedge is extremely vigo¬
rous, a few buds may be allowed to grow upon the
large flumps in the fpring, with a view to be cut off at
this feafon, which will tend to (lop the vegetation of
the hedge ftill more effectually.
“ By this mode of management, the hedge may be
preferved entire through the firft winter. And, as the
(hoots become lefs vigorous every fucceffive feafon,
there will be lefs difficulty in preferving them at any
future period. It will always be proper, however, to
trim the (ides of a very vigorous hedge, for fome years
while it is young, about the fame feafon of the year,
which will tend powerfully to prevent this malady.
But when the hedge has advanced to any confiderable
height, it wall be equally proper to clip it during any
of the winter-months, before Candlemas.”
HEDGE-j%gr. See Erinaceus.
HEDYSARUM, in botany, a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
20 K of
H E E [ 3566 1 H E I
Heel of plants. There are 49 fpeeies of this plant, of
!i which the moil remarkable are, i.The movens, or mo-
ving plant, a native of the Ealt Indies, where it is
called burrum chundalli. The feeds of it were fent
to Edinburgh by Mr Kerr, and the plant is now
growing in the botanical garden there. It arrives at
the height of four feet, and in autumn produces bunches
of yellow flowers. The root is annual or biennial. It
is a trifolious plant, and the lateral leaves are fmaller
than thofe at the end, and all day long they are in
conftant motion without any external impulfe. They
move up and down and circularly. This lad motion is
performed by the twilling of the footflalks ; and while
the one leaf is rifing, its affociate is generally defeend-
ing. The motion downwards is quicker and more ir¬
regular than the motion upwards, which is Heady and
uniform. Thefe motions are obfervable for the fpace
of 24 hours in the leaves of a branch which is lopped
off from the fhrub if it is kept in water. If from any
obftacle the motion is retarded, upon the removal of
that obftacle it is refumed with a greater degree of ve¬
locity. This fpecies was unknown to Linnaeus.—2. The
coronarium, or common biennial French honeyfuckle,
hath large deeply-ftriking biennial roots; upright,
hallow, fmooth, very branchy (talks, three or four feet
high, garnifhed with pinnated leaves ; and from the pla¬
ces of the leaves proceed long fpikes of beautiful red
flowers, fucceeded by jointed feed-pods.
Culture. The firft fpecies being a native of hot cli¬
mates, requires the common culture of tender exotics;
the fecond is eafily railed from feed in any of the com¬
mon borders, and is very ornamental.
HEEL, in anatomy. See there, n° 65.
Heel of a Horfe, the lower hinder-part of the foot
comprehended between the quarters and oppofite to the
toe. The heel of a horfe fhould be high and large, and
one fide of it ftiould not rife higher than the other up¬
on the paftern. To recover the heels of a horfe that is
hoof-bound, you (hould take out his foie and keep his
heels very wide, by which they will be reftored in a
month.
Heel of a Horfeman. This being the part that is
armed with the fpur, the word is ufed for the fpur it-
felf; as, “ This horfe undei'ftands the heel well.” To
ride a horfe from one heel to another, is to make him
go lideways, fometimes to one heel and fometimes to
another.
Heel, in the fea-language. If a (hip leans on one
fide, whether ftie be a ground or a-float, then it is faid
flie heels a-ftarboard, or a-port ; or that flie heels off-
wards, or to the ftiore ; that is, inclines more to one
fide than to another.
HEELER, or .B/Wv-HEEL-Cbci, a fighting cock,
that ftrikes or wounds much with his fpurs.
The mafters know fuch a cock, even while a chic¬
ken, by the ftriking of his two heels together in his
going.
HEEM, (John David,) an able painter, born at
Utrecht in 1604. He excelled in painting flowers,
fruit, vafes, and inftruments of mufic, which he per¬
formed in fuch a perfe£l manner, that a perfon was apt
to attempt taking them in his hand. His colouring is
agreeable, and the infe&s in his pictures appear alive.
He died at Antwerp in 1674.
Cornelius de. Heem, his fon, was alfo a good paint¬
er, though inferior to his father.
HEEMSKIRK. SccHemskirk.
HEGIRA, in chronology, a celebrated epocha a-
mong the Mahometans.. G
Tne event which gave rife to this epoch.a was the
flight of Mahomet from Mecca, with his new profe-
lytes, to avoid the perfecution of the Coraifchites ; who,
being then moft powerful in the city, could not bear
that Mahomet fhould abolilh idolatry, and eltablifh his
new religion. This flight happened in the fourteenth
year after Mahpmet had commenced prophet : ,he re¬
tired to Medina, which he made the place of his re-
fidence. See Arabia, n° 44.
HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in Swa¬
bia, and in the territory of Brentzhall, with a hand-
fome palace or caftle, belonging to the houfe of Wir-
temberg. E. Long. to. 19. N. Lat. 48. 37.
HEIDLEBERG, a confiderable and populous
town of Germany, capital of the. Lower Palatinate,
with a celebrated univerfity. It is noted for its great
ton, which holds 800 hogftieads, generally kept full
of good Rhenifti wine. It Hands in a pleafant rich
country, and was a famous feat of learning : but it has
undergone fo many calamities, that it is nothing now
to what it was formerly. It was firft reduced to a
heap of ruins in 1622, by the Spaniards; and the rich
library was tranfported partly to Vienna, and partly
to the Vatican at Rome. After this it enjoyed the
benefits of peace, till the Proteftant electoral houfe
became extindl, and a bloody war enfued, in which
not only the caftle was ruined, but the tombs and bo¬
dies of the electors were (hamefully violated and pilla¬
ged. This happened in 1693 ; and the people of the
Palatinate were obliged t.o leave their dwellings, and to
go for refuge into foreign countries. To add to thefe
misfortunes, the ele6lor redded at Manheim, and car¬
ried moft of the people of diftinclion along with him,
fo that it is uncertain whether Heidleberg will ever re¬
cover itfelf or not, though they have begun to rebuild
fome of the fortifications. The great ton was broke
to pieces in 1693 by the French, and at great ex¬
pence in 1729 was repaired. The town Hands on the
river Neckar, over which there is a handfome bridge.
E. Long. 8. 48. N. Lat. 49. 25.
HEIGHT, in general, fignifies the difference be¬
tween the ground and the top of any objedl meafured
perpendicularly.
Methods of meafuring TIziguts. See Geometry,
Trigonometry, Barometer, Mountain, and (Ba¬
rometer in the APPENDIX.)
HEILA, a town of Royal Pruffia, in Caffubia,
feated at the mouth of the river Viftula, on the Baltic
Sea, and fubjeft to Poland, 12 miles north of Dant-
zick. E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 54.53.
HEILEGEN-have, a fea-port town of Germany,
in Lower Saxony, and in Wageria, feated on the Bal¬
tic Sea, over-againft the ifland of Termeren. E. Long.
11. 15. E. Lat. 57. 30.
HEINECCIUS (John Gotlieb), one of the great-
eft civilians of the 18th century, was born at Eifen-
berg, in the principality of Altenburg, in 16S1. Af¬
ter having ftudied at Goflar and Leipfick, he was de-
figned for theminiftry, and began to preach ; but dif-
liking that profeflion, he laid it afide, and applied
himfelf entirely to the ftudy of philofophy and the ci-
Heemlkiik
II
Heinecciu*.
H E 1 [ 3567 ] H E L
Htinetken, vil law. In 1710, he became profeffor of philofophy
Heinfnis. ax Hall ; and m 1721, he was made proftlfor of civil
law, with the title of counfellor of the court. His great
reputation made the dates of Friefland invite him to
Franeker in 1724 ; but three years after, the king of
Pruflia prevailed on him to accept of a profeflbrfliip of
law at Francfort on the Oder, where he diftinguifhed
himfelf till the year 1733- Becoming again profelforat
Hall, he remained there till his death, which happened
in 1941, notwithftanding his being invited to Marpurg,
Denmark, and three academies in Holland. He wrote
many works, all of them much edeemed. The princi-
pal are, 1. Ant'vquilatuvi Romanarum jurifpritdentiam
illujirantium fyntagma. It was this excellent abridg¬
ment that gave rife to his reputation in foreign coun¬
tries. 2. Elementa-juris civilis fecuv.dum ordinein in-
Jlitutionum it paridefiarum. 3. Fundamenti fyli cul-
tioris. There are few works fo ufeful as this for form¬
ing a Latin dyle. 4. Element a philofopbite ratiotmlis
<&; moralis, qiiihm preentiffs hiflona phildfophica. Hi-
Jloria juris civilis Romani ac Germanici. 6. Element a
juris natures it gentium, &c.
HEINETKEN (Chridiafi), anextraordinary child,
the prodigy of the North, was born at Lubeck in
1721. He fpoke his maternal tongue fluently at 10
months. At one year old, he knew the principal e-
vents of the pentatetich ; dn two months more, he was
inafler of the entire hidory of the Old and New Teda-
ments ; at two years and an half, he anfweredthe prin¬
cipal quedions ih geography and in ancient and mo¬
dern hidory ; and he fpokelLatin and French with great
facility before the commencement of his fourth year.
His conditution was fo delicate, that he was not
weaned till a few months before his death. M. Mar¬
tini of LubeO publifhed a pamphlet in 1730, in which
he endeavoured to give natural reafons for the extra¬
ordinary capacity of this infant, who died in his fifth
year.
HEINSIUS-(Daniel), profedor ofpoliticsand hi-
fi.ory at Leyden, and librarian to the univeriity there,
was born at Gand in Flanders in 1580. He became a
fcholar to Joftph Scaliger at Leyden, and was indebt¬
ed to the encouragement and care of that great man,
for the perfe&ion to which he attained in literature,
and which at the beginning of his life there was little
reafon to hope from him. He didinguiflied himfelf as
a critic by his labours on many claflical authors ; and
was highly honoured as well abroad as at home : Gu-
davus Adolphus king of Sweden gave him a place- a-
mong his counfellors of date ; the republic of Venice
made him a knight of the order of St Mark; and pope
Urban VIII. made him great offers, if he would come,
as he expreffed it, “ to refeue Rome from barbarifm.”
He died in 1666, leaving feveral works, of his owm,
both in poetry and profe.
Heinsius (Nicholas), the fon of Daniel Heinfius,
was born at Leyden ; and became as great a Latin
poet, and a greater critic than his father. His poems
have been feveral times printed, but the bed edition is
that of Amfleirdam in 1666. He gave editions of fe¬
veral of the daffies, with notes ; his Claudian is dedi¬
cated in a Latin poem to queen Chridina of Sweden,
and his Ovid to Thuanus. At his death, which hap¬
pened in 1681, he difclaimed all his works, and ex¬
preffed the utmod regret at having left behind him fo
many “ monuments of his vanity,” as he called them. Heir
He was as much didinguilhed by his great employ- II
ments in the date, as by his talents, learning, and good Weleiia
qualities.
HEIR, in law, fignifies the perfon who fucceeds
another by defeent to lands, tenements, and heredi¬
taments, being an edate of inheritance, or an edatein
fee ; becaufe nothing paffes by right of inheritance but
in fee. See the articles Consanguinity, Descent,
Fee. Succession; and'LAW, N° Ixxvi. & clxxx. etfeq.
Heir Apparent, is a perfon fo called in the lifetime
of his ancedor, at whofe death he is heir at law.
HEIRESS, a female heir to one who has an edate
in lands, &e. See Heir.
Stealing an Heiress. See Forcible Marriage.
HEIRSHIP moveables, in Scots law, the bed of
certain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is
in tit led to take, befides the heritable edate. See
Law, N° clxxx. 7.
HELENA, or Sf Helena, an ifland in the At¬
lantic Ocean, belonging to the Englifh Eafl India
company, and fituated in W. Long. 6.130. S. Lat.
16°. The greated length of the iiland is about eight
miles, and its circumference about 20. It hath fome
high mountains, particularly one called Diana's peak,
which is covered with woods to the very top. .Other
hills there are which bear evident marks of a volcanic
origin; and fome have huge rocks of lava, and a kind
of half-vitrified flags. The country, according to Mr
Fbrfter, has a fine appearance ; the foil is in many
places a rich mould, from fix to ten inches deep, and
a variety of plants thrive in it luxuriantly. He found
many plants here which he had not obferved in other
parts of the world. Among thefe were fome called
by the natives cabbage-itrees, gum-trees, and red wood.
The former thrive in moifi places ; but the latter are al¬
ways found on the ridges of hills where the foil is dry.
The cabbage-tree has rather large leaves ; but after
many inquiries Mr Forder could not find that it was
ufed for any other purpofe than that of fuel, and no
reafon could be affigned why it had obtained that
name. It mud not be confounded with the cabbage-tree
of America, India, and the South Seas, which is a
fpecies of palm.
The ifland is laid out. entirely in gardens and paf-
turage. Peaches are the only European fruits that
thrive here. Cabbages and other greens which thrive
extremely well are devoured by caterpillars ; and every
fpecies of corn is dedroyed by rats. All the padures
were over-run with furze ; which, though in our coun¬
try a very ufelefs and even pernicious plant, was of
Angular advantage to the inhabitants of St Helena.
Before the introdudlion of that plant, the ground was
parched by the intenfe heat, and all kinds of grafs
and herbage were fhrivdled up. But the furze-bufhes,
which throve as it were in defpite of the fun, pre-
ferved a degree of moidure in the ground; by which
means the grafs fprung up vigoroufly, and the coun¬
try became covered with a rich and beautiful fod.
The furze is now no longer wanted, and the people
affiduoufly root it out for fuel. The number of peo¬
ple on St Helena does not exceed 2000 perfons,* in¬
cluding 500 foldiers, and 600 flaves ; and it isfaidthat
the number of females born on the ifland confiderably
exceeds that of the males. By the arrival of the In-
20 K 2 dia
H E L [ 3568 ] H E L
Helena dfa (liips which they fupply with refre/hments, they
!l are in return provided with all forts of manufactures
Helenmm. anj otjjer neceifaries ; and the Company annually or-
der one or two of their (hips to touch there in their
way.to India, in order to fend them a fuIScient quan¬
tity of European goods and provifions. Many of their
Haves are employed in catching fifli, which are very
plentiful; and, by the help of thefe, together with
their poultry, cattle, roots, and fait provifions, they
fubfift through the year. Their life (fays Mr For-
Iler) feems to pafs along very happily ; free from
the multitude of cares which diitrefs their countrymen
in England, and bleffed with quiet and content.
St Helena was firft difeovered by the Portuguefe
in 1502, on St Helen’s day ; whence its name. They
flocked it with different kinds of ufeful animals; but
whether they ever fettled a colony on it or not, is un¬
certain. The Portuguefe having either abandoned,
or never taken poffeffion of it, the Dutch became its
mailers ; and kept poffeffion of it till the year t6oo,
when they were driven out by the Englifh. In 1673,
the Dutch took it by furprife ; but a Ihort time after
it was recovered by the brave captain Munden, who
alfo took three Dutch Ealt Indiamen then lying in
the harbour. On this oecafion the Holbriders had
fortified the landing-place, of which there is only one
on the ifland ; and eredled batteries of great guns to
prevent a defeent: but the Engliih having knowledge
of a fmall creek, where only two men abreaft could
creep up, climbed to the top of the rock in the night;
and appearing the next morning behind the batteries,
the Dutch were fo -terrified, that they threw down
their arms, and furrendered at diferetion. This creek
has been fince fortified, and a battery of large cannon
placed at the entrance of it; fo that now the ifland is
rendered perfetlly fecure againft all regular approaches
or fudden attacks.
HELEN, (in fab. hift.) the daughter of Tyndarus
and Leda, was married to Menelaus king of Sparta, but
was ftolen from him by Thefeus, 1235 B. C. She was
reltored foonafter ; but carried off again by Paris, the
Trojan prince ; which occafioned the famous Trojan
war. See Troy.
HELENIUM, bastard sun-flower ; a genus
of the polygamia fuperfiua order, belonging. ta the
fyngenefia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The autumnale, with fpear-fhaped nar¬
row leaves. 2. The latifolium, with pointed* fpear-
fhaped, fawed leaves.—Both thefe are natives of North
America, where they grow wild in great plenty.
They rife to the height of feven or eight feet in good
ground. The roots, when large, fend up a great
number of flalks, which branch toward the top ; the
upper part of the ftalk fullains one yellow flower
fhaped like the fun-flower, but much fmaller, having
long rays, which are jagged pretty deep into four or
five fegments.
Culture. Thefe plants may be propagated by feeds,
or by parting their roots ; the latter is generally prac-
tifed in this country. The beft feafon to tranfplant
and part the old roots is in Oftober when their leaves
ar„- pall, or In the beginning of March juft before
they begin to (hoot. They delight in a foil rather
moilt than dry, provided it is not too ftrong, or does
not bold the wet in winter^
HELEPOLIS, in the ancient art of war, a ma- Htliasa
chine for battering down-the walls of-a place befieged, P
the invention of which is aferibed to Demetrius Po- llil z'
liorcetes.—Diodorus Siculus, fays, that each fide of
the Helepolis was 405 cubits in breadth, and 90 in
height; that it had nine ftages, and was carried on
four ftroog folid wheels eight cubits in diameter ; that
it was armed with large battering rams, and had two
roofs capable of fupporting them ; that in the lower
itages there were different forts of engines for calling
Hones ; and in the middle they had large catapultas
for difeharging arrows, and fmaller ones in thofe a-
bove, with a number of expert men for working all
thefe machines.
HELDEA,. in Grecian antiquity,- was the greateft
and moil frequented court in Athens for the trial of
civil affairs. See Heliast^:.
HELIACAL, in aftronomy, a term applied to
the rifing and fetting of the liars or, more ftridlly
fpeaking,-to their emerfion out off, and immerfion
into, the rays and fuperior fplendor of the fun. — A
liar is faid to rife hcliacally, when, after having been
in conjunction wkh the fun* and on thdt account in-
vifible, it comes to 'be at fuch a diilance from him,
as to be feen in the morning before fun-rifing ; the
fun, by his apparent motion, receding from the liar
towards the Eallj. On the contrary, the heliacal fetting
is, when the fun approaches fo near a liar as to hide
it with his beams, Which prevent the fainter light of
the liar from being perceived ; fo that the terms appari¬
tion .and occultation would be more proper than rifing
and fetting.
HELIANTHUS, the great SUNFLOWER ; 3 gC-
nus of the polygamiafruflanea order, belomging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants. ^There dre 12 fpecies, moll
.of which are now very common in oiir gardens, tho*
all.of them are nativesLof America, They are all very
hardy, and will profper in almoll any foil or fituation.
They may be propagated either by feeds, or by part¬
ing their roots.
HELIASTjiE, in antiquity, the judges of the
court Heli.®a. They were fo called, according to
fome authors, from a Greek word which fignifies to
afficmble in a great number; and, according to others,
from another, word which fignifies if 1? fun, becaufe
they held their affemblies in an open place. They
compofed not only the moll numerous, but likewife
the moll important of the Athenian tribunals ; for
-their province was either to explain the obfeure laws,
or to give new vigour and authority to thole which
had been violated. The Thefmothetoe .convoked the
affembly of the Heliaftae, which fometimes amounted
to 1000, fometimes to 1500 judges. Mr Blanchard
is of opinion, that, to make this number, tne Thefmo-
thetas fometimes fummoned thofe of each tribe who
had laft quitted the public offices which they had exer-
cifed in another court.
However that may be, it appears that the affemblies
of the Heliaflae were not frequent, as they would have
interrupted the jurifdiftion of the Hated tribunals, and
the common courfe of affairs.
The Thefmothetas paid to each member of this af¬
fembly, for his attendance, three oboli: which are
equal to two Roman felterces, or to half a drachma.
Hence Ariltophanes terms them the brothers of the
txioboltuL
H E L [ 3569 j H E L
Heliaftse. triobohts. They were- likewife condemned to pay a
fine if they came too late; and if they did not-prefent
themfelves till after the orators had begun to fpeak,
they were not admitted. Their attendance was re¬
quited'out of the public treafury, and their pay was
called mijlkos heliafticus.
The afiembly met, at firft, according to Arifto-
phanes, at the riling of the fun. If the judges were
obliged to meet under cover on account of froft and
fnow, they had a fire ; but there is not a pafiage in
any ancient author which informs us pf the place
where thefe aflemblies were held, either in the rigo¬
rous or iu the mild feafons. We only learn that there
was a double iuclofnre around the afiembly, that it
might not be difiurbed. The (irlt was a kind of arbor-
work, from fpace to fpace, feparated by doors, over
which were painted in red the ten or twelve firft letters
of the Greek alphabet, which dire&ed the entrance of
the officers who compofed the tribunal, each of them
entering under the letter which diftinguilhed his tribe.
The beadles of the court, to whom they (hewed the
wands which had been fent them by the Thefmothetse
as a fummons to meet, examined its mark, to fee if it
was authentic, and then introduced them. The fecond
inclofure, which was at the diftance of 20 feet from
the former, was a rope, or cord; that the people who
flood round the firft inclofure, and were defirous to
fee what paffed within the fecond, might not be
prevented from gratifying their Curiofity at a proper
diftance. Thus the attention of the judges was
not interrupted by the concourfe of the multitude,
many of whom were heated by views of intereft or
of party.
To each of the members of the aflembly were diftrl-
buted two pieces ofcopper; one of which was perforated,
not, certainly, that it might be diltinguilhed from the o-
ther by feeling; for thefe aflemblies met at the riling, and
•were diffolved at the fetting of the fun. Thofe pieces of
copper had-beenfubllituted for little fea-fhells, which were
at firft in ufie. The king was prefent at the afiembly, at
whofe command it had been fummoned. The Thef-
mothetss read the names of thofe who were to com-
pofe it, and each man took his place as he was called.
The Thefmothetas were then fent for, whofe fumftion
it was to obferve prodigies, and to fuperintend the fa-
criiices; and if they gave their fanftion, the delibera¬
tions were begun. It is well known, that the officers
called Exeget* were often corrupted by fhofe who
were interefted ia the debates of the affembly; and
that they excited fuch tumults as were raifed by the
Roman tribunal in the popular affemhlies convoked by
the confuls.
Of all the monuments which remain relating to the
Heliaftse, the moft curious is the oath which thofe
judges took before the Thefmotheta: Demofthenes
hath preferved it in his oration againft Timocrates,
who having been bribed by thofe who had been in-
trufted with the effedfs taken on board a vt-fiel of
Naucratis, and refufed to give an account of them,
got a law paffed, by which an enlargement was granted
to prifoners for public debts, on giving bail. De-
mofthenes, in making his oration again(l that law,
ordered the oath of tjte Heliaftee to he read aloud, as
a perpetual auxiliary to his arguments, and happily
calculated to intereft the multitude and inflame their
paffions. This oath we fhall quote, that our readers Heliaff*.
may know how refpedtable a tribunal that of the He- "
liaftas was, and the importance of their decifions.
“ I will judge according to the laws and decrees of
“ the people of Athens, and of the fenate of 50a.
“ I will never give my vote for the eftablifhment of a
“ tyrant, nor of^an oligarchy. Nor will I ever give
“ my approbation to an opinion prejudicial to the
“ liberty, or to the union, of the people of Athens-
“ I will not fecond thofe.perfons who may propofe a
“ redudtion of private debts, or a diftribution of the
“ lands or ho life* of the Athenians. I will not recall
“ exiles, nor endeavour to .procure a pardon for thofe
“ who (hall he condemned to die. Nor will I force
“ thofe to retire whom the laws and the fuffrages of
“ the people fliall permit to remain in their country-
“ I will not give my vote to any candidate for a
“ public fundfion, who gives not an account of his
il conduft in the office which he has previoufly filled;
“ nor will I prefume to folicit any truft from the
“ commonwealth, without fubjedting myfelf to this
condition, which I mean as obligatory to the nine
“ archons, to the chief of religious matters, to thofe
“ who are balloted on the fume day with the nine
“ archons, to the herald, the ambaffador, and the
<i other officers of their court. I will not fuffer the
“ lame man to hold the fame office twice, or to hold
“ two offices in the fame year. I will not accept any
** prefent, either myfelf or by another, either diredtly
“ or indiredily, as a member of the Heliaftic affembly.
“ I folemnly declare that I am 30 years old. I will
“ be equally attentive and impartial to the accufer
“ and the accufed; I will give my fentence rigoroully
“ according to evidence. Thus I fwear, by Jupiter,,
“ by Neptune, and by Ceres, to adh And if I vio-
“ late any of my engagements, I imprecate, from.
“ thefe deities, ruin on myfelf and my family. And
“ I requeil them to grant me every kind of profperity,
** if I am faithful to my oath.”
The reader Ihould perufe what follows this oath, to
fee with what eloquence Demofthenes avails himfelf
of it, and how he applies its principles to the caulfe
which he defends.
Here we have one of the motives of the meeting of
this affembly. Ariftotk informs us of another; which,
was, by the public authority, deputed to them, to
eledl 3 magiftrate in the room of One dead. It is fur-
prifing,. that Paufanias, who enters fo often into de¬
tails, gives us no particular account of this affembly.
All that he fays of it is, that the moft numerous of
the Athenian affemhlies was called He lice.
We are told by Diogenes Laertius, in his life of
Solon, that it was before one of thefe Heliaftic aflem¬
blies that Pififtratus prefented himfelf, covered with
wounds and contufions, (for thus he had treated him¬
felf and the mules which drew his car,) to excite the
indignation of the people againft his pretended ene¬
mies, who, jealous, as he alleged, of the popularity
he had acquired by afferting the rights of his poorer
fellow-citizens, in Oppofition to the men in power,
had attacked him while he was hunting, and had
wounded him in that barbarous manner. His defign
fucceeded; a guard was appointed him, by the aflilt-
ance of which he acquired the fovereignty or tyranny-
of Athens, and kept it 33 years. The power of the
affembly
H E L [ 3570 ] H E L
Heliarta; affembly appeared remarkably on that occafion; for
■ T J! Solon, who was prefent, oppofed it with all his efforts,
HillOCO- 1 J-J r J
mete? and did not lucceed.
   As to the manner in which the judges gave their
fuffrages, there was a fort of veffel, covered with an
ofier mat, on which were placed two urns, the one of
copper, the other of wood. In the lid of thefe urns
there was an oblong hole, which was large at the top,
and grew narrower downwards, as we fee in lome old
boxes of our churches. The fuffrages which con¬
demned the accufed perfon, were thrown into the
■wooden urn, which was termed kyribs. That of
copper, named akyros, received thole which abfolved
him.
. Arillotle obferves, that Solon, whofe aim was to
make his people happy, and who found an ariftocracy
cltablilhed by the election of the nine archons, (annual
officers, whofe power was almoft abfolute,) tempered
their fovereignty, by inftituting the privilege of ap¬
pealing from them to the people, who were to be af-
femhled by lot to give their fuffrage ; after having
taken the oath of the Heliaftas, in a place near the
Panathenseum ; where Hiffus had, in former days,
calmed a fedition of the people, and bound them to
unanimity by an oath. It has likewife been re¬
marked, that the god Apollo was not invoked
in the oath of the Heliafta;, as in the oaths of the
other judges. We have obferved, that he who took
the oath of the Heliaftse, engaged that he would not
be corrupted by folicitation or money. Thofe who
violated this part of their oath, were condemned to
pay a fevere line. The decemvirs at Rome made fuch
corruption a capital crime. But Afconius remarks,
that the punilhment denounced againft them was mi¬
tigated in later times; and that they were expelled the
the fenate, or banilhed for a certain time, according to
the degree of their guilt.
-HELICON, (anc. geog.), a mountain on the bor¬
ders of Bceotia and Phocis ; of fertile foil, cover¬
ed with woods, and very extenlive, its north fide touch¬
ing Phocis, and partly its weft fide, quite to Mychos,
its utmoft port-town. There alfo we have the river
Helicon ; which finking in the earth rifes again at
fome diftance under a new name, Baphyra. This
mountain is the poets’.fport and delight: HeliconiusX.ht
epithet ; Heliconiades, and Heliconides, the mufes.
HELICTERES, the Screw-tree ; a genus, of the
decandria order, belonging to the gynandria. clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies, all natives of warm
climates. They are ffirubby plants, riling from five
to fourteen feet in height, adorned with flowers of a
yellow colour. They are propagated by feeds; but
are tender, and in this country muft be kept in a ftove
during the winter.
HELIOCENTRIC latitude of a Planet, the in¬
clination of a line drawn between the centre of the fun,
and the centre of a planet, to the plane of the ecliptic.
Heliocentric Place of a Planet, the place of the
ecliptic wherein the planet would appear to a fpeffa-
tor placed at the centre of the fun.
HELIOCOMETES, a phenomenon fometimes ob¬
ferved about funfetting; being a large luminous tail or
column of light proceeding from the body of the fun,
and dragging after it, not unlike the tail of a comet;
whence the name.
HELIODORUS «/* Phoenicia, bilhop of Trica Heliodorus
in Theffaly, better known by the romance he compo- I
fed in his youth, entitled JEthiopics, and relating the '^ellic‘
amours of Theagenes and Chariclea. Some lay he
was depofed by a lynod, becaufe he would not confent
to the fuppreffing of that romance : the fable has a
moral tendency, and particularly inculcates the virtue
of chaftity. As it was the firlt of this fpecies of wri¬
ting, he is ftyltd the Father of Rotnances. He was
.alfo a good Latin poet. He lived in the 4th cen¬
tury.
HELIOPOLIS, (anc. geog.), fo called by Hero¬
dotus and Diodorus Siculus, by Mofes On, and in
Jeremiah Bethfetnes ; a city of Egypt, to the foulh-eaft
of the Delta, and eaft of Memphis ; of a very old
Handing, its origin terminating in fable. Here flood
the temple of the fun, held in religious veneration.
The city flood on an extraordinary mount, but in
Strabo’s time was defolate. It gave name to the Ne¬
mos Heliopolites.—There was another Heliopolis in
Coelolyria, near the fprings of the Orontes ; fo call ¬
ed from the worlhip of the fun, which was in great
vogue over all Syria.
HELIOSCOPE, in optics, a fort of telefcope,
peculiarly fitted for viewing the fun, without hurting
the eyes. See Telescope.
As the fun may be viewed through coloured glaffes,
without hurt to the eyes, if the objett and eye glaffes of
a telefcope be made of coloured glafs, as red or green,
fuch a telefcope will become an heliofcope.
But Mr Huygens only ufed a plain glafs, blacked
at the flame of a candle on one fide, and placed be¬
tween the eye-glafs and the eye ; which anfwers the
defign of an heliofcope very well.
HELIOSTATA, in optics, an inftrument invent¬
ed by the late learned Dr ’S. Gravefande ; who gave
it this name from its fixing, as it were, the rays of
the fun in an horizontal direction acrofs the dark cham¬
ber all the while it is in ufe. See Optics.
HELIOTROPIUM, Turnsole; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs, of
plants. There are a number of fpecies, all of them
natives of warm countries. Only one, called the tri-
coccum, grows in Europe ; and is a native of France,
Spain, and Italy. It is only remarkable for the pro¬
perty of its berries, of which an account is given un¬
der Q,o\.ovk-Making, n° 35.
HELIX, in anatomy. See there, n°405.
Helix, the Snail, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of vermes tellacea. The Ihell conlitts of
one fpiral, brittle, and almoft diaphanous valve ; and
the aperture is narrow. There are 60 fpecies, prin¬
cipally diltinguilhed by the figure of their (hells. They
are of various fizes, from that of a fmall apple to lefs
than half a pea. Some of them live on land, frequent¬
ing woods and gardens, or inhabiting clefts of rocks
and dry fand-banks. Others of them are aquatic, inha¬
biting ponds, deep rivers, 'and the ocean. The prin¬
cipal fpecies are,
t. The janthina, with a violet-coloured (hell, is re¬
markable for the extreme thinnefsof its texture, which
breaks with leaft preffure, and feems therefore entire¬
ly calculated to keep the open fea, or at leal! to fhun
rocky (bores. It inhabits the feas of Europe, efpeci-
ally the Mediterranean; thofe of Afia and Africa ;
and
Helix,
Hell.
* See Buc
■anum and
Murex.
* Addlfcn'.
t PHny,
l. x. c. ;(!.
\ L. ui.
fi Epift. xi
H E L [ 3571 ] H E L
and alfo the ocean. The living animal, when touch¬
ed, exfudes a juice, which ftains the hands of a violet
colour. Dr Hawkefworth, in his account of Cooke’s
voyage, miftakes this {hell for that which yielded the
purpura of the ancients. But whoever looks into
Pliny, can never have the lead idea that the thin {hell
aforementioned could be the fame with it. They had
feveral {hells which yielded the purple dye: but thefe
were all rock-lhells *, and very different, both in figure
and hardnefs, from the little helix jacintha ; which is
not calculated for the neighbourhood of rocks, as al¬
ready mentioned. Vid. Plin. lib. v. cap. 1. and lib.
ix, cap. 60, 61. See alfo Don Ant. Ulloa’s voyage
to South America, book iy. ch. 8.
2. The pomatia, or exotic fnail, with five fpires,
mod remarkably ventricofe, and fafciated with a light¬
er and a deeper brown, is a native of France, where
it inhabits the woods; but has been naturalized in
England, where it inhabits the woods of the fouthern
counties. It was introduced, as it is faid, by Sir
Kenelm Digby; whether for medical purpofes, or
as food, is uncertain : tradition fays, that to cure his
beloved wife of a decay was the ohjeA.—They are
quite confined to our fouthern counties. An attempt
was made to bring them into Northamptonfiiire, but
they would not live there. —Thefe are ufed as. a food
in feveral parts of Europe during lent; and are pre-
ferved in an efcargatoire, or a large place boarded in,
with a floor covered half a foot deep with herbs, in
which the fnails neftle and fatten *.—They were alfo
a favourite difli with the Romans, who had their cw^-
learia, a nurfery fimilar to the above. Fulvins Hir-
pinus f was the firft inventor of this luxury, a little
before the civil wars between Caefsr and Pompey. The
fnails were fed with bran andfodden wine. If wecould
credit Varro J, they grew fo large, that the {hells of
fome would hold ten quarts ! People need not admire
the temperance of the fupper of the younger Pliny [[,
which confided of only a lettuce a-piece, three fnails,
two eggs, a barley-cake, fweet wine and fpow,—in
cafe his fnails bore any proportion in fize to thofe of
Hirpinus.—Its name is derived not from any thing re¬
lating to an orchard, but from 3n operculum, it
having a very ftrong one. This feems to be the fpe-
cies defcribed by Pliny, lib. viii. c. 35. which he fays
was fcarce ; that it covered itfelf with the opercle, and
lodged underground; and that they were at firtt found
only about the maritime Alps, and more lately near
Velitrae. [See Plate CLVIII. the figure half the na¬
tural fize.]
3. The hortenfis, or garden-fnail, is in form like
the laft, but lefler, and not nmbilicated and clouded,
or mottled with browns.—Thefe are often ufed with
fuccefs in confumptive cafes.
HELL, the place of divine punifhment after death.
As all religions have fuppofed a future (late of exi-
flence after this life, fo all have their hell or place of
torment in which the wicked are fuppofed to be pu-
niflied. The hell of the ancient heathens was divided
into two manfions ; the one called Elyfiu7n., on the right
hand, pleafant and delightful, appointed for the fouls
of good men ; the other called Tartara, on the left,
a region of mifery and torment, appointed for the
wicked. The latter only was hell, in the prefent re-
Utained fenfe, of the word. See Elx sium.
The philofophers were of opinion, that the infernal Hell.
regions were at an equal diftance from ail the parts of 
the earth; neverthelefs it was the opinion of fome,
that there were certain paflages which led thither, as
the river Lethe near the Syrtes, and the Acherufian
cave in Epirus. At Hermione it was thought, that
there was a very fliort way to hell ; for which reafon
the people of that country never put the fare into the
mouths of the dead to pay their paflage.
The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth,
and believed it to be fituated under waters and moun¬
tains. According to them, there are three paflages
leading to it : the firft is in the wildernefs, and by that
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, defcended, into hell;
the lecond is in the fea, becaufe Jonah, who was
thrown into the fea, cried to God out of the belly of
hell ; the third is in Jerufalem, becaufe it is faid the
fire of the Lord is in Zion, and his furnace is in Je¬
rufalem. They likewife acknowledged feven degrees
of pain in hell, becaufe they find this place called by
feven different names in fcripture. Though they be¬
lieved that infidels, and perfons eminently wicked, will
continue for ever in hell ; yet they maintained, that
every Jew who is not infeded with fome herefy, and
has not aded contrary to the points mentioned by the
rabbins, will not be punifhed therein for any other
crimes above a year at moft..
The Mahometans believe the eternity of rewards and
punifhments in another life. In the Koran it is faid,
that htll has feven gates, the firft for the Muffulmans,
the fecond for the Chriftians, the third for the Jews,
the fourth for the Sabians, the fifth for the Magians*
the lixth for the Pagans, and the feventh for the hy¬
pocrites of all religions.
Among Chriftians, there are two controverted que-
ftions in regard to hell; the one concerns locality, the
other the duration of its torments. The locality of
hell, and. the reality of its fire, began firft to be con¬
troverted by Origen. That father, interpreting the
fcripture account metaphorically, makes hell to confift^
not in external punilhments, but in a confcioufnefs or
fenfe of guilt, and a remembrance of paft pleafures..
Among the moderns, .Mr Whifton advanced a new
hypothefis. According to him, the comets are fo
many hells appointed in their orbits alternately to car¬
ry the damned into the confines of the fun, there to
be fcorched by its violent heat, and then to return,
with them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to ftarve
them in thefe cold and difmal regions. Another mo¬
dern author, not fatisfied with any hypothefis hither¬
to advanced, afligns the fun to be the local hell. A*,
to the fecond queftion, viz. the duration of hell-tor¬
ments, we have Origen again at the head of thofe
who deny that they are eternal ; it being that father’s
opinion, that not only men, but devils, after a due
courfe of punifhment fuitable to their refpedlive crimes,
{hall be pardoned and reftored to heaven. The chief
principle upon which Origen built his opinion, was the
nature of punifhment, which he took to be emenda-
tory, applied only as phyfic for the recovery of the
patient’s health. The chief obje&ion to the eternity
of hell-torments among modern writers, isthedifpro-
portion between temporary crimes and eternal pu¬
nifhments. Thofe who maintain the affirmative,
ground their opinions on fcripture-accounts, which
reprefenfe
Hcllen
II E L [ 3572 ] H E L
Heilanleus reprefent the pains of hell under the figure of a worm
II winch never dies, and a fire which is not quenched ;
: 6 e orus as alfo upon the words, “ Thefe fhall go away into
“ everlafting punilhment, but the righteous into life
“ eternal.”
HELLANICUS of Mitylene, a celebrated Greek
hifiorian, born before Herodotus, flourifhed about
480 B. C. He wrote a hiftory of the ancient kings
and founders of cities, but which hath not comedown
to us.
HELLAS, (anc.geog.), an appellation comprifing,
according to the more ancient Greeks and Romans,
Achaia and Peloponnefus, but afterwards reflrained to
Achaia. It was bounded on the welt by the river
Achelous, on the north by mounts Othrys and O&a,
on the eaft by the Egean fea, and on the fouth by the
Saronic and Corinthian bays, and by the iithmus
which joins it to Peloponnefus. It was called Hellas,
from Hellen the fon of Deucalion; or from Hellas, a
diftrift of Theffaly; whence Hellenes, the gentilitious
name, denoting Greeks. Now called Livadia.
HELEEBORLTS, hellebore ; a genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants.
Species. The moft remarkable fpecies of this plant
is the niger, commonly called Ckrijlmat rofe. It hath
roots compofed of many thick flefhy fpreading fi¬
bres, crowned by a large clnfter of lobbed leaves,
confiding each of feven or eight obtufe flefhy lobes,
united to one foot-flalk; and between the leaves feve-
ral thick flefhy flower-ftalks three or four inches high,
furmounted by large beautiful white flowers of five
roundifh petals, and numerous filaments, appearing in
winter, about or foon after Chriflmas.
Culture. This plant may be propagated either by
feeds or parting the roots. It profpers in the open
borders, or may be planted in pots to move when in
bloom in order to adorn any particular place ; but it
alway flowers faireft and moft abundantly in the front
of a warm funny border. The plants may be remo¬
ved, and the roots divided for propagation, in Sep¬
tember, Odlober, or November; but the fooner in au¬
tumn it is done, the ftronger will the plants flower at
their proper feafon.
Ufes. The root of this plant was anciently ufed as
a cathartic. The tafte of it is acrid and bitter. Its
acrimony, as Dr Grew obferves, is firft felt on the tip
" of the tongue, and then fpreads itfelf immediately to
the middle, without being much perceived in the inter¬
mediate part. On chewing the root fora few minutes,
the tongue feems benumbed, and affe6ted with a kind
of paralytic ftupor, as when burnt by eating any thing
too hot. The fibres are more acrimonious than the
head of the root from whence they iffue. Black hel¬
lebore root, taken from 151030 grains, proves a ftrong
cathartic; and, as fuch, has been celebrated for the
cure of maniacal and other diforders proceeding from
what the ancients called the atrabilis; in which cafes,
medicines of this kind are doubtlefsoccafionally of ufe,
though they are by no means pofieffed of any fpecific
power. It does not however appear, that our black
hellebore afts withfo much violence as that of the an¬
cients; whence many have fuppofed it to be a diffe¬
rent fpecies of plant : and indeed the deferiptions
which the ancients have left us of their hellebore, do
not agree with thofe of any of the forts ufually taken
notice of by modern botanifts. Another fpecies has II
been difeovered in the Eaftern countries, which Tourne- c r
fort diftinguillies by the name of bellebortis niger orien-
talis, atnplijjimo folio, cattle preealto, flore purpurafeenie,
and fuppoles to be the true ancient hellebore, from its
growing in plenty about mount Olympus, and in the
ifland of Anticyra, celebrated of old for the produc¬
tion of this antimaniacal drug : he relates, that a fcruple
of this fort, given for a dofe, occafioned convulfions —
Our hellebore is at prefent looked upon principally as
an alterative ; and in this light is frequently'employed,
in fmall dofes, for attenuating vifeid humours, promo¬
ting the uterine and urinary difeharges, and opening
inveterate obftru&ions of the remoter glands. It often
proves a powerful emmenagogue in plethoric habits,
where fled is ineffectual or improper. In fome parts
of Germany, a fpecies of black hellebore has been
made ufe of, which frequently produced violent, and
fometimes deleterious, effects. It appears to be the
fetid kind of Linnjeus, called in Englifh fettlenuort,
fetterwort, or bafiard hellebore. The roots of this may
be diftinguithed from thofe of the true kind, by their
being lefs black.
HELLEN, the fon of Deucalion, is faid to have
given the name of Hellenifts to the people before called
Greeks, 1521 B. C. See Greece.
HELLENISM, in matters of language, a phrafe in
the idiom, genius, or conftrudtion of the Greek tongue.
This word is only ufed when fpeaking of the au¬
thors who, writing in a different language, exprefs
themfelves in a phrafeology peculiar to the Greek.
HELLENISTIC language, that ufed by the
Grecian Jews who lived in Egypt and other parts where
the Greek tongue prevailed. In this language it is
faid the Septuagint was' written, and alfo the books
of the New Teftament; and that it was thus denomi¬
nated to fhevv that it was Greek filled with Hebraifms
and Syriacifms.
HELLESPONT, the entrance of the (freights
which divides Afia from Europe, and paffes from the
Archipelago to Conftantinople. It is now called the
Dardanelles, and is about two miles wide.
HELM, a long and flat piece of timber, or an af-
femblage of feveral pieces, fufpended along the hind-
part of a (hip’s ftern-poft, where it turns upon hinges
to the right or left, ferving to direft the courfe of the
veffel, as the tail of a fi(h guides the body.
The helm is ufually compofed of three parts, viz. the
rudder, the tiller, and the wheel, except in fmall vef-
fels, where the wheel is unneceffary.
As to the form of the rudder, it becomes gradually
broader in proportion to its diftance from the top, or
to its depth .under the water. The back, or inner part
of it, which joins to the ftern-poft, is diminiftied into
the form of a wedge throughout its whole length, fo
as that the rudder may be more eafily turned from one
fide to the other, where it makes an obtufe angle with
the keel. It is fupported upon hinges ; of which thofe
that are bolted round the ftern-poft to the after-ex¬
tremity of the (hip, are called googiugs, and are fur-
nifhed with a large hole on the after-part of the ftern-
poft. The other parts of the hinges, which are bolted
to the back of the .rudder, are called pintles, being
ftrong cylindrical pins, which enter into thegoogings.
Helm.
H E L [ 3573 ] H E L
Helm, and reft upon their. The length and thicknefs of the
' redder is nearly equal to that of the ftern-poft.
The rudder is turned upon its hinges by means of a
long bar of timber, called the tiller, which is fixed ho¬
rizontally in its upper end within the veffel. The
movements of the tiller to the right and left, accord¬
ingly, direct the efforts of the rudder to the govern¬
ment of the fhip’s courfe as Ihe advances ; which, in
the fea language, is called fleering. The operations of
the tiller are guided and affilted by a fort of tackle,
communicating with the (hip’s fide, called the tiller-
rope, which is ufually compofed of untarred rope-yarns
for the purpofe of traverfing more readily through the
blocks or pullies.
In order to facilitate the management of the helm,
the tiller-rope, in all large veffels, is wound about a
wheel, which afts upon it with the powers of a crane
or windlafs. The rope employed in this fervice being
conveyed from the fore-end of the tiller k, to a Angle
Le^k block i, on each fide of the (hip-f, is farther commu-
VI. Ixxxviii nicated to the wheel, by means of two blocks fuf-
pended near the mizen-maft, and tv/o holes immediate¬
ly above, leading up to the wheel, which is fixed upon
an axis on the quarter-deck, almoft perpendicularly
over the fore-end of the tiller. Five turns of the tiller-
rope are ufually wound about the barrel of the wheel;
and, when the helm is amidfiiip, the middle turn is
nailed to the top of the barrel, with a mark by which
the helmfman readily difcovers the fituation of the
helm, as the wheel turns it from the (larboard to the
larboard fide. The fpokes of the wheel generally
reach about eight inches beyond the rim or circumfe¬
rence, ferving as handles to the perfon who (leers the
veffel. As the effedl of a lever increafes in propor¬
tion to the length of its arm, it is evident that the
power of the helmfman to turn the wheel will be in-
creafed according to the length of the fpokes beyond
the circumference of the barrel.
When the helm, inftead of lying in a right line
Plate t^ie kee^ turned to one fide or the other, as
CXLVIIT. ’n Bb), fig. i. it receives an immediate (hock from
the water, which glides along the (hip’s bottom in
running aft from A to B ; and this fluid pufites it
towards the oppofite fide, whilft it is retained in this
pofuion : fo that the Hern, to which the rudder is con¬
fined, receives the fame impreffion, and accordingly
turns from B to £ about fome point c, whilft the head
of the (hip paffes from A to a. It mud be obferved,
that the current of water falls upon the rudder oblique¬
ly, and only (Irikes it with that part of its motion
which adls according to the fine of incidence, pufliing
it in the dire6lion NP, with a force which not only
depends on the velocity of the (hip’s courfe, by which
this current of water is produced, but alfo upon the
extent of the fine of incidence. This force is by con-
fequence compofed of the fquare of the velocity with
which the (hip advances, and the fquare of the fine of
incidence, which will neceffarily be greater or fmaller
according to circumftances ; fo that if the veffel runs
three or four times more fwiftly, the abfolute (hock of
the water upon the rudder will be nineorfixteen times
ftronger under the fame incidence : and, if the inci¬
dence is increafed, it will yet be augmented in a greater
proportion, becaufe the fquare of the fine of incidence
is more enlarged. This impreffion, or, what is the
Vol. V.
lame thing, the power of the helm, is always very
feeble, when compared with the weight of the veffel ;
but as it operates with the force of a long lever, its
efforts to turn the (hip are extremely advantageous.
For the helm being applied to a great diilance from
the centre of gravity G, or from the point about which
the veffel turns horizontally, if thediredlion PN of the
impreffion of the water upon the rudder be prolonged, it
is evident that it will pafs perpendicularly to R, widely
diftant from the centre of gravity G : thus the abfo¬
lute effort of the water is very powerful. It is not
therefore furprifing, that this machine impreffes the
(hip with a confiderable circular movement, by pufliing
the Hern from Bto h, and the head from A to a; and
even much farther whilft (lie fails with rapidity, be¬
caufe the effedl of the helm always keeps pace with the
velocity with which the veffel advances.
Amonglt the feveral angles that the rudder makes
with the keel, there is always one pofition more fa¬
vourable than any of the others, as it more readily pro¬
duces the defired effe£t of turning the (hip, in order to
change her epurfe. To afeertain this, it muft be con-i
fidered, that if the obliquity of the rudder with the
keel is greater than the obtnfe angle ABD, fo as to
diminifti that angle, the a£lion of the water upon the
rudder will increafe, and at the fame time oppofe the
courfe of the (hip in a greater degree; becaufe the
angle of incidence w ill be more open, fo as to prefent
a greater furface to the (hock of the water, by oppo-
(ing its paffage more perpendicularly. But at that lime
the direftion N P of the effort of the helm upon the
(hip will pafs, with a fmaller diftance from the centre
of gravity G towards R, and lefs approach the per¬
pendicular NL, according to which it is abfolutc-ly ne-
ceffary that the power applied (hould aft with a greater
effeft to turn the veffel. Thus it is evident, that if the
oBtufe angle ABD is too much'inclofed, the greateft-
impulfe of the water vviil not counterbalance :the fofs
fuftained by the diftance of the direftion NP from NL,
or by the great obliquity which is given to the fame
direftion NP of the abfolute effort of the helm with
the keel AB. If, on the contrary, the angle ABD is
too much opened, the direftion NP of the force of the
aftionof the helm will become more advantageohs to turn
the veffel, becaufe it will approach nearer the perpen¬
dicular NL; fo that the line prolonged from-NP will
increafe the line GK, by removing 'll to a’gr'eater di-
ftanee from the centre of gravity G: but then''the
helm will receive the impreffion of the water too ob¬
liquely, for the angle of incidence will be more acute;
fo that it will only prefent a final! portion of its
breadth to the (hock of the water, and by confequebce
will only receive a feeble effort. By this principle it
is eafy to conceive, that the greateft diftance GR from
the centre of gravity G, is not fufficient to repair the
diminution of force occafioned by the too great obli¬
quity of the (hock of the water. Hence w e may con?
elude, that when the water either ftrikes the helm too
direftly, or too obliquely, it lofes a great deal of the
efleft it ought tq produce. Between the two extremes
there is therefore a mean pofition, which is the rcoft-
favourable to its operations.
The diagonal NP of the reftangle IL reprefents the
abfolute direftion of the effort of the water upon the
helm. NI exprefies the portion of this effort which is
20 L op-
H E L
Helm, oppofcd to the (hip’s head-way, or which pufhes her
aiiern, in a direftion parallel to the keel. It is eafily
perceived, that this part NI of the whole power of the
helm contributes but little to turn the veflel ; for, if IN
is prolonged, it appears that its diredlion approaches
to a very fmall diflance GV from the centre of gravity
G; and that the arm of the lever BN=:GV, to which
the force is applied, is not in the whole more than
equal to half the breadth of the rudder : but the rela¬
tive force NL, which a&s perpendicular to the keel, is
extremely different. If the firft NI is almoft ufelefs,
and even pernicious, by retarding the velocity ; the
fecond NL is capable of a very great effeft, becaufe it
operates at a conftderable dittance from the centre of
gravity G of the fhip, and ads upon the arm of a le¬
ver GE, which is very long. Thus it appears, that
between the effeds NL and Nl, which refult from the
abfolute effort NP, there is one which always oppofes
the (hip’s courfe, and contributes little to her motion
of turning; whilft the other produces only this move¬
ment of rotation, without operating to retard her ve¬
locity.
Geometricians have determined the mod advantage¬
ous angle made by the helm with the line p^longed
from the keel, and fixed it at 540 44', prefuming that
the (hip is as narrow at her floating-line, or at the line
deferibed by the furface of the water round her bot¬
tom, as at the keel. But as this fuppofition is abfo-
lutely falfe, inafmuch as all veffels augment their
breadth from the keel upward to the extreme breadth,
where the floating-line or the higheft water-line is ter¬
minated ; it follows, that this angle is too large by a
certain number of degrees. For the rudder is impref-
fed by the water, at the height of the floating-line,
more diredly than at the keel, becaufe the fluid exadly
follows the horizontal outlines of the bottom: fo that
a particular pofition of the helm might Fe fuppofed
neceffary for each different incidence which it encoun¬
ters from the keel upwards. But as a middle pofition
may be taken between all thefe points, it will be fuffi-
cient to confider the angle formed by the (ides of the
(hip, and her axis, or the middle-line of her length, at
the furface of the water, in order to determine after¬
wards the mean point, and the mean angle of inci¬
dence.
It is evident that the angle 54° 44' is too open, and
very unfavourable to the (hip’s head-way, becaufe the
water a£s upon the rudder there with too great a fine
of incidence, as being equal to that of the angle which
it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below:
but above, the (hock of the water is almoft perpendi¬
cular to the rudder, becaufe of the breadth of the bot¬
tom, as we have already remarked. If then the rud¬
der is only oppofed to the fluid, by making an angle
of 450 with the line prolonged from the keel, the im-
preffion, by becoming weaker, will be lefs oppofed to
the (hip’s head-way, and the direftion NP of the
abfolute effort of the water upon the helm drawing
nearer to the lateral perpendicular, will be placed
more advantageoufly, for the reafons above-mention¬
ed. Gn the other hand, experience daily teftifies,
that a (hip fleers well when the rudder makes the angle
PBE equal to 350 only.
It has been already remarked, that the effedl of
moving the wheel to govern the helm increafes in pro-
H E L
portion to the length of the fpokes ; and fo great is Helm,
the power of the wheel, that if the helmfman emph-ys
a force upon its fpokes equivalent to 30 pounds, it
will produce an efftft of 90 or 120 pounds upon the
tiller. On the contrary, the adlion of the water is col-
ledled into the middle of the breadth of the rudder,
which is very narrow in comparifon with the length of
the tiller; fo the effort of the water is very little re¬
moved from the fulcrum B upon which it turns ; where¬
as the tiller forms the arm of a lever 10 or 15 times
longer, w hich alfo increafes the power of the helmfman
in the fame proportion that the tiller bears to the lever
upon which the impulfe of the water is dire&ed. This
force then is by confequence 10 or 15 times itronger;
and the effort of 30 pounds, which at firit gave the
helmfman a power equal to 90 or 120 pounds, becomes
accumulated to one of 900 or 1800 pounds upon the
rudder. This advantage then arifes from theihortnefs
of the lever upon which the action of the water is im-
preffed, and the great comparative length of the tiller,
or lever, by which the rudder is governed; together
with the additional power of the wheel that direids the
movements of the tiller, and Hill farther accumulates
the power of the helmfman over it. Such a demon-
ftration ought to remove the furprife with which the
prodigious effe& of the helm is fometimes confidered,
from an inattention to its mechanifm : for we need only
to obferve the preffure of the water, which ads at a
great diftance from the centre of gravity G, about
which the drip is fuppofed to turn, and we (hall eafily
perceive the difference there is between the effort of
the water againft the helmfman, and the effed of the
fame impulfe againff the vcffel. With regard to the
perfon who fleers, the water ads only with the arm of
a very (liort fever NB, of which B is the fulcrum : on
the contrary, with regard to the (hip, the force of the
water is impreffed in the diredjon NP, which paffes to
a great diftance from G, and ads upon a very long
lever EG, which renders the adion of the rudtler ex¬
tremely powerful in turning the veffel; fo that, in a
large (hip, the rudder receives a (hock from the w'ater
of 2700 or 2800 pounds, which is frequently the cafe
when (he fails at the rate of three or four leagues by
the hour; and this force being applied in E, perhaps
100 or 110 feet diflant from the centre of gravity G,
will operate upon the (hip, to turn her about, with
270,000 or 308,000 pouivds; whilft, in the latter cafe,
the helmfman ads with an effort which exceeds not 3a
pounds upon the fpokes of the wheel.
After what has been faid of the helm, it is eafy to
judge, that the more a (hip increafts her velocity with
regard to the fea, the more powerful will be the effedt
of the rudder,; becaufe it ads againft: the water with a
force, which increafes as the fquare of the fwiftnefs of
the fluid, whether the (hip advances or retreats ; or, in
other words, whether (he has head-way or ftern-way ;
with this diftindion, that in thefe two circumitances
the effeds will be contrary. For if the veffel retreats,
or moves aftern, the helm will be impreffed from I to
N ; and inftead of being puflied, according to NP, it
will receive the effort of the water from N towards K ;
fo that the (tern will be tranfported to the fabie
movement, and the head turned in a contrary direc¬
tion.
When the helm operates by itfelf, the centre of ro¬
tation.
I 3574 J
. H E L [ 3,
Imet tation of the /hip, and her movement, are determined
■io; eftimating the force of this machine ; that is to fay,
' by multiplying the furface of the rudder by thefquare
of the /hip’s velocity.
There are feveral terms in the fea-language relating
to the helm ; as, Bear up the helm; that is, Let the
ft ip go more large before the wind. Helm a viidJbipt
or right the helm; that is. Keep it even with the mid¬
dle of the ftip. Port the^helm, Put it over the left fide
of the ftip. Starboard the helvi. Put it on the right
fide of the ftip.
HELMET, an ancient defenfive armour worn by
horfemen both in war and in tournaments. It co¬
vered both the head and face, only leaving an a-
pcrtnre in the front fecured by bars, which was called
the vifor.
In atchievements, it is placed above the efcutcheon
for the principal ornament, and is the true mark of
chivalry and nobility. Helmets vary according to the
different degrees of thofe who bear them. They are al-
fo ufed as a bearing in coats of arms. See Heraldry.
HELMINTHOLITHUS, in natural hiffory, a
name given by Linnaeus to petrified bodies refembling
worms.
Of thefe he reckons four genera. 1. Petrified li-
thophyta, found in the mountains of Sweden. 2. Pe¬
trified /hells. 3. Petrified zoophytes. 4. Petrified
reptiles.
HELMONT (John Baptift Van), a celebrated
Flemi/h gentleman, was born at Bruffels in 1577. He
acquired fuch /kill in natural philofophy, phyfiCj and
chemiftry, that he was accounted a magician, and
thrown into the inquifition : but having with difficul¬
ty juftified himfelf, asfoon as he was releafed he retired
to Holland; where he died in 1644. He publifted,
1. De magnetic a corporum curat ione. 2. Febrium
dottrina inaudita. 3. Ortus medicine. 4. Paradoxa
de aquis fpadanis ; and other works, printed together
in one volume folio.
Helmont, a fmall town in the Netherlands, in Dutch
Brabant, and capital of the diftrift of Peeland, with a
good caftle. It is feated on the river Aa, in E. Long.
5. 37. N. Lat. 51. 31.
HELMSTADT, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Brunfwick, built by Charlemagne, in E. Long. xi.
10. N. Lat. 52. 20.
Helmstadt, a ftrong maritime town of Sweden,
and capital of the province of Holland, feated near
the Baltic fea ; in E. Long. 21.5. N. Lat. 56. 44.
HELOISE, famous for her unfortunate affe&ion
for her tutor Abelard, and for her Latin letters to him
after they had retired from the world. She died abbefs
of Paraclet in 1163. See Abelard.
HELOS, (anc. geog.), a maritime town of La¬
conia, fituated between Trinafus and Acrias, in Pau-
fanias’s time in ruins. The diftridl was called Helotea,
and the people Helotes, Helot#, He lei, and He leaf a,
by Stephanus ; and Hot#, by Livy. Being fubdued
by the Lacedaemonians, they were all reduced to a
ftate of public flavery, or made the /laves of the public,
on thefe conditions, viz. that they could neither re¬
cover their liberty nor be fold out of the territory of
Sparta. Hence the term Iimtivui, in Harpocration,
for being in a ftate of flavery ; and hence alfo the La¬
cedaemonians called the /laves of all nations whatever
75 1 H E L
helotes. Heloticus is the epithet.
HELOTS, in Grecian antiquity, the /laves of the
Spartans. See Helos.—The freemen of Sparta were
forbidden the exercife of any mean or mechanical em¬
ployment, and therefore the whole care of fupplying
the city with neceffaries devolved upon the Helots.
HELSINBURG. See Elsimburg.
HELSINGIA, a province of Sweden, bounded On
the north by Jempterland and Medelpadia; on the eaft
by the Bothnic gulf, and on the fouth and weft by
Dalecarlia and Geftricia. It is full of mountains and
forefts, and the inhabitants are almoft conftantly em¬
ployed in hunting and fifting. It has no cities:
the principal towns are Hudwickvald, Alta, and Dilfto.
HELSINGIC character, a peculiar kind of cha-
rafter found infcribed on ftones in the province of Hel-
fingia. The Runic and Helfingic characters may be
ealily transformed into each other.
HELSTON, a town of Cornwall in England, feated
on the river Lowed, in W. Long. 5. 45. N. Lat. 50. 8.
It contains about 400 houfes, is well inhabited, and
fends two members to parliament. The fteeple with
its fpire, which is about 90 feet high, is a notable fea-
mark. A little below the town is a harbour where
feveral tin-/hips take in their lading, and here is the
largeft market-houfe in the county. The inhabitants
neither pay to the church nor poor, thefc being flip-
ported by the revenues of the town.
HELVETIUS (Adrian), an eminent phyfician,
born in Holland. After having ftudied phy/ic at Ley¬
den, he went to Paris, where he acquired great repu¬
tation in his profeffion. He introduced in France the
ufe of ipecacuanha in the cure of dyfenteries, a reme¬
dy which he at firft kept fecret; but was ordered to
make it public, and on that account received a grati¬
fication from the king of 1000 louis d’ors. He was
made infpedtor-general of the hofpitals in Flanders,
phyfician to the duke of Orleans, regent of France,
&c. ; and died at Paris, in 1727, aged 65. He wrote
a treatife on the moft common difeafes, and the reme¬
dies proper for their cure, (the beft edition of which
is that of 1724, in two volumes odtavo) 5 and other
works.
Helvetius (John), fon of the former, was born
in 1685. He was bred to phyfic; in which line he
became eminent both as a practitioner and a writer,
but is beft known by his famous philofophical work en¬
titled L'Efprit. He died in 1755.
HELVICUS (Chriftopher), profeffor of divinity,
Greek, and the Oriental tongues, in the univerfity of
Giffen, died in the flower of his age in 1617 ; after
having publifted feveral books, and projected more.
The Hebrew language was fo familiar to him, that he
fpoke it as fluently as his mother tongue. He was not
only a good grammarian, but alfo an able chronologer.
His chronological tables have been greatly efteemed,
though they are not free from errors.
HELVOET-sluys, a fea-port town of the United
Netherlands, feated on the i/land of Voorn, in the
province of Holland, and where the Englift packet-
boat always goes. It is but a fmall place, confiding
only of a handfome quay, and two or three little
ftreets. But it is very well fortified, and efteemed the
fafeft harbour in the country. The largeft men of
war may come up to the middle of the town ; and yet
20 L 2 it
HEM
Hemelar Jt has but very little/trade, becaufe the merchants choofe
I!, to live higher up the country. E. Long. 4. o. N.
  T   X^at. 51. 44.
HEMELAR (John), an eminent antiquary, and
canon of Antwerp, in the 17th century, was born at
the Hague ; and wrote a work, entitled, Expojitio Nu-
mifmatum imperatornni Romanorum a Julio Ca fare ad
Heradiurn; which is very fcarce, though it has had fe-
veral editions.
HEMATH, or Hamath, (anc. geog.), the name
of a city (whofe king was David’s friend, 2 Sam. ix.)
to the fonth of Lebanon ; from which a territory was
called Neniatht on the north of Canaan and fouth of
Syria, as appears by the fpies, Numb. xiii. 1 Kings viii.
Ezek. xlvii. Whether one or more cities and di-
flri&s of this name lay in this traft, neither interpre¬
ters nor geographers are agreed. The eattern part
was called Hemath-zoba, 2 Chron. viii. unlefs we fnp-
pofe that there was a city in 7Joba of this name forti¬
fied by Solomon. In defining the boundary of Pale-
ftine, it is often from the entering of Hamath ; as
a province to be entered into through a llrait or defile.
And if there was fuch, the next queftion is, From what
metropolis it was called Hemath. Antioch, capital of
Syria, is fuppofed to be called Hemath or Hmat ha,
(Jonathan, Targum,‘ &c.) ; and again, Epiphania,
(Jofephus.) Both were to the north of Lebanon ; con-
fequently not the Hemath of Scripture, the immediate
boundary of Paleiline to the north, and lying to the
fouth of Lebanon.
HEMATITES. See Haematites.
HEMEROBIUS, in zoology, a genus of infefls
of the neuroptera order, the chara&ers of which are
thefe. The mouth is furniihed with two teeth ; the pal¬
pi are four ; the wings are defleftcd, but not plaited ;
and the antennae are brillly, and longer than the bread.
There are 15 fpecies, principally diltinguilhed by their
colours.
HEMEROCALLIS, DAY-LILY, or lily-afphodel;
a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
hexandria clafs of plants.
Species. I, The flava, or yellow day-lily, hath
ftrong fibrous roots, fending up large hollow keel-
ihaped leaves, two feet long, upright, leaflefs, firm
ftalks, two feet high; dividing at top into feveral foot-
ftalks, each terminated by one large filaceous yellow
flower of an agreeable odour. Of this there is a va¬
riety called the kemerocallis minor, or fmall yellow day-
lily. 2. The fulva, reddifh, or copper-coloured day-
lily, hath roots compofed of ftrong flefhy fibres and
large oblong tubes; radical, keel-fhaped, hollow, point¬
ed leaves, a yard long, reflexed at top ; with leaflefs
ftalks three or four met high, and large copper-co¬
loured liliaceous flowers. Thefe have large ilamina,
charged with a kind of brown-coloured farina ; which,
on being touched or fmelled to, is difcharged in great
plenty all over the hands or face.
Culture. Both thefe fpecies are hardy, and will
thrive any where. They may be eafily propagated by
parting their roots in autumn, or almoft any time af¬
ter flowering or before they begin to flower.
HEMI, a word ufed in the compofition of divers
terms, fignifying the fame with femi, or denti, viz.
« one half.”
HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a liquid meafure,
HEM
which, according to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a Hemiplegia
wine-pint Engliih meafure; its contents being 2.818 II
folid inches.
HEMIPLEGIA, or Hemiplexia, among phyfi-
cians, a palfy of one half of the body. See (the In¬
dex fubjoined to) Medicine.
HEMISPHERE, in geometry, the half of a globe
or fphere, when it is fuppofed to be cut thro’ its centre
in the plane of one of its great circles.
Hemisphere, is alfo ufed to denote a projefiion
of half the terreftrial globe, or half the celeftial fphere,
on a plane, and frequently called planifphere.
HEMISTICH, in poetry, denotes half a verfe, or
a verfe not completed.
Of this there are frequent examples in Virgil’s JE-
neid ; but whether they were left unfinifhed by defign
or not, is difputed among the learned: fuch are, Ferro
accinda vocat, iEn. II. v. 614. And, Italians non
fpontefequor, iEn. IV. v. 361.
In reading common Engliih verfes, a ftiort paufe is
required at the end of each hemitlich or half-verfe.
HEMITRITJEUS, in medicine, a kind of fever,
denoting the fame as femi-tertian, returning twice every
day. The word is Greek, and compounded of ifsuru;,
“ half,” and rgirai©-, “ third, or tertian.”
HEMLOCK, in botany. Sec Cicuta and Co-
NIUM.
HEMOIPTOTON. See Oratory, n° 77.
HEMP, in botany. See Cannabis.
The raifing and dreffing of hemp fcarcely differs from
the raifing and drefling of flax, but in the following
particulars.
Hemp requires a fight, free, dufty, and even a
fandy warm foil ; which if not naturally rich, muft be
made fo by manure. New broke-up ground does not
anfwer for hemp, producing it thin and poor upon the
ftalk. . Hemp does well to follow’ beans. The ground
fhould be ploughed and harrowed three or four times,
a fortnight or three weeks intervening between each
time. In fome parts of Lincoln and Holland, the foil
is naturally fo free and rich, that it will produce hemp
conftantly year after year without manure. The leaves
which fall off the ftalk help to manure the ground. It
is frequently fown with a view to clear the ground of
weeds; which it does moft effectually, growing faft,
and foon checking every weed but mugwort, which is
picked out with a fork.
It is fown about the firft of May ; fo thin, that a-
bout four pecks are fufficient for an Englifli acre; and
the ground muft then be covered as much as poflible
to preferve the feed from the birds, who are very fond
of it.
The taper-topped ftalk which does not bear the
pods, is called the female} though in fadt it is the
male, fcattering from its bloom a fmall duft, which im¬
pregnates the pods of the bufhy-topped; which laft is
commonly, tho’ improperly, called the male or carls
hemp.
When hemp is the objeCt of the farmer more than a
crop of feed, the whole ftiould be pulled when the
ftalk begins to grow yellow, and the earth remaining
about the roots fliould be beat off to prevent more
growth : but if the feed is wanted in its greateft per-
fe&ion, the ftalks bearing the pods muft be pulled be¬
fore the ufipernioft pod begins to open ; the earth
Ihould
[ S576 1
HEN
fhould not be beat off from the roots ; it fhould be
ftooked in {heaves upon the field, to dry and win as
' corn ; and the top of thefe {looks fhould be covered
with undergrowth or the like, to preferve the feed
from the birds.
Hemp is fooner watered than fiax, and the canals
nuifi; be deeper.
In keeping the feed, care muft be taken to preferve
it from rats, mice, and fuch like vermin, who are all
fond of it.
It is dreffed as coarfe flax, but is fooner drefled ;
and its greater length requires more care, and renders
it more troublefome in the handling, efpecially in
the {hutching of it by the water lint-mills with ho¬
rizontal Ikutchers, when it muft be folded double.
What is too coarfe and ftrong in the ftalk for the
hand or foot machines, may be broke and peeled by
the hand. See Flax.
Hemp-Agrimony, a fpecies of Eupatorium.— It
has a very bitter tafte. A decodlion of the roots ope¬
rates as a violent emetic and cathartic, and is fome-
times taken by the lower clafs of people to cure the
jaundice, dropfy, and cachexy ; but is a rough medi¬
cine, and ought to be ufed with caution. Boerhaave
made ufe of an infufion of this plant to foment ulcers
and putrid fores. Tournefort informs us, that the
Turks cure the feurvy with it. An ounce of the juice,
or a dram of the extradl, is a dofe.
HEMPSTEAD, a town of Hartfordfliire in Eng¬
land, feated among the hills on a branch of the river
Coin. W. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 51. 44.
HEN, in ornithology. See Phasianus.
Guinea-HEH. See Numida.
HEs-Bane. See Hyosciamus.
HENDECAGON, in geometry, a figure that
hath 11 fides and as many angles.
HENLEY, a town of Oxfordlhire in England,
feated on the river Thames, over which there is a
handfome bridge. It fends malt, corn, and other
things, to London in barges. W. Long. o. 40. N.
Lat. 51. 34.
Henley, a town of Warwickftiire in England,
feated on the river Alne, in W. Long. 1. 45, N. Lat.
52. 18.
HENNA, or Alhenna. See Lawsonia.
HENNEBERG, a county of Germany, in the
t 3577 1
HEN
triarch of Conftantinople, were the authors of this de¬
cree ; and that their defign was to compliment the~
emperor with a right of preferibing regulations in
matters of faith. The emperor, by this decree, arro¬
gated to himfelf the right of being head of the church.
Pope Simplicius, however, in the year 483, condemn¬
ed the henoticon, and cited Acacius to appear before
him at Rome; but it was not entirely fuppreffed tilt
the year 518.
HENRY, or Cape-Henry, the fouth cape of
•Virginia, at the entrance of Chefapeak-bay. W.Long.
74. 50. N. Lat. 37. o.
Henry, the name of feveral emperors of Germany,
and kings of England and France. See England,
France, and Germany.
Henry IV. emperor of Germany in 1056, ftyled
tie Great, was memorable for his quarrels with pope
Gregory II. whom at one time he depofed, for ha¬
ving prefumed to judge hisfovereign ; but at another,
dreading the efledts of the papal anathemas, he had
the weaknefs to fubmit to the moll humiliating per-
fonal felicitations and penances to obtain abfolution,
which impolitic meafure increafed the power of the
Pope, and alienated the affections of his fubjeds:
thus circumftanced, he reaflumed the hero, but too
late; marched with an army to Rome, expelled Gre¬
gory, depofed him, and fet up another Pope. Gre¬
gory died foon after: but Urban II. and Pafcal II.
fuccefiively, excited his ambitious Tons, Conrad and
Henry, to rebel againft him, and the latter was crowned
emperor by the title of Henry V. in 1106; and he
had the inhumanity to arreft his father, and to de¬
prive him, not only of all his dignities, but even of
the neceflaries of life. The unfortunate Henry IV.
was reduced to fuch extremities, (after having fought
62 battles in defence of the German empire), that he
folicited the bifhop of Spire to grant him an under-
chaunter’s place in his cathedral, but was refufed. He
died the fame year, at Liege, aged 55, a martyr to
the ignorance and fuperftition of the age, and to his
own blind confidence in favourites and miftrefles.
Henry IV. king of France (in 1589) and Navarre,
juftly ftyled the Great, w'as the fon of Anthony de
Bourbon, chief of the branch of Bourbon, (fo called
from a fief of that name which fell to th?m by mar¬
riage with the heirefs of the eftate). His mother was
circle of Franconia. It is bounded on the north by the daughter of Henry de Albert, king of Navarre ;
Thuringia, on the weft by Hefle, on the fouth by the a woman of a mafeuline genius; intrepid, fimple and
bifhopric of Wertzburg, and on the eaft by that of rullic in her manners, but deeply veiled in politics,
Bamberg. It abounds in mountains and woods; and and a zealous proteftant. Forefeeing that her party
it is populous, and pretty fertile. Mainingen is the would want fuch a prote&or (for her hulband was a
capital town. weak indolent prince), ihe undertook the care of the
HENNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the cir- education of the young hero : his diet was coarfe ; his
cle of Franconia, which gives title to a county of clothes neat, but plain ; he always went bare-headed;
the fame name, with a caftle. E. Long. 9. 17. N. fhe fent him to fchool with the other children of the
Lat. 50. 40.
HENNEBON, a town of France in Bretagne, in
the diocefe of Vannes. It is inhabited by rich mer¬
chants, and is feated on the river Blavet, in W. Long.
2. 13. N. Lat. 47. 48.
HENOTICON, in church-hiftory, a decree or e-
dift of the emperor Zeno, made at Conftantinople in
the year 482, by which he pretended to reconcile all
parties under one faith. It is generally agreed, that
Peter,, patriarch of Alexandria, and Acacius, pa-
fame age, and accullomed him to climb the rocks and
neighbouring mountains, according to the cuftom of
the country. He was born in 1553 ; and in 1569, the
16th year of his age, he w^as declared the Defender
and Chief of the Proteilants at Rochelle. The peace
of St Germain, concluded in 1570, recalled the lords
in the Proteftant intereft to court; and in 1372 Henry
was married to Margaret de Valois, fifter to Charles IX.
king of France. It was in the midft of the rejoicings
for thefe nuptials, that the horrid mafiacre of Paris
took
HEN [ 1578 ] HEN
Henry, took place. Henry was reduced, by tliis infernal
. j|.roke 0f fa|fe p0]iCy^ to the alternative of changing
his religion or being put to death : he chofe the for¬
mer, and was detained prifoner of (late three years.
In 1587, he made his efcape ; put himfelf at the head
of the Huguenot party, expolirig himfelf to all the
rifles and fatigues of a religious war, often in want of
' the neceffaries of life, and induring all the hardfhips
of the common foldier : but he gained a viftory this
year at Courtras, which eftablilhed his reputation in
arms, and endeared him to the Proteftants. On.the
death of Henry III. religion was urged as a pretext
for one half of the officers of the French army to re-
je£t him, and for the leaguers not to acknowledge
him. A phantbm, the cardinal de Bourbon, was fet
up againft him ; but his mod formidable rival was the
duke de Mayenne: however, Henry, with few friends,
fewer important places, no money, and a very fmall
army, fupplied every want by his adtivity and valour.
He gained feveral vidlories over the duke ; particularly
that of Ivri in 1590, memorable for his heroic admo¬
nition to his foldiers : “ If you love your enfigns,
rally by my white plume, you will always find it in
the road to honour and glory.” Paris held out againft
him, notwithftanding his fuccefles : he took all the
fuburbs in one day ; and might have reduced the city
by famine, if he had not humanely fnffered his own
army to relieve the befieged ; yet the bigotted friars
and priefts in Paris all turned foldiers, except four of
the Mendicant order ; and made daily military reviews
and proceffions, the fword in one hand and the cru¬
cifix in the other, on which they made the ’citizens
fwear rather to die with famine than to admit Henry.
The fcarcity of provifions in Paris at laft degenerated
to an univerfal famine; bread had been fold, whilft
any remained, for a crown the pound, and at laft it
was made from the bones of the charnel-houfe of St
Innocents; human flefh became the food of the ob-
ftinate Parifians, and mothers eat the dead bodies of
their children. In fine, the duke of Mayenne, feeing
that neither Spain nor the league would ever grant
him the crown, determined to alfift in giving it to the
lawful heir. He engaged the ftates to hold a con¬
ference with the chiefs of both parties; which ended
in Henry’s abjuration of the Proteftant religion at St
Dennis, and his confecration at Chartres in 1593.
The following year Paris opened its gates to him ; in
1596, the duke of Mayenne was pardoned; and in
1598, peace was concluded with Spain. Henry now
Ihewed himfelf doubly worthy of the throne, by his
■encouragement of commerce, the fine arts, and ma-
nu'faijlures, and by his patronage of men of ingenuity
and found learning of every country : but though the
fermentations of Romiftt bigotry were calmed, the
leaven was not dtftroyed ; fcarce a year parted with¬
out fome attempt being made on this real father of his
people ; and at laft the monfter Ravaillac ftabbed him
to the heart in his coach, in the ftreets of Paris, on
the 14th of May 1610, in the 57th year of his age
and 22(1 of his reign.
Henry VIII. king of England, was the fecond
fon of Henry VII. by Elizabeth the eldeft daughter
of Edward IV. He w'as born at Greenwich, on the
28th of June 1491. On the death of his brother
Arthur, in 1502, he was created prince of Wales j
and the following year betrothed to Catharine of Ar- Henry.
ragon, prince Arthur’s widow, the Pope having 
granted a difpenfation for that purpofe. Henry VIII.
acceded to the throne, on the death of his father,
the 2 2d of April 1509, and his marriage with Ca¬
tharine was folemnized about two months after. In
the beginning of his reign he left the government of
his kingdom entirely to his minifters ; and fpent his
time chiefly in tournaments, balls, concerts, and other
expenfive amufements. We are told that he was fo
extravagant in his pleafures, that, in a very ftiort
time, he entirely diflipated 1,800,000 1. which his fa¬
ther had hoarded. This will feem lefs wonderful,
when the reader is informed, that gaming was one of
his favourite diverfions. Neverthelefs he was not fo
totally abforbed in pleafure, but he found leifurc to
facrifice, to the refentment of the people, two of his
father's minifters, Empfon and Dudley. A houfe in
London, which had belonged to the former of thefe,
was in 1510 given to Thomas Wolfey, who was now
the king’s almoner, and who from this period began
to infinuate himfelf into Henry’s favour. In 1513,
he became prime minifter, and from that moment
governed the king and kingdom with abfolute power.
In this year Henry declared war againft France,
gained the battle of Spurs, and took the towns of
Terouenne and Tournay ; but before he embarked
his troops, he beheaded the earl of Suffolk, who had
been long confined in the tower. In 1521, he facri-
ficed the duke of Buckingham to the refentment of
his prime minitter Wolfey, and the fame year obtained
from the Pope the title of Defender of the Faith.
Henry, having been 18 years married, grew tired
of his wife, and in the year 1527 refolved to obtain a
divorce ; but after many fruitlefs felicitations, find¬
ing it impoflxble to perfuade the Pope to annul his
marriage with Catharine, he efpoufed Ann Bullen in
the year 1531. During this interval his favourite
Wolfey was difgraced, and died ; Henry threw off
the Papal yoke, and burnt three Proteftants for he-
refy. In 1535, he put to death Sir Thomas More,
Fiftier, and others, for denying his fupremacy, and
fuppreffed all the leffer monalteries.
His moft facred majefty, having now poffeffed his
fecond queen about five years, fell violently in love
with lady Jane Seymour. Ann Bullen was accufed
of adultery with her own brother, and with three
other perfons : ftie was beheaded the 19th of May,
1536. He married Jane Seymour the day following.
In 1537, he put to death five of the noble family of
Kildare, as a terror to the Irirti, of whofe difloyalty
he had fome apprehenfions; and in the year follow¬
ing he executed the marquis of Exeter, with four
other perfons of diftin&ion, for the foie crime of cor-
refponding with cardinal Pole. In 1538 and 1539,
he fuppreffed all the monafteries in England, and.
feized their revenues for his own ufe. The queen ha¬
ving died in childbed, he this year married the prin-
cefs Ann of Cleves: but difliking her perfon, imme¬
diately determined to be divorced ; and his obfequioua
parliament and convocation unanimoufly pronounced
the marriage void, for reafons too ridiculous to be
recited : but this was not all; Henry was fo incenfed
with his minifter and quondam favourite, Cromwell,
for negociating this match, that he revenged himfelf
HEN [ 3579 ] HEN
by the hand of the executioner. Yet this was not the
“only public murder of the year 1540. A few days
after Cromwell’s death, feveral perfons were burnt for
denying the king’s fupremacy, and other articles of
herefy.
His majefty being once more at liberty to indulge
himfelf with another wife, fixed upon Catharine How¬
ard, niece to the duke of Norfolk. She was declared
queen in Auguft 1540; . but they had been privately
married fume time before. Henry, it feems, was fo
entirely fatisfied with this lady, that he daily blefftd
God for his prefent felicity ; but that felicity was of
(bort duration : he had not been married above a year,
before the queen was accufed of frequent proftitutjoh,
both before and fince her marriage : (he confefled her
guilt, and was beheaded in February 1542. In Ju-
]y 1543, he married his fixth wife, the .Lady Catha¬
rine Parr, the widow of John Nevil lord Latimer, and
lived to the year 1547, without, committing any more
flagrant enormities: but finding himfelf now approach
towards diflblution, he made his will ; and, that the
laft fcene of his life might referable the reft, he deter¬
mined to end the tragedy with the murder of tw'o of
his beft friends and moft faithful fubje&s, the duke
©f Norfolk, and his ion the earl of Surrey. The earl
was beheaded on the 19th of January ; and the duke
was ordered for execution on the 29th, but fortunate¬
ly efcaped by the king’s death on the 28th, They
were condemned without the fliadow of a crime ; but
Henry’s political reafon for putting them to death,
v'as his apprehenfion, that, if they were fuffered to
furvive him, they would counteradf fome of his regu¬
lations in religion, and might be troublefome to his
fon. Henry died on the 28th of January 1547, in
the 56th year of his age, and was buried at Wind-
for.
As to his charadler, it is pretty obvious from the
fadls above related. Lord Herbert palliates his crimes,
and exaggerates what he calls his virtues. Biftiop
Burnet fays, “ he was rather to be reckoned among
ihz great than the giW princes.” He afterwards ac¬
knowledges, that “ he is to be numbered among the
ill princes but adds, “ I cannot rank him with the
worft.” Sir Walter Raleigh, with infinitely more
juftice, fays, “ If all the pi&ures -and patterns of a
mercilefs prince were loft to the world, they might
again be painted to the life out of the hiftory of this
king.” He was indeed a mercilefs tyrant, a feurvy
politician, a foolifh bigot, a horrible afi'affin. See
England, n° 21 2—230.
Henrv of Huntingdon, an Englilh hiftorian, of
the 12th century, was canon of Lincoln, and after¬
wards archdeacon of Huntingdon. He wrote, 1. A
hiftory of England, which ends with the year 1154.
2. A continuation of that of Bede. 3. Chronological
tables of the kings of England. 4. A fmall treatife
on the contempt of the world. 5. Several books of
epigrams and love-verfes. 6. A poem on herbs; all
which are written in Latin. His invocation of
Apollo and the goddeffes of Tempe, in the exordium
of his poem on'herbs, may not be unacceptable as a
fpecimen of his poetry.
Vatuna magne parens, herbarum Phoebe repertor.
Vofqne, quibus refonant Tempe jocefa Deas!
Si mihi ferta prius hedera florente paraftis^
Ecce meos flares, ferta parate fero.
Henry of Safa, in Latin, de Segufio, a famous ci¬
vilian and canonift of the 13th century, acquired fuch
reputation by his learning, that he was called the fonree
and fplendor of the laps. He was arch biftiop of Em-
brun about the year 1258, and cardinal biftiop of
Oftia in 1262. He wrote H funimary of the canon and
civil la'll}; and H commentary on the book of the decre¬
tals, compofed by order of Alexander IV.
.Henry (Philip), a pious and learned nonconformift:
minifter, was the fon of Mr John Henry, page of the
back-ftairs to James duke of York, and was born at
Whitehall in 1631. He was admitted into Weftmin-
fter fchool at about 12 years of age ; became the fa¬
vourite of Dr Bufby, and was employed by him, with
fome others, in collefting materials for the Greek
grammar he afterwards publiftied. From thence he
removed toChrift-church, Oxford; where, having ob¬
tained the degree of mafter of arts, he was taken into
the family of judge Pulefton, at Emeral in Flintfliire,
as tutor to his fons, and to preach.at Worthenbury.
He foon after married the only daughter and heirefs
of Mr Daniel Matthews of Broad-oak near Whit¬
church, by whom he became pofiefled of a competent
eftate. When the king and epifcopacy were reftored,
he refufed to conform, w'as ejedfed, and retired with
his family to Broad-oak; here, and in the neighbour¬
hood, he fpent the remainder of his life, about 28
years, relieving the poor, employing the induftrious,
inftru&ing the ignorant, and exerciling every oppor¬
tunity of doing good. His moderation in his non¬
conformity was eminent and exemplary; and upon all
occafions he bore teftimony againft uncharitable and
fchifmatical feparation. In church-government he
widled for archbifhop Uftier’s redu&ion of epifcopacy.
He thought it lawful to join in the common-prayer in
public aflemblies; which, during the time of his filence
and reftraint, he commonly attended with his family,
with reverence and devotion.
Henry (Matthew), an eminent diflenting minifter
and author, was the fon of the former, and was born
in the year 1662. He continued under his father’a
care till he was 18 years of age; in wdiich time he
became well fleilied in the learned languages, efpecially
in the Hebrew, which his father had rendered familiar
to him from his childhood; and from firll to laft the
ftudy of the feriptures was his moft delightful em¬
ployment. He completed his education in an academy-
kept at Iflington by Mr Doolittle, and was afterwards
entered in Gray’s-Inn for the ftudy of the law; where
he became well acquainted with the civil and munici¬
pal law of his own country, and from his application
and great abilities it was thought he would have be¬
come very eminent in that profeifion. But at length,
refolving to devote his life to the ftudy of divinity, in
1686 he retired into the country, and was chofen pa¬
llor of a congregation at Chefter, where he lived about
25 years, greatly efteemed and beloved by his people.
He had feveral calls from London, which he conftantly
declined; but was at laft prevailed upon to accept an
unanimous invitation from a congregation at Hackney.
He wrote, l. Expofitions of the Bible, in 5 vols. folio.
2. The life of Mr Philip Henry. 3. Dire&ions for
daily communion with God. 4. A method for prayer.
5. Four difeourfes againft vice and immorality. 6. The
communicant’s companion. 7. Family hymns. 8. A
ferip-
HEP [ 3580 ] HEP
Hepar fcriptnral catecliifm; and, 9. A difcourfe concerning
ll_, the nature of fchifm. He died of an apoplexy at
Nantwich, when upon a journey, in 1714; and was
interred at Trinity-church, in Chefter.
HEPAR sulphurts, or Liver of Sulphur, a
combination of alkaline fait and fulphur. See Che¬
mistry, n° 321—323.
By means of the fume arifing on the decompofition
of kepar fulphuris by an acid, Mr Bergman hath found
3 method of imitating the hot or fulphureous mineral
waters, to as great perfection as the cold ones are now
imitated by fixed air. The procefs confifls fimply in
adding the vitriolic acid to hepar fulphuris, and im¬
pregnating water with the peculiar fpecies of air that
arifes from this mixture; in the fame manner as when
water is impregnated with the fixed air arifing from
the mixture of that or any other acid with chalk.
This hepatic air, as the author calls it, is very readily
abforbed by water; to which it gives the fmeli, tafte,
and all the other fenfible qualities of the fulphureous
waters. A Swedifh cantharus of diftilled water, con¬
taining I24-Svvedi(h cubic inches, will abforb. about
60 cubic inches of this hepatic air; and on dropping
into it the nitrous acid, it will appear, that a real ful¬
phur is contained, in a ftate of perfeft folution, in this
water, to the quantity of eight grains. It does not
appear that any other acid, except what the author
calls the dephlogijlicated marine acid, will produce this
effedt.—When any particular fulphureous water is to
be imitated, we fcarce need to obferve, that the faline,
or other contents peculiar to it, are to be added to
the artificial hepatic 'water. Inftead of the liver of
fulphur, the operator may ufe a mixture of three-parts
of filings of iron and two-parts of fulphur melted to¬
gether.
It may, perhaps, be thought, that water thus pre¬
pared, does not differ from that in which a portion
of the hepar fulphuris has been diffolved: but it ap¬
pears evidently to differ from it in this material cir-
cumftancej — that in the folution of hepar fulphuris,
the fulphur is held in folution by the water, through
the means of the alkali combined with it: whereas, in
M. Bergman’s procefs, it does not appear probable that
the hepar fulpkuris rifes fubftantially in the form of
air; for, in that cafe, its prefence in the hepatic water
might be detedled by means of the weakeff of the
acids (even the mephitic), which would precipitate
the fulphur from it. Nor can it be fuppofed that any
portion or con diluent part of the alkali itfelf (except
a part of its remaining fixed air) can come over. The
water, therefore, muff owe its impregnation to the
fulphur, raifed, in fome peculiar manner, into the date
of an elaftic vapour; permanent, when the experi¬
ment is made in quickfilver; but condenfible in water,
and rendered foluble in that fiuid through the means
of fome unknown principle combined with it, and
which the author fuppofes to be the matter of heat,
combined with if through the medium of phlogiflon.
HEPATIC, in medicine and anatomy, any thing
belonging to the liver.
Hepatic Air. See Hepar Sulphuris.
Hepatic Aloes, the infpiffated juice of a fpecies of
Aloes.
Hepatic Water. See Hepar Sulphuris.
HEPATICA, in botany, a fpecies of Anemone.
HEPATITIS, in medicine, an inflammation of Hepatitis
the liver. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine. II
. HEPHiESTIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athp. Heraclelim
nian feffival in honour of Vulcan, the chief ceremony
of which was a race with torches. It was performed
in this manner: The antagonifts were three young men,
one of whom, by lot, took a lighted torch in his hand,
and began his courfe ; if the torch was extinguifhed
before he finifbed the race, he delivered it to the fe-
cond; and he in like manner to the third : the vi&ory
was his who firff carried the torch lighted to the end
of the race; and to this fucceflive delivering of the
torch, we find many allufions in ancient writers.
HEPTACHORD, in the ancient poetry, fignified
verfes that were fung or played on feven chords, that
is, on feven different notes. In this fenfe it was ap¬
plied to the lyre when it had but feven firings. One
of the intervals is alfo called an heptachord, as con¬
taining the fame number of degrees'between the ex¬
tremes.
HEPTAGON, in geometry, a figure confiding of
feven Tides, and as many angles. In fortification, a
place is termed an heptagon, that has feven baftions
for its defence.
HEPTAGONAL numbers, in arithmetic, a fort
of polygonal numbers, wherein the difference of the
terms of the correfponding arithmetical progreflion is
5. One of the properties of thefe numbers is, that if
they be multiplied by 40, and 9 be added to the pro-
du6T, the fum will be a fquare number.
HEPTANDRIA, in botany, (from £Vra, feptem,
and a man;) the feventh clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual method, confiding of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have feven flamina, or male-organs.
The orders are four, derived from the number of ffyles
or female-organs.
HEPTANGULAR, in geometry, an appellation
given to figures which have feven angles.
HEPTARCHY, a government of feven perfons;
alfo a ftate or country divided into feven kingdoms,
and governed by feven independent princes; in which
fenfe it is particularly applied to the government of
South-Britain, when divided among the Saxons. See
England, n° 43.
HERACLEA, an ancient city of Turky in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with the fee of an archbifliop
of the Grecian church, and a fea-port. It was a very
famous place in former times, and there are dill fome
remains of its ancient fplendor. Theodore Lafcaris
took it from David Comnenus, emperor of Trebifond;
when it fell into the hands of the Genoefe, but Ma¬
homet II. took it from them; fir.ee which time it has
been in the poffeffion of the Turks. It is near the
fea. E. Lon. 27. 48. N. Lat. 40. 27.
HERACLEONITES, a fed! of Chridians, the
followers of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnoftic
divinity, and maintained that the world was not the
immediate produftion of the Son of God, but that he
was only the occafional caufe of its being created by
the demiurgus. The Heracleonites denied the autho¬
rity of the prophecies of.the Old Teffament, main¬
taining that they were mere random founds in the air;
and that St John the Baptift was the only true voice
that directed to the Meffiah.
HERACLEUM, madness; a genus of the digynia
order.
HER [ 3581 ] HER
Heraclidae order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. -
II There are five (pecies, of which the mod remarkable
Heraclitus. ;s tj)e fp0ndylium, or cow-parfnip. This is common
in many parts of Britain, and other northern parts of
Europe and Afia,--Gmelin, in hhFloraSiberica,^. 2 14,
tells us, that the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka, about
the beginning of July, collect the foot-ftalks of the
radical leaves of this plant, and, after peeling off the
rhind, dry them feparately in the fun, and then, tying
them in bundles, dry them carefully in the fhade: in a
fliort time afterwards, thefe dried italks are covered over
with a yellow faccharine efflorefcence, tailing like liquo¬
rice; and in this ftate they are eaten as a great delicacy.
—The Ruffians not only eat the ftalks thus prepared,
but procure from them a very intoxicating fpirit. They
firft ferment them in water with the greater bilberries,
(vaccinium uliginofum), and then diftil the liquor to
what degree of itrength they pleafe; which Gmelin
fays is more agreeable to the talle than fpirits made
from corn. This may therefore prove good fucceda-
neum for whifky; and prevent the confumption of
much barley, which ought to be applied to better
purpofes.—Swine and rabbits are very fond of this
plant. In the county of Norfolk it is called bog-
‘iveed.
HERACLID^E, in antiquity, the defcendants of
Hercules. The Heraclidte were expelled from Pelo-
ponnefus, by Euriftheus king of Mycenae, after the
death of Hercules.
Return of the Heraclid^e into Peloponnefus, is a
celebrated epocha in the ancient chronology.—The
time of this return is differently affigned; by reafon
authors miftake the divers attempts they made to re¬
turn, for the return itfelf. The firft attempt was 20
years before the taking of Troy: the fecond was too
years later, or 80 years after the taking of Troy.
This laft is fuppofed to have fucceeded; at leaft, ac¬
cording to Petavius, who mentions only thefe two.
Scaliger diftinguiihes three attempts ; and fixes the
firft 50 years later than Petavius, viz. 30 years after
the taking of Troy. He fays nothing of the fecond,
which was unfortunate like the firft ; but places the
third in the fame year with Petavius. As itoccafioned
a world of changes and revolutions in the affairs of
Greece, iufomuch that fcarce a ftate or people but
were turned upfide down thereby, the return of the
Heraclidx is the epocha of the beginning of pro¬
fane hiftory: all the time that preceded it is reputed
fabulous. Accordingly, Ephorus, Cumanus, Ca-
lifthenes, and Theopompus, only begin their hiftories
from hence.
HERACLIDES c/Tontus, a Greek philofopher,
the difciple of Speufippus, and afterwards of Ariftotle,
flouriftied about 336 B. C. His vanity prompted him
to defire one of his friends to put a ferpent into his
bed juft as he was dead, in order to raife a belief
that he was afcended to the heavens among the gods ;
but the cheat was difcovered. All his works are
loft.
HERACLITUS, a famous Ephefian philofopher,
who flourifhed about the 69th Olympiad, in the time
of Darius Hyftafpes. He is faid to have continually
bewailed the wicked lives of men, and, as often as he Hmclides
came among them, to have fallen a-weeping; contrary
to Democritus, who made the follies of mankind a ra ' -
fubjedl of laughter. He retired to the temple of
Diana, and played at dice with the boys there; faying
to the Ephefians who gathered round him, “ Worlt
“ of men, what do ye wonder at ? Is it not better to
“ do thus than to govern you ?” Darius wrote to
this philofopher to come and live with him; but he
refufed the offer : at laft, out of hatred to mankind,
he retired to the mountains, where he contradled a
dropfy by living on herbs, which deftroyed him at 60
years of age. His writings gained him fo great re¬
putation, that his followers were called Heraditians.
Laertius fpeaks of a treatife upon nature, divided into
three books, one concerning the univerfe, the fecond
political, the third theological, which he depofited in
the temple of Diana.
HERACLIUS, emperor of the eaft, a renowned
warrior, died A. D. 641. He carried on long and
bloody wars with the Saracens, by whom he was al-
moft always defeated. See Arabia, n° 67—93.
HERALD, fays Verftegan, is derived from the
Saxon word Herehault, and, by abbreviation, Heralt,
which in that language fignifies the champion of
an army ; and, growing to be a name of office, it
was given to him who, in the army, had the fpe-
cial charge to denounce war, to challenge to bat¬
tle and combat, to proclaim peace, and to exe¬
cute martial meffages. But the bufinefs of heralds
with us is as follows, viz. To marfhal, order,
and condutt all royal calvacades, ceremonies at coro¬
nations, royal marriages, inftallations, creations of
dukes, marquifes, earls, vifcounts, barons, baronets,
and dubbing of knights; embaffies, funeral procef-
fions, declarations of war, proclamations of peace,
&c.; To record and blazon the arms of the nobility
and gentry; and to regulate any abufes therein thro’
theEngliffi dominions, under the authority of the Earl-
Marffial, to whom they are fubfervient. The office of
Windfor, Chefter, Richmond, Somerfet, York, and
Lancafter heralds, is to be affiftants to the kings at
arms, in the different branches of their office ; and they
are fuperior to each other, according to creation, in
the above order.
Heralds were formerly held in much greater efteem
than they are at prefent; and were created and chri-
ftened by the king, who, pouring a cold-cup of wine
on their head, gave them the herald-name: but this
is now done by the earl-marfhal. They could not ar¬
rive at the dignity of herald without having been fe-
ven years purfuivant ; nor could they quit the office
of herald, but to be made king at arms.
The office and dignity of a herald was firft inftitu-
ted by Ancus Martius, fourth king of the Romans,
as Livy declares; but fome writers afcribe its origin
to Numa Pompilius, and that he ordained a college of
heralds. Richard III. was the firft who formed them,
in this kingdom, into a college ; and afterwards great
privileges were granted them by Edward VI. and
Philip and Mary.
Vol. V.
20 M
HERALDRY,
[ 35^2 ]
HERALDRY,
Definition A Science which teaches how to blazon, or explain
origin, &r. jtx. jn proper terms, all that belongs to coats-of-
of Heraldry. arms , an£j ])OW to ^arftal, or difpofe regularly, divers
arms on a field. It alfo teaches whatever relates to the
marfhalling of folemn calvacades, procefiions, and other
public ceremonies at coronations, inftallations, crea¬
tions of peers, nuptials, chriftening of princes, fune¬
rals, &c.
Arms, or coats-of-arms, are hereditary marks of
honour, made up of fixed and determined colours and
figures, granted by fovereign princes, as a reward for
military valour, a fhining virtue, or a fignal public
fervice ; and which ferve to denote the defeent and al¬
liance of the bearer, or to dittinguifh ftates, cities,
focieties, ike. civil, ecclefiaftical, and military.
Thus heraldry is the fcience, of which arms are the
proper objeft ; but yet they differ much both in their
origin and antiquity. Heraldry, according to Sir
George Mackenzie, “ as digefted into an art, and
fubjedled to rules, muft be aferibed to Charlemaign
and Frederick Barbaroffa, for it did begin and grow
with the feudal.law.” Sir John Feme is of opinion,
that we did borrow arms from the Egyptians; mean¬
ing, from their hieroglyphicks. Sir William Dug-
dale mentions, that arms, as marks of honour,
were firft ufed by great commanders in war, ne-
cefiity requiring that their perfons Ihould be notified
to their friends and followers. The learned Alexan¬
der Nifbet, in his excellent fyftem of heraldry, fays,
that arms owe their rife and beginning to the light of
nature ; and that figns and marks of honour were made
ufe of in the firft ages of the world, and by all na¬
tions, however fimple and illiterate, to diftinguilh the
noble from the ignoble. We find in Homer, Virgil,
and Ovid, that their heroes had divers figures on their
fhields, whereby their perfons were diftinitly known.
Alexander the Great, defirons to honour thofe of his
captains and foldiers who had done any glorious ac¬
tion, and alfo to excite an emulation among the reft,
did grant them certain badges to be borne on their
armour, pennons, and banners; ordering, at the fame
time, that no perfor. or potentate, through his em¬
pire, fhould attempt or prefutne to give or tolerate
the bearing of thofe figns upon the armour of any
man, but it ftiould be a power referved to himfelf;
which prerogative has been claimed, ever fince by all
other kings and fovereign princes within their domi¬
nions.
After thefe and many other different opinions, all
that can be faid with any certainty is, that, in all ages,
men have made ufe of figures of living creatures, or
fymbolical figns, to denote the bravery and courage
either of their chief or nation, to render themfelves
the more terrible to their enemies, and even to diftin-
cTuifti themfelves or families, as names do individuals.
The famous C. Agrippai in his treatife of the vanity
of fciences, cap. 81. has colle&ed many inftances of
tbefe marks of diftinftion, anciently borne by king¬
doms and ftates that were any way civilized, viz.
The Egyptians ~) fan Ox, h.
The Athenians • | | an Owl, arn
The Goths 1 Ji 1 a Bear,
The Romans f ,E ! an Eagle,
The Franks I I a Lion,
The Saxons ) ■ la Horfe.
The laft is ftill borne in the arms of his prefent Bri¬
tannic M«jefty.‘ ,As to hereditary arms pf families,
William Cambden, Sir Henry Spelman, and other
judicious heralds, agree, that they began no fooner
than towrards the latter end of the i ith century,. Ac¬
cording to Father Meneftrier’s opinion, a French wri¬
ter whofe authority is of great weight in this mat¬
ter, Henry POifeleur (the Falconer) who was raifed
to the imperial throne of the Wed in 920, by regula¬
ting tournaments in Germany gave occafion to the
eftabliftiment of family-arms,- or hereditary marks of
honour, which undeniably are rriorfe ancient andxbet-
ter ob'ferved among the Germans than in any other
nation. Moreover, this laft author afferts,, that with
tournaments firft came up coats-of:armswhich were
a fort of livery, made up of feveral lifts, fillets, or
narrow pieces of ftuff of divers colours, from whence
came the fefs, the bend, the pale* &c. which were
the original charges of family-arms; for they who
never had been at tournaments, had not fuch'marksof
diftinftion. They who inlifted themTelvcs in the Croi-
fades, took up alfo feveral new figures hitherto un-'
known in- armorial'enfigns ; fucli, as alerions, be¬
zants, efcalop-{hells,. martlets, &-c. but more particu¬
larly croffes, of different coloiirs for diftin&ion’s' fake*
From this it may be concluded, that heraldry, like mod
human inventions, was infenfibly introduced and efta-
bliflied ; and that, after having been rude and'unfet-
tled for many ages, it was at laft methodifed, perfefl-
ed, and fixed, by the Croifades and tournaments-
Thefe marks of honour are called arms, from then-
being principally and firft worn by military men at war
and tournaments, who had them engraved,, emboffed,
or depifted on ftiields, targets, banners, or other mar¬
tial inftruments. They are alfo called coats-of-arms-..
from the cuftom of the ancients embroidering them
on the coats they wore over their arms, as heralds do
to this day.
Arms are diftinguKhed by different names, to de¬
note the caufes of their bearing ; fuch as,
ARMS
Of Dominion, | Of Patronage,
rOf Pretenfion, Of Family,
Of Concefiion, ; Of Alliance,
Of Community, Of Succeffion.
Arms of dominion or fovereignty are thofe which
emperors, kings, and fovereign ftates, do conftantly
bear ; being, as it were, annexed to the territories,
kingdoms, and province's, they poffefs. Thus the-
three lions are the arms of England,, the fleurs 'de-lis-
thofe of France, &c.
Arms of pretenfion are thofe of fuch kingdoms*
pro-
Chap. I. HERA
Different provinces, or territories, to which a prince or lord has
forts of fofne claim* and which he adds to his own, although
Arms-  the faid kingdoms or territories be poflefled by a fo¬
reign prince Or other lord. Thus the kings-of Eng¬
land have quartered the arms of France with their own,
ever frace Edward HI.- laid, claim to the kingdom of
France, which happened in the year 1330, on account
of his being fon to Ifabella, filler to Charles the Hand-
fome, who died without ilTue.
Arms of concefllon or augmentation of honour, are
either entire arms, or elfe one or more figures, given
by princes as a reward for fome extraordinary fervice.
We read in hiltory, that Robert Bruce, king of Scot¬
land, allowed the earl of Wintoun’s anceftor to bear,
in his coat-armour, a crown fupported by a fword, to
fhew that he, and the clan Seaton, of which he was
the head, fopported his tottering crown. The late
Queen Anne granted to Sir Cloudefly Shovel, rear-
admiral of Great Britain, a cheveron between two
fleurs-de-lis in chief, and a crefcent in bafe, to denote
three great vidlories he had gained; two ov^r.the
French, and one over the Turks.
Arms of community, art thofe of bilhoprics, cities,
univerfities, academies, focieties, companies, and o-
ther bodies corporate.
Arms of patronage, are fuch as governors of pro¬
vinces, lords of manors, patrons of benefices, &c.
add to their family-arms, as a token of their fuperio-
rity, rights, and jurifdi6tion. Thefe arms have in¬
troduced into heraldry, catlles, gates, wheels, ploughs,
rakes, harrows. See.
Arms of family, or paternal-arms, are thofe that
belong to one particular family, that diftinguilh it
from others, and which no perfon is fuffered to aflume
without committing a crime, which fovereigns have a
right to reftrain and punilh.
Arms ef alliance, are thofe which families, or pri¬
vate perfons, take up and join to their own, to denote
the alliances they have contradled by marriage. This
fort of arms is either impaled, or borne in an efcutcheon
of pretence, by thofe who have married heireffes.
Arms of fucceffion, are fuch as are taken up by
them who inherit certain ellates, manors, &c. either
by will, entail, or donation, and which they either
impale or quarter with their own arms; which multi¬
plies the titles of fome families out of neceffity, and
not through oftentation, as many imagine.
Thefe are the eight clafles under which the divers
forts of arms are generally ranged ; but there is a fort
which blazoners call ajfumptive arms, being fuch as.
are taken up by the caprice or fancy of upftarts,
though of ever fo mean extraction, who, being advan¬
ced to a degree of fortune, aflume them without a
legal title. This, indeed, is a great abufe of heral¬
dry ; and common only in Britain, for on the conti¬
nent no fuch practice takes place.
We now proceed to confider the efiential and inte¬
gral parts of arms, which are thefe:
The Escutcheon, The Charges,
The Tinctures, The Ornaments.
CHAP. I.
Of the Shield or Escutcheon.
The Shield, or Efcutcheon, is the field or ground
whereon are reprefented the figures that make up a
L D R Y. 3583
coat of arms: for thefe marks of diflinCtlon were of ihc
put on bucklers or fhields, before they were placed *-1''
on banners, ftandards, flags, and coat-armour; and
wherever they may be fixed, they are ftill on a plane
or fuperfleies, whofe form refembles a fliield.
Shields, in heraldry called efcutcheons, or fcutcheons,
from the Latin word feuium, have been, and ftill are,
of different forms, according to different times and
nations. Amongll ancient fhields, fome were almoft
like a horfe-flioe, fuch as is reprefented by n° 1. in the
figure of Efcutcheons ; others triangular, fomewhat Plate
rounded at the bottom, as n° 2. The people who in- CXI.IV.
habited Mefopotamia, now called Diarbeck, made ufe
of this fort of fliield, which, it is thought, they had of
the Trojans. Sometimes the fhield was heptagonal,
that is, had feven fides, as n° 3. — The firft of this
fhape is laid to have been ufed by the famous triumvir
M. Antony. That of knights-banneret was fquare, like
a banner, as n° 4. As to modern efcutcheons, thofe of
the Italians, particularly of ecelefiaflics, are generally
oval, as n° 5. The Englifh, French, Germans, and
other nations, have their efcutcheons formed different
ways, according to the'earver’s or painter’s fancy; fee
the various examples contained from n° 6—16 of the
figure. But the efcutcheon of maids, widows, and of
fuch as are born ladies, and are married to private gen¬
tlemen, is in the form of a lozenge. See n° 17—20-
Sir George Mackenzie mentions one Muriel, countefs
of Strathern, who carried her arms in a lozenge, anno
1284, which ftiews how long we have been verfant in
heraldry.
Armorifts diftinguilh feveral parts or points in efcut¬
cheons, in order to determine exadtly the pofition of
the bearings they are charged with; they are here de¬
noted by the firft nine letters of the alphabet, ranged
in the following manner :
A -the dexter chief
B the precife middle chief
C -the/infer chief.
D the honour point.
E the fefs point.
F the nombrfl point.
G the dexter bafe.
H the precife middle bafe.
I the /infer bafe.
The knowledge of thefe points is of great import¬
ance, and ought to be well obferved, for they are fre¬
quently occupied with feveral things of different kinds.
It is neceffary to obferve, that the dexter-fide of the
efcutcheon is oppofite to the left hand, and the Uni¬
fier fide to the right hand of the perfon that looks
on it.
CHAP. II.
cy Tinctures, Furs, Lines, and Dif¬
ferences.
Sect. I. Of TinElures.
By tinftures is meant that variable hue of arms
which is common both to (hields and their bearings.
According to the French heralds, there are but feven
tin&ures in armory; of which two are metals, the other
five are colours.
The Metals are,
Gold, Or.
Silver, 5 erme C Urgent.
20M 2
The
3584
The
TinOures.
Plate
CXLIV.
The Colours are
tie, r Azure.
d, / I Gules.
■ecu, termed J Vert.
rple, I J Purpure.
ack, J Sable.
HERA
The Colours are
Bit
Red,
Green,
Purph
Black, _
When natural bodies, fuch as animals, plants, cele-
ftial bodies, &c. are introduced into coats of arms,
they frequently retain their natural colours, which is
exprefled in this fcience by the word proper.
Befides the five colours abovementioned, the Eng-
lifh writers on heraldry admit two others, viz.
°ranf’ \ termed j
Blood-colour, 3 C Sanguine.
But thefe two are rarely to be found in Britilh
bearings.
Thefe tinflures are reprefented in engravings and
drawings (the invention of the ingenious Silveller Pe¬
tra San&a, an Italian author of the laft century), by
dots and lines, as in fig. ii. n° 1—9.
Or is expreffed by dots.
Argent needs no mark, and is therefore plain.
Azure, by horizontal lines.
Gules, by perpendicular lines.
Vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the
finifter-bafe points.
Purpure, by diagonal lines from the finifter-chief to
the dexter-bafe points.
Sable, by perpendicular and horizontal lines crofiing
each other.
fenny, by diagonal lines from the finifter-chief to
the dexter-bafe points, traverfed by horizontal
lines.
Sanguine, by lines crofting each other diagonally
from dexter to finifter, and from finifter to dexter.
Sir George M‘Kenzie obferves, that “ fome fan-
“ taftic heralds have blazoned not only by the ordi-
“ nary colours and metals, but by flowers, days of
the week, parts of a man’s body, &c. and have
“ been condemned for it by the heralds of all nations.
“ Yet the Englilh have fo far owned this fancy,” (the
moft judicious of them, as Mr Cartwright and
others, reprobate it as abfurd,) “ that they give it for
“ a rule, that the coats of fovereigns ftiould be bla-
“ zoned by the planets, thofe of noblemen by pre-
“ cious ftones; and have fuited them in the manner
“ here fet down:
“ Or Topaz Sol
“ Argent Pearl Luna
« Sable Diamond Saturn
“ Gules Ruby Mars
« Azure Sapphire Jupiter
“ Vert Emerald Venus
“ Purpure Amethyft Mercury
“ Tenny Jacinth Dragon’s-head
“ Sanguine Sardonix Dragon’s-tail.
“ But I crave leave to fay, that thefe are but mere
“ fancies, and are likewife unfit for the art, for thefe
“ reafons: ift. The French (from whom theEnglifh
“ derive their heraldry, not only in principles, but in
“ words of the French language,) do not only not
“ ufe thefe different ways of blazoning, but treat
“ them en ridicule, zdly, The Italian, Spanilh, and
“ Latin heralds ufe no fuch different forms, but blazon
“ by the ordinary metals and colours. 3dly, Art
DRY. Chap. II.
“ ftiould imitate nature; and as it would be an un-The Fm\«.
“ natural thing in common difcourfe not to call red 
“ red, becaufe a prince wears it, fo it is unnatural to
“ ufe thefe terms in heraldry, and it may fall out to
“ be very ridiculous in fome arms; for inftance, if
“ a prince had for his arms an afs couchant under his
“ burden gules, how ridiculous would it be to fay he
“ had an afs couchant Mars? A hundred other
“ examples might be given; but it is enough to fay,
“ that this is to confound colours with charges, and
“ the things that are borne with colours. 4thly, It
“ makes the art unpleafant, and deters gentlemen
“ from ftudying it, and ftrangers from underftanding
“ what our heraldry is; nor could the arms of our
“ princes and nobility be tranflated in this difguife
“ into Latin or any other language. But that which
“ convinces' moft that this is an error is, becaufe it
“ makes that great rule unneceffary, whereby colour
“ cannot be put upon colour, nor metal upon metal;
“ but this cannot hold but where metals and colours
“ a/e expreffed.”
The Englifh heralds give different names to the
roundlet (n° 10), according to its colour. Thus, if
it is
Bezant.
Or,
Argent,
Azure,
Gules,
Vert,
Purpure,
Sable,
Tenny,
Sanguine,
it is called a <
Plate.
Hurt.
Torteau.
Pomey.
Golpe.
Pellet.
Orange.
Guze.
The French, and all other nations, do not admit
fuch a multiplicity of names to this figure ; but call
them Bezants, after an ancient coin ftruck at Con-
ftantinople, once Byzantium, if they are Or and Tor-
teaux; if of any other tinfture, exprefling the fame.
Sect. II. Of Furs.
Furs reprefent the hairy fkin of certain beafts, pre¬
pared for the doublings or linings of robes and gar¬
ments of ftate: and as fliields were anciently covered
with furred Ikins, they are therefore ufed in heraldry
not only for the linings of the mantles, and other or¬
naments of the fhields, but alfo in the coats of arms
themfelves.
There are three different kinds in general ufe, viz. p]ate
1. Ermine; which is a field argent, powdered with CXLIV.
black fpots, their tails terminating in three hairs. (Fig.
ii. n0n.)
2. Counter-ermine, where the field is fable, and the
powdering white. (n° 12.)
3. Vair (n° 15.), which is expreffed by blue and
white Ikins, cut into the forms of little bells, ranged in
rows oppofite to each other, the bafe of the white
ones being always next to that of the blue ones.
Vair is ufually of fix rows; if there be more or fewer,
the number ought to be expreffed; and if the colours
are different from thofe abovementioned, they muft
likewife be expreffed.
The Englifh multiply the furs, as well as the names
of the tin&ures, though no other nation has adopted
fuch varieties. Thus they give us,
1. White, which is the natural colour of the ermine;
but
Chap. II. HERA
Of Lines, but it is ufed on no other occafion but in the defcrip-
tions of mantles.
2. Ermines, which is the fame with contra-ermine.
3 Erminois; the field is Or, the powdering Sable,
(n° 13.). For the ufe of this fur Guillim cites Bara,
p. 14. but no fuch fur is to be found in Bara.
4. Pean; the field is Sable, the powdering Or,
(n° 14.) The French ufe no fuch term ; but they call
all furs or doublings des pannes, or pcnnes, which term
has pofiibly given rife to this miftake, and many
others, in thofe who do not underftand the French
language.
5. Erminites; the fame as Ermine, with the addi¬
tion of a red hair on each fide of the black. Sir Geo.
Mackenzie calls thefe diftinftions “ but fancies, for
“ Erminites fignifies properly little Ermines.”
6. Counter-vair; when the bells of the fame tinc¬
ture are placed bale againft bafc, and point againft
point, (n° t6.).
7. Potent-counter-potent, anciently called Fairy-
cuppy, as when the field is filled with crutches or po-
tents counter-placed, (n° 17.).
It may not be improper to obferve, that the ufe of
the tin&ures took its rife from the feveral colours
ufed by warriors whillt they were in the army, which
S. de Petra San&a proves by many citations. And
becaufe it was the cufiom to embroider gold and filver
on filk, or filk on cloth of gold and filver, the heralds
did therefore appoint, that in imitation of the clothes
fo embroidered, colour fhould never be ufed upon co¬
lour, nor metal upon metal.
Sect. III. Of the Lines ufed in the Parting of
Fields.
Escutcheons are either of one tinfture, or more
than one: thofe that are of one only, that is, when
fome metal, colour, or fur, is fpread all over the fur-
face or field, fuch a tin&ure is faid to be predominant.
But in fuch as have on them more than one, as moft
have, the field is divided by lines, which, according to
their divers forms, receive various names.
Lines may be either ftraight or crooked. Straight
lines are carried evenly through the efcutcheon ; and
are of four different kinds, viz. a perpendicular line, | ;
a horizontal, —; a diagonal dexter, ^ ; a diagonal fi-
nilter, /.
Crooked lines are thofe which are carried unevenly
through the efcutcheon with rifing and falling. French
armorifts reckon 11 different forts of them; Guillim
admits of feven only; but there are 14 diftindt kinds,
Plate the figures and names of which are as in fig. i. (a),
CXLIV. n° 1 — 14. viz.
1. The engrailed. 2. The inve&ed. 3. The wavy.
4. The embattled, or crenelle. 5. The nebule. 6. The
raguly. 7. The indented. 8. The dancette. 9. The
dove-tail. 10^ The grafted. II. 1'he embattled a-
ronde. 12. The battled embattled. 13. The patee
or dove-tail. 14. Champaine.
The principal reafon why lines are thus ufed in he¬
raldry, is to difference bearings which would be other-
wife the fame; for an efcutcheon charged with a chief
engrailed, differs from one charged with a chief
L D R Y.
wavy, as much as if the oqe bore a crofs and the other
a fattier.
As the forementioned lines ferve to divide the field,
it muff be obferved, that if the divifion confifts of two
equal parts made by the perpendicular-line, it is called
parted per pale ; by the horizontal-line, parted per fefs ;
by the diagonal-dexter, parted per lend; by the dia-
gonal-finifter, parted per bendfinifer; examples of
which will be given in the fequel of this treatife.
If a field is divided into four equal parts by any of
thefe lines, it is faid to be quartered, which may be
done two ways, viz.
Quartered or parted per crofs; which is made by a
perpendicular and horizontal line, which, croffing each
other at the centre of the field,-divide it into four equal
parts called yaar/err. See Plate CXLIV. under fig. i. (a).
Quartered or parted per faltier; which is made by
two diagonal lines, dexter and finifter, that crofs one
another in the centre of the field, and likewife divide it
into four equal parts. Ibid.
The efcutcheon is fometimes divided into a greater
number of parts, in order to place in it the arms of the
feveral families to which one is allied ; and in this cafe
it is called a genealogicalatchievement. Thefe divifions
may confiftof6, 8, 12, and 16, quarters, [as under fig L
(a.) | and even fometimes of 20, 32, 64, and upwards;
there being examples of fuch divifions frequently exhi¬
bited at pompous funerals. An extraordinary inftance
of this kind was lately exhibited at the pompous funeral
of the late worthy vifeountefs Townfhend, whofe corps
was brought from Dublin caftle in Ireland, to Rain-
ham-hall in Norfolk, one of the principal tenants on
horfeback carrying before the hearfe a genealogical
banner, containing the quarterings of his lordfhip’s and
her ladyfiiip’s family, to the amount of upwards of 160
coats. Sir George Booth, the prefent-reftor of the
valuable living of Afhton under Line, bears fix diftinfl
coats-of-arms in his fhield, viz. thofe for Booth, Bar¬
ton, Venables, Mountfort, Afhton, Egerton; and has
befides a right to 37 other coats: but Sir William
Dugdale very juftly objedts to fo many arms being
cluftered together in one fhield or banner, on account
of the difficulty of difeerning and knowing afunder one
coat-of*arms from another.
Sect. IV. Of the Differences of Coats-of-Arms.
Armorists have invented divers differences, orcha-
radteriflical marks, whereby bearers of the fame coat-
of-arms are diftinguifhed each from others, and their
nearnefs to the principal bearer demonftrated. Ac¬
cording to J-. Guillim, thefe differences are to be confi-
dered either as ancient or modern.
Art. L Of Ancient Differences.
Those he calls ancient differences confift in bor~
dures(A) ; which is a bearing that goes all round, and
parallel to the boundary of the efcutcheon, in form of
a hem, and always contains a fifth part of the field in
breadth. Bordures were ufed in ancient times for the
diftinguifhing not only of one nation or tribe from ano¬
ther, but alfo to note a diverfity between particular
perfons defeended of one family and from the fame
parents.
(a) Bordures are ftill introduced into Engliftx coats-of-armp, but for particular reafons, which heralds can belt ex¬
plain. They are by the French frequently taken for a principal figure, and numbered among the reit of the ordi¬
naries.
3585
Of
M (Terence*.
3586 HERA]
Ancient parents. This diftin&ion, however, was not exprefsly
Dift'erenpe$. fignified by unvariable marks; nor were bordures al¬
ways appropriated to denote the different degrees of
■confanguinity : for, as Sir Henry Spelman obferves in
his /i/pilogia, p. 140, ancient heralds, being fond of
perfpicuons differences, often inverted the paternal
tinfture, or fometimes inferted another charge in the
efcutcheon, fuch as bends, croflets, cantons, or the like;
which irregularity has, I fuppofe, induced modern ar-
mprifts to invent and make ufe of others.”
There are bordures of different forms and tin&ures,
Plate as in the examples, fig. iii.
CXLV. N? 1. is “ Sable, a Bordure Argent;” borne by the
right hon. Sackville Tufton, Earl of Thanet.—When a
bordure is plain, you are not to mention it, as it is al¬
ways underftood fo in heraldry, though it be not ex-
preffed ; but if it has any other form, you are to fig-
nify it.
2. “Gules, a Bordure engrailed Argent;” borne
by the right hon. Charles Gray, lord Gray.—This is
called engrailed, from the Fiench word engrele, which
fignifies a thing the hail has fallen upon and broken
off the edges, leaving it with little femicifcles ftruck
out of it.
3. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Or;” borne by the
right hon. George Talbot, earl of Shrewfbury.—You
muff obferve, that, in a bordure or ordinary formed
s of tbefe lines, the points are reprefented on all fides to¬
wards the field, and the femicircles turned towards the
bordure or ordinary.
4. “ Argent, a Bordure invedted Azure.”—This
is quite contrary to the lad; for, as the other turns its
points from the bordure into the field, fo contrary wife
this does, by the inverfion of the points from the field
into the bordure. Such a charge, or any other formed
of thefe lines, is feldom to be met with in Englifh
coats-of-arms.
5. “ Gules, a Bordure indented Argent.”—The
word indented requires very little explanation, the fig-
nification being obvious to all perfons, from its figure,
which is compofed of tra&s refembling teeth, called in
Latin dentes.
6. “ Azure, a Bordure Ermine.”
7. “ Vert, a Bordure Vair.”
8. “ Ermine, a Bordure compony, or gobony, Or
and Sable.”—This is fo termed from its being com¬
pofed of fraall and equal pieces. J. Guillim calls this
bordure gobonated, which implies the fame meaning ;
but the word being obfolete, is not ufed by modern
heralds.
9. “ Quarterly, Azure and Gules, a Bordure com¬
pony Argent and Azure;” borne by his grace Henry
Somerfet, duke of Beaufort, &c.
to. “ Azure, a Bordure counter-compony Argent
and Gules.”—Obftrve, that the counter-compony does
always confifl of two trads, and no more.
11. “ Or, a Bordure cheeky Argent and Sable.” —
This has a great refemblance with the lajJ bordure,
having only one trad more ; therefore you mufl take
care, before you blazon, to number them, or elfe you
may eafily err in taking the one for the other.
12. “ Gules, a Bordure Argent charged with eight
Trefoils flipped proper, that is. Vert.”—All nations
ufe few terms in blazoning bordures; but Englilh ar-
jnorifts, in order, poflibly, to raife the dignity of this
L, D R Y. Chap. II.
fcience, have perplexed it, and rendered it unintelligible Ancient
to all foreigners, by introducing into it feveral myftical Differences.
names, among, which may be reckoned the following
ones, viz. They call a bordure, if charged with eight
plants, fruits, flowers, or leaves, verdoy of fuch vege¬
tables ; or enaluron of fuch birds, enurny of beafts, .
perfie<w of furs, and entoyre of inanimate things of
what kind foever.
13. “ Gules on a Bordure Azure, eight Stars Or.”
14. “ Argent, a Bordure compony of the laft and
Guies, the firtl. charged with Rofes of the fecond,
barbed and feeded proper.”—This bordure is borne
by his grace Charles Lennox, duke of Richmond, &c.
15. “ Ermine, within a Bordure engrailed Gules;”
the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Henry-Benedidl
Barnewall, vifeount Kingfland, &c. of Ireland.—This
ancient and noble family is of French extra&ion, and
allied to the dukes of Little-Bretagne, where the name
continues ftill in great repute.
16. “ Argent, a Bordure Sable charged with eight
Befants;” borne by the right hon. Cole,
lord Ranelagh, of Ireland.
17. “ Party per pale Argent and Gules, a Bordure
charged with eight Efcalops counterchanged ;” the
coat-of-arms of the right hon. William Maule, earl of
Panmure, &c. of Ireland. This very ancient family
is originally French, and derives its furname from
the town and lordfhip of Maule in Normandy, where
the fame arms are ftill to be feen in the parifh-church.
18. “ Azure, a Bordure quarterly, the firft and
fourth Ermine, the fecond and third counter-compony
Argent and Azure.”
19. “ Purpure, a Bordure compony Or and Gules,
each of the laft charged with a Befant.”
20. “ Quarterly Or and Gules, within a Bordure
Vert, charged with eight Efcalops Or.”
We ftiall conclude this head with obferving, that a
bordure is never of metal upon metal, a.nd feldom of
colour upon colour, but rather of the tin&ure which
the principal bearing or charge is of. Thus Sir 
Dalziel of Glenae, whofe predeceflbr was a younger
brother of the noble family of Carnwath, has, within
a Bordure Argent, the paternal coat of the ancient
name of Dalziel, viz. “ Sable, a hanged man with bis
arms extended, Argent;” formerly they carried him
hanging on a gallows. This bearing, though fo very
Angular for a coat-of-arms, was given as a reward to
one of the anceftors of the late Robert Dalziel, earl of
Carnwath, to perpetuate the memory of a brave and
hazardous exploit performed in taking down from a
gallows the body of a favourite and near relation of
king Kenneth II. hung up by the Pidfs, which ftory
is thus related by Alexander Nilbet: “ The king being
exceedingly grieved that the body of his minion and
kinfman ftiould be fo disgracefully treated, he proffered
a great reward to any of his fubjedls who would ad¬
venture to refeue his corpfe from the difgrace his cruel
enemies had unjuftly put upon it: but when none
would undertake this hazardous enterprife, at laft a
valorous gentleman came and laid to the king, Dalzeil,
which fignifies, “ I dare;” and he did aftually per¬
form that noble exploit to the king’s fatisfadion and
his.own immortal honour, and in memory of it got
the aforefaid remarkable bearing ; and afterwards his
pofterity took the word D^A/V/for their furname, and
(A.j
Lines Liffeivexces , fee
Heraldry.
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Chap. II. HERA
Modern the interpretation of it, I dare, continues even to this
Difference-, jay t0 jjjg motto of that noble family.” We .can
have no better proof of the truth of thits tradition than
this, that the heads of this ancient family have, for
many ages, carefully retained this bearing without any
alteration or addition.
Art. 2. Of Modern Differences.
The modern differences, which the Englifh have
adopted, not only for the diftinguifhing of fons iffued
out of one family, but alfo to denote the difference and'
fubordinate degrees in each houfe from the original
anceftors, are nine, viz.
Plate For the heir or firft fon, the Label. 2d fon, the
• Crefcent. 3d fon, the Mullet. 4th fon, the Martlet,
iimter g. 1. j-on^ tjie Annulet. 6th fon, the Flower-de-luce.
yth fan, the Rofe. 8th fon, the Crofs-moline. 9th
fon, the Double Quater-foil.
By thefe differences, the fix fons of Thomas Beau¬
champ, the 15th earl of Warwick, who died in the
34th year of king Edward III. are diflinguifhed in an
old window of the church of St Mary at Warwick ;
fo that although they are called modern differences,'
their nfage with the Englifh is ancient.
It muft be obferved, that, of all the forementioned
marks of diflin&ion, none but the label is affixed on
the coats-bf-arms belonging to any of the royal family
which the introducers of this peculiarity have, how¬
ever, thought proper to difference by additional pen¬
dants and diftinft charges on them.
As to the diftin&ion to be made in the arms of the
offspring belonging to each of the above-mentioned
P!a‘e brothers, it is expreffed by figures on the top and
CXLV. margin of the table contained in fig. iv. For inltance,
The heir or firft fon of the fecond houfe, bcareth a .
crefcent charged with a label during his .father’s life
only.. The fecond fon of the ftcond houfe,:a crefcent
charged with another crefcent. The third fon pf the
fecood houfe, a crefcent charged with a mullet.' The *
fourth fon of the fecond houfe, a crefcent charged
with a martlet. The fifth fon of the fecond houfe, a
crefcent charged with an annulet. The fixth fon of
the feebnd houfe, a crefcent charged with a flower-
de-luce; and fo on of the other fons, taking care to
have them, of a different tinfture.
In what part of the efcutcheon thefe differences
fhouldbe borne is not certain ; for Guillim, Morgan,
and others, give us many different examples of their
pofition. The honour-point would be the propereft.
place, if the arms would admit of it ; but that is not
always the cafe, as that part may be charged wuth
fome figure in the paternal coat, which cannot with
propriety receive the difference. There are inftances
where thefe are borne as perfeft coats of arms, as the
examples fhbjoined to the Table of Houfes {effi¬
ciently fhew, which are to be blazoned thus :
The firft is “ Azure, a Label argent.”—When
fuel) a label is borne as a difference, the pendants, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, fignify that he is but the third
perfon ; the dexter pendant referring to his father,
the finifter to his mother, and the middle one to him-
felf.
The fecond is “ Argent, a Label of five points
Azure borne by the name of Hentington. If a
label has more or lefs than three pendants or points,
L D R Y. 358“
they are to be expreffed as in the foregoing example. Modern
The third is “ Azure, a Crefcent argent,” borne differences-
by the name of Lucy.—The reafon G. Leigh affigns
for the fecond fon’s having a crefcent for a difference,
is to (how that he fheuld increafcthe family by adding
to it riches and reputation.
The fourth is “ Argent, a Mullet'Sable, otf a
Chief Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Or borne by the name
of Rogers, in Gloucefterfhire.—A mullet or fpur was
appointed for the third fon’s difference, as the laft-
mentioned author fays, to fhew that he fho.uld follow-
chivalry.
The fifth is “ Azure, a Fleur-de-lis'-Argerit';”
borne by the Right-hon. Henry Digby, baron Dig-
by of Geaftiil, in King’s county, Ireland.- '
Thefe few examples, among many m'ore that might
be given, demonllrate the impropriety of adopting
modern differences, as they are called, for'marks
of cadency to diftinguifh the different branches of a
family : for it is impoffible to diftinguifti the uncle or
grand-uncle, from the nephew or grand-nepheW, if
each of them are fecond, third, or fourth fons; and
in the courfe of fucceffion thefe differences would mul¬
tiply to fuch a number, that it would be impoffible to
delineate them dillinftly in moft cafes. But as they
are given by moft of the Englifh writers on heraldry,
though no foreign nation ufes them, it was thought
proper to infert them here,
Sifters, except of the blood-royal, have no other
mark of difference in their coats-of-arms, but the form
of the cfcutcheon, (as obferved before) ; therefore they
are permitted to bear the arms of their father, even as
the eldtft fon does after his father’s deceafe. The reafon
of which is by Guillim faid to be, that vvhen they are
married, they lofe their furname, and receive that of
their hufbands.
Next to thefe diminutions G. Leigh, J. Guillim,
and after them Dr Harris in his Lexicon 7echnicu7n,
fet forth at large divers figures, which they pretend
were formerly added to the coats of fuch as were to
be punifhed and branded for cowardice, fornication,
flander, adultery, treafon, or murder, for which they
give them the name of abatements of honour ; but as
they produce but one inftance of fuch whimfical bear
ings, we have not inferted them here. Befides, artns,
being marks of honour, they cannot admit of any note
of infamy; nor would anybody now-a-days bear
them, if they were fo branded. It is true, a man
may be degraded for divers crimes, particularly high
treafon ; but in fuch cafes the efcutcheon is reverfed,
trod upon, and torn in pieces, to denote a total ex-
tinftion and fupprefiion of the honour and dignity o£
the perfon to whom it belonged.
CHAP. HI.
Of the Charges.
Armorists call a charge whatfoever is contained-
in the field, whether it occupy the whole, or only a-
part thereof. All charges are diftinguiftied by the
names of honourable ordinaries, fub-ordinaries, and
common charges.
Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in
heraldry> are made of lines only, which; according to
their
3583
Honourab'
0«littaries.
Plate
CXLV.
HERA
e thtir difpofition and form, receive different names.
Sub-ordinaries are ancient heraldric figures fre¬
quently ufed in coats of-arms, and which are diftin-
guifhed by terms appropriated to each of them.
Common charges are compofed of natural, artifi¬
cial, and even chimerical things, fuch as planets,
creatures, vegetables, inftruments, &c.
Sect. I. Of Honourable Ordinaries.
The moft judicious armorifts admit only of nine
honourable ordinaries, viz.
The Chief The Bar
The Pale The Cheveron
The Bend The Crofs
The Bend finifter and
The Fefs The Saltier.
Of thefe, but fix have diminutives, which are called
as follows: That of the chief is a fillet: The pale has
a pallet and endorfe; the bend, a bendlct, cojl, and
ribband: The bend-finifter has the fcarpe and baton ;
the bar, the clofet and barulet; the cheveron a chev-
ronel and couple-clofe. All which fhall be treated of in
order.
Art. I. Of the Chief.
The chief is an ordinary determined by an hori¬
zontal line, which, if it is of any other form but
ilraight, muft be expreffed. It is placed in the upper
part of the efcutcheon, and containeth in depth the
third part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet, the
content of which is not to exceed one fourth of the
chief, and flandeth in the loweft part thereof. This
ordinary is fubjedl to be charged with variety of fi¬
gures; and may be indented, wavy, nebule, &c. as in
the examples, fig. v.
N° i. is “ Or, a Chief indented Azure borne
by the right hon. Edmund Butler, vifcount Mount-
garret, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This great
and illuftrious family of the Butlers, fo renowned for
the many valiant and loyal perfons it has produced,
is defcended from the ancient counts.of Brion in Nor¬
mandy ; but fince king Henry II. conferred the of¬
fice of chief butler of Ireland upon one of the family,
he and his fuccefibrs have affumed the name of Butler.
2. “ Azure a Chief engrailed Or.”
3. “ Argent, a Chief invefted Vert.”
4. “ Vert, a Chief undy Or.”
5. “ Azure, a Chief nebule Argent.”
6. “ Or, a Chief cheeky Azure and Argent.”
7. “ Ermine, a Chief quarterly Or and Gules
borne by the name of Peckham.
8. “ Argent, a Chief Sable, in the lower part
thereof a Fillet of the Field.”
9. “ Azure, fretty Argent, a Chief Or borne
by the right hon. Hayes St Leger, vifcount Do-
neraile, &c. of the county of Cork in Ireland. This
ancient and noble family is of French extraftion; and
is defcended from Sir Robert Sent Legere, knight,
who, in 1066, accompanied William duke of Nor¬
mandy in his expedition into England ; and the fa¬
mily have a tradition, that he, with his own hand,
fupported the faid duke when he quitted the Ihip to
land in Sufiex.
10. “ Argent, on a Chief engrailed Azure, a
Tortoife paffant Orborne by the name of Bid-
good.
L D R Y. Chap. III.
M. “ Argent, on a Chief Gules, two Spur revels H°nour^ble
Orborne by the right hon. John St John, lord 1 inarlcs
St John of Bletlhoe, &c. Of this ancient family,
which derive their furname from a place called St John
in Normandy, was John de St John, Efq. vvh > ha¬
ving a principal employment in fhe army of the Nor¬
man duke, attended him in his expedition into Eng¬
land.
12. “ Argent, on a Chief Vert, two Spears Heads
ereft of the Field, the points imbrued Gules;” borne
by the Right Hon. George Brodrick, Vifcount Mid¬
dleton, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This family
is lineally defcended from George de Brodrick, w-ho
came into England in the reign of William II.
13. “ Or, on a Chief Sable, three Efcalops of the
field,” for the name of Graham; and borne quartered
in the arms of his Grace William Graham, duke, mar¬
quis, and earl of Montrofe, &c. with Argent three
Rofes Gules. According to the Scots writers, this great
and noble family is defcended from the renowned Greme
or Grame, who, in the year 404, wtis general of king
Fergus ll.’s, army, and, in 420, forced his way through
the wall built by the Romans between the rivers
Forth and Clyde to keep out the Scots from moleft-
ing them in their pofiefiions, and the faid breach has
ever fince been called Grams's dike.
14. “ Argent, on a Chief indented Gules, three
Croffes pattee of the Field;” borne by the right hon.
John Perceval, earl of Egmont, <bc. This very ancient
and noble family is fuppofed, from circumftances little
fhort of pofitive proof, to have fprung from a younger
branch of the fovereign dukes of Bretagne in France,
of the fame name. They were tranfplanted into Nor¬
mandy before the conqueft, poflefled of great eftates
and power, and inverted with the office of chief butler.
UpOn the Norman invafion, two of this family came
over into England with the Conqueror, from one of
which the defeent of the prefent earl of Egmont is de¬
duced by the cleareft and moft indifputable proofs of
hiftorians and records.
15. “ Azure, on a Chief indented Or, three Spur-
revels Gules;” borne by the right hon. Charles Moore,
earl of Drogheda, <bc. of the kingdom of Ireland.
This noble family, which is of French extraftion, came
into England foon after the conqueft, and made their
firft refidence in the manor of Moore-court, in the coun¬
ty of Kent.
16. “ Ermine, on a Chief indented Azure, three
ducal coronets Or;” borne by the name of Lytton.
17. “ Azure, on a Chief Or, three Martlets Gules,”
for the name of Wray; and borne by Sir Cecil Wray,
Bart, of Lincolnlhire.
18. “ Ermine, on a Chief Gules; five Lozenges of
the firft;” borne by the name of Dixin.
19. “ Argent, fretty Gules, on a Chief of the fe¬
cund, three Leopard's Faces Or;” borne by the right
hon. Henry Liddel, lord Ravenfworth. This noble
lord is defcended from the ancient lords of Liddle-
caftle, in the county of Durham, where they have been
proprietors of great-coal-mines time out of mind.
20. “ Ermine, a Chief party per pale Azure and
Or; on the dexter the Sun in its fplendor, on the
finifter a Crofs pattee Gules.” The arms of the bi-
ffiopric of Raphoe, in the kingdom of Ireland.
Art.
HEUAX/DRY.
Tlafe CXUV.
(Mi?. <3.
B OlilTOBES.
Chap. III. HERA
Art. II. Of the Pale.
The Pale is an ordinary, cojififting of two perpen¬
dicular lines drawn from the top to the bafe of the E-
fcutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the
field. Its diminutives are, The pallet, which is the half
of the pale ; and the endorfe, which is the fourth part
of a pale. This ordinary and the pallet may receive
any charge, but the endorfe fliould not be charged.
The endorfe, befides, is never ufed, according to J.
Leigh, but to accompany the pale in pairs, as cotices
do the bend; but Sir John Feme is of a different opi¬
nion.
. Plate Ex. i. “ Gules, a Pale Or;” by the name of Grand-
CXLV. Viain.
V1" 2. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, a Pale
counterchanged.”
3. “ Argent, a Pale between two Endorfes Gules.”
4. “ Party per Pale, 1/?, Paly of fix Argent and
Sable, 2d, Azure;” borne by .the name of Trencbard.
5. “ Paly of fix Or and Azure.”
6. “ Argent, three Pallets undy Sable;” by the
name of Downes.
7. “ Party per Pale, Argent and Gules;” borne by
the right hon. John Waldegrave, earl Waldegrave, &c.
This noble earl is defcended from John de Walde¬
grave, who was fherifF of London in the year 1205, in
the feventh year of king John.
8. “ Party per Pale indented, Or and Gules
borne by the right hon. Thomas Bermingham, baron
of Athenry, in the kingdom of Ireland. Of this an¬
cient and noble family, which are of Englifli extrac¬
tion, and took their name from the town of Berming¬
ham in the county of Warwick, was William de Ber¬
mingham, who was pofTeffed of the town of that name
in the reign of Henry II. which continued in that fa¬
mily till the reign cf Henry Vill.
9. “ Qarterly per Pale dove-tail. Gules and Or
borne by the right hon. Thomas Bromley, lord Mont-
fort, &c. This noble lord is maternally defcended
from Sir Walter Bromleghe, of Bromleghe, in the
county of Stafford, who flourifhed in the reign of king
John. Sir Thomas Bromley, another of his lordlhip’s
anceftors, was conftituted lord high chancellor of
England, 21 Elizabeth ; in which poft he died, 29 E-
lizabeth.
10. “ Argent, a Pale flory counterflory Sable.”
11. “ Argent, a Pale lozengy Sable;” borne by
the name of Savage.
12. “ Argent, a Pale indented Vert;” borne by
the name of Dixon.
13. “ Argent, on a Pale engrailed Sable, three
Crefcents Orborne by the name of AJloley.
14. “ Ermine, on a Pale engrailed azure, three
Lion’s Heads couped Or ;” borne by the name of A-
very.
15. “ Vert, on a Pale radiant Or, a Lion ram¬
pant Sable;” borne by the right hon. James 0‘Hara,
lord Tyrawley, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is defcended from Milefius king of Spain,
by his eldeft fon Hiberius, who, with his brother He-
remon, eftablilbed a colony in Ireland. Sir Charles
0‘Hara, father to the prefent lord, was created baron
of Tyrawley by queen Anne, Jan. 10. 1706, being at
that time a lieutenant-general, and colonel of the
Vol. V.
L D R Y. 3589
royal regiment of fufileers : and the next 'year wrs ©f the
made general in Spain, where this fon, lord Tames, was Bei'd’
wounded at the battle of Almanza.
16. “ Azure, a Pallet Argent.”
17. “ Vert, an Endorfe Or.”
18. “ Argent, on two Pallets Sable, fix Crofs-
croflets fitchy Or borne by the name otBetimes, of
the county of Salop.
19. “ Argent, two Endorfes Gules, in Chief three
Mullets Sable ;” borne by the name of Vautort.
20. “ Azure, on a Pale walled with three pieces on
each fide Or, an Endorfe Sable;” borne by the name
of Sublet de Noyers, a family of dillin&ion in France.
Art. III. Of the Bend and Bend-sinister.
The Bend is an ordinary formed by turn diagonal
lines, drawn from the dexter-chief to the finifter-bafe ;
and contains the fifth part of the field in breadth, if un¬
charged ; but if charged, then the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, The bendlet, which is the half of a bend; the
coft or cotice, when two of them accompany a bend,
which is the fourth part of a bend ; and the riband, the
moiety of a coft, or the eighth part of the field.
There is alfo the bend-finifter, which is of the fame
breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way: this
is fubdivided into a fcarpe, which is the half of the
bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of
the bend, but does not extend itfelf to the extremi¬
ties of the field, there being part of it feen at both
ends. See the examples, fig. vii.
Ex. 1. “ Argent, a Bend wavy Sable;” borne by
the right hon. John Wallop, earl of Portfmouth, &c. CXLV1,
This noble earl is defcended from the Wallops of Hamp-
fhire, a Saxon family, who were poflefled of lands
to a confiderable value in the county at the time of the
conqueft.
2. “ Cheeky Or, and Azure, a Bend Ermine;”
borne by the right hon. John Ward, vifeount Dudley
and Ward, &c. The anceftors of this noble lord were
anciently of the county of Norfolk, of which was Si¬
mon Ward, who had large pofieffions in the reign of
Edward I. and was in France and Scotland in the
reigns of king Edward IT. and III.
3. “ Azure, a Bend engrailed Argent, between
two Cotices Or;” borne by the right hon. Matthew
Fortefcne, lord Fortefcue, as alfo by the right hon.
Hugh Fortefcue-Aland, baron Fortefcue, in the king¬
dom of Ireland, this Jaft nobleman bearing a cfefcent
in his arms for difference. The family of Fortefcue is
defcended from Sir Richard le Forte, a perfon of ex¬
traordinary ftrength and courage, who accompanied
William duke of Normandy in his invafion of Eng¬
land ; and bearing a ftrong fhield before the duke, at
the battle of Hoftings, had three horfes killed under
him, and from that fignal event the name and motto
of the family were affumed; for the Latin word feu-
tum, or the old French word efeue (a Jhield) being ad¬
ded to forte (Jlrong), compofe their name; and the
motto is, Forte feutum falus ducum.
4. “ Sable, a Bend Argent between two Cotices
indented Or;” borne by the name of French.
5. “ Paly of fix Or and Sable, a Bend counter-
changed ;” borne by the right hon. Frederick Calvert,
baron Baltimore. The original of this family is from
an ancieqt and noble houfe of that furname in the earl-
20 N dom
359° HERA
Of the dom of Flankers, whereof Sir George Calvert, knight,
Bend, &c. among other honourable, employments, was fecretary
of flate to king James I. by whom he was created a
baron, Feb. 20. 1624, and from whom he had a grant
to him, and his heirs, of the province of Maryland and
Avalon in America.
6. “ Party per Bend crenelle Argent and Gules
borne by the right hon. Edmund Boyle, earl of Cork
and Orrery, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is faid to be descended from Sir Philip
Boyle, a knight of Arragon, who, in the reign of
king Henry VI. tilted at a tournament with Sir Jo-
feph Altley, knight of the Garter.
7. “ Argent, three Bendlets enhanfed Gules,”
as the EnglHh exprefs it, but the phrafe enhanfed
is ufed by no other nation. The proper blazon of
this arms is, Parted per bend, ift bendy of fix gules,
and argent; 2d of the lad. Borne by the righ^ hon.
William Byron, lord Byron. From Doomfday-book
it appears, that this family was pofleffed of numerous
manors and lands in the reign of the Conqueror; and
that Sir John Byron, one of his lordfhip’s ancedors,
attended king Edward III. in his wars in France.
8. “ Ermine, a Bend voided Gules;” borne by the
name of Ireton.
9. “ Argent three Bendlets wavy Azure;” borne
by the name of Wilbraham.
1 o. “ Bendy of fix pieces Argent and Azure”. Ob-
ferve, that when the fhield is filled with an equal num¬
ber of bendlets of metal and colour, it is called bendy ;
but if the number of them is unequal, they are to be
blazoned by the name bendlets, and their number fpe-
eified.
11. “ Party per Bend Azure and Argent, two
Bendlets engrailed counterchanged”; borne by the
name of Frenes.
12. “ Quarterly, Or and Gules, a Bend over-all
Vair;” borne by his grace Lionel Cranfield Sackville,
duke of Dorfet and earl of Middlefex, &c. The an-
ceftors of this family were lords of the town and feig-
niory of Sackville in Normandy, and came over with
the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066.
13. ' “ Gules on a Bend Argent, three Trefoils
flipped proper ;” borne by the right hon. George Wil¬
liam Flervey, earl of Briftol, &c. This noble lord
derives his pedigree from Robert Fitz-Hervey, a
younger fon of Hervey duke of Orleans, who came
over from France with William the Conqueror.
14. “ Argent, on a bend Gules cotifed Sable,
three pairs of Wings conjoined of the firltborne
by the right hon. Richard Wingfield, vifcount Powers-
court, in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble lord
is denominated from the manor of Wingfield in Suf¬
folk, where they had a feat before the Norman con-
queft, called Wingfield-cajlle.
15. “ Gules, on aBendcontre Ermine cotifed Or,
three Boars Heads couped Argent;” borne by the
right hon. George Edgcumbe, lord Edgcumbe, &c.
The anceftors of this noble lord received their name
from the rhanor of Edgcumbe in Devonfliire. One
of this lord’s anceftors was Sir Richard Edgcumbe,
who came over to England with the earl of Rich¬
mond, having a great (hare in the vi&ory he obtained
over king Richard III. at Bofworth, by which the
earl made his way to the throne of England.
L D R Y. Chap. TIT.
16. “ Argent, a Bend-finifter Gules.” The Fefs
17. “ Or, a Bendlet Gules.” and Bar.
18. “ Argent, a Ribband Gules.—The name of ~ “
this bearing correfponds well with its form, being
both long and narrow, which is the (liape of a rib¬
band.
19. “ Azure, a Scarpe Or.”—-This bearing, as
Guillim obferves, is that kind of ornament called
now a-days a Scarf, which is nfed by officers on
duty, and ufually worn after the fame manner.
20. This contains three Batons. The firft is
compony ermine and azure ; fet over the royal arms,
for his grace William Fitzroy duke of Cleveland. The
fecond is compony argent and azure; fet over the royal
arms, for his grace Auguftus Henry Fitzroy, duke of
Grafton. The third is Gules, charged with three
rofes argent, feeded and barbed proper; fet over the
royal arms, for his grace George Beauclerk, duke of
St Albans. The grandfathers of thefe noble dukes
being natural fons of king Charles II. is what entitles
them to the royal arms.
Art. IV. Of the Fess and Bar.
The Fefs is an ordinary which is produced by two
parallel lines drawn horizontally acrofs the centre of
the field, and contains in breadth the third part there¬
of. Some Engliffi writers fay it has no diminutive,
for the bar is a diftindt ordinary of itfelf.
The Bar, according to their definition, is formed of
two lines, and contains but the fifth part of the field r
which is not the only thing wherein it differs from
the fefs ; for there may be more than one in an efcut-
cheon, placed in different parts thereof, whereas the
fefs is limited to the centre-point; but in this the
French differfrom them. The bar has two diminutives:
the barulet, which contains the half of the bar ; and
the clofet, which is the half of the barulet. When
the (hield contains a number of bars of metal and co¬
lour alternate, of even number, that is called barry of
fo many pieces, expreffing their number. See the
examples, Fig. viii.
N0 1. is “ Argent, a Fefs indented Sable ;” borne Plate
by the right hon. John Weft, earl Delawarr, &c. This CXLVf.
noble family is dtfcended from the Wefts, a great
family in the weft of England ; but in the reign of
Edward II. they appear to have been feized
of manors and lands in the county of Warwick.
Sir Thomas de Weft, knight, one of his lord-
ffiip’s anceftors, being at the battle of Creffy, and
there taking John the French king prifoner, had
granted him, for that remarkable aftion, an augmen¬
tation to his atchievement, viz. a crampette or, di-
ftinguiffied by the chape of a fword in the middle ;
the chape being given him by the faid king, as an
acknowledgment of his becoming his prifoner: his
cognizance was a rofe parted per pale, argent, and
gules; which two badges are (till borne in the at¬
chievement of the prefent lord Delawarr.
2. “ Argent, a Fefs wreathed Azure and Gules
borne by the right hon. John Carmichael, earl of
Hyndford. Of this ancient family, which is faid to
affume their furname from the lands of Carmichael,
in the county of Lanark, in Scotland, where they
ftill have their chief .eat, was Sir John Carmichael^
who accompanied Archibald, earl cf Douglas, to the
affiitance
Chap. III. HERA
The Fefs affiftance of Charles VI. of France, againft the Eng-
^nd Bar. ]|(h. ancj fignahzing his valour at the battle of Baug-
hey in April 1421, and breaking his fpear when the
French and Scots got the victory, had thereupon ad¬
ded -to his paternal coat, a dexter arm holding a
broken fpear, which is now the creft of the family.
3. “ Party per Fefs Or and Argent, a Fefs nebule
Gules borne by the name of Antc/hed.
4. “ Party per Fefs indented Or and Azure j”
borne by the name of Saunders.
5. “ Cheeky Or and Azure on a Fefs Gules, a
Crefcent argent for difference borne by the right
hon. Hugh Clifford, lord Clifford, of Chudley. This
noble lord is defeended from Walter de Clifford, of
Clifford-caffle, in the county of Hereford, who came
over into England veith the Conqueror ; of which fa¬
mily was fair Rofamond, miftrefs to king Henry II.
6. “ Argent on a Fefs Azure three Lozenges
Or borne by the right hon. Bafil Fielding, earl
of Denbigh and Defmond, &c. This noble earl is
defeended from the earls of Hapfburg, in Germany.
Geoffrey earl of Hapfburg, being oppreffed by Ro-
dolph emperor of Germany, came over into Eng¬
land, and one of his fons ferved king Henry III. in
his wars, whole anceftors laying claim to the territo¬
ries of Lauffenburg and Rhin-Filding, in Germany,
he took the name of Fielding.
7. “ Or, on a Fefs Gules, three Fleur-de-lis of the
firft borne by the name of Lennard. This is in the
firft and fourth quarters of the right hon. Thomas
Barret Lennard lord Dacre’s arms.
8. “ Ermine, on a Fefs Gules, a Lion paffant Or;”
borne by the right hon. John Proby, baron Carys-
fort, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland.
9. “ Sable, a Fefs Ermine, between three Cref-
cents Or;” borne by the right hon. George-William
Coventry, earl of Coventry, &c. This noble earl is
defeended from John Coventry, a native of the city of
Coventry, and afterwards mercer and lord mayor of
London, in the reign of Henry V.; from whom
defeended Thomas Coventry, one of thejuftices of
the court of common-pleas, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth ; whofe fon Thomas was recorder of Lon¬
don, and afterwards lord keeper of the great feal in the
the reign of king Charles I.
“ 10. Sable, a Fefs cheeky, Or and Azure, be¬
tween three Befants;” borne by the right hon. Ridge¬
way Pitt, earl and baron of Londonderry, &c.” Of
this noble family, which were anciently of Bandfort,
in the county of Dorfet, was Thomas Pitt, efq; who,
in the reign of Queen Anne, was made governor of fort
St George in the Eaff Indies, where he reiided many
years, and purchafed a diamond, which he foldtothe
king of France for 125,000!. Sterling, weighing 136
carats, and commonly known at this day by the name
of Pitt's diamond.
it. “ Or, on a Fefs Sable, between three Mufco-
vy Ducks proper, a Rofe of the Field ;” borne by the
right hon. John Bateman, vifeount Bateman, &c. Of
this noble family, which was anciently feated at Halef-
brook, near St Omers in Flanders, was Giles Bate¬
man, efq ; whofe fon w'as a merchant of London, and
was father to Sir James Bateman, knight, who, in
1712, was chofen member of parliament for Uchefter
in the county of Somerfet, and re-chofen in 1713.
L D R Y.
12. “ Sable, on a Fefs Argent, between three
Leopards paffant guardant Or, three Efcalops Gules;”
borne by the right hon. Wills Hill, earl of Hillfbo-
rough, &c. Of this family, which, in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, w’ere of note in the county of Downe,
w^as Sir Mofes Hill, who, during O’Neile’s rebellion,
was one of thofe gentlemen who affociated under the
earl of Effex to fupprefs it; and afterwards ferved un¬
der Arthur, lord Chichefter, lord deputy, and by
king James I. was appointed provoft-marihal of the
whole province of UHter in Ireland.
13. “ Gules, two Bars Or;” borne by the right
hon. Simon Harcourt, earl of Harcourt, &c. This
noble earl is defeended from the Harcourts of Norman¬
dy, who took their name from a place called Harcourt,
in that province, where the family ufually refided.
Gervaife, count de Harcourt, with his two fons Jef¬
frey and Arnold, came over with the conqueror, when
he invaded England, in 1066.
14. “ Ermine, two Bars Gules;” borne by the
right hon. Thomas Nugent, earl of Weftmeath, and
baron Delvin.
15. “ Argent, two Bars indented Sable;” borne
by the right hon. Godart Ginkle, earl.of Athlone.
Godart, who was the lirft earl, wras defeended of a
very ancient family in the united provinces of Holland,
where he was baron de Reede and Ginkle, &c. In
1691, he was a lieutenant-general of king William’s
forces in Ireland; w'here, in June the fame year, he took
Ballymore for the Englifh ; and, in July following, the
Irilh town of Athlone, which laft exploit is one of the
greatett recorded in hiftory.
16. “ Argent, three Bars gemels Gules;” borne
by the right hon. Richard Barry, earl of Barrymore,
&c. This noble family, who have been renowned for
their loyalty and valour, are faid to derive their fur-
name from the ifland of Barry, in the county of Gla¬
morgan, in Wales; and from their riches and eftates
have been called by the people Barrymore, or the
Great Barry.
17. “ Or, a Fefs-couped Gules, between two Lions
paffant Sable;” borne by the right hon. Samuel Ma-
(ham, lord Mafham, &c. This noble lord is defeend¬
ed from Sir John Maftram, who flourilhed in the reign
of king Henry VI. and was buried at Thorneham,
in the county of Suffolk, in 1455.
18. “ Argent, a Lion rampant guardant Gules,
debruifed by a Fefs Azure, between three Etoiles if-
fuing out of as many Crefcents of the fecond ;” borne
by the right hon. Robert Dillon, earl of Rofcom-
mon, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble
family is derived from Logan, furnamed Dilune or
Delion, which fignifies brave and valiant, to whom the
duke of Aquitaine gave his daughter in marriage, in
whofe right, after her father’s death, he became prince
and fovereign of Aquitaine, which continued in his
pofterity till Henry II. married Alionora, daughter
and heir to William V. duke of Aquitaine, and about
1172 obtained that principality by fuperior force;
and, to prevent any ditturbance, brought Sir Henry
Delion or Dillon, and his brother Thomas, then in¬
fants, to England, their father being fain.
19. “ Or, two Bars Azure, a Chief quarterly of
the fecond and Gules, the iff and 4th charged each
with two Fleur-de-lis of France; the 2d and 3d with
20 N 2 a
3591
The Fvfs
and Bar.
3592 HERA
Of the a Lion of England borne by his grace John Man-
[Cheveron. ners> duke of Rutland, marquis of Granby, &c.
“ " This chief was anciently Gults ; and the charge there¬
on is an honorary augmentation, (hewing his grace’s
defcent from the blood royal of king Edward IV.
20. “ Barry of ten pieces Argent and Azure, over
all fix Efcutcheons; 3, 2, 1, Sable, each charged
with a Lion rampant of the firft, armed, and lan-
gued Gules, a Crefcent for difference borne by the
right hon. James Cecil, earl of Salifbury, &c. This
noble earl is defcended from the famous William Cecil
lord Burleigh, ftatefman in the reigns of Edward VI.
and Elizabeth. This great man left two fons, Thomas
and Robert, who were both made earls in one day,
May 4. 1603. Robert, the younger fon, ancef-
tor of the prefent noble lord, vras created earl of
Salifbury in the morning ; and Thomas, the eldeft,
earl of Exeter in the afternoon.
Art. V. Of the Cheveron.
The Cheveron, which reprefents two rafters of a
houfe well jointed together, or a pair of compafies
half open, takes up the fifth part of the field with the
Englifh, but the French give it the third. Its dimi¬
nutives are, The cheveronel, which contains the half of
a cheveron ; and the couple-clofe, which is the half
of a cheveronel, that is, its breadth is but the fourth
part of a cheveron. Leigh obferves, that this lad
diminutive is never borne but in pairs, or with a che¬
veron between two of them. The French have but
one diminution of this ordinary called Etaye, contain¬
ing the third part of its breadth.
Examples of cheverons are given in fig. ix. viz.
Plate 1. “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules between three
CXLVI. Torteaux borne by the right hon. Bennet Sher-
rard, earl of Harborough, &c. This noble earl is
lineally defcended from Scherard, who was poffeffed
of manors and lands to a great value in the counties
of Cheftiire and Lancafhire in the reign of William
the Conqueror. Geoffrey, another of this earl’s an-
ceftors, was three times fheriff of Rutlandfiiire, in the
reigns of king Edward IV. and king .Richard III.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Etoiles Ar¬
gent borne by the right hon. Marmaduke Lang-
dale, lord Langdale. This noble lord is defcended
from the Langdales of Yorkftiire, who refided at the
town of Langdale, from whence they took their name,
in the reign of king John ; but his anceftor, who
makes the greateft figure in hiitory, is Sir Marma¬
duke Langdale, who raifed forces in the north of Eng¬
land in defence of king Charles I. was victorious in
numberlefs battles and fieges, and when his Majefty,
by the united forces of England and Scotland, was at
length overpowered, he attended king Charles II. in
his exile, and returned to England with his Majefty
at the reftoration.
3. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Leopards
Heads Or;” borne by the right hon. William Went¬
worth, earl of Strafford, &c. All genealogifts agree,
that the name of Wentworth is of Saxon original, and
taken from the manor of Wentworth in Yorkfhire,
where, in the reign of William the Conqueror, lived
Reginald de Wenteworde, as it is fpelt in doomfday-
book.
4. u Argent, a Cheveron between three Grif-
L D R Y. Chap. III.
fons paffant Sable, a Crefcent for difference;” borne Of the
by the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of Ailesford, c!ievenirl
&c. This family is defcended from Herbert Fitz- "
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and chamberlain to king
Henry I. They took the name of Finch in the reign
of king Edward I. One of the anceftors of the pre¬
fent earl was the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of
Nottingham, who was conftituted lord high-chancel¬
lor of England in 1675 ; and lord high-fteward on the
trials of Philip earl of Pembroke, and William vifeount
Stafford, in 1680.
5. “ Azure, a Cheveron Ermine, between three
Efcalops Argent borne by the right hon. George
Townftiend, vifeount Townlhend, &c. This family
is of Norman extra&ion, and came into England a-
bout the time of the conqueft. Charles, lord vifeount
Townfhend, grandfather of the prefent vifeount, was
appointed principal fecretary of ftate in the reign of
king George I. in 1720, and continued fo to the end
of his majefty’s reign; when, upon refigning thefeals,
they were returned to him again by his late majefty
king George II. who continued him in that honour¬
able office to the year 1730.
6. “ Azure, a Cheveron between three Mullets
Orborne by the right hon. John Chetwind, vif¬
eount Chetwind, See. of the kingdom of Ireland. Of
this family, which hath been of great antiquity in the
county of Salop, taking their furname from Chetwynd
in that county, was Adam de Chetwynd, who married
Agnes daughter of John lord Lovel, baron of Dock-
inges, and lord of Minder Lovel in Oxfordftiire ; and
by her had iffue Sir John de Chetwynd, who, in the
37th of Henry III. had a effarter of free-warren thro*
all his demefne in the counties of Salop, Stafford, and
Warwick.
7. “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules, between three fquare
Buckles Sable borne by the right hon. Matthew
Ducie-Morton, lord Ducie, &c. This noble lord is
defcended from the Ducies in Normandy. After they
came into England, king Edward I. conferred on
them the lordftiip of Morton in Staffordfhire, and fe-
veral other lordftiips and manors, which the family en¬
joyed for many years. Sir Robert Ducie, one of his
lordfhip’s anceftors, was lord-mayor of London in the
reign of king Charles I. and though he lent his ma-
jefty L. 80,000, which was loft by the king’s being
driven out of London, he died, however, worth
L. 400,000.
8. “ Argent, a Cheveron Cheeky Gules, and of
the Field, between three Bugle-horns ftrung Sable,
garniffied of the feeondborne by the right hon.
lord Hugh Semple, lord Semple. The principal fa¬
mily of this name was Semple of Elliotfton in Ren¬
frew, where they had large poffeffions and offices, as
ftewards and bailiffs under the family of Stewart, pro¬
prietors of that county before they came to the crown.
The firft lord Semple was Sir Robert, who, being much
in favour with king James IV. was by him created
lord Semple in 1489.
9. “ Argent, a Cheveron engrailed between three
Lions paffant Sable borne by the right hon. and the
reverend Philip Smithe, vifeount Strangford. One of
this lord’s anceftors was John Smithe, efq ; who ac¬
quired a confiderable eftate whilft he was farmer of the
cuftoms in the reign of Henry VIII. He left two
Chap. III. HERA
Of the {bns, John and Sir Thoraas, which laft was Tent am-
Cheveron. lja{fa[]or by king James L to the emprefs of Rufiia.
10. “ Quarterly Argent and Azure, a Cheveron
engrailed counter-changedborne by the name of
Chamber.
* ii. “ Party per Cheveron engrailed Gules and Ar¬
gent, three Talbots Heads erafed counter-changed
borne by the right hon. Anthony Duncombe, lord
Feverlham, &c. His lordihip is defeended from the
Duncombes of Barley-end in Buckinghamfhire. Sir
Charles Duncombe, uncle to the prefent lord, was
lord-mayor of London in 1709; and this nobleman was
created lord Feverlham and baron of Dowton in Wilt-
ihire, June 23, 1744.
12. “ Paly of fix, Argent and Gules, on a Che¬
veron Azure, three Crofs-crollets Orborne by the
right hon. George Carpenter, baron Carpenter, of Kil-
laghy in Ireland. This ancient and noble family are of
great antiquity in the county of Hereford, and have
been lords of the manor of the Home in the parilh
of Delwyn, near Weobly, for above 300 years. George,
the firlllord Carpenter, was fo created May 4. 1719.
13. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Befants, a Bay Leaf Properborne by the right
hon. James Hope, earl of Hopeton, &c. This noble
family is defeended from Henry Hope, a native of
Holland, who, about two centuries ago, came over
and fettled in Scotland. Charles Hope, efq; father
of the prefent earl, was created an earl by queen Anne,
April 15. 1703.
14. “ Vert, on a Cheveron between three Unicorns
Heads erafed Argent, horned and maned Or, three
Mullets Sableborne by the name of /Per, being the
1 ft and 4th quarters in the arms of his grace John Ker,
duke of Roxburgh, &c. This ancient family is faid
to come from Normandy. John Ker, marquis of
Beaumont and Cesford, the firft duke of Roxburgh,
was fo created April 27. 1707.
15. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Bears Heads couped Argent, muzzled Gules, a Roe¬
buck’s Head erafed, between two Hands holding
Daggers all proper borne by the right hon. Do¬
nald Mackay, lord Reay. This family is faid to de¬
rive their defeent from Alexander, a younger fon of
Ochonacker, who, about the end of the twelfth cen¬
tury, came from Ireland ; and the fourth in defeent
from him was Donald of Strathnavern, whofe fon was
named T More: and from him began the furname
of Mac T, Mackie, or Mackay. Donald, the. firft
lord of this family, was created baronet in 1625, and
on June 20. 1628,- was created baron Reay of the
county of Caithnefs, by Charles I.
16. “ Ermine, on a Cheveron Azure, three Foxes
Heads erafed Or, and in a Canton of the fecond a
Fleur-de-lis of the third;” borne by the right hon.
Stephen Fox, earl of Ilchefter, &c. Of the family
of Fox there have been many perfons of note living in
the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, Wilts, and Hants,
particularly Richard Fox, bilhop of Winchefter. His
lordfhip was created lord Ilchefter and baron Strange-
ways, May 11. 1741, i4Geo. II. and earl of Ilche¬
fter in June 1756.
17. “ Or, two Cheve'ronels Gules;” borne by the
right hon. John Monfon, lord Monfon. This noble
lord is defeended from John Monfon, who flourilhed in
L D R Y. 3593
the reign of king Edward III. from whom defeended Of
another John, who attended king Henry V. in his ttie Cro^;
wars in France. Sir John Monfon, bart. father of
the prefent lord, was created lord Monfon, May 28,
1728.
18. “ Or, on a Fefs, between two Cheveronels
Sable, three CrOfs-croflets of the firft ;” borne by the
right hon. George Walpole, earl of Orford, &c. This
family took their name from Walpole in Norfolk,
where they refided before the conqueft. Sir Robert
Walpole was, in king George II.’s reign, elected
knight of the garter in 1726, and created earl of Or¬
ford, February 9. 1741-2.
19. “ Azure, three Cheveronels interlaced Or,
and a Chief of the laft borne by the name of Fitz-
Hugh.
“ 19. Argent, three Cheveronels Gules, in Chief a
Label Azureborne by the right hon. William
Wildman Barrington, vifeount Barrington, &c. This
family is of Norman extraction; in which duchy, whillt
it continued annexed to the Englifh crown, there were
to Be feen the remains of a caftle bearing the name of
Chute or Shute, and formerly in the family, with o-
ther monuments in feveral towns of that dutchy. John
Shute, the late vifeount Barrington, was in 1708 made
a commiffioner of the cuftoms, and fucceeded to the
eftates of Francis Barrington, Efq; and of John Wild¬
man of the county of Berks, who made him their heir;
and, in purfuance of the will of the former, he took
the name and arms of Barrington. On June 11, 1720,
he was created vifeount Barrington, with a reverfio-
nary grant 'of the office of mailer of the rolls in Ire¬
land.
Art. VI. Of the Cross.
The Crofs is an ordinary formed by the meeting of
two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in the
fefs-point, where they make four right-angles; the
lines are not drawn throughout, but difeontinued the
breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth
part of the field when not charged; but if charged,
then the third. It is borne as well engrailed, in¬
dented, &c. as plain.
There is fo great a variety of croffes ufed in he¬
raldry, that it would be a very difficult talk to treat
of them all. Guillim has mentioned 39 different forts;
De la Columbiere, 72 ; Leigh, 46; and Upton declares
he dares not afeertain all the various croffes borne in
arms, for that they are almoft innumerable: there¬
fore, as all their forms cannot be expeded here, we
will only take notice of fuch as are mqft commonly
feen at prefent in coats-of-arms. See Fig. x.
The firft is “ Quarterly, Ermine and Azure, a p]ate
Crofs Or;” borne by his grace Thomas Olborne duke CXLVT.
of Leeds, &c. This noble duke is defeended from
the honourable family of the Olbornes of Alhford, in
the county of Kent; Sir Thomas Ofborne, the grand¬
father to the prefent duke, was advanced to the peer¬
age by king Charles II.
2. “ Gules, a Crofs engrailed Argent, a Lozenge
in the dexter-chief of the fecond;” borne by the right
hon. Edward Leigh, lord Leigh. This family took
their furname from the town of High-Leigh in Che-
Ihire, where they refided before the Norman Conqueft.
Sir Thomas Leigh, the firll lord of this family, was
created
3594
Of
the Crofs.
HERA
created baron Leigh of Stohely, by king Charles I.
on July r, 1643.
3. “ Gules, a Crofs Argent fretty Azure;” borne
by the right hon. Nicholas Taaffe, vifcount Taaffe, of
Corran, &c. in Ireland. Of this noble and ancient
family was Richard Taaffe, who lived in 1282; as in
1306 did John Taaffe, who was archbifhop of Ar¬
magh; and, in 1479, the order of the Garter being
eftablifhed in Ireland, Sir Nicholas Taaffe was one of
the firft members ; and John, his fon and heir, was
created a baron and vifcount by Charles I. Auguft 1,
1628.
4. “ Sable, a Crofs raguly Orborne by the name
of Stoway.
5. “ Argent, on' a Crofs Sable a Leopard’s-face
Orborne by his grace Henry Brydges duke of
Chandos, &c. The anceftors of this noble family took
their name from the city of Bruges in Flanders; and
one of them came over with William the Conqueror,
and had a confiderable fhare in the vi&ory obtained
near Haftings in Suffex, 1066. James, the father of
the prefent duke, was created vifcount Wilton and
earl of Caernarvon, O&ober 19, 1714; and marquis
of Cearnarvon and duke of Chandos,   30, 17 19-
6. “ Or, on a Crofs Sable, a patriarchal Crofs of
the Field 5” borne by the right hon. Thomas Vefey,
baron of Knapton in the kingdom of Ireland. The
truly noble family of Vefcey or Vefey, derives its ori¬
gin from Charles the Great, king of France, and em¬
peror of the weft, who died at Aix-la-Chapelle in
Germany, Jan. 28, 814. His lordfliip’s father was
created a peer April 10, 1750.
7. “ Argent, on a Crofs Gules, five Efcalops Or;”
borne by the right hon. William Villiers earl of Jer-
fey, &c. This noble earl is defcended from the fa¬
mily of Villiers in Normandy, fome whom came over
to England with the Conqueror; feveral manors and
lands in England being foon after granted to Pagan
de Villiers, one of this earl’s anceftors. The firft peer
of this family was created a baron and vifcount, March
20, 1690.
8. “ Sable, on a Crofs within a Bordure engrailed
Or, five Pellets;” borne by the right hon. Francis
Greville, earl of Brooke and Warwick, &c. The an¬
ceftors of this noble family are of Norman extradlion,
and came over with William the Conqueror, who con¬
ferred manors and land on them in England, of a con¬
fiderable value; and at length they obtained the go¬
vernment of the caftle of Warwick, the prefent feat of
the family. Sir Fulke, the firft peer of this family,
was created baron Brooke by king James I. Jan. 9,
1620.
9. ‘‘ Argent, a Crofs botonny Sable;” borne by the
name of Winwood.
10. “ Or, a Crofs-croflet Gulesborne by the name
of Taddington.
11. “ Azure, a Crofs potent fitchy Or.” This en-
fign is faid to have been borne by Ethelred king of
the Weft-Saxons; andcroffesof this fort are frequently
met with in coats-of-arms.
12. “ Party per pale, Gules and Argent; a Crofs
potent quadrate in the centre, between fourCroffes pat-
tee counter-changed;” the arms of the epifcopal fee
of Litchfield and Coventry. This fee was originally
fixed at Litchfield; from thence removed to Chefter,
L D R Y. Chap. III.
and from both to Coventry. It contains the whole Of
county of Stafford, except two_parifties; all Derby- thg Crofs.
ftiire; the better part of Warwickfiiire, and near half
Shropftiire ; divided into the four archdeaconries of
Coventry, Stafford, Derby, and Salop. The pariihes
are 557 in number ; but, including chapels, they a#
mount to 643.
13. “ Azure, a Crofs moline Argent;” borne by
his grace William Henry Bentick, duke of Portland,
&c. This noble duke is defcended from a very an¬
cient and diftinguifhed family in the United Provinces
of Holland, of which was William Bentick, Efq. who,
in his youth was page of honour to William prince of
Orange, afterwards William III. king of Great Bri¬
tain, and, on the acceflion of William and his con-
fort, was made groom of the ftole, privy-purfe to
his majefty, lieutenant-general of his majefty’s ar¬
my, &c. and alfo created baron of Cirencefter, vif¬
count Woodftock, and earl of Portland, April 19.
1689.
14. “ Argent, a Crofs patonce Sableborne by
the name of Rice.
15. “ Sable, a Crofs patee Argent;” borne by
the name of Maphfden.
16. “ Azure, a Crofs flowery Or;” borne by the
name of Cheney.—This is faid to have alfo been the
arms of Edwine, the firft Chriftian king of Northum¬
berland.
17. “ Argent, fix Crofs croflets fitchy 3, 2, 1,
Sable, on a Chief Azure, two Mullets pierced Or ;”
borne by his grace Henry Clinton, duke of New-
caftle, &c. This noble family is defcended from Jef¬
frey de Clinton, lord chamberlain and treafurer to
king Henry I. grandfon to William de Tankerville,
chamberlain of Normandy; from whom defcended
William de Clinton, chief juftice of Chefter, governor
of Dover caftle, lord Warden pf the king’s forefts
fouth of Trent. Edward, lord Clinton, another.of
this noble earl’s anceftors, was conftituted lord high-
admiral of England for life, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, who created him earl of Lincoln, May 4.
15 72.
18. “ Gules, a Cheveron between ten Croffes pa¬
tee, fix above and four below, Argentborne by the
right hon. Frederick-Auguftus Berkely, earl of Ber¬
keley, &c. This noble family is defcended from Ro¬
bert F’itz-Harding, who obtained a grant of Berke-
ley-caftle in Gloucerterfliire, which the family full in¬
herits, and from whence they obtained the furname of
Berkeley, from Henry duke of Normandy, afterwards
king of England; the faid Robert Fitz-Hardirg
was defcended from the royal line of the kings of
Denmark.
19. “ Azure, three Mullets Or, accompanied with
feven Crofs-croflets fitchy Argent, three in Chief, one
in Fefs, two in Flanks, and the laft in Bafe ;” borne
by the right hon. James Somerville, lord Somerville.
The firft of this name on record is Sir Walter de
Somerville, lord of Wichnore, in the county of Staf¬
ford, who came to England with William the Con¬
queror. About the beginning of the reign of king
William, in 1x70, the Somervilles were poffeffed of a
fair eftate in the county of Lanark and elfewhere.
20. “ -Gules, three Croffes recercelee, voided Or,
a Chief vairy ermine and centre ermine ;” borne by
the
Chap. III. HERA
Of the right hon. Jnhn-Peyto Verney, baron Willough-
the Saltier, by Broke. This noble lord is defcended from
William de Vernai, who flourilhed in the reign of
king Henry I. 1419.
Art. VII. Of the Saltier.
The Saltier, which is formed by the bend and bend-
finiiter crofling each other in right angles, as the in-
terfefling of the pale and fefs forms the crofs, con¬
tains the fifth part of the field, but if charged then
the third. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently
called a St Andrew's crofs. It may, like the others,
be borne engrailed, wavy, &c. as alfo between charges
or charged with any thing. See examples, fig. xi.
Plate N° t- is Argent, a Saltier Gules;” borne by
CXLVII. his grace James Fitz-Gerald, duke of Leinfter, &c.
This noble lord is defcendedfromOtho, or Other, a rich
and powerful lord in the time of king Alfred, de¬
fcended from the dukes of Tufcany ; who palling from
Florence into Normandy, and thence into England,
there the family flpurifhed, until Richard Strongbow,
earl of Pembroke, their kinfman, engaged them to
partake in his expedition to Ireland, in which Mau¬
rice Fitz-Gerald embarked, and was one of the prin¬
cipal conquerors of that kingdom, for which he was
rewarded with a great eftate in lands in the province of
Leinfter, and particularly the barony of Offaley, and
the eaftle of Wicklow; and died, covered with ho¬
nours, in the year 11:77, 24 Henry II.
2. “ Gules, a Saltier Argent, between twelve
Crofs croflets Or ;” borne by the right hon. Other-
Lewis Windfor Flickman, earl of Plymouth, &c.
This noble earl is defcended from Robert Fitz-Hick¬
man, lord of the manor of Bloxham, Oxfordlhire, in
the 56 Hen. III. 1272; and he is maternally de¬
fcended from the noble family of the Windfors, who
were barons of the realm at the time of the conqueft.
3. ‘‘ Vert, a Saltier wavy Ermine;” borne by the
name of Wakeman of Beckford, in Gloucefterfhire.
4. “ Ermine, a Saltier counter-compony Or and
Gules;’’ borne by the name of Ulmjion.
5. “ Argent, a Saltier Azure with a Bezant in
the centreborne by the right hon. Philip Yorke,
earl of Hardwicke, &c. He was in October 1733
conftituted lord chief-juftice of the king’s bench, and
November 23, in the fame year, created baron Hard¬
wicke of Hardwicke.
6. 5* Argent on a Saltier Gules an Efcallop Or;”
the arms of the biftioprick of Rochefter— This Dio-
cefe, the leaft in England, comprehends only a fmall
part of Kent, in which there are 150 churches and
chapels ; and the two parilhes in Ifelham in Cam-
bridgelhire, and Frekenham in Suffolk. It has only
one archdeacon, that of Rochefter. For many years
it was in the immediate patronage of the archbifhop
of Canterbury.
7. “ Party per Saltier, Azure and Argent, on a
Saltier Gules a Crefcent of the fecond for dift'erence
quartered by the right hon. William Hall Gage, vif-
count Gage, of Caftle-Ifland in Ireland. This noble
familyisof Norman extra&ion, and derives defcent from
de Gaga or Gage, who attended William I. in his ex¬
pedition to England; and, after the conqueft thereof,
was rewarded with large grants of lands in the forefl
of Dean, and county of Gloucefter, near which foreft
L D R Y.
he fixed his refidence, by building a feat at Clerenwell,
in the fame place where the houfe of Gage now {lands: 11
he alfo built a great houfe in the town of Cirencefter, ~
at which place he died, and was buried in the abbey
there. Sir Thomas Gage, the eighth baronet, and fa¬
ther to the prefent lord Gage, was created baron of
Caftle-Bar, and vifcount Gage, 1721.
8. “ Gules, on a Saltier Argent, a Rofie of the firfl
barbed and feeded proper;” borne by the right hon.
George Neville, lord Abergavenny, premier baron of
England.
9. “ Or, on a Saltier Azure, nine Lozenges of
the firft;” the paternal arms of the right hon. John
Dalrymple, earl of Stair, &c. Of this family, which
took their furname from the barony of Dalrymple, ly¬
ing on the river Dun in Ayrfhire, Scotland, was Adam
de Dalrymple, who lived in the reign of Alexander III.
10. “ Argent, on a Saltier engrailed Sable, nine
Annulets Or ;” borne by the name of Leak.
11. “ Gules, a Saltier between four Crefcents Or;”
borne as the 2d and 3d quarters in the coat-of-arms
of the right hon. Charles Kinnaird, lord Kinnaird.
George Kinnaird, efq; one of the prefient lord’s an-
ceftors, being of great fervice to king Charles II. du¬
ring the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell, he was by that
prince, at his reftoration, made one of the privy-coun¬
cil; and December 28. 1682, created a baron.
12. “ Argent, a Saltier engrailed between four Ro-
fes Gules,” for Lennox; and borne as id and 4th
quarters in the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Francis
Napier, lord Napier. This family is faid to be de¬
fcended from the ancient thanes or ftewards of Len¬
nox in Scotland, but took their furname of Napier
from the following event. King David II. in his wars
with the Englilh, about the year 1344, convocating
his fubjefts to battle, the ear! of Lennox fent his fe¬
cond fon Donald, with fuch forces as his duty obliged
him ; and, coming to an engagement, where the Scots
gave ground, this Donald, taking his father’s ftandard
from the bearer, and valiantly charging the enemy with
the Lennox men, the fortune of the battle changed,
and they obtained the vi&ory; whereupon every one
advancing, and reporting their afts, as thecuftom was,
the king declared they had all behaved valiantly, but
that there was one among them who had na pier, that
is, no equal; upon which the faid Donald took the
name of Napier, and had, in reward for his good fer-
vices, the lands of Gosfield, and other eftates in the
county of Fife.
13. “ Gules, a Saltier Or, furmounted of another
Vert,” for the name of Andrews; and borne by Sir
William Andrews, bart. of Denton in Northampton-
(hire, who is defcended from Sir Robert Andrews of
Normandy, knight, who came into England with Wil¬
liam the Conqueror. Sir William Andrews, the firft
baronet of this family, was created December 11,
1641.
14. “ Azure, a Saltier quarterly quartered Or and
Argent.” The arms of the epifcopai fee of Bath and
Wells.—The diocefe of Bath and Wells contains all
Somerfetlhire, except a few churches in Briftol. And
in it there are three archdeaconries, viz. thofe of Wells,
Bath, and Taunton. The number of the pariflies is
388, though, according to fome, the total number of
the churches and chapels amounts to 503..
*5*
3595
ie Saltier.
3596 H E R A
Sub- i“ Party per Saltier Argent and Gulesj a Sal-
Qrdinarics. ^;er counter-changed.”
16. “ Party per Pale indented Argent and Sable,
a Saltier counter-changed;” borne by the name of
Scote.
17. “ Argent, three Saltiers couped and engrailed
Sable borne by the name of Benton.
18. “ Argent, a Saltier Gules, and a Chief Er¬
mine borne by the right hon. Francis Thomas
Fitz-Maurice, earl of Kerry, See. This very ancient
and noble family is a branch of the family of Kildare,
who are originally defeended from the great duke of
Tufcany, and of which was Otho, a noble baron of Italy,
whofe fon Walter, attending the Norman Conqueror
into England, was made conftable of the callle of
Windfor. Raymond, one of the prefent earl’s ancef-
tor’s, had a principal hand in the reduftion of Ireland
to the fubje&ion of Henry II. and Dermoid Mac-
Carty, king of Cork, fought his aid againft his fon
Cormac O’Lehanagh, which he undertook, and deli¬
vered the king from his rebellious fon; for which that
prince rewarded him with a large traft of land in the
county of Kerry, where he fettled his fon Maurice, who
gave his name to the county, which he called CLin
Maurice, and is enjoyed by the prefent earl of Kerry,
who is vifeount Clan Maurice. Thomas the firft earl,
and father of the laft, was the aift lord Kerry, who
was created earl, January 17. 1722.
19. “ Sable, a Saltier Argent, on a Chief Azure,
, three Fleurs-de-lis Or;” borne by the right hon. John
Fitz-Patrick, earl of Upper Offory, and baron of
Gowran in Ireland. This moft ancient and princely
family is defeended from Heremon, the firft monarch
of the Milefian race in Ireland ; and after they had
affumed the furname of Fitz-Patrick, they were for
many ages kings of Offory, in the province of Lein-
fter. John, the firft earl of this family, fucceeded his
father Richard as lord Gowran, June 9. 1727, was
created earl, Oftober 5. 1751, and died 1758.
20. “ Party per Pale Argent and GuKs, three Sal¬
tiers counter-changedborne by the name of Lane.
Thefe arms are alfo borne, without the leaft alteration,
by the name of Kingfman; for which fimilitude we can
no otherwife account, than by fuppofing there has
been fome miftake made through many tranferiptions.
Sect. II. Of Sub-Ordinaries.
Besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminu¬
tions already mentioned, there are other heraldic fi¬
gures, called fub-ordinaries, or ordinaries only, which,
by reafon of their ancient ufe in arms, are of worthy
bearing, viz. The Gyron, Franc-quarter, Canton,
Pairle, Fret, Pile, Orle, Inefcutcheon, Treffure, An¬
nulet, Flanches, Flafques, Voiders, Billet, Lozenge,
Gutts, Fufil, Ruftre, Mafcle, Papillone, and Diaper.
See Plate CXLIV. fig. i. (a.)
The Gyron is a triangular figure formed by two
lines, one drawn diagonally from one of the four an¬
gles to the centre of the Ihield, and the other is drawn
either horizontal or perpendicular, from one of the Tides
of the (hield, meeting the other line at the centre of the
field.
Gyronny is faid, when the field is covered with fix,
eight, ten, or twelve gyrons in a coat-of-arms: but a
French author would have the true gyronny to confift
L D R Y. Chap. III.
of eight pieces only, as in the fig. which reprefents the Sub-
coat-of-arms of the right hon. John Campbell, earl of 0r‘::r' ir!CS.
Loudon, &c. whofe anceftor was created baron of ~
Loudon in 1604 by James VI. and earl of the fame
place, May 12. 1633, the 9th of Charles I.
The Franc-quarter is a fquare figure, which occu¬
pies the upper dexter quarter of the (hield. It is but
rarely carried as a charge. Silveftra Petra Sanfla has
given us a few inftances of its ufe.
The -Canton is a fquare part of the efcutcheon,
fomewhat lefs than the quarter, but without any fixed
proportion. It reprefents the banner that was given
to ancient knights-bannerets, and, generally fpeaking,
pofleffes the dexter-chief-point of the ftiield, as in the
fig. ; but fhould it poffefs the finiftet-corner, which is
but feldom, it muft be blazoned a canton-firfifter.
James Coats reckons it as one of the nine honour¬
able ordinaries, contrary to moft heralds opinion. It
is added to coats-of-arms of military men as an aug¬
mentation of honour: thus John Churchill, baron of
Eymouth in Scotland, and one of the anceftors of the
prefent duke of Marlborough, being lieutenant gene¬
ral to king James II. received from him a canton ar¬
gent, charged with the red crofs of England, added to
his paternal coat, “ which is Sable, a lion rampant
Argent.”
The pairle is a figure formed by the conjunftion of
the upper half of the faltier with the under half of the
pale. '
The fret is a figure reprefenting two little flicks in
faltier, with a mafcle in the centre interlaced. J. Gib¬
bon terms it the heralds true-lovers knot. ; but many
diflent from his opinion.
Fretty is faid when the field or bearings are covered
with a fret of fix, eight, or more pieces, as in the fig.
The word fretty may be ufed without addition, when
it is of eight pieces; but if there be lefs than that
number, they muft be fpecified.
The pile, which confifts of two lines, terminating
in a point, is formed like a wedge, and is borne en¬
grailed, wavy, &c. as in the fig. It iflues in general
from the chief, and extehds towards the bafe, yet there
are fome piles borne in bend, and iffuing from other
parts of the field, as may be feen in Plate CXLVII.
fig. xii. n° 12, &c.
The Orle is an ordinary compofed of two lines go¬
ing round the Ihield, the fame way as the bordure,
but its breadth is but one half of the latter, and at
fome diftance from the brim of the {hield, as in the fig.
The Inefcutcheon is a little efcutcheon borne with¬
in the fhield ; which, according to Guillim’s opinion,
is only to be fo called when it is borne Tingle in the
fefs-point or centre; fee the fig. on Plate CXLIV.
but modern heralds, with more propriety, give the
name of inefcutcheon to fuch as are contained in
Plate CXLVII. fig. xii. n° 2. and call that which is
fixed on the fefe-point efcutcheon of pretence, which is
to contain the arms of a wife that is an heirefs, as men¬
tioned above.
The Trefure is an ordinary commonly fuppofed to
be the half of the breadth of an orle, and is generally
borne flowery and counter-flowery, as it is alfo very
often double, and fometimes treble- See the fig.
(Plate CXLIV.). This double treflure makes part
of the arms of Scotland, as marlhalled in the royal at-
chieve-
Chap. III.
HERA
Sub- chievement, Plate CXLIX. fig. xxi. n° 7. and was
Ordinaries, granted to the Scots kings by Charlemagne, being
then emperor and king of France, when he entered
in a league'with Achaius king of Scotland, to (hew
that the French lilies (hould defend and guard the
Scottiih lion.
The Annulet, or ring, is a well-known figure, and is
frequently to be found in arms through every kingdom
in Europe.
The Flanches are formed by two curved lines, or fe-
micircles, being always borne double. See the figure.
CXLIV. G. Leigh obferves, that on two fuch Flanches two
fundry coats may be borne.
The Flafques refemble the flanches, except that the
circular lines do not go fo near the centre of the field;
(fee the figure). J. Gibbon would have thefe two or¬
dinaries to be both one, and wrote flank; alleging,
that the two other names are but a corruption of this
lait: but as G. Leigh and J. Guillim make them two
diftinft and fubordinate ordinaries, we have inferted
them here as fuch.
The Voiders are by Guillim confidered as a fubordi¬
nate ordinary, and are not unlike the flafques,, (fee
the figure,) but they occupy lefs of the field.
The Billet is an oblong fquare figure, twice as long
as broad. Some heralds imagine, that they reprefent
bricks for building; others more properly confider them
as reprefenting folded paper or letters.
The Lozenge is an ordinary of four equal and pa¬
rallel fides, but not reftaugular ; two of its oppofite
angles being acute, and the other two obtufe. Its
fhape is the fame with thofe of our window-glafles, be¬
fore the fquare came fo much in fafhion. See the figure.
Gutts, or drops, are round at bottom, waved on the
fides, and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have
given them different names according to their different
tinftures : thus if they are
Yellow'l [d'Or
White j j de Eau
£fd i they are called J f fanS
Hi up ! id* T.firm
Blue
Green
Black
. de Larmes
I de Vert
ide 1
The fufil is longer than the lozenge, having its up¬
per and lower part more acute and fharp than the
other two collateral middle parts, which acutenefs is
occafioued by the (hort diftance of the fpace between
the two collateral angles ; which fpace, if the fufil is
rightly made, is always fhorter than any of the four
equal geometrical lines wherepf it is compofed. See
the fig. ibid.
The Ruftre is a lozenge pierced round in the middle;
( fee the figure.) They are called by the Germans, rut-
ten. Meneftrier gives an example of them in the arms
of Lebaret in France, argent three ruftres azure.
The Mafcle is pretty much like a lozenge, but voided
or perforated through its whole extent, (hewing a nar¬
row border, as in the figure. Authors are divided
about its refemblance ; fome taking it for the ma(h of
a net, and others for the fpots of certain flints found
about Rohan ; and as no writer has given a clearer
account in fupport of this laft opinion than Colombiere,
author of La Science Heraldique, we (hall tranferibe
it for the fatisfaftion of the curious.
“ Rohan (fays he) bears Gules, nine Mafcles Or,
Vol. V.
LORY. 3597
3, 3, 3. Opinions have varied very much about the Sub¬
original of the mafcles or maffies, as being fomewhat 0rd,naries''
like the mafhes of nets: but for my own part, having
often obferved that thofe things which are remarkable
and Angular in fome countries, have fometimes occa-
fioned the lords thereof to reprefent them in their c-
fcutcheons, and to take them for their arms, I am
of opinion, that the lords of Rohan, who, I believe,
are the firft that bore thefe figures in their arms, tho’
defeended from the ancient kings and princes of Bre¬
tagne, took them, becaufe in the mod ancient vifeounty
of Rohan, afterwards erefted into a duchy, there are
abundance of fmall flints, which being cut in two,
this figure appears on the infide of them ; as alfo the
carps, which are in the fi(h-ponds of that duchy, have
the fame mark upon their feales; which, being very
extraordinary and peculiar to that country, the an¬
cient lords of the fame had good reafon, upon obferv-
ing that wonder, to take thofe figures for their arms,
and to tranfmit them to their pofterity, giving them
the name of macles, from the latin word macula^ fig-
nifyinga fpot; whence fome of that houfe have taken
for their motto, Sine macula mad a, that is, A mafcle
without a fpot.”
Papillone is an expreflion ufed for a field or charge
that is covered with figures like the feales of a fi(h.
Monf. Baron gives as an example of it the arms of
Monti Gueules Papelone d’Argent. The proper term
for it in Englifti would he fcallop-nvork.
Diapering is faid of a field or charge (hadowed with
flourifhings or foliage with a colour a little darker than
that on which it is wrought. The Germans frequently
ufe it; but it does not enter into the blazoning or deferip-
tion of an arms, it only ferves to embelliftr the coat.
If the fore-mentioned ordinaries have any attributes,
that is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, &c.
they muff be diftinftly fpecified, after the fame manner
as the honourable ordinaries.
See examples of fub-ordinaries, &c. fig. xii. pjate
1. “ Gules, an Orle Ermine;” borne by the name cXLVTf.
of Humframville.
2. “ Argent, three Inefcuteheons Gules ;” borne
by the name of Hay* and the 2d and 3d quarters in
the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Thomas Hay, earl
of Kinnoul, &c.—The firft of the name of Hay that
bore thefe arms, got them, as Mr Nifbet obferves,
becaufe he and his two fons, after having defeated a
party of the Danes at the battle of Loncarty, anno
942, were brought to the king with their (hields all
llained with blood.
3. “ Argent, a Fret Sable;” borne by the right
hon. Lionel Talraafh, earl of Dyfart, &c. This fa¬
mily was advanced to the peerage by king Charles I.
in 1646.
4. “ Or, fretty of Gules, a Canton Ermine ;”
borne by the right hon. Henry Noel, earl of Gainf-
borough, &c. This nobleman is defeended from ——.
Noel, who came into England with William the Con¬
queror, and, in confideration of his fervices, obtained
a grant of feveral manors and lands of very great va¬
lue. Sir Edward, who was knighted by king James
on his acceffion to the throne, and created a baronet
June 29, 1611, was the firft advanced to the honour
of baron Noel, March 23, 1616.
5. “ Girony of eight Pieces Or and Sablethe
20 O ift
3598
Siib-
XDrdinaries.
HERA
ift and 4th quarters of the coat-of-arms of the right
hon. John Campbell, earl of Breadalhane, &c. This
ancient and noble family is defcended, in a regular
fucceffion, from Duncan the firft Lord Campbell,
anceftor of the family of Argyll. John, the firft earl,
in confideration of his perfonal merit, was, from a ba¬
ronet, created lord Campbell, vifcount Glenorchie,
and earl of Breadalbane, Jan. 28. 1677, by Charles II.
6. “ Lozengy Argent and Gulesborhe by the
right hon. George Fitz-Wiliiam, earl Fitz-William,
&c. This noble earl is defcended from Sir William
Fitz-William, marfhal of the army of William the
Conqueror at the battle of Haftings in Suffex, by
which vi&ory that prince made his way to the
throne.
7. “ Sable, aMafcle within a Treffure flowery Ar¬
gent borne by the name of Hoblethorne.
8. “ Gules, three Mullets Or, within a Bordure of
the latter, charged with a double Treffure flowery and
counter flow'ery with Fleurs-de-lis of the firft;” borne
by the right hon. William Sutherland, earl of Suther¬
land, &c. According to the traditional account of
fome Scottifh writers, this family, in the peerage, is
older than any in North-Britain, if not in all Europe;
the title of earl being conferred on one of their an-
ceftors in 1057.
9. “ Azure, a Pile Ermine,” for the name of
IVyche; and is quartered as firft and fourth in the coat-
of-arms of Sir Cyril Wyche, bar*, his majefly’s rdident
at the Hans-Towns.
10. “ Or, on a Pile engrailed Azure, three Crofs-
croflets fitchy of the firftborne by the name of
Rigdon.
11. “ Or, on a Pile Gules three Lions of England
between fix Fleurs-de-lis Azure;” the firft and fourth
quarters of his grace Edward Seymour, duke of So-
merfet, &c. granted him by king Henry VIII. on his
marriage with the lady Jane Seymour.
12. “ Ermine, two Piles iffuing from the dexter
and finifter fides, and meeting in Bafe Sable;” for the
name of Holies.
13. “ Argent, three Piles, one ifluing from the
Chief between the others reverfed, Sable ;” for the
name of Hulfe, and borne by Sir Edward Hulfe, bart.
of Lincoln’s-inn fields, Middlefex.
14. “ Azure, a Pile wavy bendways Or;” borne
by the name of Aldham.—There is no mention made
of its iffuing out of the dexter-corner of the efcut-
cheon, for this is fufficiently determined by the term
bend’ways.
15. “ Or, three Piles in Bend, each point enfigned
with a Fleur-de-lis Sable ;” borne by the name of
Norton.
16. “ Argent, three Piles meeting near the
point of the Bafe Asure;” borne by the name of
Bryan.
1 7. “ Party per Pale and per Bend Or and Azure
counter-changed;” borne by the name of Johnfon.—
This bearing is equal to two gyrons ; fee p. 3596.
col. 1.
18. “ Party per Pale and per Cheveron Argent and
Gules counter-changed.”
19. “ Party per Pale chappe Or and Vert coun¬
ter-changed.” This is a bearing feldom to be met
with.
L D R Y. Chap. TIT.
20. “ Party per Fefs Gules and Argent, a Pale Common
counterchanged;” borne by the name of Lavider. Charges.
Sect. III. Of Common Charges borne in
coats-of-arms.
It has been already obferved, that in all ages men
have made ufe of the reprefentation of living creatures,
and other fymbolical figns, to diftinguilh tbemfelves
in war; and that thefe marks, which were promrfeu-
oufly ufed for hieroglyphs, emblems, and perfonal de¬
vices, gave the firft notion of heraldry. But nothing
{hews the extent of human wit more, than the great
variety of thefe marks of diftin&ion, fince they are
compofed of all forts of figures, fome natural, others
artificial, and many chimerical ; in allufion, it is to
be fuppofed, to the ftate, quality, or inclination of the
bearer.
Hence it is, that the fun, moon, ftars, comets, me¬
teors, &c. have been introduced to denote glory,
grandeur, power, &c. Lions, leopards, tygers, fer-
pents, flags, &c. have been employed to fignify cou¬
rage, ftrength, prudence, fwiftnefs, &c.
The application to certain exercifes, fuch as war,
hunting, mufic, &c. has furniftied lances, fwords, pikes,
arms, fiddles, &e. Architedlure, columns, cheverons,
&c.; and the other arts feveral things that relate to
them.
Human bodies, or diftindl parts of them, alfo clothes
and ornaments, have, for fome particular intention,
found place in armory ; trees, plants, fruits, and
flowers, havelikewife been admitted to denote the rari¬
ties, advantages, and Angularities, of different coun¬
tries.
The relation of fome creatures, figures, &c. to par¬
ticular names, has been likewife a very fruitful fource
of variety in arms. Thus the family of Cbningfby
bears three coneys; of Arundel, fix fwallows; of Ur-
fon, a bear; of Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lu-
cios pifees; of Starkey, a ftork; of Caftleman, a caftle
triple-towered; of Shuttleworth, three weaver’s {but¬
tles, &c.
Befides thefe natural and artificial figures, there are
chimerical or imaginary ones ufed in heraldry, the re-
fult of fancy and caprice ; fuch as centaurs, hydras,
phenixes, griffons, dragons, &c. Which great variety
of figures (hews the impoflibility of comprehending all
common charges in a work of this nature; therefore
fuch only {hall be treated' of as are moft frequently
borne in coats-of-arms.
Art. I. Of Natural Figures borne in
coats-of-arms.
Among the multitude of natural things which are
ufed in coats-of-arms, thofe moft ufually borne are, for
the fake of brevity as well as perfpicuity, diftributed
into the following claffes, viz.
Celejlial figures; as the fun, moon, ftars, &c. and
their parts.
Effigies of men, women, &c. and their parts.
Beajls; as lions, flags, foxes, boars, &c. and
their parts.
Birds; as eagles, fwans, ftorks, pelicans, &c. and
their parts.
Fifhes; as dolphins, whales, fturgeons, trouts, &c.
and their parts.
Reptiles N
Chap.
Cclertial
Figures. ,
Plate
CXLVII.
fig. xiii.
. III. HERA
Reptiles and infefls; as tortoifes, ferpents, grafs-
hoppers, &c. and their parts.
Vegetables; as trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and
their parts.
Stones; as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c.
Thefe charges have, as well as ordinaries, divers
attributes or epithets, which exprefs their qualities,
pofitions, and difpofitions. Thus the fun is faid to be
in his glory, eclipfed, 8cc. The moon in her comple¬
ment, increfcent, &c. Animals are faid to be rampant,
paJJ'ant, &e. Birds have alfo their denominations,
fuch as clofe, difplayed, &c. Fifties are defcribcd to be
hauriant, naiatit, &c.
I. Examples of Celejlial Figures.
1. “ Azure, a Sun in his Glory;” borne by the
name of St. Clere; and is found in the ift and 4th
quarters of the coat-of-armsof the moft noble William-
Henry Ker, marquis of Lothian, &c. It is needlefs
to exprefs the colour of the fun, nothing being capable
to denote it but gold.
2. “ Azure, one Ray of the Sun, bendways Gules,
between fix Beams of that Luminary Argentborne
by the name of Aldam. There is no mention made
of their iffuing out of the dexter-corner of the efcut-
cheon; for this is implied in the term bendiuays, for the
reafon mentioned before.
3. “ Argent, five Rays of the Sun ifluing out of the
finifter-corner Gules;” borne by the name of Mudt-
Jhideler, a family of diftinftion in Franconia.
4. “ Or, a Sun eclipfed.” This bearing is feldom
to be met with, except in emblematic or hieroglyphic
figures; and might be exprefled Sable, becaufe that hue
is accidental and not natural.
5. “ Gules, the Moon in her complement Or, illu-
llrated with-all her light proper.” This is fuificient
without naming the colour, which is Argent.
6. “ Azure, a Moon decrefcent proper;” borne by
the name of Delaluna.
7. “ Gules, a Moon increfcent Or;” borne by the
name of Defcus.
8. “ Argent, a Moon in her detriment. Sable.”
This word is ufed in heraldry, to denote her being
eclipfed.
9. “ Azure, a Crefcent Argent;” borne by the
name of Lucy. This bearing is alfo ufed as a diffe¬
rence, it being afligned to the fecond fon, as before-
mentioned.
10. “ Gules, three Crefcents Argent;” borne by
the right hon. David Oliphant, lord Oliphant. A-
mongft the anceltors of this noble family was David
de Oliphant, one of thofe barons who, in 1142, ac¬
companied king David I. into England with an army,
to affift his niece Matilda againft king Stephen; but,
after raififtg the fiege of Winchefter, the faid king
David was fo clofely purfued, that, had it not been
for the Angular conduct of this brave perfon, the king
would have been taken prifoner.
u. “ Azure, a Crefcent between three Mullets
Argentborne by the right hon. John Arbuthnot,
vifcount and baron Arbuthnot. In the year x 105, the
firft of this family marrying a daughter of the family
of Oliphard, fheriff of the county of Kincardin, with
her he had the lands of Arbuthnot in that county,
irom whence he took his furname. Robert Arbuth-
L D R Y. 3599
not was the firft of this family who, for his loyalty to Effigfes of
king Charles I. was, Nov. 16. 1641, dignified with Men-
the title of baron and vifcount Arbuthnot.
12. “ Gules, a Star iffuing from between the Horns
of a Crefcent Argent.”
13. “ Azure, a Star of 16 points Argent;” borne
by the name of Huitfon.
14. “ Argent, three Mullets pierced Sable;” borne
by the name of Wollajlon.
15. “ Azure, fix Mullets 3, 2, 1, Or;” borne by
the name of Welfh.
16. “ Ermine, a Mullet of fix points Gules, pier¬
ced ;” borne by the name of Hujfenhul.—When a mul¬
let has more than five points, their number muft, in
blazoning, be always named.
17. “ Argent, a Rain bow with a Cloud at each
end proper.” This is part of the creft to the earl of
Hopeton’s coat-of-arms, which is inferted in fig. ix.
n° 13. The whole of it is a globe fplit on the top, and
above it is the rain bow, &c.
18. “ Party per Fefs crenelle Gules and Azure,
three Suns proper;” borne by the name of Pierfon.
19. “ Gules, a Mullet between three Crefcents Ar¬
gent;” borne by the name of Oliver.
20. “ Gules, a Chief Argent, on the lower part
thereof a Cloud, the Sun’s refplendent rays iffuing
throughout properborne by the name of Leefon.
II. Examples ofEffigies ofMen, ire. and their parts.
1. “ Azure, the Virgin Mary crowned, with herF. ^
Babe in her right arm, and a Sceptre in her left, all *
Or;” The coat-of-arms of the bifliopric of Salif-
bury.— This bilhop’s fee was at firft fixed at Sherborn
in Dorfetfliire; and contained all that diftridt which is
now divided into the diocefes of Salifbury, Briftol,
Wells, and Exeter. In the year 905, the diocefes of
Wells, Crediton, and St Germans (now Exeter), were
taken from it. And it was, moreover, parcelled out
into the two biftioprics of Sberborn and Wilton. The
prefent diocefe of Salilbury, or Sarum, contains all
Wiltftiire, except two parifties ; and all Berkfhire, ex¬
cepting one parifti, and part of another. There are
in k three archdeaconries, namely, of Salilbury, Wilts,
and Berks; and the number of parifh-churches and
chapels, in the whole, is about 550. It has feveral
peculiars of its own in Dorfetlhire; though in Briftol
diocefe.
2. “Azure, a Prefbyter, fitting on a Tomb-ftone,
with a Crown on his Head and Glory Or, his right
hand extended, and holding in his left an open Book
Argent, with a Sword crofs his mouth Gules.” The
coat-of-arms of the biftiopric of Chichefter. The fee
of Chichefter was anciently in the ifte of Selfey, but re¬
moved to Chichefter by Stigand. This diocefe con¬
tains the whole county of Suffex (except 22 peculiars
belonging to the archbiftiopricof Canterbury), where¬
in there are 250 parifties, and two archdeacons, thofe
of Chichefter and Lewis. Some reckon the number of
churches and chapels to be 302.
3. “ Azure, aBiftiop habited in his pontificals, fitting
on a chair of ftate, and leaning on the finifter fide
thereof, holding in his left hand a crofier, his right
being extended towards the dexter chief of the efeut-
chyon, all Or; and refting his feet on a cuftiion, Gules,
taffeled of the fecond.” The coat-of-arms of the bi-
20 O 2 Ihopric
3600 HERA
Effigies of (hopric of Clogher, In Ireland.
Men. ^ h Azure, a Bilhop habited in his pontificals,
’ holding before him, in a Pale, a Crucifix proper.”
The coat-of-arms of the bifhopric of Waterford, in
Ireland.
5. “ Or, a Man’s Leg couped at the midft. of the
thigh Azure;” borne by the name of Haddon.
6. “ Azure, three finifter Hands couped at the
wrift, and erefted Argentborne by the ancient fa¬
mily of Malmains.
7. “ Argent, three finifter Hands couped at the
wrift, and ereded Gules;” borne by the name of May¬
nard. By thefe two laft examples it appears, that dif¬
ferent coats-of-arms may be eafily made from the fame
figure or figures, by varying the colours only, with¬
out the addition of any other charge, counter-chan¬
gings, partings, &c.
8. “ Argent, a Man’s Leg erafed at the midft of
the thigh Sable;” borne by the name of Prime.
9. “ Gules, three Legs armed proper, conjoined
in the Fefs-point at the upper part of the thighs, flex¬
ed in triangle, garnifhed and fpurred Or.” This is
the coat-of-arms of the Ifle of Man ; and is quartered
by the moft noble John Murray, duke of Athole,
titular lord or king of that ifle.
10. “ Gules, three dexter Arms vambraced fefsways
in Pale proper;” borne by the name of ydrmfirong.
This coat is very well adapted to the bearer’s name,
and ferves to denote a man of excellent condudl and
valour.
11. “ Or, three Legs couped above the knee Sable;”
borne by the name of Hofy.
12. “ Vert, three dexter Arms conjoined at the
fhoulders in the Fefs-point, and flexed in triangle Or,
with fifts denched Argent;” borne by the name of
Tremain.
13. “ Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, within two
equilateral triangles interlaced Sableborne by the
name of Villages^ a family of diftinftion in Provence.
14. “ Azure, a finifter Arm, iffuing out of the
dexter-chief, and extended towards the finifter-bafe
Argent.”
15. “ Argent, a dexter Hand couped at the wrift
and erefted, within a Bordure engrailed Sable;” borne
by the name of Manley.
16. “ Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, enfigned
with a Crown Or, and on a Chief Azure, three Mul¬
lets of the firft.” The paternal coat of the name of
Douglas, and quartered in the arms of the dukes of
Hamilton and Queenfbury ; as alfo in thofe of the
earls of Morton and March, and the Lord Mor-
dington.
17. “ Gules, a Saracen’s Head affrontee erafed at
the neck Argent, environed about the temples with a
wreath of the fecond and Sable ;” borne by the name
of Mergith.
18. “ Argent, three Blackamoors Heads couped
proper, banded about the head Argent and Gules;”
borne by the name of Tanner.
19. “ Gules, three Befants each charged with a
man's face affrontee proper;” borne by the name of
Gamin.
20. “ Or, a Blackamoor’s Head couped proper,
banded about the Head Argent;” borne by the name
of UJloc.
L D R Y. Chap. III.
Obferve, that when half of the face, or little more, Petitions
of human figures, is feen in a field, it is then faid to be °f-Lions.
in profile ; and when the head of a man, woman, or o-
ther animal, is reprefented with a full face, then it is
termed affrontee.
III. Examples of the different Pofitions of Lions, &c.
in coats-of arms.
1. “ Or, a Lion rampant Gules;” quartered by the pjate
right hon. Hugh Percy-Smithfon, earl of Northum- CXLVIII.
berland, &c. This noble earl is defcended from the fig. xv.
family of the Smithfons of Newftiam in Yorkihire,
which appears to have been poffeffed of lands in that
county in the reign of king Richard II. His lord-
fhip, married July 18. 1740, the lady Elizabeth Sey¬
mour, only daughter of Algernon Seymour, late duke
of Somerfet, and earl of Northumberland, on whofe
death he was created earl of the fame county, Feb. 7.
1749-50, and duke of the fame county Oft. 22. 1766.
2. “ Azure, a Lion rampant-guardant Or;” borne
by the name of Fitz-Hammond.
3. “ Gules, a Lion rampant-reguardant Or;” quar¬
tered by the right hon. Charles Cadogan, lord Cado-
gan, &c. This noble lord is .defcended from Kehdlin,
prince of Powis in Wales, from whom defcended Wil¬
liam Cadwyan or Cadogan of Llanbeder, in the coun¬
ty of Pembroke, another of the anceftors of this pre-
fent lord, who was created a peer of Great Britain on
June 21. 1716.
4. “ Ermine, a Lion faliant Gules;” borne by the
name of Worley.
5. “Azure, a Lion ftatant-guardant Or;” borne by
the name of Bromfield.
6. “ Or, a Lion paffant Gules;” borne by the name
of Games.
7. “ Argent, a Lion paffant-guardant Gules,
crowned Or quartered by the right hon. James Ogil-
vy, earl of Findlater, &c.
8. Gules, a Lion fejant Argent.”
9. “ Or, a Lion rampant double-headed Azure ;”
borne by the name of Mafon.
10. “ Sable, two Lions rampant-combatant Or, armed
and langued Gules;” borne by the name of Carter.
11. “ Azure, two Lions rampant-adoffee Or.”
This coat-of-arms is faid to have been borne by A-
chilles at the fiege of Troy.
12. “ Sable, two Lioncels counter-paffant Argent,
the uppermoft towards the finifter fide of the efcut-
cheon, both collared Gules ;” borne by the name of
Glegg.—It is the natural difpofition of the lion not to
bear a rival in the field : therefore two lions cannot be
borne in one coat-of-arms, but muft be fuppofed to be
lion’s whelps, called lioncels; except when they are
parted by an ordinary, as in fig. viii. n° 17. or fo dif-
pofed as that they feem to be diftinftly feparated from
each other, as in fig. xv. n° 20. In the two foregoing exam¬
ples they are called lions, becaufe in the 10th they feem
to be ftriving for the fovereignty of the field, which
they would not do unlefs they were of full growth:
and, in the nth, they are fuppofed to reprefent two
valiant men, whofe difpute being accommodated by
the prince, are leaving the field, their pride not fuffer-
ing them to go both one way.
13. “ Argent, a Demi-lion rampant Sable ;” borne
by the name of Mervin.
14.
Plate CXLYJl.
ORDINARY'S VO.
Chap. III. HERA
Of 14. « Gules, a lion couchant between fix Crofs-
Lions, &c. crofletSj three in Chief, and as many in Bafe, Argent
for the name of Tynte; and is the firft and foui'th quar¬
ter of the arms of Sir Charles-Kemys Tynte, bart.
defied knight of the (hire for the county of Somerfet
to the four laft and prefent parliaments, colonel of the
fecond battalion of the Somerfet militia, andLL.D.
15. “ Azure, a Lion dormant Or.”
16. “ Or, out of the midft. of a Fefs Sable, a Lion
rampant-naiffant Gules borne by the name of Em-
tne. This form of blazon is peculiar to all living
things that firall be found iffuing out of the midft of
fome ordinary or other charge.
17. “ Azure, three Lioncels rampant Or;” borne
by the right hon. Richard Fienes, vifcount and baron
Saye and Sele. This noble lord is defcended from
John, baron Fienes, hereditary conftable of Dover-
caftle, and lord Warden of the Cinque-ports, in the
12th century.
18. “ Gules, a tricorporated Lion ifluing from three
parts of the Efcutcheon, all meeting under one Head
in the Fefs-point Or, langued and armed Azure;”
borne by the name of Crouchback. This coat apper¬
tained to Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancafter, in
the reign of his brother king Edward I.
19. “Gules,aBefant between three Demi-lions ram¬
pant Argent;-” borne by the right hon. Charles Ben-
net, earl of Tankerville, &c. This noble earl is de¬
fcended from the family of the Bennets in Berkihire,
who flouriihed in the reign of king Edward III.
Charles, lord Offulfton, grandfather of the prefent earl,
was created earl of Tankerville, on October 19. 1714,
by George I.
20. “ Party per Pale Azure and Gules, three Lions
rampant Argent;” borne by the right hon. Henry
Herbert earl of Pembroke, Jtc. This noble family is
defcended from Henry Fitz-Roy, natural fon to Hen¬
ry I. Sir William Herbert, one of the anceftors of
the prefent earl, was mafter of the horfe to king
Henry VIII. lord prefident of the marches of Wales,
and knight of the garter. He was alfo, by that king,
advanced to the dignity of baron Herbert of Caerdiff,
Odlober 10. 1551, and the very next day created earl
of Pembroke.—Obferve, that if a lion, or any other
bead, is reprefented with its limbs and body feparated,
fo that they remain upon the field at a fmall diftance
from their natural places, it is then termed Dehache or
couped in all its parts, of which very remarkable bear¬
ing, there is an inftance in armory, which is, “ Or, a
Lion rampant Gules, dohache, or couped in all its
parts, within a double Treflure flowery and counter-
flowery of the fecond ;” borne by the name of Mait¬
land.
IV. Examples of other Quadrupeds, and their Parts,
borne in Coats-of Arms.
. I. “ Sable, a Camel ftatant Argentborne by the
name of darnel.
2. “ Gules, an Elephant ftatant Argent, tulked
Or;”
3. “ Argent, a Boar ftatant Gules, armed Or;”
borne by the name of Trewarthen.
4. “ Sable, a Bull paffant Or;” borne by the
name of Fitz-Geffrey.
5. “ Sable, three Nags Heads erafed Argent
L D R Y. 3601
borne by the right hon. and the reverend Charles-Tal- Different
bot Blayney, baron Blayney of Monaghan, in Ire- - Animals-
land. This noble family is defcended in a direft line
from Cadwallader, a younger fon of the prince of
Wales; and the firft peer was Sir Edward Bleyney,
knight, who was created a baron by king James I.
July 29, 1621.
6. “ Argent, three Boars Heads erafed and ereft
Sable, langued Gules,” for the name of Booth ; and
borne by Sir George Booth, bart. the prefent redlor
of Alhton-under-Line, in the county of Lancafter.—
Various are the traditions touching the original Item
of this ancient family, which, like moft others of long
Handing, is fo ingulfed in the obfcurity of all-devour¬
ing time, that no other light than conjecture is now
to be had thereof. The moft probable is, that their
beginning was at a certain place called the Booths,
in the county of Lancafter, where being feated, they
were thence furnamed, as the manner of thofe ages was
to ftyle men from the places where they lived.
7. “ Azure, three Boars Heads erafed Or ;” quar¬
tered by his grace Alexander Gordon duke of Gordon,
&c. Of this great and noble family, which took their
furname from the barony of Gordon in the county of
Berwick, there have been, befides thofe in North-Bri-
tain, feveral of great diftinCtion in Mufcovy; and in
the time of king Malcolm IV. 1160, this family was
very numerous, and flourilhed in the county aforefaid.
8. “ Argent, three Bulls Heads erafed. Sable, armed
Or;” borne by the right hon. Clotworthy Skeffing-
ton, earl of Maflareene, &c. of Ireland. This ancient
and noble family derives its name from the village of
Skeffington, in the county of Liecefter, of which place
Simon Skeffington was Lord in the reign of Edward I.
and from him defcended Sir William Skeffington, knt.
made fo by king Henry VII.
9. “ Argent, two Foxes counter-faliant, the dex¬
ter furmounted of the finifter Gules ;” for the name
of Kadrod-Hard, an ancient Britifh family, from
which is defcended Sir Watkyn-Williams Wynne,
bart. who bears this quartered, fecond and third, in
his coat-of-arms.
i,o. “ Argent, three Bulls paflant Sable, armed
and unguled Or ;” for Afhley, and quartered by the
right hon. Anthony-Afhley Cooper, earl of Shaftef-
bury, &c. This noble earl is defcended from Richard
Cooper, who flourifhed in the reign of king Henry
VIII. and purchafed the manor of Paulet in the
county of Somerfet; of which the family are ftill
proprietors. But his anceftor, who makes the greatefi:
figure in hiftory, is Sir Anthony-Afhley Cooper,
who was created baron Afhley of Winbourn, April
20, 1661, and afterwards earl of Shaftefbury, April
23, 1672.
11. “ Ermine, three Cats paffant in Pale Argent,”
for the name of Adams; and borne by Sir Thomas
Adams, bart. a captain of his majefty’s navy, who
commanded feveral different fhips in the laft war with
bravery and condudl.
12. “ Gules, two Grehounds rampant Or, re-
fpedting each other;” borne by the name oi Dogget.
13. “ Or, an Afs’s Head erafed Sable;” borne by
the name of Hacknvell.
14. “ Gules, three Lions gambs erafed Argent;”
for the name of Ne’wdigate, and borne by Sir Roger
New-
3602 HERA
Birds, Nevvdigate, bart. LL.D. and reprefentative in the
Fiflies, &c. prefent anci three laft parliaments for the univerfity of
Oxford.
15. “ Argent, three lions tails erefted and erafed
•Gules;” borne by the name of CW.
16. “ Azure, a Buck’s Head caboffed Argent;”
borne by the right hon. William Legge, earl of Dart¬
mouth, &c. This noble earl is defcended from Signior
de Lega, an Italian nobleman, who flourilhed in Italy
in the year 1297. What time the family came into
England is uncertain ; but it appears they were fettled
•at Legge-place, near Tunbridge in Kent, for many
generations; and Thomas, one of theiranceftors, was
twice lord-mayor of London, viz. in 1346 and 1353.
17. “ Argent, two Squirrels fejant adoffee Gules,”
for the name of Satunvell; and borne by Sir Thomas
Samwell, bart. of Upton, in Northamptonlhire, who
is lineally defcended from the ancient family of the
Samwells in Cornwall.
18. “ Gules, a Goat paflant Argent ;” borne by
-the name of Baker.
19. “ Sable, a Stag flanding at gaze Argent;”
borne by the name of Jones, of Monmouthfhire.
20. “ Azure, three Holy-Lambs Or;” borne by
the name of Row.
V. Examples oj Birds, Fi/hes, Reptiles, &c.
Fig. xvii. j. << Ermine, an Eagle difplayed Sable ; borne by
the name of Beddingfield.
2. “ Gules, a Swan clofe proper;” borne by the
name of Leigham.
3. “ Argent, a Stork Sable, membred Gules ;”
borne by the name of Starkey.
4. “ Gules, a Pelican in her neft with wings ele¬
vated, feeding her young ones Or ; vulned proper ;”
borne by the name of Carne.
5. “ Argent, three Peacocks in their pride pro¬
per;” borne by the name of Pawne.
6. “ Sable, a Gofhawk Argent, perching upon a
flock in the Bafe point of the Efcutcheon of the fe-
cond, armed, jeffed, and belled Or;” borne by the
name of Week.
7. “ Or, a Raven proper;” borne by the name of
Corbet.
8. “ Argent, three Cocks Gules, crefted and jow-
lopped Sable, a Crefcent furmounted of a Crefcent for
difference, borne by the right hon. Charles Cockayne,
vifcount Cullen, of Donegal in Ireland. Of this an¬
cient family was Andreas Cockayne, of Afhburne in
the county of Derby, who lived in the 28th year of
Edward I. Charles, fon to Sir William Cockayne,
lord-mayor of London, 1619, was the fir ft who was ad¬
vanced to the Peerage, by Charles I. Auguft 11, 1642.
9. “ Sable a Dolphin naiantembowed Or;” borne
by the name of Symonds. This animal is borne by the
eldeft fon of the French king, and next heir to the
crown, no other fubjefl in that kingdom being per-
mjtted to bear it. In England, where that rule can¬
not take place, there are feveral families that have
dolphins in their coats-of-arms.
10. Argent, three Whales Heads ereft and era-
fed Sable;” borne by the name of Whalley.
11. “ Gules, three Efcallops Argent;” borne by
the right hon. George Keppel, earl of Albemarle,
&c. This prefent earl is defcended from Arnold Jooft,
L D R Y. Chap. III.
van Keppel, a nobleman of the province of Gelder- Reptiles,
land in Holland, who came over into England with Plants, &c.
the prince of Orange in 1688, to whom he was then
a page of honour, and afterwards mafterof the robes,
and was by him created a peer of England, by the
title of earl of Albemarle, in the duchy of N rman-
dy in France, February 10. 1696.
12. “ Azure, three Trouts fretted in Triangle Ar¬
gent ;” borne by the name of Troutbeck.
13. “ Vert, a Grafshopper paffant Or.”
14. “ Azure, three Bees two and one volant in pale
Argent;” borne by the name of Bye.
15. “ Vert, a Tortoife paffant Argent;” borne by
the name of Gawdy.
16. “ Gules, an Adder nowed Or ;” borne by the
name of Natbiley. Adders, fnakes, and ferpents are
faid toreprefent many things, which being according
to the fancy of the ancients, and a few modern authors
who have adopted their opinions, it is needlefs to en¬
large upon. It is certain they often occur in armory;
but the nobleft is that of the dutchy of Milan, viz.
“ Argent, a Serpent gliding in Pale Azure, crown¬
ed Or, vorant an Infant iffuing Gules.” The occa-
fion of this bearing was thus: Otho, firft vifcount of
Milan, going to the Holy-land with Godfrey of Bouil¬
lon, defeated and flew in a Angle combat the great
giant Volux, a man of an extraordinary ftature and
ftrength, who had challenged the braveft of the Chri-
ftian army. The vifcount having killed him, took his
armour, and among it his helmet, the creft whereof
was a ferpent fwallowing an infant, worn by him, to
ftrike a terror into thofe who fhould be fo bold as to
engage him.
17. “ Ermine, a Rofe Gules barbed and feeded
proper;” borne by the right hon. Hugh Bofcawen
vifcount Falmouth, &c. This noble lord is defcend¬
ed from Richard Bofcawen, of the town of Bofcawen,
in the county of Cornwall, who flourifhed in the reign
of king Edward VI. Hugh, the late vifeount, and
the firft peer of this ancient family, was created baron
of Bofcawen-Rofe, and vifcount Falmouth, on the
13th of June, 1720, 6th of George I.
18. “ Azure, three Laurel-leaves flipped Or;”
borne by the name of Levefon, and quartered by the
right hon. Granville-Levefon Gower, earl of Gower,
&c.
19. “ Azure, three Garbs Or;” borne by the
name of Cuming. Thefe are fheaves of wheat; but
though they were barley, rye, or any other corn what-
foever, it.is fufiicient, in blazoning, to call them Garbs,
telling the tin&ure they are of.
20. “ Gules, three Cinquefoils Argent ;” borne
by the right hon. lord Ford Lambart, baron of Ca¬
van, See. in Ireland. Of this ancient family, which
is of French extraftion, was Sir Oliver, who, in the
reign of queen Elizabeth, attending the earl of Effex
to Spain, was there knighted by him, and afterwards
returning with that earl into Ireland, was, for his An¬
gular fervice in the north againft O’Neal earl of Ty¬
rone, made camp-mafter general, and prefident of
Connaught; and February ty. 1617, was created lord
Lambart and baron of Cavan, by king James I.
It tnuft be obferved that trees and plants are fome-
times faid to be trunked, eradicated, fruAuated, or
raguled, according as they are reprefented in arms.
Art.
Chap. III.
Artificial .
Figures. Art. 2.
Fig. xViii.
HERA
Of Artificial Figures borne in Coats-
of-arms.
After the various produftions of nature, artificial
figures, the objefts of arts and mechanics, claim the
next rank. They may be diftributed into the follow¬
ing claifes, viz.
Warlike injlruments, as fwords, arrows, battering-
rams, gauntlets, helmets, fpears, pole axes, &c.
Ortiamenis ufed in royal and religious ceremonies,
as crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crofiers, &c.
drchiteftuee, as towers, caftles, arches, columns,
plummets, battlements, churches, portcullifles, &c.
Navigation, as fhips, anchors, rudders, pendants,
fails, oars, malts, flags, galleys, lighters, &c.
L D R Y.
the right bon. George CholmondeJey, earl ofCholmon-
dely, &c. This noble earl isdefcended from the ancient
family of Egerton in Chefhire, which flourilhed. in the
time of the conquefl, from whom alfo the duke of
Bridgewater is del'cended. The fit ft Englifh peer of this
branch was Hugh, vifcount Cholmondeley of Kells, in
Ireland, who, joining with thofe who oppofed the ar¬
bitrary meafures of king James II. was on the ac-
ceflion of king William and queen Mary, created lord
Cholmondeley of Nampt-wich, in the countv of
Chefter.
6. “ Argent, a Ship with its Sails furled up Sable ;,,r
quartered by the right hon. James Hamilton, earl of
Abercorn, &c. The defcent of this noble family is
from that of the duke of Hamilton : for James, the
All thefe bearings have different epithets, ferving fourth lord Hamilton and fecond earl of Arran, mar-
either to exprefs their pofition, difpofition, or makiT,
viz. Swords are faid to be ereft, pommeled, hiked, &c.
Arrows, armed, feathered, &c. Towers, covered, em¬
battled, &c. ; and fo on of all others, as will appear
by the following examples.
1. “ Sable, three fwords, their points meet¬
ing in the Bafe Argent, pommelled and hiked Or, a
Crefcent in chief of the fecond for difference borne
by his grace Charles Powlet, duke of Bolton, &c.
This noble duke is defcended from Hercules, lord of
Tournon in Picardy, who came over to England with
Jeffrey Plantagenet earl of Anjou, third fon of king
Henry II. and among other lands had the lordlhip
of Paulet in Somerfetfhire conferred on him. Wil¬
liam Powlet, the firft peer of this illuftrious and loyal
family, was treafurer of the houfehold to king Henry
VIII. and by him created baron St. John of Baling,
in the county of Southampton, March 9. 1538.
2. “Argent, three Battering-rams barways in Pale,
headed azure and hooped Or, an Annulet for diffe¬
rence borne by the right hon. Willoughby Bertie,
earl of Abington, &c. The firft of the family of Bertie
that bore the title of earl of Abington, was James
Bertie lord Norris of Rycote, being created earl,
November 30. 1682, by Charles II.
3. “ Azure, three left-hand Gauntlets with their
backs forward Or borne by the right hon. Thomas
Fane, earl of Weftmoreland, &c. This noble earl
is defcended from the Fanes, an ancient family which
refided at Badfal in Kent, from which defcended
rying lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of James
the third earl of Morton, by her had four fons, James,
John, Claud, and David ; whereof Claud was proge¬
nitor of the lord we are now fpeakingof; and in con-
fideration of his merit and loyalty to Mary queen of
Scots, James VI. created him lord Paifleyin 1591, as
alfo earl of Abercorn, baron of Hamilton, &c. July
10. 1606.
7. “ Or, an Anchor in pale Gulesquartered by
the mod noble George Johnfton, marquis of Annan-
dale, &c. The Johnftons are an ancient and warlike
family, and derive their furname from the barony of
Johnfton in Annandale.
8. “ Sable, three Spears Heads ereft Argent, im¬
brued Gules, on a chief Or, as many Pole-axes A-
zure borne by the right hon. William King, lord
King, See. Peter King, efq; the firft lord of this an¬
cient family, was chofen recorder of the city of Lon¬
don, July 27. 1708, and on the 12th of September
following had the honour of knighthood conferred on
him. He was conftituted lord-chiefjuftice of the
common-plea^ in the- firft year of king George I.
1714; on the 5th of April following was fworn of
his majefty’s moft hon. privy council ; and on May
19. 1723, was created a peer of this kingdom by the
title of lord King, baron of Ockham.
9. “Gules, three Clarions Orquartered by the
right hon. Robert Carteret, earl of Granville, &c.~
This ancient and worthy family derives its pedigree
from Offerey de Carteret, who attended William the
Francis Fane, fon and heir of Sir Thomas Fane, Conqueror in his defcent upon England, and contribu-
knight, by Mary his wife, foie daughter and heirefs ted to the vi&ory he obtained over king Harold, at
      i„     r> rr ^ , ° ...
to Henry Nevil lord Abergavenny, afterwards creat¬
ed baronefs Defpenfer. The faid Francis was a knight
of the Bath ; and in the reign of king James I. was
created baron Burgherlh, and earl of Weftmoreland,
December 29. 1624.
4. “Azure, three Arrows their points in bafcOr;”
borne by the right hon. Thomas Archer, lord Arch¬
er, &c. This noble lord is defcended from John de
Archer, wdio came over from Normandy with William
j uiiukia iiWll* X 10.111.10 X xO 11 111^ 0} Vdil C/J. X JL li li 1111 1 9 OCC*
the Conqueror; and this family is one of the moft an- This noble earl is defcended from Hugh de Haftings,
Haftings in Suffex, 1066, he had manors and lands
in England conferred on him by that prince, as a re¬
ward for his eminent fervices* George Carteret,
grandfather to the prefent earl, was, in confideration
of his own merit and the fervices of his anceftors,
created a peer of Great Britain, O&ober 19th
1681.
10. “ Argent, a Maunch Sable;” borne by the
right hon. Francis Haftings, earl of Huntingdon, &c.
 ui- i  j . j r  tt i j . tt n*
cient in Warwickrtiire, being fettled at Umberflade,
‘i that county, ever fince the reign of Henry II. His
a younger fon of the ancient and noble family of the
Haftings, earl of Pembroke, of which family was Wil-
lordlhip is the firft peer; and was created lord Archer liam de Haftings, fteward of the houfehold to king
anH haron of TTmhprflarta Kxr IX T.,U. T-T~ T txtiii: i j tt n*  v
and baron of Umberflade by king George II. July
14. 1747.
5. “ Gules, two helmets in chief proper, garnifh-
ed Or, in a Safe of a Garb of the thirdborne by
Henry I.—William, the firft lord Haftings, was created
a baron on July 6, 1461, by king Edward IV.
11. “ Azure, a circular Wreath Argent and Sable,
with four Hawk’s Bells joined thereto in quadrature
Or;”
3603
Artificial
Figures.
3604 H E R A
Artificial Or j” borne by the right hon. Robert Jocelyn, vif*
count Jocelyn, &c. This noble family is of great an¬
tiquity ; for, after the Romans had been mafters of Bri¬
tain 500 years, wearied with the wars, they took their
final farewel of it, and carried away with them a
great many of their brave old Britifh foldiers, who
had ferved them in their wars both at home and a-
broad, to whom they gave Amorica in France, for
their former fervices, which country was from them
afterwards called Little Britain. It is fuppofed that
there were fome of this family amongft them; and that
they gave the name of Jocelyn to a town in this coun¬
try, which ftill preferves that name : and it is thought
probable that they returned with William the Con¬
queror ; for we find, in 1066, mention made of Sir
Gilbert Jocelyn. This prefent nobleman, the firft
lord of the family, was created baron Newport, of
Newport in Ireland, on November 29, 1743, and vif-
count in November 1751.
12. “ Gules, three Towers Argent;” quartered by
the right hon. William Fowler, vifcount Afhbrook,
&c. William Fowler, efq; father to this prefent
lord, was advanced to the peerage by king George II.
and created baron of Caftle-Durrow, in the county of
Kilkenny, Oftober 27, 1733, and his fon was created
vifcount Afhbrook, of Afhbrook in Ireland, on Sept. 30,
1751, now extintS.
13 “ Gules, two keys in Saltier Argent, in Chief
a Royal Crown proper;” the arms of the archbifhopric
of York. This archbifhopric comprehends only the
bifhoprics of Carlifle, Chefter, and Durham. And
the diocefe contains about three parts in fourof York-
fhire, all Nottinghamfhire, and Hexham peculiar ju-
rifdiftion; divided into 903 parifhes and chapels; and
into four archdeaconries, of York, Eaft-Riding, Cleve¬
land, and Nottingham.
14. “ Gules, two Swords in Saltier Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or;” the arms of the bifhopric of
London. This diocefe contains London, the coun¬
ties of Middlefex and Effex, and part of Hertford-
fhire, in which there are about 665 churches and cha¬
pels. In it are alfo five archdeaconries, viz. thofe
of London, Middlefcx, Effex, Colchefter, and St
Albans.
15. “ Sable, a Key in Bend, furmounted by a
Crofier in Bend finifter, both Or;” the arms of the
bifhopric of St Afaph. This diocefe contains no one
whole county; but part of Denbigh, Flint, Montgo¬
mery, and Merioneth {hires, and fome towns in Shrop-
fhire, wherein are to the number of 121 parifhes; but
there are in all 131 churches and chapels, moft of
which are in the immediate patronage of the bifhops.
It hath but one archdeaconry, called of St Afaph,
which is united to the bifhopric, for the better fup-
port of it.
16. “ Gules, two Keys adoffee in Bend, the up-
permoft Argent, the other Or, a Sword interpoftd
between them in Bend-finifter of the fecond, pom¬
meled and hiked of the third;” the arms of the bifhopric
of Winchefter. This diocefe contains the whole
county of Southampton, with the Ifle of Wight, and
the ides of Jerfey, Guernfey, Sark, and Alderney. It
alfo contains one parifh in Wiltfhire, and all Surry,
except eleven peculiars belonging to Canterbury.
The number of churches and chapels in it are 415;
LORY. Chap. III.
and it has two archdeacons, viz. of Winchefter and Artificial
Surry. Figures.
17. “Gules, three Mitres with their pendants Or;” 1
the arms of the bifhopric of Chefter. The bifhopric
of Chefter was anciently part of the diocefe of Litch¬
field; one of whofe bifhops, removing his fee hither in
the year 1075, occafioned his fuccefibrs being fre¬
quently called bijhops of Chejler. But it was not
ere&ed into a diffinA bifhopric till the year 1-541, by
king Henry VIII. It contains the entire counties of
Chefter and Lancafter; part of Weftmoreland, Cum¬
berland, and Yorkfhire; two chapelries in Denbigh-
fhire, and five churches and chapels in the county of
Flint: in all, 506 churches and chapels. It is di¬
vided into two archdeaconries, viz. Chefter and Rich¬
mond.
18. “ Sable, three Ducal Coronets paleways Or;”
the arms of the bifhopric of Briftol. The bifhopric
of Briftol was founded by king Henry VIIJ. and
taken out of the diocefes of Salifbury, Wells, and
Worcefter. It contains the city of Briftol, and the
county of Dorfet; in which there are 276 churches
and chapels; and one archdeaconry, viz. that of
Dorfet.
19. “ Gules, a Sword ere& in pale Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or, furmounted by two Keys in
Saltier of the laft;” the arms of the bifhopric of Exe¬
ter. When Chriftianity was firft planted in thefe parts,
Cornwall and Devonfhire were placed under the jurif-
di&ion of the bifhop of Dorchefter ; but, that epifeo-
pal feat being removed to Winchefter in the year 660,
thefe weftern parts were made fubjeA to that new fee.
When the monaftery of Sherbourn was turned into a
cathedral about the year 705, thefe counties were in¬
cluded in that diocefe, which continued about 200
years; and then Plegmund, archbifhop of Canterbury,
at the command of king Edward the Elder, ere&ed
three new bifhoprics; one at Wells, for Somerfetfhire;
another at Bodmin, for Cornwall ; and the laft at
Tawton-Bifhops, for Devon, which was after removed
to Crediton, and at length fettled at Exeter. That
diocefe contains the entire counties of Devon and Corn¬
wall; in which there are 725 churches and chapels, and
four archdeaconries, viz. thofe of Exeter, Barnftable,
Totnefs, and Cornwall.
20. “ Gules, three Ducal Coronets, Or;” the arms
of the bifhopric of Ely. The bifhopric of Ely was
taken from that of Lincoln by king Henry I. anno
1109. It contains all Cambridgefhire, and the ifle of
Ely, excepting Ifelham, which belongs to the fee of
Rochefter, and 15 other parifhes that are in the dio¬
cefe of Norwich: but it has one parifh, viz. Emnetb,
in Norfolk. The whole number of the churches and
chapels within the dibcefe of Ely are 164. It hath
only one archdeacon, viz. that of Ely.
Art. III. Of Chimerical Figures.
The laft and the oddeft kind of bearings in coats-
of-arms, is comprehended under the name of chimerical
figures; that is to fay, fuch as have no real exiftence,
but are mere fabulous and fantaftical inventions. Thefe
chargfs, griffons, martlets, and unicorns excepted, are
fo uncommon in Britifh coats, that in order to make
up the fame number of examples hitherto contained in
each colle&ion, feveral foreign bearings are introduced
here;
. r- :
V.. ;1,- v ‘ -
i
Chap. III.
HERALDRY.
36°5
Chimerical here; which, however, as they are conform to the laws reguardant proper.” This was the coat-of-arms of External
* !ffllre?‘ of heraldry, will alfocontribute both to entertain and Stephen, furnamed of B/ois, fon to Adda daughter of 0rnamcnfs'
jnftruft the reader. Thofe moil in ufe are the follow- William the Conqueror, and of Stephen earl of Blot's;
ing> viz. . . and on this defcent grounding his pretenfion to the
Angels, Cherubim, Tritons, Centaurs, Martlets, crown of England, he was proclaimed king in 1135,
Griffons, Unicorns, Dragons, Mermaids, Satyrs, Wi- and reigned to the 25th of O&ober 1154.
verns, Harpies, Cockatrices, Phenixes. 13. “ Argent, an Unicorn fejant Sable, uno-uled
Thefe, like the foregoing charges, are fubjedt to and horned borne by the name of Harling?
various pofitions and difpofitions, which, from the 14. “ Argent, a Dragon’s Head erafed Vertt'hold-
principles already laid down, will be plainly under- ing in his Mouth a finifter Hand couped at the Wrilt
flood. vSee the examples, fig. xix. Gules;” borne by the name of F/Y/ww/.
N° 1. is “ Gules, an Angel (landing affrontee, with 15. “ Gules, three Unicorns Heads couped Or
his hands conjoined and elevated upon his breaft, ha- borne by the name of Paris.
bited in a long Robe dofe girt Argent, his Wings dif- 16. “ Argent, a Wivern volant Bendways Sable;”
played Or;” borne by the name of Brangor de Cere- borne by the name of Raynon.
vijia, a foreign prelate, who affifted at the council of 17. “ Azure, a Lion fejant guardant winged Or,
Conftance 14r2. This example is quoted by Guil- his Head encircled with a Glory, holding in his fore-
lim, Se6l. III. Chap. i. paws an open Book, wherein is written, Pax tibi,
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Cherubim Marce, Evangelijia meus; over the dexter fide of the
Or;” borne by the name of Chaloner, of Yorkfiiire Book a Sword erect, all proper.” Thefe are the arms
and Chelhire. of the republic of Venice.
3. “ Azure, a Fefs indented between three Che- 18. “ Azure, a Bull faliant and winged Or;” borne
rubim Argent.” Thefe arms were granted to John by the name of Cadenet, a family of diftinaion in
Ayde, efq; of Doddington in Kent, by Sir William Provence.
Segar, garter. _ 19.“ Argent, a Wyvern with a human Face af-
4. “Gules, a Cherub having three pair of Wings, frontee hooded, and winged Vert;” borne by the
the uppermoft and lowermoft counter-croffed Saltier- name of Buferaghi, an ancient and noble family of
ways, and the middlemoft difplayed Argent;” borne Luques. 3
by the name of Buocafoco, a foreign prelate. This 20. “ Azure, a Harpy difplayed, armed, crined
example is copied from Meneftrier’s Methode du Blafin, and crowned Or.” Thefe are the arms of the city of
p. 120, N° viii. Noremberg in Germany.
5. “ Azure, a Griffon fegreant Or, armed and To the forementioned figures may be added the
langued Gules, between three Crefcents Argent;” montegre, an imaginary creature, fuppofed to have
quartered by the right hon. John Bligh, lord Clifton, the body of a tyger with a Satyr’s head and horns; al-
&c. The great grandfather of this noble lord, who fo thofe which have a real exiftence, but are faid to be
lived in London, going over to Ireland in the time of endowed with extravagant and imaginary qualities viz
Oliver Cromwell, as an agent to the adventurers there, the falamander, beaver, cameleon, &c.
acquired a good eftate, and laid the foundation for the
grandeur of this family.
6. “ Gules, three Martlets Orborne by the name
of Macgill. Guillim obferves, that this bird, which
is reprefented without feet, is given for a difference to
younger brothers, to put them in mind, that, in order
to raife themfelves, they are to truft to their wings of
virtue and merit, and not to their legs, having but little
land to fet their feet on.
CHAP. IV.
Of the External Ornaments of Escut¬
cheons.
The ornaments that accompany or furround efeut-
cheons were introduced to denote the birth, dignity.
- r     1  .1 . /* t*
Treffure counter-flowery Or, in the centre a Martlet of pertaineth ; which is praftifed both among the laity
the laft;” borne by the right hon. Patrick Murray, and clergy. Thofe mod in ufe are of ten forts, viz.
lord Ehbank. Sir Gideon Murray, knighted by king Crowns, Coronets, Mitres, Helmets, Mantlings/cha-
James VI. by whom he was made treafurer-depute, peaux, Wreaths, Creffs, Scrolls, Supporters,
was third fon of Sir Andrew Murray of Blackbarony.
Sect. I. Of Croivns.
The firft crowns were only diadems, bands, or fil¬
lets; afterwards they werecompofed of branches of di¬
vers trees, and then flowers were added to them.
Among the Greeks, the crowns given to thofe who
His fon Patrick, in refpeft qf his loyalty to Charles I.
was, on May 16. 1628, made a baronet, and, in 1643,
created lord Elibank.
8. “ Sable, a Cockatrice difplayed Argent, crefted,
membred, and jowllopped Gules.”  o  t  wuu
9. “ Argent, a Mermaid Gules, crined Or, holding carried the prize at the Ifthmian games, were of pine;
in her right hand a Comb, and in her left a Mirror, at the Olympick, of laurel; and at the Nemean, of
both proper;” borne by the name of Ellis. fmallage.
. IO' .** -A-rgent> a Wivern, his Wings elevated, and The Romans had various crowns to reward martial
his Tail nowed below him Gules;” borne by the name exploits and extraordinary fervices done to the re¬
ef Drakes. public : for which fee the detached article Crown in
n. “ Or, a Dragon paffant Vert.” _ this Diftionary, and Plate LXXXII.
It' ‘‘Pules> a Centaur or Sagittary in full fpecd Examples of feme of thefe crowns are frequently
Vo1”V’ 20 P * met
3606
Crowns.
Plate
CXLX.
fig. xx.
HERA
met with in modern atchievements, viz. 1. The mural
’ crown in that of lord Montfort, which was conferred on
Sir John Bromley, one of his lordfhip’sanceitors, as an
augmentation to his arms, for his great courage at the
battle of Le Croby. Part of the creft of lord Archer
is alfo a mural crown. And there are no lefs than
ten Englilh baronets, whofe arms are ornanaented with
the fame crown. 2. The naval or rollral crown, is
ftill ufed with coats-of-arms, as may he feen in thofe
of Sir William Burnaby, bart. now admiral of the red
fquadron, and of John Clerke, efq; as part of their
Crefts. 3. Of the cajlrenfe or vallary crown, we
have inftances in the coat-of-arms of Sir Reginald
Graham, and of Ifaac Akerman, efq. 4. The creft
of Grice Blakeney, efq; is encompaffed with a civic
crown. 5. The radiated crown, according to J. Yorke,
was placed over the arms of the kings of England, till
the time of Edward III. It is ftill ufed, as a creft,
on the arms of fome private families; thofe, for ex¬
ample, borne by the name of Whitfield, are ornament¬
ed with it. The celeftial crown is formed like the ra¬
diated, with the addition of a ftar on each ray ; and is
only ufed upon toipb-ftones, monuments, and the like.
—Others of the ancient crowns are ftill borne, as crefts,
by the right hon. Jeffrey Amherft, baron Amherft of
Holmefdale, in Kent; Sir James Gray, bart.; Thomas
Sheriff, efq; and others.
But modern crowns are only ufed as an ornament,
which emperors, kings, and independent princes fet
on their heads, in great folemnities, both to denote
their fovereign authority, and to render themfelves
more awful to their fubjefts. Thefeare the moft inufe
in heraldry, and are as follows;
The imperial crow'll, (n° 1.) is made of a circle of
gold, adorned with precious ftonesand pearls, height¬
ened with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and feeded with
pearls, raifed in the form of a cap voided at the top,
like a crefcent. From the middle of this cap rifes an
arched fillet enriched with pearls, and furmounted of a
mound, whereon is acrofs of pearls.
The crown of the kings of Great Britain (2.), is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with
pearls and precious ftones, and heightened up with
four croffes pattee and four large fleurs-de-lis alter¬
nately ; from thefe rife four arched diadems adorned
with pearls, which clofe under a mound, furmounted
of a crofs like thofe at bottom. Mr Sandford, in
his Genealogical Hiftory, p. 381. remarks, that Ed¬
ward IV. is the firft. king of England that in his
feal, or on his coin, is crowned with an arched dia¬
dem.
The crown of the kings in France (3.) is a circle
enamelled, adorned with prectoos ftones, and height¬
ened up with eight arched diadems, rifing from as
many fleurs-de-lis, that conjoin at the top under a
double fleur-de-lis, all of gold.
« The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are
all three of the fame form, and are, amongft others,
thus defcribed by colonel Parfons, in his Genealogical
Tables of Europe, viz. A ducal coronet, heightened
up with eight arched diadems that fupport a mound,
enfigned with a plain crofs. Thofe of Denmark and
Sweden are both of the fame form; and confiftof eight
arched diadems, rifing from a marquis’s coronet, which
that conjoin at the top under a mound enfigned with a
L D R Y. Chap. IV.
crofs-bottony. Coronets.
The crowns of moft other kings are circles of ^old, —
adorned with precious ftones, and heightened up with
large trefoils, and clofed by four, fix, or eight diadems,
fupporting a mound, furmounted of a crofs.
The Great Turk (4.), bears over his arms a tur-
band, enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two
coronets, the firft of which is made- of pyramidical
points heightened up with large pearls, and the upper-
moft is furmounted with crefcents.
The Pope, or bifhop of Rome, appropriates to him-
felf a Tiara (n° 5.), or long cap of golden cloth, from
which hang two pendants embroidered and fringed at
the ends, fem&e of croffes of gold. This cap is inclofeci
by three marquis’s coronets; and has on its top a
mound of gold, whereon is a crofs of'the fame, which
crpfs is fometimes reprefented by engravers and pain¬
ters pometted, recroffed, flowery, 6r plain.—It is
a difficult matter to afeertain the time when thefe
haughty prelates affumed the three forementioned co¬
ronets. A patched up fucceffion of the holy pontiffs,
engraved and publiihed a few years ago by order of
Clement XIII. the late Pope, for the edification of
his good fubjeds in Great Britain and Ireland, repre-
fents Marcellos, who was chofen bilhop of Rome anno
310, and all his fucceffors, adorned with fuch a cap :
but it appears, from very good authority, that Boni¬
face VIII. who was ele&ed into the fee of Rome anno
1295, firft compaffed his cap with a coronet; Bene-
did XII. in 1335, added a fecond to it; and John
XXIII. in 141 r, a third ; with a view to indicate by
them, that the Pope is the fovereign prieft, the fupreme
judge, and the foie legiflator amongft Chriftians.
Sect. II. Of Coronets.
The Coronet of the prince of Wales, or eldeft fon
of the king of Great Britain, (n° 7.), was anciently a
circle of gold fet round with fourcroffes-pattee, and as
many fleurs-de-lis alternately ; but fince the reftora-
tion, it has been clofed with one arch only, adorned
with pearls, and furmounted of a mound and crofs,
and bordered with ermine like the king’s.
Befides the aforefaid coronet, his royal highnefsthe*
prince of Wales has another diftinguiihing mark of
honour, peculiar to himfelf, called by the vulgar the
prince’s arms, viz. A plume of three oftrich-feathers,
with an ancient coronet of a prince of Wales. Under
it, in a fcroll, is this motto, Ich Diets, which in the
German or old Saxon language fignifies “ I ferve
(fee n° 6). This device was at firft taken by Edward
prince of Wales, commonly called the black prince,
after the famous battle of Creffy, in 1346, where ha¬
ving with his own hand killed John king of Bohe¬
mia, he took from his head fuch a plume, and put it
on his own.
The coronet of the prefent dukes of Gloucefter and
Cumberland, and of all the immediate fons and bro¬
thers of the kings of Great Britain, is a circle of gold,
bordered with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-
de-lis, and as many croffes-pattee alternate, (fee n°8).
—The particular and diftmguifhing form of fuch
coronets as are appropriated to princes of the blood-
royal, is defcribed and fettled in a grant of Charles II.
the 13th of his reign.
The coronet of the princeffes of Great Britain is a.
circle
Chap. V. HERA
Mitres, &c. c;rc]e 0f gold, bordered with ermine, and heightened
‘ np with crofles-pattee, fleurs-de-lis and ftrawberry
leaves alternate (n° 9.) ; whereas a prince’s coronet has
only fleurs-de-lis and croffes.
A duke s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with
ermine, enriched with precious.(tones and pearls, and
fct round with eight large ftrawberry or parfley
leaves; (n° 10).
A marquis's coronet is a circle of gold, bordered
with ermine, fet round with four. ftrawberry leaves,
and as many pearls on pyramidical points of equal
height, alternate ; (n° 11).
An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with
ermine, heightened up with eight pyramidical points
or rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls,
and are placed alternately with as many ftrawberry-
leaves, but the pearls much higher than the leaves;
(n° .2).
A vifcount s coronet differs from the preceding ones
as being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine,
with large pearls fet clofe together on the rim, with¬
out any limited number, which is his prerogative above
the baron, who is limited (fee n° 13).
A baron’s coronet, (n° 14), which was granted
by king Charles II. is formed with fix pearls fet at
equal diftance on a gold circle, bordered with ermine,
four of which only are feen on engravings, paintings,
&c. to (hew he is inferior to the vifcount.
The eldeft fons of peers, above the degree of a
baron, bear their father’s arms and fupporters with a
label, and ufe the coronet appertaining to their father’s
fecond title; and all the younger fons bear their arms
with proper differences, but ufe no coronets.
As the crown of the king of Great Britain is not
quite like that of other potentates, fo do moft of the
coronets of foreign noblemen differ a little from thofe
of the Britifli nobility: as for example, the coronet of
a French earl is a circle of gold with 18 pearls fet on
the brim of it ; a French vifeount’s coronet is a cir¬
cle of gold only enamelled, charged with four large
pearls ; and a French baron’s coronet is a circle of
gold enamelled and bound about with a double brace¬
let of pearls: and thefe coronets are only ufed on
French noblemens coats-of-arms, and not worn on
their heads, as the Britifli noblemen and their ladies
do at the king’s coronation.
Sect. III. Of Mitres.
The archbilhops and birtiops of England and Ire¬
land place a mitre over their coats-of-arms. It is a
round cap pointed and cleft at the top, from which
hang two pendants fringed at both ends; with this
difference, that the bifhop’s mitre is only furrounded
with a fillet of gold, fet with precious ftones, (fee
fig. 23. n° 6.) whereas the archbifhop’s iffues out of a
ducal coronet, (fee fig. 20. n° 15).
This ornament, with other mafquerade garments,
is ftill worn by all the archbifliops and bifhops of the
church of Rome, whenever they officiate with folem-
nity; but it is never ufed in England, otherwife than
on coats of arms, as before mentioned.
Sect. IV. Of Helmets.
The Helmet was formerly worn as a defenfive wea-
L D R Y. 3607
pon, to cover the bearer’s head ; and is now placed Helmets,
over a coat-of-arms as its chief ornament, and the M'' chngs,
true mark of gentility. There are feveral forts, di- &c‘
ftinguifhed, jft, by the matter they are made of;
2dly, by their form ; and, 3dly, by their pofition.
iff, As to the matter they are, or rather were,
made of: The helmets of fovereigns were of burnilhed
gold damafked ; thofe of princes and lords, of filver
figured with gold 5 thofe of knights, of fteel adorned
with filver ; and thofe of private gentlemen, of poliffied
2dly, As to their form : Thofe of the king and the
royal family, and noblemen of Great Britain, are open-
faced and grated, and the number of bars ferves to
diftinguifli the bearers quality ; that is, the helmet ap¬
propriated to the dukes anti marquifes is different
from the king’s, by having a bar exaftly in the middle,
and two on each fide, making but five bars in all, (fee
fig. xxi. n° 1.) whereas the king’s helmet has fix bars,
viz. three on each fide, (ibid. n° 7.) The other
grated helmet with four bars is common to all degrees
of peerage under a marquis. The open-faced helmet
without bars denotes baronets and knights. The
clofe helmet is for all efquires and gentlemen.
3dly, Their pofition is afo looked upon as a mark
of diftin&ion. The grated helmet in front belongs
to fovereign princes. The grated helmet in profile
is common to all degrees of peerage. The helmet
Handing diredt without bars, and the beaver a little
open, denotes baronets and knights. Laftly, the fide-
ftanding helmet, with the beaver clofe, is the way of
wearing it amongft efquires and gentlemen. See
n° 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7, inferted in fig. xxi. Orna¬
ments.
Sect. V. Of Mantlings.
Mantlings are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into
flowers and leaves, which now-a-days ferve as an orna¬
ment for efcutcheons. They were the ancient cover¬
ing of helmets, to preferve them, or the bearer, from
the injuries of the weather, as alfo to prevent the ill
confequences of their too much dazzling the eye in
aftion. But Guillim very judicioufly obferves, that
their (hape muft have undergone a great altera¬
tion fince they have been out of ufe, and therefore
might more properly be termed flourifhings than mant-
lings. See the examples annexed to the helmets re-
prefented in fig. xxi.
The French heralds affure us, that thefe mantlings
were originally no other than (hort coverings which
commanders wore over their helmets, and that, going
into battles with them, they often, ou their coming
away, brought them back in a ragged manner, oc-
cafioned by the many cuts they had received on their
heads: and therefore the more hacked they were, the
more honourable they were accounted ; as our colours
in time of war are the more efteemed, for having been
(hot through in many places.
Sometimes (liins of beads, as lions, bears, &c. were
thus borne, to make the bearer look more terrible;
and that gave occafion to the doubling of mantlings
with furs.
Sect. VI. Of Chapeaux.
A chapeau is an ancient hat, or rather cap, of dig-
2q P 2 nity
3608
Wreaths,
Crefts, &c.
HERA
nity worn by dukes, generallyTcarlet-coloured velvet on
the outfide lined and turned up with fur ; of late
frequently to be met with above an helmet, inftead of
a wreath, under gentlemens and noblemens crefts.
Heretofore they were feldom to be found, as of right
appertaining to private families; but by the grants of
Robert Cooke, Clarencieux, and other fucceedipg
heralds, thefe, together with ducal coronets, are now
frequently to be met with in families, who yet claim
not above the degree of gentlemen. See the repre-
fentation of the chapeau, n° 5. fig. xxi.
Sect. VII. Of Wreaths-
The Wreath is a kind of roll made of two fkains
of filk of different colours twilled together, which an¬
cient knights wore as a head-drefs when equipped
for tournaments. The colours of the filk are always
taken from the principal metal and colour contained
in the coat-of-arms of the bearer. They are ftill ac¬
counted as one of the lefier ornaments of efcutcheons,
and are placed between the helmet and the creft; (fee
fig. xxi. n° 6). In the time of Henry I. and long af¬
ter, no man, who was under the degree of a knight,
had his creft fet on a wreath ; but this like other pre¬
rogatives, has been infringed fo far, that every body
pow-a-days wears a wreath.
Sect. VIII. Of Crejls.
The Creft is the higheft part of the ornaments of
a coat-of-arms. It is called ere/?, from the Latin word
crijla, which fignifies comb or tuft, fuch as many
birds have upon their heads, as the peacock, phea-
fant, &c. in allufion to the place on which it is fixed.
Crefts were formerly great marks of honour, be-
caufe they were only worn by heroes of great valour,
or by fuch as were advanced to fome fuperior military
command, in order that they might be the better di-
ftinguifhed in an engagement, and thereby rally their '
men if difperfed ; but they are at prefent confidered
as a mere ornament. The creft is frequently a part
either of the fupporters, or of the charge borne in the
efeutcheon. Thus the creft of the royal atchievement
of Great Britain is a “ Lion guardant crown’d,” as
may be feen in fig. xxi. n° 7. The creft of France is
“ a double Flower-de-luce.” Out of the many crefts
borrowed from fupporters, are the following, viz.
The duke of Montagu’s, “ A Griffon’s head coup’d
Or, back’d and wing’d Sable;” the marquis of Rock¬
ingham’s, “ A Griffon’s head Argent, gorg’d with
a ducal coronet;’’ the earl of Weftmoreland’s, “ a
Bull’s head Argent, py’d Sable, armed Orand lord
Archer's, which is, “ Out of a mural crown Or, a
Wyvern’s head Argent.” There arefeveral inftances of
crefts that are relative to alliances, employments, or
aames ; and which on that account have been changed.
Sect. IX. Of the Scroll.
The Scroll is the ornament placed above the creft,
containing a motto, or Ihortfentence, alluding thereto,
or to the bearings; or to the bearer’s name, as in the
two following inftances. The motto of the noble
earl of Cholmondeley is, Cajjis tutifjima virtus ; i. e.
“ Virtue is the fafeft helmeton account of hel¬
mets in the coat-of-arms. The motto of the right
hon. lord Fortefcue is, Forte feutum falus ducum ; i. e.
‘‘ A ftrong Ihield is the fafety of the commanders;”
L D R Y. Chap. \
alluding to the name of that ancient family. Some- Of
times it has a reference to neither, but expreffes fome- SuPPor
thing divine or heroic ; as that of- the earl of Scarbo¬
rough, which is, Murus <ereus confcientia fana ; i. e.
“ A goodconfcence is a wall ofbrafs.’’ Others are tenig-
matical; as that of the royal atchievement, which is
Dieu et man droit, i. e. “ God and my right in¬
troduced by Edward III. in 1340, when he affumed
the arms and title of king of France, and began to
profecute his claim, which occafioned long and bloody
wars, fatal, by turns, to both kingdoms: or that of
the prince of Wales, which is Ich Dien, “ I ferve,”
the origin of which has been already mentioned.
Mottos, though hereditary in the families that firft
took them up, have been changed on fdme particular
occafions, and others appropriated in their ilead, in¬
ftances of which are fometimes met with in the hiftory
of families.
Sect. X. Of Supporters.
Supporters arc figures Handing on the fcroll, and
placed at the fide of the efeutcheon; they are fo called,
becaufe they feem to fupport or hold up the fhield.
The rife of fupporters is, by F. Meneftrier, traced up
to ancient tournaments, wherein the knights caufed
their ftiields to be carried by fervants or pages under
the difguife of lions, bears, griffons, blackamoors, &c.
who abb held and guarded the efcutcheons, which the
knights were obliged to expofe to public view for
fome time before the lifts were opened. Sir George
Mackenzie, who diffents from this opinion, fays, in
his Treatife on the faience of heraldry, chap. xxxi. p. 93.
“ That the firft origin and ufe of them was from the
“ cuftom which ever was, and is, of leading fuch as
“ are inverted with any great honour to the prince
“ who confers it: thus, when any man is created a
“ duke, marquis, or knight of the garter, or any
“ other order, he is fupported by, and led to the
“ prince betwixt two of the quality, and fo receives
“ from him the fymbols of that honour; and in re-
“ membrance of that folemnity, his arms are there-
“ after fupported by any two creatures he choofes.”
Supporters have formerly been taken from fuch ani¬
mals or birds as are borne in the fliields, and fome¬
times they have been chofen as bearing fome allufion
to the names of thofe whofe arms they are made to
fupport. The fupporters of the arms of Great Bri¬
tain, fince king James the firft’s acceffion to the
throne, are a Lion rampant guardant crowned Or, on
the dexter-Jide, and an Unicorn Argent, crowned, armed',
nnguled, maned and gorged with an antique Crown,
to which a chain is affixed, all Or, on the finifter; as it
appears by fig. xxi. n° 7.
This laft figure reprefents the coat-of-arms of the
king of Great Britain, or the royal atchievement, as
it has been ma’-ftialled fince the acceffion of king
George I. in 1714, and is blazoned as follows, viz.
ARMS. Quarterly, in the firjl grand quarter
Gules, three Lions rampant guardant in pale Or,
the imperial enfigns of England; impaled with Or, a
Lion rampant, within a double trejfure flowery and
counter-flowery Gules- the royal arms of Scotland.
The fecond is Azure, three Fleurs-de-lis Or, the arms
of France. The third is Azure, a Harp Or, fringed
Argent, the enlign of Ireland. The fourth grand
quarter
Chap. V. HERALDRY.
°f quarter is Gules, two Lions pajfant guardant in pale p. 3588. and alfo in Ex. ix. p. 3595. wherein thefe
.—Or, for Brunfwick ; impaled with Or femee of Hearts expreffions, of the Field, or of the Firft, prevent the re-
proper, a Lion rampant Azure, for Lunenburgh; with
grafted in hafe Gules, a Horfe current Argent, for an¬
cient Saxony; and in a Jhield furtout Gules, the Crown
tf Charlemagne Or, arch-treafurer of the empire;
the whole within a Garter, infcrihed with this ?notto,
Honi soit quj mal y pense, as fovereign of that
noble order, given by the founder king Edward III.
CREST. On a Helmet full-faced, grated andftr-
viounted of a Crown, a Lion guardant crowned Or;
the mantlings of the lafl, and lining Ermine.
SUPPORTERS. On the Dexter-fde, a Lion ram¬
pant guardant Or, crowned as the Cref. On the Sinifer-
fide an Unicorn Argent, crowned, armed, maned, and un-
guled Or, gorged with an antique Crown ; a Chain affixed
thereto, refietting over the back, and paffing over the
hind legs of the lafl, both funding on a Scroll infcribed
with this motto, Dieu et mon droit, from which
iffiue the two Royal Badges of his Majefly's chief Domi¬
nions, viz. on the Dexter fide a Rofe party per Pale
Argent and Gules, falked and leaved proper, for Eng¬
land ; and on the Siniflerfide a Thiflle proper, for
Scotland ; being fo adorned by king James I. upon
his fucceeding to the crown of England Asking of
Scotland, he bore two unicorns, as above, for his flip-
porters ; but upon the union of that kingdom with
England, 1603, he introduced one of the above fup-
porters on the finifter-fide of the royal atchievement,
and which continues to this day.
It is to be obferved, that bearing coats-of-arms
fupported, is, according to the heraklrical rules of
England, the prerogative, ift, Of thofe called wW?/
majores, viz. dukes, marquifes, earls, vifcounts, and
barons; 2d, Of all knights of the garter, though they
fhould be under the degree of barons; 3d, Of knights
of the Bath, who both receive on their creation a grant
of fupporters. And, laftly, of fuch knights as the
king choofes to beftow this honour upon ; as in the in¬
fiance of Sir Andrew Fountain, who was knighted by
Philip earl of Pembroke, when lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, Fountain being then his fecretary; and on his
return to England, king William granted him fup¬
porters to his arms, viz. two Griffons Gules and Or.
In Scotland, all the chiefs of clans, or names have
the privilege of claiming fupporters; alfo the baro¬
nets. But by aft of parliament, 10th September,
1672, none are allowed to ufe either arms or fupport¬
ers, under a penalty and confifcation of all moveables
whereon arms are put, without the lord Lyon’s au¬
thority.
V.
CHAP.
Of the Rules or Laws of Heraldry.
The feveral efculcheons, tinftures, charges, and
ornaments of coats-of-arms, and their various pro¬
perties, being now explained; it may not be im¬
proper to fubjoin fuch rules for blazoning the fame,
as the ancient ufage and laws of heraldry have etta-
blilhed amongft us.
I. The firfl and mod general rule is, to exprefs
one’s felf in proper terms, fo as not to omit any thing
that ought to be fpecified, and at the fame time to be
clear and concife without tautology; as in Ex. xiv.
petition of the forementioned tinfture.
II. One muft begin with the tinfture of the field,
and then proceed to the principal charges which pof-
fefs the moft honourable place in the fhield, fuch as
Fefs, Cheveron, &c. always naming that charge firfl:
which lies next and immediately upon the field; as in
Ex. xv. p. 3593.
III. After naming the tinfture of the field, the
honourable ordinaries, or other principal figures, you
muft fpecify their attributes, and afterwards their metal
or colour, as in Ex. xvi. p. 3601.
IV. When an honourable ordinary, or fome one
figure, is placed upon another, whether it be a Fefs,
Cheveron, Crofs, &c. it is always to be named after
the ordinary or figure over which it is placed, with
one of thefe expreffions, or over-all, as in Ex.
xx. p. 3593.
V. In the blazoning of fuch ordinaries as are plain,,
the bare mention of them is fufficient; but if an ordi¬
nary ihoiild be made of any of the crooked lines men¬
tioned above, its form muft be fpecified; that is,
whether it be Engrailed, Wavy, &c. as in Ex. i. ii.
iii. &e. p. 3588.
VI. When a principal figure poffefles the centre of
the field, its pofition is not to be exprefitd: or (which
amounts to the fame thing) when a bearing is named,
without fpecifying the point where it is placed, then
it is underftood to poffefe the middle of the ftiield, as
in Ex. xv. p. 3602..
VII. The number of the points of mullets or ftars
muft be fpecified when more than five; and alfo if a
mullet or any other charge be pierced, it muft be men¬
tioned as fuch, to diftinguilh it from what is plain; as
in Ex. xiii. and xiv. p. 3599.
VIII. When a ray of the fun, or other fingle figure,,
is borne in any other part of the efcutcheon than the
centre, the point it iflues from muft be named; as in.
Ex. iii. p. 3599. col. 1.
IX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits,
birds, &c. is no otherwife to be expreffed in blazon*
ing but by the.word proper, as in Exam. ii. vii.
p. 3602.: but if difcoloured, that is, if they differ from
their natural colour, it muft be particularized; as in
Ex. i. ii. &c. p. 3600.
X. When three figures are in a field, and their po-
fi-tion is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are al¬
ways underftood to be placed two above, and one be¬
low; as fig. xxii. n° 3.
XI. When there are many figures of the fame fpe-
cies borne in a coat-of-arms, their number muft be
obferved as they (land, and diftinftly expreffed; as in
Ex. i. p. 3603.
But for the better underftanding of this laft rule, we
have inferted examples of the different difpofltions of
figures, wherein they are properly reprefented; viz.
Two may be ranged in Pale, in Fefs, &c. See
fig. xxii. n° 1 and 2.
Three, may be 2 and I, as alfo in bend, &c. See
n° 3 and 4.
Four, are placed 2 and 2, or cantoned, as in
n° S' . r
Five, 1, 3, 1, in Crofs; or 2, 1, 2, in Saltier. See
n° 6 and 7.
Six,,
3609
Rules of
Heraldry.
36io
Marlhalling
HERA
Six, 3, 2, 1, in Pile; or 2, 2, 2, Paleways. See
n° 8 and 9.
Eight, in Orle, or on a Bordure. See n° 10.
Nine, 3, 3, 3, Barways ; or 3, 3, 2, 1, in Pile.
See n° 11 and 12.
7V», 4, 3, 2, 1, in Pile; or elfe 4, 2, 4, Barways.
See n° 13 and 14.
Twelve, are placed 4, 4, 4, Barways. See n0 15.
There are other pofitions called irregular •, as for
example, when three figures which are naturally placed
2 and 1, are difpofed 1 and 2, &c. It mull alfo be
obferved, that when the field is rtrewed with the fame
figures, this is exprefied by the word femee: but, ac¬
cording to a French armorift’s opinion, if the figures
ftrewed on the field are whole ones, it mud be denoted
by the words fans nombre; whereas, if part of them is
cut off at the extremities of the efcutcheon, the word
femee or femi is then to be ufed.
CHAP. VI.
<?/Marshalling Coats-of-arms.
By marfjailing coats-of-arms, is to be underftood
the art of difpofing divers of them in one efcutcheon,
and of diftributing their contingent ornaments in proper
places.
Various caufes may occafion arms to be thus con¬
joined, which J. Guillim comprifes under two heads,
viz. manifejl and ohfcure.
What this learned and judicious herald means by
manifeft caufes in the marflialling of coats-of-arms,
are fuch as betoken marriages, or a fovereign’s gift,
granted either through the fpecial favour of the prince,
or for fome eminent fervices. Concerning marriages,
it is to be obferved,
I. When the coats-of-arms of a married couple,
defcended of diftinfl families, are to be put together
in one efcutcheon, the field of their refpe&ive arms is
conjoined Paleways, and blazoned parted per Pale,
Baron and Femme, two coats; firfl,-<bc. In which cafe
the baron’s arms are always to be placed on the dexter-
fide, and the femme’s arms on the finifter-fide, as in
n° 1 and 2, and fig. xxiii. Of arms marfhalled s\n\dc\v are,
1. The coat-of-arms of the rev. Edward Bar¬
nard, D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty,
provoft of Eton-college, canon of Windfor, &c. im¬
paled with that of S. Haggatt, his late fpoufe.
2. The coat-of arms of the rev. Thomas Dam-
pier, D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty, pre¬
bendary of Durham, canon of Windfor, &c. impaled
with that of F. Walker, his fpoufe.
If a widower marry again, his late and prefent
wife’s arms are, according to G. Leigh, “ to be both
“ placed on the finifterfide, in the efcutcheon with
“ his own, and parted per Pale. The firft wife’s
“ coat fiiall ftand on the Chief, and the fecond on the
' “ Bafe ; or he may fet them both in Pale with his
“ own, the firft wife’s coat next to himfelf, and his
“ fecond outermoft. If he ftionld marry a third wife,
“ then the two firft matches fliall ftand on the Chief,
“ and the third fhall have the whole Bafe. And if
“ he take a fourth wife, (he muft participate one-half
“ of the Bafe with the third wife, and fo will they
“ they feem to be fo many coats quartered.” But it
muft be obferved, that thefe forms of impaling are meant
LORY. Chap. VI.
of hereditary coats, whereby the hufband ftands in ex- Marfhalling
pedtation of having the hereditary pofleffions of his wife ~
united to his patrimony.
II. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal
coat of the baron, the proper differences by which
they were borne by the fathers of fuch women muft
be inferted.
III. If a coat-of-arms that has a Bordure be im¬
paled with another, as by marriage, then the Bordure
muft be wholly omitted in the fide of the arms next
the centre.
IV. The perfon that marries an heirefs, inftead of
impaling his arms with thofe of his wife, is to bear
them in an efcutcheon placed in the centre of his
fttield, after the fame manner as the baronet’s badge
is marfhalled in n° 3. and which, on account of its
(hewing forth his pretenfion to her eftate, is called an
efcutcheon of pretence, and is blazoned fur-tout, i. e.
over-all, as the inefcutcheon borne in the fourth quar¬
ter of the royal atchievement. But the children are
to bear the hereditary coat-of-arms of their father
and mother quarterly, which denotes a fixed in¬
heritance, and fo tranfmit them to pofterity. The
firft and fourth quarters generally contain the father’s
arms, and the fecond and third the mother’s; except
the heirs (hould derive not only their eftate, but alfo
their title and dignity, from their mother.
V. If a maiden or dowager lady of quality marry a
commoner, or a nobleman inferior to her rank, their
coats-of-arms may be fet afide of one another in two
feparate efcutcheons, upon one mantle or drapery,
and the lady’s arms ornamented according to her title;
fee n°4and5, which reprefent thecoats-of-arms of Gen.
C. Montagu, and lady Elizabeth Villiers vifcountefs
Grandifon.
VI. Archbiftiops and bidtops impale their arms
differently from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving
the place of honour, that is, the dexter-fide, to the
arms of their dignity, as it is expreffed in n° 6,
which reprefents the coat-of-arms of Dr Philip
Yonge, lord bilhop of Norwich. It may be ob¬
ferved of the above prelates, that they thus bear their
arms parted per Pale, to denote their being joined
to their cathedral church in a fort of fpiritual mar¬
riage.
With refpeA to fuch armorial enfigns as the fove-
reign thinks fit to augment a coat-of-arms with, they
may be marflialled various ways, as may be feen by
the arms of his grace the duke of Rutland, inferted in
fig. viii. n° 19. and the example cohtained in fig. xii.
n° 11.
To thofe augmentations may be added, iff, The
baronet’s mark of diftinftion, or the arms of the pro¬
vince ofUlfter in Ireland, granted and made heredi¬
tary in the male line by king James I. who eredled
this dignity on the 22d of May, 1611, in the 9th
year of his reign, in order to propagate a plantation
in the fore-mentioned province. This mark is dr-
gent. a Jtnifler Hand couped at the Wrijl, and ere fled
Gules', which may be borne either in a canton, or in
an efcutcheon, as will beft fuit the figures of the arms.
See fig. xxiii. n0 3. which reprefents the coat-of-arms
of Sir William Lorrayne, of Kirk-harle, Northumber¬
land, and are thus blazoned: Quarterly, Sable ana
Argent, a plain Crofs counter-quartered of the Field.
TTrti at,t>t;y
Hare CXtflX.
Chap. VII. HERA
Of The Creft,—A Laurel-tree couped, two "branches fprout-
" 'tng out proper, and fixed to the lower part thereof with
  a Belt Gules, edged and buckled Or. Tins, according
to tradition in the family, was granted for fome worthy
adtion in the field.
zdly. The ancient and refpe&able badge of the
moft noble order of the Garter, inftituted by king
Edward III. 1349, in the 27th year of his reign; and
which, ever fince its inftitution, has been looked upon
as a great honour beftowed on the nobleft perfons of
this nation and other countries. This honourable
augmentation is made to furround, as with a garter,
the arms of fuch knights, and is infcribed with this
motto, Honi foit qui ?nal y penfe; See n0 7. which
reprefents the coat-of-arms of his grace the duke of
Montagu, earl of Cardigan, baron Brudenel of
Stanton-Wivil, conftable and lieutenant of Windfor-
caftle, knight of the mod noble order of the Garter,
and baronet, prefident of St Luke’s Hofpital, and
F. R. S.
This nobleman, whofe arms were Argent, a Cheve-
ron Gules between three Morions proper, has, fince the
deceafe of John duke of Montagu, taken the name
and arms of Montagu, on account of his being married
to lady Mary Montagu, youngeft; daughter and one of
the co-heirelfes of his grace.
So far the caufes for marffialling divers arms in one
fliield. &c. are manifejl. As to fuch as are called oh-
/cure, that is, when coats-ofarms are marfhalled in
fuch a manner, that no probable reafon can be given
why they are fo conjoined, they muft be left to heralds
to explain, as being the propereft perfons to unfold
thefe and other mylteries of this fcience.
CHAP. VII.
(^Funeral Escutcheons.
After having treated of the efiential parts of the
coats-of-arms, of the various charges and ornaments
ufually borne therewith, of their attributes and difpo-
fitions, and of the rules for blazoning and marfhalling
them, we fhall next defcribe the feveral funeral efcut-
cheons, ufually called hatchments; whereby may be
known, after any perfon’s deceafe, what rank either he
or flie held when living ; and if it be a gentleman’s
hatchment, whether he was a batchelor, married man,
or widower, with the like diilindtions for gentle¬
women.
Plate The hatchment, N° t. reprefents fuch as are af-
CLI. fixed to the fronts of houfes, when any of the no¬
bility and gentry dies; the arms therein being thofe
of a private gentleman and his wife parted per pale;
the dexter-fide, which is Gules, three Bars Or, for
the hufband; having the ground without the efcut-
cheon black, denotes the man to be dead; and the
ground on the finifter-fide being white, fignifies that
the wife is living, which is alfo demonftrated by
the fmall hatchment, n° 2. which is here depided with¬
out mantling, helmet, and creft, for perfpicuity’s fake
only.
When a married gentlewoman dies firft, the hatch¬
ment is diftinguiftied by a contrary colour from the
former; that is, the arms on the finifter-fide have the
ground without the efcutcheon black ; whereas thofe
L D R Y. 3611
on the dexter-fide, for her furviving hufband, are upon Of
a white ground : the hatchment of a gentlewoman is, Hatch-
moreover, differenced by a cherub over the arms in-. m£<Us*
ftead of a creft. See n° 3.
When a batchelor dies, his arms may be depi&ed
fingle or quartered, with a creft over them, but never
impaled as the two firft are, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon is alfo black. See n° 4.
When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a
lozenge, may be fingle or quartered, as thofe of a
batchelor ; but, inftead of a creft, have a cherub over
them, and all the ground without the efcutcheon is alfo
black. Seen0 5.
When a widower dies, his arms are reprefented im¬
paled with thofe of his deceafed wife, having a helmet,
mantling, and creft over them, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon black. See n° 6.
When a widow dies, her arms are alfo reprefented
impaled with thofe of her deceafed hufband, but in-
clofed in a lozenge, and, inftead of a creft, a cherub is
placed over them ; all the ground without the efcut¬
cheon is alfo black. See n° 7.
If a widower or batchelor fhould happen to be the
laft of his family, the hatchment is depidfed as in n° 6.;
and that of a maid or widow, whofe family is extinft
by her death, is depicted as in n° 7. with this diffe¬
rence only, that a death-head is generally annexed to
each hatchment, to denote, that death has conauered
all. ^
By the forementioned rules, which are fometimes
negle&ed through the ignorance of illiterate people,
may be known, upon the fight of any hatchment, what
branch of the family is dead; and by the helmet or
coronet, what title and degree the deceafed perfon
was of.
The fame rules are obferved with refpe& to the efcut-
cheons placed on the hearfe and horfes ufed in pom¬
pous funerals, except that they are not furmounted with
any creft, as in the foregoing examples of hatchments,
but are always plain. It is neceffary, however, to enfign
thofe of peers with coronets, and that of a maiden lady
with a knot of ribbands..
In Scotland, a. funeral efcutcheon not only fhews
forth the arms and condition of the defund, but is
alfo a proof of the gentility of his defcent ; and fuch
perfons for whom this fpecies of efcutcheon can be
made out, are legally entitled to the ehara&er of
gentlemen of blood, which is the higheft fpecies of
gentility. The Englilh hatchment above defcribed
exhibits no more than a right to a coat-of-arms which
may be acquired by purchafe, and is only the firft ftep
towards eftabliftiing gentility in a family.
The funeral efcutcheon as exhibited in Scotland,
France, and Germany, is in form of a lozenge, above
fix feet fquare, of black cloth ; in the centre of which
is painted, in proper colours, the complete atchieve-
ment of the defund, with all its exterior ornaments
and additional marks or badges of honour; and round
the fides. tq-e placed the fixtcen arms of the families
from which he derives his defcent, as far back as the
grandfather’s grandfather, as the proofs of his genti¬
lity : they exhibit the armorial bearings of his father
and mother, his two grandmothers, his four great¬
grandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers mo¬
thers ; if all thefe families have acquired a legal right
ta
36i
HERALDRY.
Of to bear arms, then the gentility of the perfon whofe
Precedency proof ;t ;s muft be accounted complete, but not other-
“ vvife. On the four corners are placed mort-heads,
and the initials of his name and titles or defignation;
and the black interftices are femee or powdered with
tears, as in the figure, n° 8. which is the efcutcheon
of the right hon. James 5th earl of Balcarras, chief of
the ancient fnrname of Lindefay.
On the morning of the interment, one of thefe is
placed on the front of the honfe where the deceafed
lies; and another on the church in which he is to be
buried, which after the burial is fixed abpve the
grave. The pall, too, is generally adorned with
thefe proofs of gentility, and the horfes of the hearfe
with the defunft’s arms.
CHAP. VIII.
Of Precedency.
The order of precedency, which is obferved in ge¬
neral, is thus, That perfons of every degree of honour
or dignity take place according to the feniority of
their creation, and not of years, unlefs they are de-
fcended from the bfood-royal; in which cafe, they
have place of all others of the fame degree.
The younger fons of the preceding rank take place
from the eldeft fon of the next mediate, viz. the
younger fons of dukes from the eldeft fons of earls ;
the younger fons of earls from the eldeft fons of ba¬
rons. All the chain of precedency is founded upon
this gradation, and thus fettled by ad of parliament,
31 Henry VIII. cap. 10. anno 1539.
But there have been fince fome alterations made in
this ad by feveral decrees and eftabliftiments in the
fucceeding reigns, whereby all the fons of vifcounts
and barons are allowed to precede baronets. And the
eldeft fons and daughters of baronets have place given
them before the eldeft fons and daughters of any
knights, of what degree or order foever, though fupe-
rior to that of a baronet; thefe being but temporary
dignities, whereas that of baronets is hereditary : and
the younger fons of baronets are to have place next
after the eldeft fons of knights.
Obferve alfo, that as there are fome great officers of
flate, who take place, although they are not.noble¬
men, above the nobility of higher degree ; fo there are
fomc perfons, who, for their dignities in the church,
degrees in the univerfities, and inns of court, officers in
the ftate, or army, although they are neither knights,
nor gentlemen born, yet take place amongft them.
Thus, all colonels and field officers who are honour¬
able, as alfo the mafterof the ordnance, quarter-mafter
general, doctors of divinity, law, phyfic, and mufic;
deans, chancellors, prebendaries, heads of colleges in
univerfities, and ferjeants at law, are, by courtefy, al¬
lowed place before ordinary efquires. And all ba¬
chelors of divinity, law, phyfic, and mufic; mafters of
arts, barrifters in the inns of courts; lieutenant-colo¬
nels, majors, captains, and other commiffioned military
officers; and divers patent officers in the king’s houfe-
hold, may equal, if not precede, any gentleman that
has none of thefe qualifications.
In towns corporate, the inhabitants of cities are
preferred to thofe of boroughs ; and thofe who have
borne magiftracy, to all others. And herein a younger
1 Degree.
Chap. VIII. ■
alderman takes not precedency from his fenior by be- ot
ing knighted, or as being the elder knight, as was the t>recedeitcy|
cafe of Alderman Craven, who, though no knight, had
place as fenior alderman, before all the reft who were
knights, at the coronation of king James. This is to
be underftood as to public meetings relating to the
town ; for it is doubted whether it will hold good in
any neutral place. It has been alfo determined in the
earl marfhal’s court of honour, that all who have been
lord mayors of London, fhall every where take place of
all knights-batchelors, becaufe they have been the
king’s lieutenants.
It is alfo quoted by Sir George Mackenzie, in his
obfervations on precedency, that in the cafe of Sir John
Crook, ferjeant at law, it was adjudged by the judges
in court, that fuch ferjeants as were his feniors, though
not knighted, fhould have preference notwithftanding
his knighthood.—The precedency among men is as
follows:
The King, and Prince of Wales.
Princes of the Blood, viz. Sons, Grandfons, Bro¬
thers, Uncles, &c. of the king.
The fello<wing precede all Dukes by authority of the
aforementioned Ad of Parliament.
Archbifhop of Canterbury.
Lord Chancellor, or Lord-Keeper.
Archbiffiop of York.
Lord Treafurer of England.
Lord Prefident of the Privy-council.
Lord Privy-Seal.
Thefe alfo precede all of their
Lord Great-Chamberlain.
Lord High-Conftable.
Lord Earl-Marfhal.
Lord High-Admiral.
Lord Steward of the Houftiold.
Lord Chamberlain of the Houfhold.
Secretaries of State.
Then, according to their refpeftive Creations,
Dukes.
Marquifes.
Dukes eldejl fons.
Earls.
Marquifes eldeft fons.
Dukes younger fons.
Vifcounts.
Earls eldef fons.
Marquifes younger Jons.
Biftiops.
Barons.
Speaker of the Houfe of Commons.
Vifcounts eldejl fons.
Earls younger fons.
Barons eldef fons.
Knights of the Garter.
Privy-counfellors, who are ftyled Right Honourable.
Chancellor and Under-treafurer of the Exchequer.
Chancellor of the dutchy of Lancafter.
Lord Chief-juftice of the King’s-bench.
Mafter of the Rolls.
Lord Chief-juftice of the Common-pleas.
Lord Chief-baron of the Exchequer.
Juftices and Barons in the Courts of Law.
Vifcounts younger fons.
Barons younger Jons,
Ba-
Plate Cm.
UERAI/DIYT.
1'tTNK RAIi A T CHIKVBMKNT 8 • ^
Chap. VIII. HERALDRY.
Of Baronets of England.
preccdency Baronets of Scotland.
Baronets of Ireland.
Knights of the Bath.
Field and Flag-officers.
Knights-bachelors.
Mailers in Chancery.
Dodlors, Deans, &c.
Serjeants at law.
Baronets eldeji fans.
Knights of the Garter's eldeji font*
Knights of the Bath's eldef fans,
Knights Bachelors eldejl fans.
Baronets younger fons.
Efquires by creation.
Efquires by office.
Gentlemen.
Citizens.
Burgefles, &c.
The efquires attending on knights of the Bath take
place alfo from thofe gentlemen who are reputed
efquires only during the time they are in office, and no
longer; fuch as high (heriffs, jullices of the peace, &c.
The precedency among men being known, that
which is due to women, according to their feveral de¬
grees, will be eafily demonftrated : but it is to be
obferved, that women, before marriage, have prece¬
dency by their father ; with this difference between
them and the male children, that the fame precedency
is due to all the daughters that belongs to the elded ;
which is not fo among the fons ; and the reafon of this
difparity feems to be, that daughters all fucceed equal¬
ly, whereas the elded fon excludes all the red.
By marriage, a woman participates of her hulband’s
dignities; but none of the wife’s dignities can come
by marriage to her hulband, but are to defcend to her
next heir.
If a woman have precedency by creation, or birth,
ffie retains the fame though die marry a commoner:
but if a woman nobly born marry any peer, die (hall
take place according to the degree of her hufband on¬
ly, though (he be a duke’s daughter.
A woman, privileged by marriage with one of noble
degree, (hall retain the privilege due to her by her
huffiand, though he (hould be degraded by forfeiture,
&c.; for crimes are perfonal.—Sir G. Mackenzie, Of
Precedency, chap. ix.
The wife of the elded fon of any degree takes place
of the daughters of the fame degree, who always have
place immediately after the wives of fuch elded fons,
and both of them take place of the younger fons of the
preceding degree. Thus, the lady of the elded fon of
an earl takes place of an earl’s daughter, and both of
them precede the wife of the younger fon of a mar¬
quis ; alfo the wife of any degree precedes the wife of
the elded fon of the preceding degree. Thus, the wife
of a marquis precedes the wife of the elded fon of a
duke.
This holds not only in comparing degrees, but alfo
families of the fame degree amonglt themfelves; for
indance, the daughter of a fenior earl yields place to
the wife of a junior earl’s elded fon: Though, if fuch
daughter be an heirefs, (he will then be allowed place
before the wives of the elded fons of all younger earls.
(W. Segar, Of Honourable Places, chap, xxii.) The
precedeqcy among women is as follows:
The Queen, and Princefs of Wales.
Princesses, and Duchesses of the Blood.
Duchesses.
Wives of the elded? r t-, , r i i
fons ; Daughters, \ ^ Dukes of the B,ood-
Marchionesses.
Wives of the elded? f-p, ,
fons; Daughters,^ ofDukeS-
Countesses.
Wives of the elded? f
fons; Daughters. 5 °fMar<lUlfeS-
Wives of the younger fons of Dukes.
Viscountesses.
Wives of the elded? f-i? ,
fons; Daughters,! °fEar,s-
Wives of the younger fons of Marquifes.
Baronesses.
Wives of the elded ? f ,rr
fons; Daughters, !ofV,fcount8*
Wives of the younger fons of Earls.
Wives of the elded ? f „
fons; Daughters, !°fBarons;
Wives of the younger fons of Vifcounts.
Wives of the younger fons of Barons.
Wives of Baronets.
Wives of Knights of the Garter.
Wives of Knights of the Bath.
Wives of Knights Bachelors.
Wives of the elded ? f „
r t\ , t > ot Baronets.
(ons; Daughters, 3
Wives of the elded ~
of Knights of the Garter,
of Knights of the Bath.
fons; Daughters, 5
Wives of the elded ?
fons; Daughters, 5
Wives of the elded ? r it • , ■„ , ,
fons; Daughters, !°f Kn'ghts-Bachelors.
Wives of the younger fons of Baronets.
Wives of Esquires, by creation.
Wives of Esquires, by office.
Wives of Gentlemen.
Daughters of Efquires.
Daughters of Gentlemen.
Wives of Citizens.
Wives of Burgeffes, &c.
The Wives of Privy-counfellors, Judges, &c. are to
take the fame place as their hufbands do. Sec the
former lid.
HER ""
HERB, in botany ; a name by which Linnaeus de¬
nominates that portion of every vegetable which arifes
from the root, and is terminated by the fruftification.
It comprehends, i. The trunk, dalk, or dem. z.
The leaves. 3. Thofe minute external parts called by
Vol. V.
' HER
the fame author the fulcra, or fupports of plants.
4. The buds, or, as he alfo terms them, the 'winter-
quarters of the future vegetable.
Herbaceous Plants, are thofe which have fucculent
ftems or dalks that die down to the ground every year.
30 Q_ Of
3613
Of
Precedency
HER [36
Herbage Of herbaceous plants, thofe are annual which perifh
li ftem and r,oot and all every year ; biennial, which fub-
He‘bert roots two years ; perennial which are per¬
petuated by their roots for a feries of years, a new
llem being; produced every fpring.
HERBAGE, in law, fignifies the pafture provided
by nature for the food of cattle; alfo the liberty to
feed cattle in the foreft, or in another perfon’s ground.
HERBAL, fignifies a book that treats of the claf-
fes, genera, fpecies, and virtues of plants.
Herbal is fometimes alfo ufed for what is more
ufually called hortusJiccus. See Hortus.
HERBELOT (Bartholomew d’), a French wri¬
ter, eminent for his oriental learning, was born at Paris
in 1625. He travelled feveral times into Italy, where
he obtained the efteem of fome of the moft learned
men of the age. Ferdinand II. grand duke of Tuf-
cany, gave him many marks of his favour: a library
being expofed to fale at Florence, the duke defired
him to examine the manufcripts in the oriental lan¬
guages, to feleft the beft of them, and to mark the
price; which being done, that generous prince pur-
chafed them, and made him a prefent of them. M.
Colbert being at length informed of Herbelot’s merit,
recalled him to Paris, and obtained a penfion for him
of one thoufand five hundred livres: he afterwards
became fecretary and interpreter of the oriental lan¬
guages, and royal profefibr of the Syriac tongue. He
died at Paris in 1695. His principal work is intitled
Bibliotheque Orientate, which he firft wrote in Arabic,
and afterwards tranfiated into French. It is greatly
efteemed. M. Herbelot’s modefty was equal to his
erudition ; and his uncommon abilities were accom¬
panied with the utmoft probity, piety, and charity,
which he pra&ifed through the whole courfe of his life.
HERBERT (Mary), conntefs'of Pembroke, was
fitter of the famous Sir Philip Sidney, and wife of Hen¬
ry earl of Pembroke. She was not only a lover of the
mufes, but a great encourager of polite literature ; a
chara&er not very common among ladies. Her bro¬
ther dedicated his incomparable romance Arcadia
to her, from which circumttance it hath been called
The countejs of Pembroke's Arcadia. She tranflated a
dramatic piece from the French, intitled Antonins, a
tragedy ; though it is faid fhe was afiifted by her lord’s
chaplain, Dr Babington, afterwards bittiop of Exe¬
ter. She alfo turned the pfalms of David into Englilh
metre; but it is doubtful whether thefe works were
ever printed. She died in 1621; and an exalted cha-
ra&er of her is to be found in Francis Ofboine’s me¬
moirs of king James I.
HERBERT (Edward), lord Herbert of Cherbu-
ry in Shropelhire, an eminent Englifh writer, was
born in 1581, and educated at Oxford; after which
he travelled, and at his return was made knight of the
Bath. James I. fent him embaflador to Lewis XIII.
in behalf of the Proteftants who were befieged in fe¬
veral cities of France ; and continued in this ftadon
till he was recalled, on account of a difpute between
him and the conftable de Luines. In 1625 he was
advanced to the.dignity of a baron in the kingdom of
Ireland, by the title of lord Herbert of Cattle Ifland;
and in 1631 to that of lord Herbert of Cherbury
in Shropfhire. After the breaking out of the civil wars,
he adhered to the parliament} and, in 1644, obtained
14 ] HER
a penfion, on account of his having been plundered Herbert
by the king’s forces. He wrote a hiftory of the life
and reign of Henry VIII. which was greatly admi- ial"^~
ed ; a treatife de veritate; and feveral other works.   
He died at London in 1648.
“ Lord Herbert,” fays Mr Granger, “ {lands in
the firft rank of the public minitters, hiftorians, and
philofophers, of his age. It is hard to fay whether
his perfon, his underttanding, or his courage, was
the moft extraordinary ; as the fair, the learned, and
the brave, held him in equal admiration. But the
fame man was wife and capricious ; redrefled wrongs,
and quarrelled for punftilios ; hated bigotry in reli¬
gion, and was himfelf a bigot to philofophyr. He'ex¬
pofed himfelf to fuch dangers, as other men of courage
would have carefully declined; and called in qneilion
the fundamentals of a religion which none had the har-
dinefs to difpute befides himfelf.”
Herbert (George), an Englifh poet and divine,
was brother to the preceding. He was born in 1593,
and educated at Cambridge. In 1619 he was cho-
fen: public orator of that univerfity, and afterwards
pbta.ined a finecure from the king. In 1626 he was
collated to the prebend of Layton Ecclefia, in the
diocefe of Lincoln ; and in 1630 was induced into the
redlory of Bamerton, near Sarum. The great lord
Bacon had fuch an opinion of his judgment, that h£
would not fuffer his works to be printed before they
had patted his examination. He wrote a volume of
devout poems called The Temple, and another intitled
The prieji of the temple. This pious divine died about
the year 1635.
Herbert (Sir Thomas), an eminent gentleman of
the Pembroke family, was born at York, where his
father was an alderman. William earl of Pembroke
fent him to travel at his expence in 1626, and he fpent
four years in vifiting Afia and Africa : hfs expectations
of preferment ending with the death of the earl, he
went abroad again, and travelled over feveral parts of
Europe. In 1634, he publifhed, in folio, A relation
of fome years travel into Africa and the Great Afia,
efpecially the territories of the Perfian monarchy, and
fome parts of the oriental Indies, and ifles adjacent.
On the breaking out of the civil war, he adhered to
the parliament 1 and at Oldenby,1 on the removal of
the king’s fervants, by defire of the corhmifiibners
from the parliament, he and James Harrington were
retained as grooms of his bed-chamber, and attended
him even to the block. At the rettoration he was cre¬
ated a baronet by Charles II. for his faithful fervices
to his father during his two laft years. In 1678 he
wrote Threnodia Carolina, containing an account of
the two laft years of the life of Charles I. and he af*
fitted Sir William Dhgdale in compiling the third vo¬
lume of his Monajlicon Anglicanism. He died at York
in 1682, leaving feveral MSS to the public library at
Oxford, and others to that of the cathedral at York-.
HERBIVOROUS animals, thofe which feed on¬
ly on vegetables.
HERCULANEUM, a city of Naples, fwallowed
up by an earthquake in the reign of the emperor Titus,
at the fame time that there was an eruption of Mount
Vefuvius: or rather it was overwhelmed with the afhes,
fulphur, and other matter thrown out of that mountain,
to the depth of eighty feet, and in fome places of more
than
HER [ 3615 ] HER
Keren- than a hundred ; as appears from the whole earth there-
lanctim, abouts being made up of the matter which has been
Hercules. jifg0rgecl from tl,e mountain, and all the houfes which
have appeared hitherto ftand perfeftly upright, which
could not be the cafe if this difaller had happened
from an earthquake. According to Strabo, one fide
of this ancient city was walked by the fea, and lay
expofed to the fouth-weft wind, which rendered it a
very falutary and agreeable place to dwell in. There
have been feveral attempts to open a pafiage to it: and
about a hundred years fince, a private gentleman found
means to get out as much treafure, of one fort or o-
ther, as he fold for eighteen thoufand pounds ; but one
of his companions betraying him to the government,
his effefts were feized, and he was forced to fly into
Germany. In 1738, this place was again examined,
by order of the government: and fome years ago they
funk a new paffage into the higher part of the city,
and when they were got to the level of the town, came
to a broad and open fquare, partly natural, and partly
made by the workmen; and round this they have bro¬
ken in to feveral fine apartments, and in one place in¬
to a whole ftreet. In this fquare they found various
antiquities, which Ihew the magnificence of the an¬
cients. One room was lined with mod beautiful purple
and white marble, in regular pannels, each of which
was edged with a black and gold-coloured marble,
and furrounded with another of blue, green, white,
and purple. The fined rooms were all covered with
paintings, which are dill extremely beautiful. In the
niches there were datues, exquifitely carved ; particu¬
larly a Juno of a blueifli white marble, the folding of
whofe robes, at a fmall didance, would be taken for
real linen. The expreflion of the face is much be¬
yond any thing of the kind that has been lately feen.
Among the paintings there is a Prometheus chained
to a rock, and a large bird feeding upon his liver; and
the whole is executed with fo much beauty and ma-
jedy, that it exceeds ail defeription. The figure is
eight feet in length, and the mufcles are exprefied
with furprizing art. The plumage of the bird
feems to be loofe and trembling, as in expec¬
tation of a fead ; and the fiercenefs of its eye is
very remarkable. This indeed is a horrible por¬
trait ; but that of Semele melting into tranfport at
the fight of Jupiter, is all foftnefs. There are a mul¬
titude of other figures, many of which are not under-
dood. However, there is a reprefentation of the pub¬
lic fhow of beads, where fome of the animals are
painted in a furprifing manner; as for indance, a dy-
ing tyger, the nobled performance of the kind ever
executed. There is likewife the death of Achilles, in
which the paffions are well exprefled, and a concealed
joy in the face of Polixena that nothing can come up
to. There have been likewife found a great many of
the utenfils and indruments formerly ufed among the
Romans; and many manuferipts, which are greatly de¬
cayed, and much art and care has been ufed to render
them legible.—Thefe manuferipts were thought to be
the mod valuable of all the curiofities which had been
difeovered ; and it was hoped that by their means fome
defe&s in ancient hidory might have been fupplied ;
but nothing of that kind hath been yet accompiifhed.
HERCULES, in fabulous hidory, a mod renown-
ned Grecian hero, faid to have been born at Thebes
about the year 1280 B. C. He is reported to have Hercules.
been the fon of Jupiter by Alcmena (wife to Am- ~~
phitryon king of Argos), whom Jupiter enjoyed in
the fhape of her hufoand while he wasabfent; and in
order to add the greater drength to the child, made
that amorous night as long as three. Amphitryon
having foon after accidentally killed his uncle and fa¬
ther-in-law Eleftryon, was obliged to fly to Thebes,
where Hercules was born. The jealoufy of Juno, on
account of her hulband’s amour with Alcmena,
prompted her to dedroy the infant. For this purpofe
fhe fent two ferpents to kill him in the cradle, but
young Hercules drangled them both. As he grew
up, he difeovered fuch extraordinary drength and
fiercenefs, that he was fent to be brought up among
fome fhepherds, where he killed a lion before he was
eighteen years of age.
Euridheus, the fon of Amphitryon,having fucceeded
his father, foon became jealous of Hercules; and fear¬
ing left he might by him be deprived of his crown,
left no means untried to get rid of him. Of this Her¬
cules was not infenfible, becaufe he was perpetually en-
gaging him on fome defperate expedition ; and there¬
fore went to confult the oracle. But being anfwered
that it was the pleafure of the gods that he fhould
ferve Euriftheus 1 2 years, he fell into a deep melan¬
choly, which at laft ended in a furious madnefs ; du-
ing which, among other defperate aftions, he put a-
way his wife Megara, and murdered all the children
he had by her. As an expiation of this crime, the
king impofed upon him twelve labours furpaffing the
power of all other mortals to accompliih, which nc-
verthelefs our hero performed with great eafe.
The firft labour impofed upon him was the killing
of a lion in Nemea, a wood of Achaia; whofe hide
was proof againft any weapon, fo that he was forced
to feize him by the throat and ftrangle him ; in me¬
mory of which he afterwards wore his Ikin about his
fhoulders.
In the fecond, he killed the Hydra; a monfter with
two heads, one of which was no fooner cut off, than
two fprung up in its room.
In the third, he brought the Erymanthian boar alive
upon his (houlders; at the fight of which the king is
faid to have been fo frighted, that he ran and hid him-
felf in a brazen hogfhead. It was likewife in this ex¬
pedition that he overcame the famous Centaurs.
In his fourth, he caught a hart with golden horns,
and of prodigious fwiftnefs.
In his fifth labour, he was commanded to cleanfe
Augeas’s liable in one day, which he did by turning
the river Alpheus into it. See Augeas.
In the fixth he chafed away the mifehievous birds
of the lake Stymphalis, who are feigned to have li¬
ved upon human flelh, and to have been at length de-
ftroyed by Hercules’s arrows, or, according to others,
to have been only feared away from thence.
His feventh was to fetch a famous'bull from the ille
of Crete, with which Pafiph'ae the wife of Minos is
faid to have fallen in love. In this expedition, having
helped Jupiter to overcome the Titanic giants, he
reconciled Prometheus to him, and loofed him from
mount Caucafus.
The eighth was to fetch the mares of.Diomedes out
of Thrace, which were tied with iron-chains to bra-
20 Q^2 zen
Hercules.
HER [ .3616 . ] HER
zen mangers, and were fed with the flefh of theftran-
gers that paffed by that way. Hercules firft threw
their inhuman mafter to be devoured by them ; and
then brought the mares to Euryftheus, who dedicated
them to Juno. Their breed is faid to have continued
till Alexander’s time.
In the ninth he fetched away the girdle of the queen
of the Amazons : and,
In the tenth, the oxen of Geryon out of Iberia, or
Spain ; in the furtheft parts of which he ere£led his
two pillars, as the utmoft limits of the then known
world. Thefe ten labours he atchieved, as the fable
fays, in about eight years. In this expedition
he is likewife affirmed to have killed Antseus, a fa¬
mous giant of a monftrous fize, who, when weary with
wreftling or labour, was immediately refrdhed by
touching the earth. Pliny makes him the founder of
Tangier. Hercules overcame him in wreftling, and
flew him ; and after him the tyrant Bufiris in his way
through Egypt. This bloody man ufed to facrifice
all his guefts and ftrangers upon his altars ; and de-
figning to have done the fame by Hercules, was flain
by him, together with all his attendants.
His two laft talks were fetching'Cerberus out of
hell, and carrying away the Hefperian golden apples
kept by a dragon ; which laft is interpreted to have
been fome fine herd of cattle kept by a ftrong man,
and brought out of Africa to the king.
Many other exploits are faid to have been perform¬
ed by Hercules; the laft of which was againft Eury-
tus king Oechalia, who refufed to give him Idle his
daughter, whom he had won by (hooting againft him
and his fons. Upon this he flew him and his fons,
and carried off his daughter with him. Coming foon
after to the Cenaean promontory in Euboea, to offer
fome facrifice there, he fent his fervant Lychas to
Trachin, to his wife Dejanira, for the fhirt and coat in
which he ufed to perform that ceremony.
This princefs had fome time before been attempted
by the centaur Neffus, as he was ferrying her over the
river Euenus; and Hercules beholding it from the
fhore, had given him a mortal wound with an arrow.
The monfter finding himfelf dying, advifed her to
mix fome oil with the blood which flowed from his
wound, and to anoint her hulband’s Ihirt with it, pre¬
tending that it would infallibly fecure him from loving
any other woman ; and fhe, too well apprifed of his
inconftancy, had a&ually prepared the poifoned oint¬
ment accordingly.
Lychas coming to her for the garments, unfortu¬
nately acquainted her with his having brought away
Idle ; upon whichfhe, in a fit of jealoufy, anointed his
fliirt with the fatal mixture. This had no fooner
touched his body, than he felt the poifon diffufe itfelf
through all his veins; the violent pain of which caufed
him to difband his army, and to return to Trachin.
His torment ft ill increafing, he fent to confult the o-
racle for a cure ; and vvas anfwered that he fhould
caufe himfelf to be conveyed to mount Oeta, and there
rear up a great pile of wood, and leave the reft to Ju¬
piter.
By the time he had obeyed the oracle, his pains
being become intolerable, he dreffed himfelf in his
martial habit, flung himfelf upon the pile, and defi-
red the by-ftanders to fet fire to it; others fay that Hercules
he left the charge of it to his fon Philoftetes, who ha- „
ving performed his father’s command, had his bow— -
and arrows given him as a reryard for his obedience.
At the fame time Jupiter, to be as good as bis word,
fent a flafh of lightning, which confumed both the pile
and the hero ; infomuch that lolaus, coming to take
up his bones, found nothing but aihes ; from which
they concluded that he was paffed from earth to heaven,
and joined to the gods.
Hercules, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206.
Hercules’/ Pillars, in antiquity, a name given
to mount Calpein Spain, near Gibraltar; and mount
Avila on the African fide.
HERCYNIA silva, (anc. geog.) the largeft of
forefts. Its breadth was a journey of nine days to the
beft traveller. Taking its rife at the limits of the
Helvetii, Nemetes, and Raurtfci, it run along the Da¬
nube to the borders of the Daci and Anartes, a length
of 60 days journey, according to Caefar, who appears
to have been well acquainted with its true breadth,
feeing it occupied all Lower Germany. It may there¬
fore be coniidered as covering the whole of Germany ;
and moft of the other forefts may be confidered as parts
of it, though diftinguifhed by particular names : confe-
quently the Hartz, in the dnchy of Brunfwic, which
gave name to the whole, may be confidered as one of its
parts. The name Hartz denotes “refinous,” or “ pine-
trees.” By the Greeks it is called Orcynius, as a name
common to all the forefts in Germany; in the fame
manner as Hercynius was the name given by the Ro¬
mans; and both from the German Hartz.
HERD, among hunters, an affemblage of black
or fallow beafts, in contradiftinSion to flock. See
Flock.—In the hunting language there are various
terms ufed for companies of the divers kinds of game.
We fay a herd of harts or bucks, a levy of roes, a
rout of wolves, a richefs of martens, &c.
HEREDITAMENTS, whatever moveable things
a perfon may have to himfelf and his heirs by way of
inheritance ; and which, if not otherwife bequeathed,
defcend to him who is next heir, and not to the exe¬
cutor as chattels do.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to whate¬
ver belongs to a family by right of fucceffion from
heir to heir.
Hereditary is alfo figuratively applied to good or
ill qualities fuppofed to be tranfmitted from father to
fon : thus we fay virtueand piety are hereditary qualities
in fucha family ; and that in Italy the hatred of families
is hereditary. And indeed the gout, king’s evil,
madnefs, &c. may really be hereditary difeafcs.
Hereditary Right. The grand fundamental ma¬
xim upon which the jus corona, or right of fucceffion
to the throne of thefe kingdoms, depends, Sir Wil¬
liam Blackftone takes to be this : “ That the crown
is, by common law and conftitutional cuftom, heredita¬
ry ; and this in a manner peculiar to itfelf: but that the
right of inheritance may from time to time be changed
or limited by ad parliament; under which limitations
the crown dill continues herediiary ”
1. The crown is in general hereditary, or defcend-
ible to the next heir, on the death or demife of the laft
proprietor. All regal governments muft be either he¬
reditary
HER [36
Hereditary, reditary or elective : and as there is no inftance where-
  in the crown of England has ever been aff^ted to be
ele&ive, except by the regicides at the infamons and
unparallelled trial of king Charles j. it mull of confe-
quence be hereditary., Yet in fhus aflerting an
hereditary right, a jire divino title to the throne
is by no means intended. Such a title may
be allowed to have fubfifted under the theocratic
eftablifhments of the children of Ifrael in Paleftine :
but it never yet fubfifted in any other country ; fave
only fo far as kingdoms, like other human fabrics, are
fubjedl to the general and ordinary difpenfations of
Providence. Nor indeed have a jur: divino and an he¬
reditary right any neeeflary connexion with each o-
ther; as fome have very weakly imagined. The titles
of David and Jehu were equally jure divino as
thofe of either Solomon or Ahab ; and yet David
flew the fons of his predecefibr, and Jehu his prede-
ccflbr himfelf. And when our kings have the fame
warrant as they had, whether it be to fit upon the
throne of their fathers, or to deftroy the houfe of the
preceding fovereign, they will then, and not before,
poflefs the crown of England by a right like theirs,
immediately derived from heaven. The hereditary
right, which the laws of England acknowledge, owes
its origin to the founders of our conftitution, and to
them only. It has no relation to, nor depends upon,
the civil' laws of the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans,
or any other nation upon -earth ; the municipal laws
of one fociety having no connexion with, or influence
upon, the fundamental polity of another. The found¬
ers of our Englifli monarchy might perhaps, if they
had thought proper, have made it an eleftive mo¬
narchy; Snt they rather chofe, and upon good rea-
fon, to eftabliih originally a fucceflion by inheritance.
This has been acquiefced in by general confent, and
ripened by degrees into common law ; the very fame
title that every private man has to his own eftate.
Lands are not naturally defcendible, any more than
thrones : but the law has thought proper, for the be¬
nefit and peace of the public, to eftabliftt hereditary
fuectfiion in the one as well as the .other.
It muft be owned, an eleftive monarchy feems to be
the moft obvious, and beft fuited of any to the rational
principles of government, and the freedom of human
nature: and accordingly we find from hiftory, that, in
the infancy and firft rudiments of almoft every ftate,
the leader, chief magiftrate, or prince, hath ufually been
eledive. And, if the individuals who compofe that
ftate could always continue .true to firft: principles, un¬
influenced by paffion or prejudice, unaffailed by cor¬
ruption, and unawed by violence, eledive fucceflion
were as much to be defired in a kingdom, as in other
inferior communities. The belt, the wifeft, and the
braveft man would then be fare of receiving that crown,
which his endowments have merited ; and the fenfe of
an unbiafled majority would be dutifully acquiefced in
by the few who were of different opinions. But hiftory
and obfervation will inform us, that eledions of every
kind (in the prefent ftate of human nature) are too fre¬
quently brought about by influence, partiality, and ar¬
tifice : and, even where the cafe is otherwife, thefe
pradices will be often fufpeded, and as conftantly char¬
ged upon the fuccefsful, by a fplenetic difappointed
minority. This is an evil to which all focieties are
17 ] HER
liable; as well thofe of a private and domeftic kind, as Hered/tary.
the great community of the public, which regulates and'-
includes the reft. But in the former there is this ad¬
vantage, That fuch fufpicions, if falfe, proceed no far¬
ther than jealoufies and murmurs, which time will ef-
fedually fupprefs; and, if true, the injuftice may be
remedied by legal means, by an appeal to thofe tribu¬
nals to which every member of fociety has (by beco¬
ming fuch) virtually engaged to fubmit. Whereas, in
the great and independent fociety, which every nation
compofes, there is no fuperior to refort to but the law
of nature; no method to redrefs the infringements of
that law, but the adual exertion of private force. As
therefore between two nations, complaining of mutual
injuries, the quarrel can only be decided by the law of
arms; fo in one and the fame nation, when the funda¬
mental principles of their common union are fuppofed
to be invaded, and more efpecially when the appoint¬
ment of their chief magiftrate is alleged to be unduly
made, the only tribunal to which the complainants can
appeal is that of the God of battles, the only procefs
by which the appeal can be carried on is that of a ci¬
vil and inteftine war. An hereditary fucceflion to the
crown is therefore now eftablifhed, in this and moft o-
ther countries, in order to prevent that periodical blood-
fhed and mifery, which the hiftory of ancient imperial
Rome, and the more modern experience of Poland and
Germany, may fhew us are the confequencesof ele&ivc
kingdoms.
2. But, fecondly, as to the particular mode of in¬
heritance, It in general correfponds with the feodal
path of defeents, chalked out by the common law in
the fucceflion to landed eftates; yet with one or two
material exceptions. Like them, the crown will de-
feend lineally to the iffue of the reigning monarch;
as it did from king John to Richard II. through a re¬
gular pedigree of fix lineal generations: As in them
the preference of males to females, and the right of
primogeniture among the males, are ftriftly adhered
to. Thus Edward V. fucceeded to the crown, in pre¬
ference to Richard his younger brother, and Elizabeth
his elder filler. Like them, on failure of the male
line, it defeends to the iffue female ; according to the
ancient Britilh cullom remarked by Tacitus, Solent
fxminarum duftu bellare, et fexutn in imperiis non dif-
cernere. Thus Mary I. fucceeded to Edward VI. ;
and the line of Margaret queen of Scots, the daughter
of Henry VII, fucceeded, on failure of the line of Hen¬
ry VIII., his fon. But among the females, the crown
defeends by right of primogeniture to the eldeft daugh¬
ter only and her iffue ; and not, as in common inheri¬
tances, to all the daughters at once; the evident.ne-
ceflity of a foie fucceflion to the throne having occa-
fioned the royal law of defeents to depart from the
common law in this refpeft : and therefore queen Ma¬
ry, on the death of her brother, fucceeded to the
crown alone, and not in partnerlhip with her filler E-
lizabeth. Again, the doArine of reprefentation pre¬
vails in the defeent of the crown, as it does in other
inheritances; whereby the lineal defeendants of any
perfon deceafed Hand in the fame place as their ancef-
tor, if living, would have done. Thus Richard II.
fucceeded his grandfather Edward III. in right of his
father the black prince; to the exclufion of alibis
uncles, his grandfather’s younger children. Laftly,
Hereditary
HER [36
on failure of lineal defeendants, the crown goes to the
’next collateral relations of the late king ; provided
they are lineally defeended from the blood-royal, that
is, from that royal ftock which originally acquired the
crown. Thus Henry I. fucceeded to William II.
John to Richard I. and James I. to Elizabeth ; being
all derived from the Conqueror, who was then the on¬
ly regal ftock. But herein there is no obje&ion (as
in the cafe of common defeents) to the fucceflion of
a brother, an uncle* or other collateral relation, of
the half-b\oodn that is, where the relationftu'p pro¬
ceeds not from the famz couple of anceftors, (which
conftrtutes a kinfman of the whole blood), but from a
Jingle anceftor only ; as when two perfons are derived
from the fame father, and not from the fame mother,
or vice verfu : provided only, that the one anceftor,
from whom both are defeended, be that from whofe
veins the blood-royal is communicated to each. Thus
Mary I. inherited to Edward VI. and Elizabeth in¬
herited to Mary; all born of the fame father, king
Henry VIII. but all by different mothers. See the
articles Consanguinity, Descent, and Succession.
3. The doctrine of hereditary right does by no
means imply an indefedjible right to the throne. No
man will affert this, who has confidered our laws, con-
ftitution, and hiftory, without prejudice, and with any
degree of attention. It is unqueftionably in the breaft
of the fupreme legiflative authority of this kingdom,
the king and both houfes of parliament, to defeat this
hereditary right; and, by particular entails, limita¬
tions, and provilions, to exclude the immediate heir,
and veil the inheritance in any one elfe. This is ftridtly
confonant to our laws and conftitution; as may be ga¬
thered from the expreflion fo frequently lifed in our
ftatute-book, of “ the king’s majefty, his heirs, and
fucceffors.” In which we may obferve, that as the
word heirs neceffarily implies an inheritance or here¬
ditary right generally fublifting in the royal perfon ;
fo the vtor&fuccejors, diftindlly taken, muft imply that
this inheritance may fometimes be broken through;
or, that there may be a fucceffor, without being the
heir of the king. And this is fo extremely reafon-
able, that without fuch a power, lodged fomewhere,
our polity would be very defe&ive. For, let us barely
fuppofe fo melancholy a cafe, as that the heir-apparent
fhould be a lunatic, an idiot, or otherwife incapable of
reigning; how miferable would the condition of the
nation be, if he were alfo incapable of being fet afide!
— It is therefore neceffary that this power ftiould be
lodged fomewhere; and yet the inheritance and regal
dignity would be very precarious indeed, if this power
were exprefsly anA avowedly lodged in the hands of
the fubjedt only, to be exerted whenever prejudice,
caprice, or difeontent, fhould happen to take the lead.
Confequently it can nowhere be fo properly lodged,
as in the two houfes of parliament, by and with the
confent of the reigning king ; who, it is not to be
fuppofed, will agree to any thing improperly prejudi¬
cial to the rights of his own defeendants. And there¬
fore in the king, lords, and commons, in parliament
affembled, our laws have exprefsly lodged it.
4. But, fourthly, However the crown may be li¬
mited or transferred, it (till retains its defcendible qua¬
lity, and becomes hereditary in the wearer of it. And
hence in our law the king is faid never to die in his
18 ] HER
political capacity; though, in common with other Heredli
men, he is fubjedf to mortality in his natural: becaufe
immediately upon the natural death of Henry, Wil- K
Ham, or Edward, the king furvives in his fucceffor.
For the right of the crown veils, eo injlanti, upon his
heir; either the hseres natus, if the courfe of defeent M
remains unimpeached, or the hares fattus, if the in- J|
heritance be under any particular fettlement. So that
there can be no interregnum; but, as Sir Matthew
Hale obferves, the right of fovereignty is fully invefted it
in the fucceffor by the very defeent of the crown. And I.;
therefore, however acquired, it becomes in him abfo-
lutely hereditary, unlefs-by the rules of the limitation 1]
it is otherwife ordered and determined: In the fame |j
manner as landed eftates, to continue our former com- j|
parifon, are by the law hereditary, or defcendible to
the heirs of the owner; but ftill there exifts a power,
by which the property of thofe lands may be tranf- J|
ferred to another perfsn. If this transfer be made I
Amply and abfolutely, the lands will be hereditary in
the new owner, and defeend to his heir at law: but if
the transfer be clogged with any limitations, condi¬
tions, or entails, the lands muft defeend in that chan- 1
nel, fo limited and preferibed, and no other. See
Succession.
HEREDITAS jacens in Scots law. An eftate
is faid to be in hereditate jacente, zhtr the proprietor’s
death till the heir’s entry.
HEREFORD which in Saxon fignines the ford
of the army, the capital of Herefordlhire in England, j
fituafed in W. Lon. 2. 35. N. Lat. 52. 6. It is
fuppofed to have rifen out of the ruins of Kenchefter, |
in its neighbourhood, which Cambden believes to have
been the Aricqnium of Antoninus. It is very plea- J
fantly fituated among meadows and corn-fields, and is ; j
almoft encompafled with rivers. It feems to have |
owed its rife, or at leaft its increafe. to the building
and dedicating a church there to Ethelbert king of 1
the Eaft-Angles, who was murdered in the neigh¬
bourhood and afterwards taken into the catalogue of
martyrs; foon after it became a bilhop’s fee, and in |
confequence of that a confiderable place. In 1055 it
was lacked, the cathedral deftroyed, and its bifliop |
Leofgar carried away captive by Gryffin prince of I
South-Wales, and Algar, an Engliftiman, who had
rebelled againft Edward the Confeffor. Harold forti- J
fied it with abroad and high rampart; and it appears
by Doomfday-book, that there were no more than |
300 men within and without the wall. A very large
and ftrong caftle was built by the Normans along the
Wye, and the city walled round. The prefent (lately
cathedral was founded in the reign of Henry I. by
bifliop Reinelm, but enlarged and beautified by his
fucceffors. It fuffered much in the barons wars; and
was often taken and retaken in the war between king I
Charles I. and the parliament. This city is pretty
large, and had once fix churches; but two were de¬
ftroyed in the civil wars. It is not very populous nor
well built, many of the houfes being old. Its manu- |
failures are gloves and other leathern goods; and its
corporation confifts of a mayor, fix aldermen, a high- |
fteward, deputy fteward, and town-clerk, who have a
fword-bearer, and four ferjeants at mace. Each of
the companies enjoys diftinft laws and privileges by
their charter, and each has its hall. The city gave
HER [ 3619 ] HER
ij;ford- Jong tlie title of carl to the noble family of the fervare ea, qua Romana ecclejia Jlatuit, fsu fcrvare dc- Herefy.
I,re Bohnns; then of duke to Henry of Lancafter, after- creverat.” Or, as the ftatute 2 Hen. IV. c. 15. ex-
v retv warc^s Henry IV. king of England; after him, of preffes it in Englilh, “ teachers of erroneous opinions*
_ earl to Stafford, earl'of Buckingham; then ok vifcount contrary to the faith and bleffed determinations of the
fb1 D’Evereux, earl ofEflex, which a collateral branch holy church.” Very contrary this to the ufage of the
of this family dill enjoy^, and is thereby thd premier firft general councils, which defined all heretical doc-
vifcount of England. trines with the utmoft precifion and exadlnefs. And
Herefordshire, a county of England, nearly of what ought to have alleviated the punifliment, the un-
a circular form, bounded on the-eatl-by Worcefter certainty of the crime, feems to have enhanced it in
and Glouceder, on the fouth by Monmotithfhire, on the thofe days of blind zeal and pious cruelty. It is true,
weft by Ra'dnorfhire and Brecknockfhire, and^ on the that the fandfimonious hypocrify of the canonifts went
north by Shropfliire. Its length from north to fouth at firft no farther than enjoining penance, excommu-
is 35 miles* its bfeadth from eaft to weft 30,' and its nication, and ecclefiaftical deprivation, for herefy; tho’
circumference 168. ■ It contains-660,000 acres, 11 afterwards they1 proceeded boldly to imprifonment by
hundreds, one city, eight market-town#, 176 parifiies, the ordinary, and confifcation of goods in pios ufus.
an^ 9y»ooo inhabitants. The members it fends to But in the mean time they had prevailed upon the
parliament are eight, namely, two for the County, two weaknefs of bigotted princes to make the civil power
for Hereford city, two for Lempfter, and two for fubfervient to their purpofes, by making herefy not
Webbly. only a temporal, but even a capital, offence: the Ro-
The air of this cdunty is allowed to be as pleafant, mifh ecclefiaftics determining, without appeal, what-
fweet, ‘and wholefome, as that of any other in Eng- ever they pleafed to be herefy, and fhifting off to the
land, there beifog nothing either in the foil or iituation fecular arm the odium and drudgery of executions ;
to render it btherwife. The foil throughput is excel-' with which they themfelves were too tender and deli-
lenf, and inferior to none, either for grain, fruit, or cate to intermeddle. Nay, they pretended to intercede
pafture, fupplying the inhabitant's plentifully with all and pray, on behalf of the convicted heretic, ut citret
the neceffaries bf life: but that by which it is diftin- mortis pericuhim fententia circa eum moderetur: well
guiftied from moft others, is its fruit* efpecially apples, knowing that at the fame time they were delivering the
of which it produces fuch quantities, that the cyder unhappy viffim to certain death. Hence the capital
made of them is not only fufficient for their own con- punifhments infti&ed on the ancient Donatifts and Ma-
fumption, though it is their o'rdinary drink, but alfo niehaeans by the emperors Theodofius and Juftinian :
in a great meafure for that of London and other parts, hence alfo the conftitution of the emperor Frederic
That in particular which is made from the apple called' mentioned by Lyndewode, adjudging all perfons with-
redjlreak, is much admired, and has a body almoft out diftinftion to be burnt with fire who were convic-
equal to that of white-wine. The county is well tap- ted of herefy by the ecelefiaftical judge. The fame
plied with wood and water; for, belides iefter ftreams, emperor, in another conftitution, ordained, that if any
there are the rivers Frome, Loden, Lug, Wye, Wadel, temporal lord, when admonilhed by the church, fhould
Arrow, Dare, and Monow; the laft of which is large, negleA to clear his territories of heretics within a year,
and all of them are well ftored with fifh, particularly it fliould be lawful for good catholics to feife and oc-
the Wye, which breeds falmon.- It lies in the diocefe cupy the lands-, and utterly to exterminate the hereti-
of Hereford, and Oxford circuit. cab pofteflbrs. And upon this foundation was built
HERENHAUSEN, a palace of Germany near that arbitrary pow-er, fo long claimed and fo fatally ex-
Hanover, belonging to the king of Great Britain, erted by the Pope, of difpofing even of the kingdoms
Here are lodgings for all the court ; and a garden of of refra&ory princes to more dutiful tans of the church,
vaft extent, in which are fine waterworks, a labyrinth, The immediate event of this conftitution was fome-
and many other curiofities worthy the obfervation of thing fingular, and may ferve to illuftrate at once the
a v r c • gratitude of the holy fee, and the juft punilhment of
HERENTHALS, a town of Brabant in the Au- the royal bigot; for, upon the authority of this very
ftrian Netherlands, in the quarter of Antwerp; feated' conftitution, the pope afterwards expelled this very em-
on the river Nethe, in-E. Long. 4. 51. N. Lat. 51; 9. peror Frederic from his kingdom of Sicily, and gave it
HERESY, in law, an offence againft Chriftianity, to Charles of Anjou,
confiding .in a denial of fome of its effential doftrines, Chriftianity being thus deformed by the daemon of
perlccution upon the continent, we cannot expect that
our own ifland (hould be entirely free from the fame
fcourge. And therefore we find among our ancient
precedents a writ de kueretico comburendo, which is
publicly and obftinately avowed; being defined, “ fen-
tentia rerum divinarmn humano fenfu excogitata; palam
dona et pertinaciter defenfa;” And here it mull alfo
n a. be acknowledged that particular modes of belief or
belief, not tending to overturn Chriftianity itfelf, or to thought by tame to be as ancient as the common law
fap the foundations of morality, are by no means the itfelf. However, it appears from thence, that the con-
objeft of coercion by the civil magiftrate. What doc- viftion of herefy by the common law was not in any
trines (hall therefore be adjudged herefy, was left by petty ecclefiaftical court, but before the archbilhop
rUa-° 1 c.°to l^e determination of the eccle- himfelf in a provincial fynod; and that the delinquent
naftical judge ; who had herein a moft arbitrary lati- was delivered over to the king to do as he Ihouid pleafe
tude allowed him. For the general definition of an with him : fo that the crown had a controul over the
heretic given by Lyndewode, extends to the fmalleft fpiritual power, and might pardon the convidl by if-
deviatioas from the do&rines of holy church: “ha- filing no procefs againft him; t\\e de haretico com-
reticus ejl qui dubitat de fide catholica, et qui negligit burendo being not a writ of courfe, but iffuing only by
the
llcrefy.
HER [ 3620 T HER
the fpecial direftion of the king in council.
But in the reign of Henry IV. when the eyes of the
Chrillian world began to open, and the feeds of the
Proteftant religion (though under the opprobious name
of lollardy) took root in this kingdom ; the clergy, ta¬
king advantage from the king’s dubious title to demand
an increafe of their own power, obtained an a6t of par¬
liament, which (harpened the edge, of perfecution to its
utmoft keennefs. For, by that ftatute, the diocefan
alone, without the intervention of a fynod, might con-
vi& of heretical tenets; and unlefs the convict abjured
his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapfed, the Ihe-
riff was bound ex officio, if required by the biihop, to
commit the unhappy vi&im to the flames, without wait¬
ing for the confent of the crown. By the ftatute
2 Hen. V. c. 7. lollardy was alfo made a temporal of¬
fence, and indi&able in the king’s courts; which did
not thereby gain an exclufive, but only a concurrent ju-
rifdi&ion with the biftiop’s confiftory.
Afterwards, when the final reformation of religion
began to advance, the power of the ecclefiaftics was
fomewhat moderated: for though what herefy it, was
not then precifely defined, yet we are told in fome
points what it is not: the ftatute 25 Hen.VIII. c. 14.
declaring, that offences againft the fee of Rome are not
herefy ; and the ordinary being thereby reftrained from
proceeding in any cafe upon mere fufpicion; that is,
unlefs the party be accufed by two credible witneflls,
or an indidiment of herefy be firft previoufly found in
the king’s courts of common law. And yet the fpirit
of perfecution was not then abated, but only diverted
into a lay channel. For in fix years afterwards, by
ftatute 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14. the bloody law of the
fix articles was made, which eftablifhed the fix moft
contefted points of popery, tranfubftantiation, commu¬
nion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monaftic
vows, the facrifice of the mafs, and auricular confef-
fion; which points were “ determined and refolved by
the moft godly ftudy, pain, and travail of his majefty:
for which his moft humble and obedient fubje&s, the
lords fpiritual and temporal and the commons, in par¬
liament affembled, did not only render and give unto
his highhefs their moft high and hearty thanksbut
did alfo enatft and declare all oppugners of the firft to
be heretics, and to be burnt with fire; and of the five
lall to be felons, and to fuffer death. The fame ftatute
eftablilhed a new and mixed jurifdidftion of clergy and
laity for the trial and conviction of heretics; the reign¬
ing prince being then equally intent on deftroying the
fupremacy of the biftiops of Rome, and eftablifhing all
other their corruptions of the Chriftian religion.
Without-perplexing this detail with the various re¬
peals and revivals of thefe fanguinary laws in the two
fucceeding reigns, let us proceed to the reign of
queen Elizabeth ; when the reformation was finally
eftablilhed with temper and decency, unfullied with
party-rancour, or perfonal caprice and refentment.
By ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 1. all former ftatutes relating to
herefy are repealed, which leaves the jurifdi&ion of he¬
refy as it flood at common law; viz. as to the infliiftion
of common cenfures, in the ecclefiaftical courts; and, in
cafe of burning the heretic, in the provincial fynod only.
Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of a different opinion, and
holds that fuch power refided in the diocefan alfo; tho*
he agrees, that in either cafe the writ de hxretico com-
burendo was not demandable of common right, but Hcrefy
grantable or otherwife merely at the king’s diferetion. pjer|tjc
But the principal point now gained was, that by this r
ftatute a boundary is for the firft time fet to what lhall
be accounted herefy ; nothing for the future being t<>
be fo determined, but only fuch tenets, which have
been heretofore fo declared, I. By the words of the
canonical feriptures; 2. By the firft four general coun¬
cils, or fuch others as have only ufed-the words of the
holy Scriptures ; or, 3. Which Ihall hereafter be fo
declared by the parliament, with the affent of the clergy
in convocation. Thus was herefy reduced to a greater
certainty than before; though it might not have been
the worfe to have defined it in terms ftill more precife
and particblar: as a man continued ftill liable to be
burnt, for what perhaps he did not underftand to be
herefy, till the ecclefiaftical judge fo interpreted the
words of the canonical feriptures.
For the writ de hxretico cornburendo remained ftill ia
force ; and we have inftances of its being put in exe¬
cution upon two Anabaptifts in the feventeenth of E-
lizabeth, and two Arians in the ninth of James I But
it was totally abolifhed, and herefy again fubjedied on¬
ly to ecclefiaftical correftion, pro falute anima, by vir¬
tue of the ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 9.: for, in one and the
fame reign, our lands were delivered from the flavery
of military tenures ; our bodies from arbitrary impri-
fonment by the habeas corpus adl; and our minds from
the tyranny of fuperftitious bigotry, by demolilhing
this laft badge of perfecution in the Englifh law.
Every thing is now as it (hould be, with refpedl to
the fpiritual cognizance, and fpiritual puniftiment, of
herefy: unleVs perhaps that the crime ought to be more
ftri&ly defined, and no profecution permitted, even ia
the eccltfiaftical courts, till the tenets in queftion are
by proper authority previoufly declared to be heretical.
Under thefe reftridtions, it feems neceflary for the fup-
port of the national religion, that the officers of the
church fhould have power to cenfure heretics; yet not
to harrafs them with temporal penalties, much lefs to
exterminate or deftroy them. The legiflature hath in¬
deed thought it proper, that the civil magiftrate Ihould
again interpofe, with regard to one fpecies of herefy,
very prevalent in modern times; for by ftatute 9 & to
W. III. c. 32. if any perfon educated in the Chriftian
religion, or profefling the fame, lhall by writing, print¬
ing, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, deny any one of
the perfons in the holy Trinity to be God, or maintain
that there are more Gods than one, he lhall undergo
the fame penalties and incapacities which were juft
now mentioned to be inflidted on apoftacy by the fame
ftatute.
HERETABLE rights, in Scots law, all rights
affe&ing lands, houfes, &c. or any immoveable fub-
jedl.
HERETAGE, in Scots law, lands, houfes, or any
immoveable fubjedl, in contradiftindlion to moveables
or moveable fubjefts. It alfo fometimes fignifies fuch
immoveable property as a perfon fucceeds to as heir to
another, in contradiftindlion to that which he himfelf
purchafes or acquires in any other manner, called con-
queji.
HERETIC, a general name for all fuch perfons
under any religion, but efpecially the Chriftian, as pro-
fefs or teach religious opinions contrary to the efta¬
blifhed
HER [ 3621 ] HER
Herforden bliflied faith, or to what is made the ftandard of or-
II . thodoxy. See Heresy.
Hermanil!;t HERFORDEN, or Herwarden, a free and im-
perial town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia,
and capital of the county of Raveniberg. Here is a fa¬
mous nunnery belonging to the Proteftants of the con-
feflion of Augfburg, whofe abbefs is a princefs of the
empire, and has a voice and place in the diet. It is
feated on the river Aa. E. Long. 8. 47. N. Lat. 52. 12.
HERGUNDT, a town of Upper Hungary, re¬
markable for its rich mines of vitriol. Thofe who work
in the mines have built a fubterranfcous town, which
has a great number of inhabitants. E. Long. 18. 15.
N. Lat. 48. 30.
HERISSON, in fortification, a beam armed with
a great number of iron fpikes with their points out¬
wards, and fupported by a pivot on which it turns.
Thefe ferve as a barrier to block up any paffage, and
are frequently placed before the gates, and more efpe-
cially the wicket-doors, of a town or fortrefs, to fecure
thofe paflages which muft of neceffity be often opened
and fhut.
HERM,£A, in antiquity, ancient Greek feftivals
in honour of the god Hermes or Mercury. One of
thefe was celebrated by the Pheneatae in Arcadia; a
fecond by the Cyllenians in Elis; and a third by the
Tanagraeans, where Mercury was reprefented with a
ram upon his (boulder, becaufe Ire was faid to have
walked thro’ the city in that pofturein time of a plague,
and to have cured the fick; in memory of which, it
was cuftomary at this feftival for one of the moft beau¬
tiful youths in the city to walk round the walls with a
ram upon his (houlder.—A fourth feftival of the fame
name was obferved in Crete, when it was ufual for the
fervants to fit down at the table while their matters
waited; a cuftom which was alfo obferved at the Ro¬
man Saturnalia.
HERMAN (Paul), a famous botanift in the 17th
century, was born at Hall in Saxony. He pra&ifed
phyfic in the Tfle of Ceylon, and was afterveards made
profeflbr of botany at Leyden, where he died in 1695.
He wrote a catalogue of the plants in the public gar¬
den at Leyden, and a w’ork intitled Florte Lugduno-
Batavce flares.
HERMANN (James), a learned mathematician of
the academy at Berlin, and a member of the academy
of fcicnces at Paris, was born at Bafil in 1678. He
was a great traveller, and for fix years was prpfeflbr
of mathematics at Padua. He afterwards went to
Mufcovy, being invited thither by the Czar in 1724.
At his return to his native country, he was made pro-
feffor of morality and natural law at Bafil; and died
there in 1733. He wrote feveral mathematical works.
HERMANNIA, in botany ; a genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
piants.
Species. X. The lavendulifolia, hath a fhrubby ftalk
and (lender branches, very bufliy, about a foot and an
half high, fmall, fpear-lhaped, obtufe and hairy leaves,
with clufters of fmall yellow flowers along the Tides of
the branches, continuing from June to Autumn.
2. The althasifolia hath a (hrubby ftalk, and foft woolly
branches, growing two feet high, with numerous yel¬
low flowers in loofe fpikes growing at the end of the
branches, and making their appearance in July. 3. The
Vol. V.
groflularifolia hath a fhrubby ftalk and fpreading Herman
branches, growing three or four feet high, with bright jj 1
yellow flowers coming out in great numbers at the ends Herma-
of all the (hoots and branches in April or May. 4. The phrodite.
alnifolia hath a (hrubby ftalk and branches growing ir-  ~—
regularly four or five feet high, with pale yellow
flowers in (hort fpikes from the Tides and ends of the
branches, appearing in April or May. 3. The hyflb-
pifolia hath a (hrubby upright ftalk, branching out la¬
terally fix or feven feet high, with pale yellow flowers
in clufters from the Tides of the branches, appearing in
May and June.
Culture. All thefe plants are natives of Africa, and
therefore muft be kept in a green-houfe during the
winter in this country. They are propagated by cut¬
tings of their young (hoots, which may be planted in
pots of rich earth any time from April to July.
HERMANSTADT, a handfome, populous, and
ftrong town of Hungary, capital of Tranfilvania, with
a bifhop’s fee. It is the refidence of the governor of
the province ; and is feated on the river Ceben, in E.
Long. 23. 40. N. Lat. 46. 25.
HERMANT (Godfrey), a learned dodtor of the
Sorbonne, born at Beauvais in 1917. He wrote many
excellent works; the principal of which are, 1. The
lives of St Athanafius, St Bafil, St Gregory Na-
zianzen, St Chryfoftom, and St Ambrofe. 2. Four
pieces in defence of the rights of the univerfity of Pa¬
ris againft the Jefuits. 3. A French tranflation of St
Chryfoftom’s treatife of Providence, and St Bafil’sA-
fcetics. 4. Extra&s from the councils; publiftied af¬
ter his death, under the title of Clavis difeiplirue eccle-
ftajlica;. He died fuddenly at Paris in 1690.
HERMAPHRODITE, is generally underftood
to fignify a human creature poflelTed of both fexes, or
who has the parts of generation both of male and fe¬
male. The term however is applied alfo to other ani¬
mals, and even to plants.—The wmrd is formed of the
Greek 'E^apjoJiTor, a compound of 'Ep^»r, Merdury,
and kvpotiT*, Venus; q. d. a mixture of Mercury and
Venus, i. e. of male and female. For it is to be ob¬
ferved, Hermaphroditus was originally a proper name,
applied by the heathen mythologifts to a fabulous dei¬
ty, whom fome reprefent as a Ton of Hermes, Mercury,
and Hphrodite, Venus; and who, being defperately in
love with the nymph Salmafis, obtained of the gods to
have his body and hers united into one. Others fay,
that the god Hermaphroditus was conceived as a com-
pofition of Mercury and Venus, to exhibit the union
between eloquence, or rather commerce, whereof Mer¬
cury was god, with pleafure, whereof Venus was the
proper deity. Laftly, others think this junction in¬
tended to (hew that Venus, (pleafure,) was of both
fexes ; as, in effeiS, the poet Calvus call Venus a god.
Pollentemque Deum Venerim.
As alfo Virgil, JEneid. lib. ii.
Difcedo, ac duccnte Deo flammam inter et hofles
Expedior—   
M. Spon obferves, Hefychius calls Venus Aphroditos t
and Theophraftus affirms, that Aphroditos, or Venus,
is Hermapkroditus ; and that in the ifland of Cyprus
(he has a ftatue, which reprefents her with a beard like
a man.—The Greeks alfo call hermaphrodites avt^oyv^oi,
androgyni, q. d. men-women. See the article An dro'-
gynes.
20 R
The
Herma¬
phrodite.
HER [ 3622 ] HER
The beft treatife that hath appeared on this fubjeft
is that of Mr Hunter, in the 69th volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions. He divides hermaphrodites
into natural, and unnatural or monftrous. The firft
belongs to the more fimple orders of animals, of which
there are a much greater number than of the more per-
feft. The unnatural takes place in every tribe of ani¬
mals having diftinft fexes, but is more common in fome
than in others. The human fpecies, our author ima¬
gines, has the feweft ; never having feen them in that
fpecies, nor in dogs; but in the horfe, (beep, and black
cattle, they are very frequent.
From Mr Hunter’s account, however, it doth not
appear that fuch a creature as a perfeft hermaphrodite
has ever exiited. All the hermaphrodites which he
had the opportunity of feeing had the appearance of
females, and were generally faved as fuch. In the
horfe they are very frequent; and in.the moft perfect
of this kind he ever faw, the tefticles had.come down
out of the tfbdomen into the place where the udder
Ihould have been, and appeared like an udder, not fo
pendulous as the ferotum in the male of fuch animals.
There were alfo two nipples, of which horfes have no
perfedt form ; being blended in them with the {heath
or prepuce, of which there was none here. The ex¬
ternal female parts were exadlly fimilar to thofe of a
perfeft female ; but inftead of a common-fized clito¬
ris, there was one about five or fix inches long; which,
when eredt, flood almoft diredlly backwards.
A foal afs very fimilar to the above was killed, and
the following appearances were obferved on diffedlion.
The tefticles were not come down as in the former,
pofiibly becaufe the creature was too young. It had
alfo two nipples; but there was no penis paffing round
the pubes to the belly, as in the perfedl male afs. The
external female parts were fimilar to thofe of the ftie-
afs. Within the entrance of the vagina was placed
the clitoris; but much longer than that of a true fe¬
male, being about five inches long. The vagina was
open a little further than the opening of the urethra
into it, and then became obliterated; from thence, up
to the fundus of the uterus, there was no canal. At
the fundus of the common uterus it was hollow, or had
a cavity in it, and then divided into two, viz. a right
and a left, called the horns of the uterus, which were
alfo pervious. Beyond the termination of the two
horns were placed the ovaria, as in the true female ;
but the Fallopian tubes could not be found.—From the
broad ligaments, to the edges of which the horns of
the uterus and ovaria were attached, there pafled to¬
wards each groin a part fimilar to the round ligaments
in the female, which were continued into the rings of
the abdominal mufcles; but with this difference, that
there were continued with them a procefs or theca of
the peritonasum, fimilar to the tunica vaginalis com¬
munis in the male afs ; and in thefe thecse were found
the tefticles, but no vafa deferentia could be obferved
paffing from them.
In moft fpecies of animals, the produdlion of her¬
maphrodites appears to be the effeft of chance ;
but in the black cattle it feems to be an eftabliflied
principle of their propagation. It is a well-known
faff, and, as far as hath yet been difeovered, appears
to be univerfai, that when a cow brings forth two
calves, one of them a bull, and the other a cow to ap- Herma-
pearance, the cow is unfit for propagation, but the phro<h!e-
bull-calf becomes a very proper bull. They are known
not to breed ; they do not even fhew the haft inclina¬
tion for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the leaft
notice of them. Among the country people in Eng¬
land, this kind of calf is called a free 7nartin ; and this
Angularity is juft as well known among the farmers as
either cow or bull. When they are preferred, it is for
the purpofes of an ox or fpayed heifer ; viz. to yoke
with the oxen, or fatten for the table. They are much
larger than either the bull or the cow, and the horns
grow longer and bigger, being very fimilar to thofe of
an ox. The bellow of a free-martin is alfo fimilar to
that of an ox, and the meat is fimilar to that of the
ox or fpayed heifer, viz. much finer in the fibre than
either the bull or cow ; and they are more fufceptible
of growing fat with good food. By fome they are
foppofed to exceed the ox and heifer in delicacy of
talle, and bear a higher price at market; this, how¬
ever, does not always hold, and Mr Hunter gives an
inftance of the contrary. The Romans, who called
the bull taurus, fpoke alfo of tawru? in the feminine
gender different from cows. Stephens obferves, that
it was thought they meant by this word barren cows,
who obtained the name becaufe they did not conceive
any more than bulls. He alfo quotes a paffage from
Columella, lib* vi. cap. 22. “ And, like the taurx,
which occupy the place of fertile cows, fhould be re-
jedled or fent away.” He likewife quotes Varro, De
re ruftica, lib. ii. cap. 5. “ The cow which is barren
is called taura.” From which we may reafonably con¬
jecture, that the Romans had not the idea of the cir-
cumftances of their production.
Of thefe creatures Mr Hunter differed three, and
the following appearances were- obferved in the moft
perfeft of them.—The external parts were rather fmaller
than in the cow. The vagina paffed on as in the cow
to the opening of^ the urethra, and then it began to
contract into a fmall canal, which paffed on to the di-
vifion of the uterus into the two horns; each horn paf¬
fing along the edge of the broad ligament laterally to¬
wards the ovaria. At the termination of thefe horns
were placed both the ovaria and tefticles, both of which
were nearly about the fize of a fmall nutmeg. No
Fallopian tubes could be found. To the tefticles were
vafa deferentia, but imperfed. The left one did not
come near the tefticle ; the right only cameclofe to it,
but did not terminate in the body called epididymis.
They were both pervious, and opened into the vagina
near the opening of the urethra.—On the pbfterior
furface of the bladder, or between the uterus and blad¬
der, were the two bags called the veficul*feminales in
the male, but much fmaller than what they are in the
bull : the duds opened along wiih the vafa defe¬
rentia.
Concerning hermaphrodites of the human fpecies,
much has been wrote, and many laws enaded about
them in different nations ; but the exiftence of them is
ftill difputed. Dr Parfons has given us a treatife on
the fubjed, in which he endeavours to explode the no¬
tion as a vulgar thror. According to him, all the her¬
maphrodites that have appeared, were only women
whofe clitoris from fome caufe or other was overgrown ;
phrodite
Hennes.
Chronology,
p. »z.
HER [ 3625 ] HER
and, in particular, that this was the cafe with an An- as a perfon endowed with extraordinary talents for Hermes.
gola woman Ihewn at London as an hermaphrodite every thing that was conducive to the good of fociety.
fome time ago. He was the firft who out of the coarfe and rude di-
Among the reptile tribe, indeed, fuch as worms, aledfs of his time formed a regular language, and gave
fnails, leeches, &c. hermaphrodites are very fre- appellatives to the mod ufeful things: he likevvife in-
quent. vented the firft: charafters or letters, and even regu-
Hermaphroditein botany. Thefe are lated the harmony of words and phrafes : he inftituted
fo called by the fexualifts on account of their contain- feveral rites and ceremonies relative to the worfiiipof
ing both the antherx and ftigma, the pretended organs the gods, and communicated to mankind the firft prin-
of generation, within the fame calix and petals. Of ciples of aftronomy. He afterwards fuggetted to them
this kind are the flowers of all the clafles in Linnaeus’s as amufements, wreltling and dancing; and invented
fexual method, except the claffes monoecia and dixcia; the lyre, to which he gave three firings in allufion to
in the former of which, male and female flowers are the feafons of the year : for thefe three firings pro-
produced on the fame root; in the latter, in diftindl ducing three different founds, the grave, the mean,
plants from the fame feed. — In the clafs polygamia, and the acute, the grave anfwered to winter, the mean
there are always hermaphrodite flowers mixed with to fpring, and the acute to fummer.
male or female, or both, either on the fame or dillinft Among the various opinions of the feveral ancient
roots. In the plantain-tree the flowers are all hernia- writers who have mentioned this circumftance, and
phrodite; in fome, however, the antherse or male or- confined the invention to the Egyptian Mercury, that
gan* in others the ftigma or female organ, proves ab- of Apollodorus is the moft intelligible and probable,
ortive. The flowers in the former cafe are ftyled fe- “ The Nile, (fays this writer), after having over-
viale hermaphrodites; in the latter, ';»ale hermaphrodites, flowed the whole country of Egygt, when it returned
—Hermaphrodites are thus as frequent in the vege- within its natural bounds, left on the Ihore a great
table kingdom as they are rare and fcarce in the ani- number of dead animals of various kinds; and among
mal one. the reft a tortoife, the flefti of which being dried and
HERMAS, an ecclefiaftical author of the firft cen- wafted by the fun, nothing was left within the flieM
tury ; and, according to Origin, Eufebius, and Jerome, but nerves and cartilages; and thefe being braced and
the fame whom St Paul falutes in the end of his epiftle contra&ed by deficcation, were rendered fbnorous.
to the Romans. He wrote a book in Greek fome time 'Mercury in walking along the banks of the Nile,
before Domitian’s perfecution, which happened in the happening to ftrikc his foot againft the {hell of this
year 95. This work is entitled The Pajior, from his tortoife, was fo pleafed with the found it produced,
reprefenting an angel fpeaking to him in it under the that it fuggefted to him the firft idea of a lyre, which
form of a Ihepherd. The Greek text is loft, but a he afterwards conftrufted in the form of a tortoife,
very ancient Latin verfion of it is ftill extant. Some and ftrung.it with the dried finews of dead animals.’’
of the fathers have confidered this book as canonical. See Lyre.
The beft edition of it is that of 1698, where it (s to It is generally imagined that there were two Thotha
be found among the other apoftolical fathers, illuftra- or Mercuries in Egypt, who lived at very remote pe-
ted with the notes and correftions of Cotelerius and riods, but both perfons of great abilities. The Egyp-
Le Clerc. With them it was tranflated into Englifli tians themfelves diftinguiflt. two Thoths or Hermefes;
by Archbifttop Wake, the beft edition of which is that and yet the hiftories of the firft and fecond are as
of 1710. much confounded together, as thofe of Ofiris and
HERMES, Thoth, or one of the fecon- Sefoftris. Div. Leg. hook. h. ie&. 5.
dary gods of Egypt, who received divine honours on The Greek Chriftians had fo high an opinion of the
account of bis ufeful and extraordinary talents. antiquity of the firft Egyptian Hermes, who lived at
There is no perfonage in all antiquity more re- Sais, that they fuppofed him and the antedeluvian patri-
nowned than the Egyptian Hermes, who was fur- arch Enoch to have been the fame perfon, and give
named Trifmegi/lus, or Thrice-illujirious. He was the to both the fame inventions. We are told likewife,
foul of Ofiris’s counfel and government; and is called that Manetho extrrdled his hiftory and dynafties of
by Sir Ifaac Newton, his fecretary. “ Ofiris,” fays the Egyptians from certain pillars in Egypt, on which
he, “ ufing the advice of his fecretaty Thoth, diftri- infcriptions had been made by Thoth or the firft
butetf Egypt into 36 nomes ; and in every nome eredls Mercury, in the facred letters, before the flood! Vid.
a temple, and appoints the feveral gods, feftivals, and Dodwell Dijfert. de Sachon. Fabric. Bib. Gr. Stilling-
religions of the feveral nomes. The temples were the fleet. Orig. Sacr. et alios.
fepulchres of his great men, where they were to be No lefs than 42 different works are attributed to
buried and worfhipped after death, each in his own the Egyptian Hermes by ancient writers ; of thefe
temple, with ceremonies and feftivals appointed by the learned and exaft Fabricius has colle&ed all the
him ; while he and his queen, by the names of Ofiris titles. It was ufual for the Egyptians, who had the
an&Ifls, were to be worftiipped in all Egypt: thefe higheft veneration for this perfonage, after his apo-
were the temples feen and defcsibed by Lucian, who theofis, to have his w^rks, which they regarded as their
was himfelf an Egyptian, 1100 years after, and to bible, carried about in proceffions with great pomp
be of one and the fame age : this was the original of and ceremony; and the firft that appeared in thefe
the feveral nomes of Egypt, and of the feveral gods folemnities was the chanter, who had two of them in
and feveral religions of thofe ntfmes.” And Diodo- his hands, while others bore fymbols of the mufical
rus Siculus tells us, that Mercury was honoured by art. It was the bufinefs of the .chanters to be parti-
Ofiris, and afterwards worfliipped by the Egyptians, cularly verted in the two firft books of Mercury ; one
20 R 2 of
HER [ 3624 1 HER
Hermetical of which contained the hymns to the gods ; and the
Her 't ot^er> maxitris °f government: 36 of thefe books com-
ermi' prehended a complete fyftem of Egyptian philofophy;
the reft were chiefly upon the fubjedts of medicine and
anatomy.
Thefe books upon theology and medicine are a-
fcribed by Marfham to the fecond Mercury, the fon of
Vulcan, who, according to Eufebius, lived a little
after Mofes ; and this author, upon the authority of
Manetho, cited by Syncellus, regarded the fecond
Mercury as the Hermes furnamed Trifmegijius. E-
nough has been faid, however, to prove, that the
Egyptian Mercuries, both as to the time when they
flouriflied, and their attributes, were widely different
from the Grecian Mercury, the fon of Jupiter and
Maia. See Mercury.
HERMETICAL philosophy, that which un¬
dertakes to folve the various phenomena of nature,
from the chemical principles fait, fulphur, and mer¬
cury.
Hermetical Seal, among chemifts, a method of
flopping glafs-veffels ufed in chemical operations, fo
clofely, that the moft fubtil fpirit cannot efcape thro’
them.
It is commonly done by heating the neck of the
veffel in a flame till ready to melt, and then twifting
it clofely together with a pair of pincers. Or vef-
fels may be hermetically fealed by flopping them with
a glafs plug, or by putting one ovum philofophorum
over another.
HERMIONE (anc. geog.), a conflderable city of
Argolis. It was in ruins, except a few temples, in
the time of Paufanias ; who fays that the new city was
at the diftance of four ftadia from the promontory on
which the temple of Neptune flood. It gave name
to the Sinus Hermionicus, a part of the Sinus Argo-
licus.
HERMIT, or Eremit, Eremita, a devout per-
fon retired into folitude, to be more at leifure for prayer
and contemplation, and to difencumber himfelf of the
affairs of this world.—The word is formed from the
Greek defart, or 'wildernefs ; and, according to
the etymology, Ihould rather be wrote Eremit.
Paul furnamed the hermit is ufually reckoned the
firft hermit; though St Jerome at the beginning of
the life of that faint fays, it is not known who was
the firft.—Some go back to John the Baptift, others
to Elias: others make St Anthony the founder of the
eremitical life ; but others think that he only rekind¬
led and heightened the fervour thereof, and hold that
the difcipies of that faint owned St Paul of Thebes
for the firft that pradlifed it. The perfecutions of
Decius and Valerian are fuppofed to have been the
occafion.—A hermit is not reputed a religious, unlefs
he have made the vows.
Hermit (Gaytier Peter the), a French officer of
Amiens in Picardy, who quitted the military profef-
fion, and commenced hermit and pilgrim. Unfortunate¬
ly, he travelled to the Holy Land about the year 1093 ;
and making a melancholy recital of the deplorable
fituation of a few Chriftians in that country to Pope
Urban II. and at the fame time enthufiaftically lament¬
ing that Infidels fhould be in pofleflion of the famous
city where the Author of Chriftianity firft promulgated
his facred dodfrioes, Urban gave him a fatal commif-
lion to excite all Chriftian princes to a general war Hermo-
againft the Turks and Saracens the poffeffors of the fi6"”
Holy Land. See Crusades. Hern.1 1 ■
HERMOGENES, the firft and moft celebrated--
architeft of antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius,
born at Alanbada, a city in Caria. He built a tem¬
ple of Diana at Magnefia; another of Bacchus at
Tros; and was the inventor of feveral parts of archi-
tedlure. He compofed a book on the fubjeft, which
is loft.
Hermogenes Tarfenjis, a rhetorician and orator,
and who was in every refpeft a prodigy. At 17
years of age he publilhed his fyfttm of rhetoric, and
at 20 his philofophic ideas: but at 25 he forgot every
thing he had known. It is faid, that, his body being
opened after his death, his heart was found of an ex¬
traordinary fize, and all over hairy. He died about
168 B. C.
HERMON, or Aermon (anc. geog.); a moun¬
tain of the Amorites, called Sanior by the Phoenici¬
ans, and Sanir or Senir by the Amorites on the eait
of Jordan. It is alfo called Sion, (Mofes) ; but muft
not be confounded with the Sion of Jerufalem. By
the Sidonians it was called Scirion; in the vulgate, it
is called Sarion. Jolhua informs' us, that it was the
dominion of Og king of Bafhan ; which muft be un-
derftood of its fouth fide. It is never particularly
mentioned by profane writers; being comprifed un¬
der the appellation Lihanus, or Ajitilibanus, with
which mountain it is joined to the call. It is alfo
called Hermonim plurally, Pfalm xlii. 6. becaufe it
was extenfive, and contained feveral mountains.
HERMUS, (anc. geog.), a river of Ionia ; which
rifing near Dorylaeum, a town of Phrygia, in a moun¬
tain facred to Dindymene or Cybele, touched Myfia,
and ran through the Regio Combufta, then through
the plains of Smyrna down to the fea, carrying along
with it the Pactolus, Hyllus, and other lefs noble ri¬
vers. Its waters were faid to roll down gold, by Vir¬
gil and other poets.
HERNANDRIA, Jack-in-a-box tree ; a ge¬
nus of the triandria order, belonging to the moncecia
clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The fonora, or common jack-in-a-box,
is a native of the Weft Indies. It grows 20 or 30
feet high; and is garnifhed with broad peltated leaves,
and monoecious flowers, fucceeded by a large fwollen
hollow fruit formed of the calix ; having a hole or
open at the end, and a hard nut within. The wind
blowing into the cavity of this fruit makes a very
whiffling and rattling noife, whence comes the name.
2. The ovigera grows many feet high, garnifhed
with large oval leaves not peltated; and monoecious
flowers, fucceeded by a fwollen fruit open at the end,
and a nut within.
Culture. Both thefe plants being tender exotics,
muft be planted in pots of rich earth, and always
kept in a hot-houfe; in which, notwithftanding all
the care that can be taken, they feldom flower, and
never grow beyond the height of common flirubs, tbo’
in the places where they are natives they arrive at
the height of trees. They are propagated by feeds
procured from the Weft Indies.
HERNIA, in medicine. See [fxtIndex fubjoined
to) Medicine, and Surgery.
HER-
HER [ 3625 ] HER
Herniaria HERNIARIA, rupture-wort; a genus of the
Jl digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
ero ians. pjants>
Species. There are four fpecies, of which the only
remarkable one is the glabra, or fmooth rupture-wort,
a native of many parts of England. It is a low trail¬
ing plant, with leaves like the fmaller chickweed ; the
flowers come out in clufters from the fide of the Ilalks
at the joints, and are of a yellowifli green colour.
Ufes, See. This plant is a little faltifh and aflrin-
gent. The juice takes away fpecks in the eye. Cows,
fheep, and horfes, eat the plant ; goats and fwine
refufe it-
HERO, in Pagan mythology, a great and illuf-
trious perfon, of a mortal nature, though fuppofed by
the populace to partake of immortality, and after his
death to be placed among the number of the gods.
The word is formed of the Latin beros, and that of
the Greek >V"r> femi-deus, “ demi-god.”
Hero, in fabulous hiftury, a famous prieftefs of
Venus, lived at Abydos, in a tower fituated on the
banks of the Hellefpont. She being beloved by Le-
ander^who lived at Seftos on the other fide of the
ftreight, he every night fwam over to vifit her, being
directed by a light fixed on the tower. But the light
being put out in a ftormy night, the youth mified his
way, and was drowned; on which Hero threw herfelf
into the fea, and perifhed.
Hero, the name of two celebrated Greek mathe¬
maticians ; the one called the o/d, and the other the
youngs Hero. The younger was a difciple of Ctefibius.
They are known by two works tranflated into Latin
by Barochius : SpiralUtm liber, by Hero fenior ; and
Traftat. artis et machin. militar. by Hero junior.
They flourifhed about 130 and too B. C.
HEROD, falfly ftyled the Great, king and exe¬
crable tyrant of Judaea ; who, on the ftrength of a
mifinterpreted prophecy, caufed all the male children
of Bethlehem and its neighbourhood, to be maflacred
by his foldiers at the time of the birth of Chrift, in the
vain hope of deftroying the Saviour of mankind. He
died, eaten with worms, two or three years after the
birth of our Saviour, at the age of 71, after a reign
of 40 years. He had ordered that all the perfons of
quality, whom he kept in prifon, fhould be maflacred
the moment the breath was out of his body, in order
that every confiderable family in the kingdom might
flied tears at his death ; but that inhuman order was
not executed.
HERODIAN, an eminent Greek hiftorian, who
fpent the greateft part of his life at Rome, flourifhed
in the third century, in the reigns of Severus, Cara-
calla, Heliogabalus, Alexander, and Maximin. His
hiftory begins from the death of Marcus Aurelius
the philofopher; and ends with the death of Balbinus
and Maximin, and the beginning of the reign of Gor¬
dian. It is wrote in very elegant Greek ; and there
is an excellent tranflation of it into Latin, by Ange-
lus Politianus. Herodianhas been publifhed by Henry
Stephens in 410, in 1581 ; by Boeder, at Strafburg,
in 1662, 8vo ; and by Hudfon, at Oxford, in 1699,
8vo.
HERODIANS, a fed among the Jews at the time
of our Saviour; mentioned Math. xxii. 16. Markiii. 6.
The critics and commentators are very much divided
with regard to the Herodians. St Jerom, in his Dia* Herodotus,
logue againft the Luciferians, takes the name to have
been given to fuch as owned Herod for the Mefliah ;
and Tertullian and Epiphanius are of the fame opi¬
nion. But the fame Jtrom, in his Comment on St
Matthew, treats this opinion as ridiculous ; and main¬
tains, that the Pharifees gave this appellation by way
of ridicule to Herod’s foldiers who paid tribute to the
Romans; agreeable to which the Syrian interpreters
render the word by the domejlics of Herod, i. e. “ his
courtiers.” M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap¬
ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion.
The name Herodian he imagines to have been given
to fuch as adhered to Herod’s party and intereft; and
were for preferving the government in his family, a-
bout which were great divifions among the Jews F.
Hardouin will have the Herodians and Sadducees to
have been the fame.
HERODOTUS, an ancient Greek hiftorian of
HalicarnafTns in Caria, fon of Lyxus and Dryo, was
born in the firft year of the 74th Olympiad, that is,
about 484 B. C. The city of Halicarnaffus being at
that time under the tyranny of Lygdamis grandfon
of Artemifia queen of Caria, Herodotus quitted his
country and retired to Samos; from whence he tra¬
velled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and in his tra¬
vels acquired the knowledge of the hiftory and origin
of many nations. He then began to digeft the ma¬
terials he had colledled into order, and compofed that
hiftory which has preferved his name among men ever
fince. He wrote it in the ifle of Samos, according to
the general opinion.—Lucian informs us, that when
Herodotus left Caria to go into Greece, he began to
confider with himfelf,
What he fhould do to be for ever known
And make the age to come his own,
in the moft expeditious way, and with as little trouble
as pofiible. His hiftory, he prefumed, would eafily
procure him fame, and raife his name among the Gre¬
cians.in whofe favour it was written : but then he fore-
faw that it would be very tedious to go through the
feveral cities of Greece, and recite it to each refpedlive
city ; to the Athenians, Corinthians, Argives, Lace¬
demonians, &c. He thought it moft proper there¬
fore to take the opportunity of their afiembling all
together; and accordingly recited his -work at the
Olympic games, which rendered him more famous
than even thofe who had obtained the prizes. None
were ignorant of his name, nor was there a fingle per¬
fon in Greece who had not feen him at the Olympic
games, or heard thofe fpeak of him who had feen
him there.
His work is divided into nine books; which, accord¬
ing to the computation of Dionyfius Halicarnafienfis,.
contain the moft remarkable occurrences within a pe¬
riod of 240 years ; from the reign of Cyrus the firft
king of Perfia, to that of Xerxes when the hiftorian
was living. Thefe nine books are called after the
names of the nine mufes, each book being diftinguifh-
ed by the name of a mufe ; and this has given birth to.
two difquifitions among the learned : 1. Whether they
were fo called by Herodotus himfelf; and, 2. For what
reafon they were fo called. As to the firft, it is ge¬
nerally agreed that Herodotus did not impofe thefe
names himfelf; but it is not agreed why they were
impofedi
HER [ 3626 ] HER
Heroic, Impofed by others. Lucian tells us, that thefe names
*ierQn' were given them by the Grecians at the Olympic games,
when they were firft recited, as the belt compliment
that could be paid the man who had taken pains to do
them fo much honour. Others have thought that the
names of the ?nufes have been fixed upon them by way of
reproach; and were defigned to intimate, that Hero¬
dotus, inttead of true hiltory, had written a great deal
of fable. But, be this as it will, it is certain, that,
with regard to the truth of his hiftory, he is accufed
by feveral authors; and, on the other hand, he has not
wanted perfons to defend him. Aldus Manutius, Joa¬
chim Camerarius, and Henry Stephens, have written
apologies for him; and, among other things, have very
jultly obferved, that he feldom relates any thing of
doubtful credit without producing the authority on
which his narration is founded ; and, if he has no cer¬
tain authority to fix it upon, ufes always the terms ut
feriint, nt ego audivi, &c.
There is afcribed alfo to Herodotus, but falfely, a
Life of Homer, which is ufually printed at the end of
his work.—He wrote in the Ionic dialed, and his ftyle
and manner have ever been admired by all people of
take. There have been feveral editions of the works
of this hiftorian; two by Henry Stephens, one in
1570, and the other in 1592; one by Gale at London
in 1679 ; and one by Gronovius at Leyden in 1715,
which is the laft and beft, though not the beft printed.
HEROIC poem, that which defcribes fome extra¬
ordinary enterprife; being the fame with Epjc poem.
Heroic Verfe, that wherein, heroic poems are ufu¬
ally compofed, or it is that proper for fuch poems. In
the Greek and Latin, hexameter verfes are ufually de¬
nominated heroic verfes, as being thofe only ufed by
mer, Virgil, &c. See Poetry, n° 116—124.
HERON, in ornithology. See Ardea.
This bird is a very great devourer of fifh, and will
do more mifchief to a pond than even an otter Some
fay that an heron will deftroy more filh in a week than
an otter will in three.months ; but that feems carrying
the matter too far. People who have kept herons,
have had the curiofity to number out the fifh they fed
them with into a tub of water; and counting them
again afterwards, it has been found, that a heron will
eat 50 moderate fixed dace and roaches in a day. It
has been found, that in carp-ponds vifited by this bird,
one heron will eat up 1000 ftore carp in a year, and
will hunt them fo clofe that very few can efcape. The
readied method of dedroying this mifchievous bird is
by fidiing for him in the manner of pike, with a
baited hook. When the haunt of the heron is found
out, three or four fmall roach or dace are to be pro¬
cured, and each of them is to be baited on a wire with
a drong hook at the end; entering the wire jud under
the gills, and letting it run jud under the fkin to the
tail: the fidi will live in this condition five or fix days,
which is a very effential thing ; for if it is dead, the heron
will not touch it. A drong line, about two yards long,
is then to be prepared of filk and wire twided toge¬
ther ; tie this to the wire that holds the hook ; and to
the other end there is to be tied a done of about a
pound weight. Let three or four of thefe baits be
funk in different fhallow parts of the pond, and in a
night or two the heron will not fail of being taken by
one or other of them.—When hawking was in ufe,
the heron afforded a great deal of fport to people who Herpes
loved that diverfion. There is but very little art in li
this flight of the hawk ; but as both birds are large Hcr^e‘
and courageous, the fight is finer than in the flight of
fmaller birds that make no refidance.
HERPES, in medicine, a bilious pudule, which
breaking out in different manners upon the fkin, ac¬
cordingly receives different denominations. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HERRERA tordesillas (Anthony), a Spanifh
hidorian, was fecretary to Vefpafian Gonzaga vice¬
roy of Naples, and afterwards hidoriographer of the
Indies, under king Philip II. who allowed him a con-
fidcrable penfion. He wrote a general hidory of the
Indies, in Spanifh, from 1492 to 1554; and of the
world (not fo much edeemed), from 1554 to 1598.
He died in 1625, aged about 66.
Herrera (Ferdinand de), an eminent Spanifh poet,
of the 16th century, was born at Seville, and princi¬
pally fucceeded in the lyric kind. Befides his poems,
he wrote notes on Garcilaffo de la Vega, and an ac¬
count of the war of Cyprus and the battle of Le-
panto, &c.
HERRING, in ichthyology. See Clxjpea.
Herring (Thomas), archbifhop of Canterbury,
was the fon of the rev. Mr John Herring, redtor of
Walfoken in Norfolk, where he was born in 1693.
He was educated at Jefus-college, Cambridge; was
afterwards chofen fellow of Corpus Chridi college, and
continued a tutor there upwards of feven years. Ha¬
ving entered into pried’s orders in 1719, he was fuc-
ceflively minider of Great Shelford, Stow cum Qui,
and Trinity, in Cambridge % chaplain to Dr Fleet-
wood, bifliop of Ely ; redtor of Rettingdon in Ef-
fex, and of Early in Hertfordfhire ; preacher to the So¬
ciety of Lincoln’s Inn, chaplain in ordinary to his
late majedy, redder of Blechingly in Surry, and dean
of Rocheder. In 1737 he was confecrated bifhop of
Bangor, and in 1743 tranflated to the archiepifcopal
fee of York. When the late rebellion broke out in
Scotland, and the king’s .troops were defeated by the
Highlanders at Predonpans, he didinguiflied himfelf
by removing the general panic, and awakening the
nation from its lethargy. He convened the nobility,
gentry, and clergy of his diocefe; and addreffed them
in a noble fpeech, which had fuch an effeft upon his
auditory, that a fubfcription enfued, to the amount of
forty thoufand pounds; and the example was followed
by the nation in general. On the death of Dr Potter
in 1747, he was tranflated to the fee of Cantexbury ;
but in 1753, was feized with a violent fever, which
brought him to the brink of the grave ; and after lan-
guifhing about four years, he died on the 13th of
March 1757. He expended upwards of fix thoufand
pounds in repairing and adorning the palaces of Croy¬
don and Lambeth. This worthy prelate, in a moil
eminent degree, poffefled the virtues of public life ;
his mind was filled with unaffe&ed piety and benevo¬
lence, he was an excellent preacher, and a true friend
to religious and civil liberty. After his death was
publifhed a volume of his fermons on public occa-
fions.
HERSE, in fortification, a lattice, or portcullis,
in form of an harrow, befet with iron-fpikes. The
word herfe is French, and literally fignifies “ harrow ;”
being
H E Pv [ 3627 ] H E S
Hefe being formed of the Latin herper (or irpex), which de¬
ll notes the fame.
€ibon’ It is ufually hung by a rope faftened to a moulinet;
to be cut, in cafe of furprize, or when the firft gate
is broken with a petard, that the herfe may fall, and
flop up the paffage of the gate or other entrance of a
fortrefs.
The herfe is otherwife called a farrajin) or cataratt;
and when it confills of ftraight flakes, without any
crofs-pieces, it is caled orgues.
Herse, is alfo a harrow, which the befieged, for
want of chevaux de frife, lay in the way, or in breach¬
es, with the points up, to incommode the march as
Veil of the horfe as of the infantry.
HERSILLON, in the military art, a fort of plank,
or beam, ten or twelve feet long, whofe two fides are
drove full of fpikes or nails, to incommode the march
of the infantry or cavalry. The word is a diminutive
of herfe; the herfillon doing the office of a little
herfe. See Herse.
HERTZBERG, a confiderable town of Germany,
in the eledforate of Saxony, and on the confines of
Lufatia. E. Lon. 13. 37. N. Lat. 51. 42.
HERVEY (James), a late divine of examplary
piety, was born in 1714, and fucceeded his father in
the livings of Wdlon Favell and Collingtree in North-
hamptonfhire. Thefe being within five miles of each
other, he attended alternately with his curate ; till be¬
ing confined by his ill health, he refided conftantly at
Wefton ; where he diligently purfued the labours of
the miniftry and his ftudy, under the difadvantage of a
weak conftitution. He was remarkably charitable ;
and defired to die juft even with the world, and to be,
as he termed it, his own executor. This excellent di¬
vine died on Chriftmas day 1758, leaving the little
he pofiefled to buy warm cloathing for the poor in that
fevere feafon.—No work is more generally or deferved-
]y known than his Meditations and Contemplations :
containing. Meditations among the tombs, reflexions
on a flower-garden, a defcant on creation, contem¬
plations on the night and ftarry heavens, and a winter-
piece. The fublime fentiments in thefe pieces havve
the peculiar advantage of being conveyed in a flowing
elegant language, and they have accordingly gone
through many editions. He publifhed befides, He-
inarks or. lord Bolingbroke's letters on hijlory ; Theron
and Afpafto, or a feries of dialogues and letters on
the mojl importatit fubjetts ; fome fermons, and other
traXs.
Hervey Ifand, one of the fouth-fea iflands, dif-
eovered by captain Cook September 23d 1773, who
gave it that name in honour of the earl of Briftol. It
- is a low ifland, fituated in W. Lon. 158. 54. S. Lat.
19. 8.
HESBON, Esebon, or Hefebon, (anc. geog.)., the
royal city of the Amorites, in the tribe of Reuben,
according to Mofes : Though in Jofhua xxi. 39.
where it is reckoned among the Lyvitical cities, it is
put in the tribe of Gad ^ which argues its fituation to
be on the confines of both. It is thus determined by
Jerome, who fays, that in his- time it was called EJlus.
A confiderable city, in the mountains of Arabia, which
lie over againft Jericho, diftant 20 miles from the Jor¬
dan ; not indeed in the fame latitude with Jericho, but
fomewhat more to the north, becaufe fituated on the
borders of the Gadites ; and called a city of Arabia, Hefanl.
becaufe the Arabs were at that time pofteffed of the
Lower Petraea.
HESIOD, a very ancient Greek poet; but whe¬
ther cotemporary with Homer, or a little older or
younger than him, is not yet agreed among the learned;
nor is there light enough in antiquity to fettle the mat¬
ter exaXly. His father, as he tells us in his Opera et
dies, was an inhabitant of Cuma, one of the Eolian
ifles, now called Taio Nova’, and removed from thence
to Afcra, a little village of Basotia, at the foot of
mount Helicon, where Hefiod was probably born,
and called, as he often is, Afcrueus, from it. Of what
quality his father was, is nowhere faid ; but that he
was driven by his misfortunes from Cumae to Afcra,
Hefiod himfelf informs us. His father ftems to have
profpered better at Afcra than he did in his own coun¬
try ; yet Hefiod could arrive at no higher fortune
than keeping fheep on the top of mount Helicon.
Here the mufes met with him, and entered him into<
their fervice:
Erewhile as they the fhepherd-fwain behold.
Feeding beneath the facred mount his fold.
With love of charming long his breafl they fir’d,
There me the heav’nly mufes firtl: infpir’d ;
There, when the maids of Jove the filence broke.
To .Hefiod thus, the fhepherd-fwain, they fpoke, &c.
To this account, which is to be found in the begin¬
ning of his Generatio Deorum, Ovid alludes in thefe
two lines:
Nec tnihifunt vift Clio, Cliufqueforores.
Servanti pecudes vallibus Afcra tuis.
Nor Clio nor her fitters have I feen,
As Heliodfaw them in th’ Afcraean green.
On the death of the father, an eftate was left, which
ought to have been equally divided between the two
brothers Hefiod and Perfes; but Perfes defrauded
him in the divifion, by corrupting the judges. He¬
fiod was fo far from refenting this injuftice, that he
exprefles a concern for thofe miftaken mortals who
place their happinefs in riches only, even at the ex¬
pence of their virtue. He lets us know, that he was
not only above want, but capable of affifting his bro¬
ther in time of need; which he often did, though he
had been fo ill ufed by him. The laft circumftance he
mentions relating to himfelf is his conqueft in a poeti¬
cal contention. Archidamus, king of Euboea, had in-
ftituted funeral games in honour of his own memory,,
which his fons afterwards took care to have perform¬
ed. Here Hefiod was a competitor for the prize in
poetry ; and won a tripod, which he confecrated to the
mufes.
Hefiod having entered himfelf in the fervice of the
mufes, left off the paftoral life, and applied himfelf to
the ftudy of arts and learning. When he was grown
old, for it is agreed by all that he lived to a very great
age, he removed to Locris, a town about the fame di-
ftance from mount Parnaffiis as Afcra was from Heli¬
con. His death was tragical. The man with whon\,
he lived at Locris, a Milefian born, ravifhed a maid
in the fame houfe ; and though Hefiod was entirely ig¬
norant of the faX, yet being [malicioufly accufed to
her brothers as an accomplice, he was injurioufly flain
with the ravifher, and thrown into the fea.
The Theogony, and Works and Days, are the only
undoubted*
H E S [ 3628 ] H E S
Hefper undoubted pieces of this poet now extant: though it
(I . is fuppofed that thefe poems have not defcended per-
Hefpens. £e^ an(j t0 tjje prefent time. A good edition
of Hefiod's works was publifhed by Mr Le Gere at
Amfterdam in 1701.
HESPER, an apellation given to the planet Venus
when the fets after the fun. See Hesperus.
HESPERIA, an ancient name of Italy; fo called
by the Greeks from its weftern fituation. Hefperia
was alfo an appellation of Spain ; but with the epithet
ultima (Horace), to diftinguilhed it from Italy, which
is called Hefperia magna (Virgil), from its extent of
empire.
HESPERI cornu, called the Great Bay by the
author of Hanno's Periplus : but moft interpreters,
following Mela, underftand a promontory ; fome Cape
Verd, others Palmas Cape: Voffius takes it to be the
former, fince Hanno did not proceed fo far as the lat¬
ter cape.
HESFERIDEiE (from the Hefperides, whofe
•orchards are laid to have produced golden apples),
golden or precious fruit: The name of the 19th
order in Linnasus’s fragments of a natural method.
See Botany, p. 1308.
HESPERIDES, in the ancient mythology, were
the daughters of Hefper, or Hefperus, brother of At¬
las. The Hefperides were three in number, JEgle,
Arethufa, and Plefperthufa.—Hefiod, in his Theo-
gony, makes them the daughters of Nox, night; and
feats them in the fame place with the Gorgons, viz.
at the extremities of the weft, near mount Atlas: it
is on that account he makes them the daughters of
Night, by reafon the fun fets there.
The Hefperides are reprefented by the ancients, as
having the keeping of certain golden apples, on
t’other fide the ocean. The poets give them a dra¬
gon to watch the garden where the fruit grows: this
dragon Hercules flew, and carried off the apples.
Pliny and Solinus will have the dragon to be no
other than an arm of the fea, wherewith the garden
was incompaffed, and which defended the entrance
thereof. And Varro fuppofes that the golden apples
were nothing but ftieep. Others, with more proba¬
bility, fay they were oranges.
HESPER1DUM insulae, (anc. geog.), iflands
near the Hefperi Cornu; but the accounts of them
are fo much involved in fable, that nothing certain
can be affirmed of them.
HESPERIS,'rocket, Dame’s violet, or queen's gil-
liflo'wer; a genus of the filiquofa order,” belonging to
the tetradynamia clafs of plants.
Species 1. The matronalis, or common fweet feent-
ed garden rocket hath fibrous roots, crowned with a
tuft of long, fpear-ftiaped, rough leaves; upright,
Angle, hairy (talks two feet high ; garniffied with o-
val, lanceolate, (lightly indented, clofe-fitting leaves;
and the (talk and branches terminated by large and long
fpikes of fweet-feented flowers of different colours
and properties in the varieties, of which there are a
great number. AH the varieties of this fpecies are fo
remarkable for imparting a fragrant odour, that the
ladies were fond of having them in their apartments.
Hence they derived the name of dame's violet; and,
bearing fome refemblance to a ftock-giiliflower, were
fometimes alfo called ; but are now
moft commonly called rocket. 2. The inodora, or Hefpent^
fcentlefs rocket, hath a fibrous root; upright, round, Hefle.
firm (talks, two feet high, garniftied with fpear-ftiaped,
acute-pointed, (harply indented, clofe-fitting leaves;
and all the branches terminated by large fpikes of
fcentlefs flowers, with obtufe petals, of different co¬
lours and properties in the varieties. This fpecies
makes a fine appearance, but hath no feent. 3. The
triftis, or dull-flowered night-fmelling rocket, hath
fibrous roots; upright, branching, fpreading, briftly
(talks, two feet high; fpear-ftiaped pointed leaves;
and fpikes of pale purple flowers, of great fragrance
in the evening.
Culture. All the fpecies are hardy, efpecially the
firft and fecond, which profper in any of the open
borders, and any common garden-foil; but the third,
being rather impatient of a fevere froft, and of much
moifture in winter, (hould have a dry warm fituation, and
a few may be placed in pots to be fheltered in cafe of
inclement weather. They may be propagated either
by feeds, by offsets, or by cuttings of the ftalks.
HESPERUS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Cephalus
by Aurora, as fair as Venus, was changed into a ftar,
called Lucifer in the morning, and Hefperus in the
evening. See Hesper.
HESSE, a country of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine; bounded on the fouth by the bi-
(hopric of Fulda; on the eaft, by the principality of
Hersfeld, Thuringia, and Eichsfeld, as alfo by that of
Calenburg; on the north, by the biftiopric of Pader-
born, and Waldeck, the duchy of Weftphalia, and the
county of Witgenftein ; and on the weft, by Naffau-
Dillenburg, the county of Solins, and Upper-Ifenburg.
In the above limits, the county of Katzenellnbogen
and fome other territories are not included. The
whole country, in its utmoft length, is near too miles,
and in fome places near as much in breadth. The air
is cold, but wholefome ; and the foil fruitful in corn,
wine, wood, and pafture. The country abounds alfo
in cattle, fi(h, and game; falt-fprings, baths, and mi¬
neral waters. The hills, which are many, yield filver,
copper, lead, iron, alum, vitriol, pit-coal, fulphur,
boles, a porcelain earth, marble, and alabafter. In
the Eder, gold is fometimes found; and at Franken-
berg a gold mine was formerly wrought. Befides
many leffer dreams, Heffe is watered by the following
rivers, viz. the Lahn, the Fulda, the Eder or Schwalm,
the Werra or Wefer, and Diemel. The Rhine alfo
and the Mayne pafs through the country of Katze¬
nellnbogen. This country, like moft others in Ger¬
many, has its dates, confiding of the prelates, as they
are called, the nobility, and the towns. The diets
are divided into general and particular, and the latter
into the greater and fmaller committees. The houfe
of Hefle is divided into two principal branches, viz.-
Caffel and Darmftadt, of which Philipfdale, Rhinfels,
and Homburg, are collateral branches ; the two firft;
of Heffe-Caffel, and the laft of Heffe-Darmftadt.
Their rights and privileges are very confiderable. In
particular, they have feveral votes at the diets of the
empire;,and caufes, not exceeding 1000 florins, are
determined by the courts of the country, without ap¬
peal. The princes of Heffe-Caffel are not of age till
they are 25, but thofe of Heffe-Darmftadt are fo at 18.
The right of primogeniture hath been eftablifhed in
both
H E S
H E S [ 3629 ]
Hefle both lioufes. The revenues of Darmftadt are fa id to
II amount to near loo.oool. a year, and thofe of Heffe-
neous8*" Caffel to near 200,0001. The fmall county of Schautn-
  1_ berg alone yields a revenue of io,oool. and that of
Ivatzenellnbogen, with the forefts of Richardfwalde,
it is faid, was farmed near 200 years ago at 12,000!.
The prince of HefTe-Caflel has 40 or 50,000 men in
his dominions fit to bear arms; and the troops that he
hires out have often brought him in large fums, efpe-
cially from Great Britain. The branches of Caflel,
Homburg, and Philipfdale, arc Calvinifts; that of
Darmftadt, Lutherans; and that of Rhinfeldts, Ro¬
man-catholics. The prefent prince of Htfie-Cafiel,
indeed, in the year 1749, embraced; the Roman-ca¬
tholic religion; but in i7J4drewup, and confirmed
by oath, an inftrument, of which all the Proteftant
princes are guarantees, declaring; that the eftabliftied
religion of his dominions (hould continue in every re-
fpeft as before, and that his children ftiould be brought
up and inftrufted therein. Here, as in the other Prote¬
ftant Lutheran countries of Germany, are confiftories,
fuperintendants, and infpedtors of the church. In.the
whole landgraviate are three univerfities, befides Latin
fchools and gymnafia, for the education of youth. The
manufa&ures of Hefle are linen cloth, hats, ftockings,
gloves, paper, goldfmiths wares, and at Caflel a beau¬
tiful porcelain is made. They have alfo the fineft
wool in Germany; but are reproached with want of
induftry, in exporting inftead of manufacturing it
themfelves.—This is fuppofed to have been the coun¬
try of the ancient Catti, mentioned by Tacitus, &c.
who, in after-ages, were called Chatti, Chaffin HaJJi,
and Hejfu The two chief branches of Caflel and
Darmftadt have many rights and privileges in com¬
mon, which we have not room to fpecify. Both of
them have a feat and vote in the college of princes at
the diet of the empire, and thofe of this circle. Each
of thefe princes, befides their guards and militia, main¬
tains a confiderable body both of horfe and foot.
HESYCHIUS, the moil celebrated of all the an¬
cient Greek grammarians whofe works are now ex¬
tant, was a Chriftian ; and, according to fome, the
fame with Hefychius patriarch cf Jerufidem, who died
in 609. He wrote a Greek lexicon; which, in the
opinion of Cafaubon, is the moft learned and ufeful
work of that kind produced by the ancients. Schre-
velius publiflied a good edition of it in 1668, in 410.
with notes; but the beft is that of John Alberti,
printed at Leyden in 1746, in two vols folio.
HETEROCLITE, among grammarians, one of
the three variations in irregular nouns, and defined by
Mr Ruddiman, a noun that varies in its declenfion; as
hoc vat, vajis; hac vafa, vaforum.
HETERODOX, in polemical theology, anything
contrary to the faith and do&rines of a church.
HETEROGENEITY, in phyfiology, that qua¬
lity or property of bodies which denominates a thing
heterogeneous.
HETEROGENEOUS, or Heterogeneal, fome-
thing that confifts of parts of diffimilar kinds, inoppo-
fition to homogeneous.
Heterogeneous Light, is, by Sir Ifaac Newton,
faid to be that which confifts of rays of different de¬
grees of refrangibility: thus the common light of the
fun or clouds is heterogeneous, -being a mixture of all
Vol. V.
forts of rays.
Heterogeneous Nouns, one of the three variations
in irregular nouns; or fuch as are of one gender in
the Angular number, and of another in the plural.
—Heterogeneous, under which are comprehended
mixed nouns, are fix-fold. 1. Thofe which are of
the mafeuline gender in the Angular number, and
neuter in the plural; as hie tartarus, knee tartara.
2. Thofe which are mafeuline in the lingular number,
but mafeuline and neuter in the plural; as hie locust
hi loci, & hac loca. 3. Such as are feminine in the
Angular number, but neuter in the plural; as hxc car-
bafus, <fa htec carbafa. 4. Such nouns as are neuter
in the fingular number, but mafeuline in the plural;
as hoc ccelum, hi coeli. 5. Such as are neuter in the
fingular, but neuter and mafeuline in the plural; as
hoc rajlrum, hi rajlri, fa htec rajlra; and, 6. Such as
are neuter in the fingular, but feminine in the plural
number; as hoc epulum, hce epuLe.
HETEROSCII, in geography, a term of relation,
denoting fuch inhabitants of the earth as have their
fhadows falling but one way, as thofe who live be¬
tween the tropics and polar circles; whofe fhadows at
noon in north latitude are always to the northward,
and in fouth latitude to the fouthward.
HEVELIUS, or Hevelke, (John), an eminent
aftronomer, was born at Dantzic in 1611. He ftu-
died in Germany, England, and France, and every¬
where obtained the efteem of the learned. He was the
firft that difeovered a kind of libration in the moon,
and made feveral important obfervations on the other
planets. He alfo difeovered feveral fixed ftars, which
he named the firmament of Sobiejki, in honour of
John III. king of Poland. His wife was alfo well
fkilled in aftronomy, and made a part of the obferva¬
tions publifhed by her hufband. In 1673, publifh-
ed, A defeription of the inftruments with which he
made his obfervations, under the title of Machina Cue-
lejlis; and in 1679, he publifhed the fecond part of
this work ; but in September the fame year, while he
was at a feat in the country, he had the misfortune to
have his houfe at Dantzic burnt down. By this cala¬
mity he is faid to have fuftained a lofs of feveral thou-
fand pounds ; having not only his obfervatory and all
his valuable inftruments and apparatus deftroyed ; but
alfo a great number of copies of his Machim Ccelejlis;
which accident has made this fecond part very fcarce,
and confequently very dear. In the year 1690 were
publifhed, “ Firmamentum Sobiefcianum,” and “ Pro-
domus aftronomicas &. novae tabulae folaries, una cum
catalogo fixarum,” in which he lays down the necef-
fary preliminaries for taking an exaft catalogue of the
ftars. But both thefe works are pofthumous; for 'He-
velius died in 1687, on his birth-day, aged 76. He
was a man greatly efteemed by his countrymen, not
only on account of his great reputation and fkill in a-
ftronomy, but as a very excellent and worthy magi-
ftrate. He was made a burgomafter of Dantzic ;
which office he is faid to have executed with the utmoft
integrity and applaufe. He was alfo very highly e-
fteemed by foreigners; and not only by thofe fleilled in
aftronomy and the fciences, but by foreign princes,
and potentates: as appears abundantly from a collec¬
tion of their letters which were printed at Dantzic in
the year 1683.
20 S
Heterofcii,
Hevelius.
HEU-
HEY [ 3630 ] HEY
Hciirn'ms HEURNIUS, or Van Heurn, (John), a learned
11 phyfician, was born at Utrecht, in 1543 ; and ftudied
Hexham. Louvain, Paris, Padua, and Pavia. At his return
to his native country he became magiftrate of Amfter-
dam; after which he was profelfor of phyfic at Ley¬
den, and re&or of the univerfity of that city, where
he died in 1601. He wrote, among other woi*ks, fe-
veral treatifes on the difeafes of different parts of the
body, and feveral commentaries on the works of Hip¬
pocrates.—Otho Heurnius, his fon, was alfo profeffor
of phyfic at Leyden, and wrote fome books.
HEUSDEN, a ftrong town of the United Pro¬
vinces in Holland, feated on the river Maefe among
marfhes, with a handfome caflle, in E. Long. 5. 3. N.
Lat. 51. 47.
HEWSON (William), a very ingenious anatomift,
was born in 1739. He became affiltant to Dr Hun¬
ter, and was afterwards in partnerfhip with him ; but,
on their difagreement, read anatomical le&ures at his
own houfe (in which he was feconded by Mr Falco¬
ner). He wrote Inquiries into the properties of the
llooct, and the lymphatic fyftem, 2 vols ; and difputed
with Dr Monro the difcovery of the lymphatic fy-
ftem of veffels in oviparous animils. He died in 1774.
HEXACHORD, in ancient nuific, a concord call¬
ed by the moderns aJixth.
HEXAGON, in geometry, a figure of fix fides and
angles ; and if thefe Tides and angles are equal, it is
called a regular hexagon.
HEXAHEDRON, in geometry, one of the five
platonic bodies, or regular folids, being the fame with
a cube.
HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verfe
confilting of fix feet; the firfl four of which may be
indifferently either fpondees or da&yls; the fifth is
generally a dadfyl, and the fixth always a fpondeei
Such is the following verfe of Horace:
1 2 3456
Aut pro\dejfe vo\lunt, aut\ dek\(lare po\etee.
HEXANDRIA, in botany, (from 4. “ fix
and «v»p> “ a man;”) the name of the fixth clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants with her¬
maphrodite flowers, which are furnifhed with fix fla-
xnina or male organs, that are of an equal length. See
Botany, p. 1292.
HEXASTYLE, in architecture, a building with-
fix columns in front.
HEXHAM, a town of Northumberland. It is
commonly reckoned to be the Alexodunnm of the Ro¬
mans, where the firll cohort of the Spaniards were
in garrifon. It was made a bifhop’s fee by Etheb
dreda, wife of king of Egfred, in the year 675. Its
firft bifhop, St Wilfred, built here a mod mag¬
nificent cathedral and monaftery, and it was pof-
feffed by feven bifhops fucceffively ; but being very
much infefted by the Danes, the fee was removed to
York. The town is at prefent well built, and its
market is pretty good for corn. There was a remark¬
able and bloody battle fought near this town, between
the houfes of Lancafter and York, wherein the former
were defeated, chiefly by the extraordinary bravery and
condu& of John Nevil, lord Montacute, who was for
that reafon created earl of Northumberland. W.
Long. 1. 37. N. Lat. 55. 5.
HEYDON, a little,, pleafant, well-built town of
Yorkfhire, in that part called Holdernejfe, feated on a Heydon
river that falls into the Humber. It has now but one 11
church, tho’ there are the remains of two more; and eywo° ‘
had formerly a confiderable trade, which is now loft,
on account of its being fo near Hull. The houfes
being rebuilt, adds to the beauty of the place. It is
a corporation ; and is governed by a mayor, a re¬
corder, nine aldermen, and two bailiffs, who have the
power of choofing fheriffs, and are juftices of the
peace. It fends two members to parliament. W.
Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 53. 46.
Heydon (John), who fometimes affumed the name
of Eugenius Theodidaftus, was a great pretender to fkill
in the Roficrucian philofophy and the celeftial figns,
in the reign of king Charles I.; and wrote a confider¬
able number of chemical and aftrological works, with
very fingular titles. This ridiculous author was much
reforted to by the duke of Buckingham, who was in¬
fatuated with judicial aftrology. He employed him
to calculate the king’s and his own nativity, and was
affured that his ftars had promifed him great things.
The duke alfo employed Heydon in fome treafonable
and feditious praCfices, for which he was fent to the
tower. He loft much of his former reputation by tell¬
ing Richard Cromwell and Thurloe, who went to him
difguifed like cavaliers, That Oliver would infallibly be
hanged by a certain time ; which he out-lived feveral
years.
HEYLIN (Dr Peter), an eminent Englifh writer,
was born at Burford, in Oxfordfhire, in 1600. He
ftudied at Hart-hall, Oxford ; where he took his de¬
grees in arts and divinity, and became an able geogra¬
pher and hiftorian. He was appointed one of the
chaplains in ordinary to king Charles I. was pre-
fented to the reftory of Hemingford in Huntington-
fhire, made a prebendary of Weftminfler, and ob¬
tained feveral other livings : but of thefe he was depri¬
ved by the parliament, who alfo fequeftered his eftate ;
by which means he and his family were reduced to
great neceffity. However, upon the reftoration, he
was reftored to his fpiritualities ; but never rofe higher
than to be fubdean of Weftminfter. He died in 1662 ;
and was interred in St Peter’s church in Weftminfter,
where he had a neat monument eredled to his memory.
His writings are very numerous: the principal of
which are, I. Microcofsnus, or a defcription of the
great world. 2. Cofmographia. 3. The hiftory of St
George. 4. Ecclefra vindicata, or the church of
England juftified. 5. Hiftorical and mifcellaneoua
tradfs, &c.
HEYWOOD (John), one of our moft ancient
dramatic poets, was born at North-Mims, near St
Alban’s in Hertfordlhire, and educated at Oxford.
From thence he retired to the place of his nativity ;
where he had the good fortune to become acquainted
with Sir Thomas More, who, it feems, had a feat in
that neighbourhood. This patron of genius introdu¬
ced our comic poet to the princefs Mary, and after¬
wards to her father Henry, who, we are told, was
much delighted with his wit, and Ikill ir» mufic, and
by whom he was frequently rewarded. When his for¬
mer patronefs, queen Mary, came to the crown, Hey-
wood became a favourite at court, and continued often
to entertain her majefty, exercijing his fancy before hert
even to the -time that foe lay languijking on her death-
H I B [ 3631 ] H I B
Hey wood, led. On the acceffion of Elizabeth, being a zealous
HlattlS• Papift, he thought fit to decamp, with other favourites
of her deceafed majefty. He fettled at Mechlin in
Flanders, where he died in the year 1565.—John
Heywood was a man of no great learning, nor were
his poetical talents by any means extraordinary; but
he poffeffed talents of more importance in the times in
which he lived, namely, the talents of ajefter. He
wrote feveral plays; 500 epigrams; A dialogue in verfe
concerning Englijh proverbs ; and, The fpider andfly, a
parable, a thick 410. Before the title of this laft work
is a whyle-length wooden prin^of the author ; who is
alfo reprefented at the head of e'very chapter in the
book, of which there are 77.— He left two fons, who
both became Jefuits and eminent men : viz. Ellis Hey¬
wood, who continued fome time at Florence under the
patronage of cardinal Pole, and became fo good a
matter of the Italian tongue, as to write a treatife in
that language, entitled II Moro', he died at Louvain
about the year 1572. His other fon was Jafper Hey¬
wood, who was obliged to refign a fellowfhip at Ox¬
ford on account of his immoralities : he tranflated
three tragedies of Seneca, and wrote various poems
and devifes ; fome of which were printed in a volume,
intitled, The paradife of dainty devifes, 4to. 1573. He
died at Naples in 159.7
Heywood (Eliza), one of the moft voluminous no¬
vel writers this ifland ever produced; of whom we know
no more than that her father was a tradefman, and that
fhe was born about the year 1696. In the early part
of her life, her pen, whether to gratify her own difpo-
tion or the prevailing tafte, dealt chiefly in licentious
tales, and memoirs of perfonal fcandal : the celebrated
Atalantis of Mrs Manley ferved her for a model; and
The court of Carimania, The nenv Utopia, with fome
other pieces of a like nature, were the copies her ge¬
nius produced. She alfo attempted dramatic writing
and performance, but did not fucceed in either. What¬
ever it was that provoked the refentment of Pope, he
gave full fcope to it by diftinguilhing her as one of the
prizes to be gained in the games introduced in honour
of Dullnefs, in his Dunciad. Neverthelefs, it feems
undeniable, that there is much fpirit, and much inge¬
nuity, in her manner of treating fubje&s, which the
friends of virtue may perhaps wifh flie had never med¬
dled with at all. But, whatever offence fhe may have
given to delicacy or morality in her early works, fhe
appears to have been foon convinced of, and endeavour¬
ed to atone for in the latter part of her life ; as no au¬
thor then appeared a greater advocate for virtue. A-
mong her riper productions may be fpecified, The fe¬
male Speftator, 4 vols ; The hiflory of Mifs Betfy
Thoughtlefs, 4 vols ; Jemmy and Jenny JeJfamy, 3 vols ;
The inviflble fpy, 4 vols; with a pamphlet, intitled, A
prefent for a fervant-maid. She died in 1759.
HIATUS, properly fignifies an opening, chafm,
or gap ; but it is particularly applied to thofe verfes
where one word ends with a vowel, and the follow¬
ing word begins with one, and thereby occafions the
mouth to be more open, and the found to be very
harfh.
The term hiatus is alfo ufed in fpeaking of manu-
fcripts, to denote their defeCts, of the parts that have
been I oil or effaced.
HIBISCUS, Syrian mallow; a genus of the po-
lyandria ordef, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of Hibifcus.
plants. '  
Species. Of this genus there are 25 fpecies; the
mott remarkable are, 1. The Syriacus, commonly call¬
ed althaa frutex, is a native of Syria. It rifes with
flirubby ftalks to the height of eight or ten feet, fend¬
ing out many-woody branches covered with a fmooth
grey bark, garnifhed with oval fpear-fhaped leaves,
whofe upper parts are frequently divided into three
lobes. The flowers come out from the wings of the
ftalk at every joint of the fame year’s fhoot. They are
large, and fhaped like thofe of the mallow, having five
large roundifh petals which join at their bafe, fpread-
ing open at the top, in fhape of an open bell. Thefe
appear in Auguft; and if the feafon is not too warm,
there will be a fucceffion of flowers till September.
The flowers are fucceeded by fhort capfules, with five
cells, filled with kidney-fhaped feeds; but unlefs the
feafon proves warm, they will not ripen in this coun¬
try. Of this fpecies there are four or five varieties, dif¬
fering in the colour of their flowers: the moft common
hath pale purple flowers with dark bottoms; another
hath bright purple flowers with black bottoms ; a
third hath white-flowers with purple bottoms ; and a
fourth, variegated flowers with dark bottoms. There
are alfo two with variegated leaves, which are by fome
much efteemed. All thefe varieties are very ornamen¬
tal in a garden. 2. The Chinenfis is a native of the
Eaft Indies, whence it has got the name of China rofe;
but the feeds having been carried by the French to
their Weft India fettlements, it hath thence obtained
the name of Martinico rofe. Of this there are the
double and Angle flowering kinds; the feeds of the
firft frequently produce plants that have only Angle
flowers, but the latter feldom vary to the double
kind. The plant has a foft fpungy Item, which by
age becomes ligneous and pithy. It rifes to the height
of 12 or 14 feet, fending out branches towards the
top, which are hairy, garnifhed with heart-fhaped
leaves, cut into five acute angles on their borders, and
flightly fawed on their edges ; of a lucid green on their
upper fide, but pale below. The flowers are produced
from the wings of the leaves ; the Angle are compofed
of five petals which fpread open, and are at firft white,
but afterwards change to a blufh rofe colour, and as
they decay turn purple. In the Weft Indies, all
thefe alterations happen on the fame day, and the
flowers themfelves are of no longer duration ; but Jin
Britain the changes are not fo fudden. The flowers
are furrounded by fhort, thick, blunt, capfules, which
are very hairy ; having five cells, which contain many
fmall kidney-fhaped feeds, having a fine plume of fi¬
brous down adhering to them. 3. The almofchus, or
mufk, is a native of the Weft Indies, where the French
cultivate great quantities of it. The plant rifes with
an herbaceous ftalk three or four feet high, fending
out two or three fide-branches, garnifhed with large
leaves cut into fix or feven acute angles, fawed on their
edges, having long footftalks, and placed alternately.
The ftalks and leaves of this fort are very hairy. The
flowers come out from the wings of the leaves upon
pretty long footftalks which (land ere£l. They are large,
of a fulphur colour, with purple bottoms; and are fuc¬
ceeded by pyramidal five-cornered capfules, which open
in five cells, filled with large kidney-fhaped feeds of a
20 S 2 very
H I C [ 3632 ] H I G
HiWfcus. very muflcy odour. 4. The tiliaceus, or maho-tree, is
’ a native of both the Indies. It rifes with a woody,
pithy Item, to the height often feet, dividing into fe-
veral branches towards the top, which are covered with
a woolly down, garnifhed with heart-draped leaves end¬
ing in acute points. They are of a lucid green on their
upper fide, and hoary on the under fide, full of large
veins, and are placed alternately. The flowers are pro¬
duced in loofe fpikes at the end of the branches, and
are of a whitidi-yellow colour. They are fucceeded
by flrort acuminated capfules, opening in five cells, fill¬
ed with kidney-fhaped feeds. 5. The javanica grows
naturally on the coaft of Malabar. It rifes with a
woody (talk 12 or 14 feet high, dividing into many
fmall branches towards the top, garnifhed with oval
fawed leaves ending in acute points, of a lucid green
above, but pale on their under fide, placed without or¬
der. The flowers come out from the fides of the
branches at the wings of the leaves on pretty long foot-
ftalks. They are cbmpofed of many oblong roundifh
petals of a red colour, which expand like the rofe ;
the flowers being as large when fully blown as the com¬
mon red rofe, and as double. 6. The goflypifolius,
with a cotton leaf, is a native of the Weft Indies, and
rifes with an herbaceous ftem three feet high, fending
out feveral lateral branches, which are garnifhed with
fmooth leaves divided into five lobes. The flowers come
out at the fide of the branches. They are of a dirty
white, with dark purple bottoms, and are fucceeded
by obtufe feed-veflels divided into five cells, which are
filled with kidney-fhaped feeds. 7. The trionum, Ve¬
nice mallow, or flower of an hour, is a native of fome
parts of Italy, and has long been cultivated in the
gardens of this country. It rifes with a branching
ftalk a foot and an half high, having many fhort fpines,
which are foft, and do not appear unlefs clofely view¬
ed : the leaves are divided into three lobes, which are
deeply jagged almoft to the midrib. The flowers come
out at the joints of the (talks, upon pretty long foot-
ftalks. They have a double empalement ; the outer
being compofed of ten long narrow leaves, which join
at their bafe : the inner is of one thin leaf fwollen like
a bladder, cut into five acute fegments at the top, ha¬
ving many longitudinal purple ribs, and is hairy. Both
thefe are permanent, and inclofe the capfule after the
flower is pad. The flower is compofed of five obtufe
petals, which fpread open at the top ; the lower part
forming an open bell-fhaped flower. Thefe have dark
purple bottoms, but are of a pale fulphur-colour above.
In hot weather the flowers continue but a few hours
open ; however, there is a fucceflion of flowers thato-
pen daily for a confiderable time. 8. The ficifolia, or
ketmia of the Brafils, with a fig-leaf, is common in the
Weft Indies. It rifes with a foft herbaceous ftalk
from three to five feet high, dividing upward into ma¬
ny branches garnifhed with hand-ftiaped leaves, di¬
vided into five lobes. The flowers are produced from
the wings of the ftalks ; they are of a pale fulphur co¬
lour with dark purple bottoms, but are of a very fhort
duration ; opening in the morning with the rifing fun,
and fading long before noon in hot weather. They
are fucceeded by capfules of very different forms, in
the different varieties. In fome, the capfules are not
thicker than a man’s finger, and five or fix inches long;
in others, they are very thick, and not more than two
or three inches long ; in fome plants they grow eredl, Hibifcu*
in others they are inclined, &c.’ , I!
Culture. The firft fort may be propagated eithe'r by Hickes*
feeds or cuttings. The feeds may be fown in pots fill¬
ed with light earth about the latter end of March, and
the young plants tranfplanted about the fame time
next year. They will fucceed in the full ground; but
muft be covered in winter whilft young, otherwife
they are apt to be deftroyed. The fecond fort is pro¬
pagated by feeds, which muft be fown in a hot-bed.
The young plants arc to -be tranfplanted into fmall fe-
parate pots, and treated like other tender vegetables,
only allowing them a good fhare of air. The third fort
is annual in this country, though biennial in thofe
places where it is native. It is propagated by feeds,
and muft be treated in the manner direfted for Ama¬
ranth. The fourth, fifth, fixth, and eighth forts re¬
quire the fame treatment with the third. The feventh
is propagated by feeds, which fhould be fown where
the plants are defigned to remain, for they do not bear
tranfplanting well. They require no other culture than
to be kept free from weeds, and thinned where they
are too clofe; and if the feeds are permitted to fcatter,
the plants will come up fully as well as if they had
been fown.
Ufes. The third fort is cultivated in the Weft In¬
dies by the French, for the fake of its feeds. Thefe are
annually fent to France in great quantities, and form
a confiderable branch of trade, but the purpofes which
they anfwer are not certainly known. The flowers of
the fifth kind are ufed by the Indian women of Mala¬
bar for colouring their hair and eyebrows of a black
that will not wafh off. The Europeans there ufe it
for blacking their (hoes, and thence have named it the
Jhoe-flo'wer. The green pods of the fixth fort havb the
tafte of forrel, and are ufed by the Weft Indians for
giving an acid tafte to their viands. The eighth fort
is alfo cultivated by the Weft Indians for the fake of
its pods. Thefe they gather green to put into their
foups ; and having a foft vifeous juice, they add a
thicknefs to the foup which renders it very palatable.
HICETAS of Syracufe, an ancient philofopher
and aftronomer, who taught that the fun and ftars
were motionlefs, and that the earth moved round
them. This is mentioned by Cicero, and probably
gave the firft hint of the true fyftem to Copernicus.
He flourifhed 344 B. C.
HICKES (George), an Englifh divine of extra¬
ordinary parts and learning, born in 1642. In 1681
he was made king’s chaplain, and two years after
dean of Worcefter. The death of Charles II. flopped
his farther preferment; for, though his church prin¬
ciples were very high, he manifefted too much zeal
againft Popery to be any favourite with James II. On
the revolution, he with many others was deprived for
refufing to take the oaths to king William and queen
Mary; and foon afte>r, archbilhop Sancroft and his col¬
leagues confidering how to maintain epifcopal fuccef-
fion among thofe who adhered to them, Dr Hickes
carried over a lift of the deprived clergy to king James ;
and with his fan&ion a private confecration was per¬
formed, at which it is faid lord Clarendon was prefent.
Among others, Dr Hickes was confecrated fuffragan
bifhop of Thetford, and died in 1715.—He wrote, 1.
LiJUtutioues Grammatics Anglo-Saxonic#) et Mmfo-Go¬
thics,.
HIE [ 3633 ] HIE
Jiicksp thkx, 2. Antlqua literatura feptentrionalis. 3. Two
II. treatifes, ont of the Chriftian priefthood, the other of
Hifucium. tjie cj;gn;(y Gf tjie epifCOpal order. 4. Jovian, or an
anfwer to Julian the apoliate. 5.. Sermons; with many
temporary controverfial pieces on politics and religion.
HICKUP, or Hiccough, a fpafmodic affe&ion of
the ftomach, cefophagus, and mufcles fubfervient to de-
. glutition, arifing (ometimes from fome particular in¬
jury done to the Ifomach, cefo'phagus, diaphragm, &e.
and fometimes from a general affe&ion of the nervous
fyftem. Sec (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HIDAGE (Hidagium), was an extraordinary tax
payable to the kings of England for every hyde of
land. This taxation was levied not only in money,
but in provifion, armour, &c.; and when the Danes
landed in Sandwich in 994, king Ethelred taxed all.
his :ands by hides; fo that every 310 hides found one
fhip furnilhed, and every eight hides furnifhed one jack
and one faddle, to arm for the defence of the kingdom,
&c.—Sometimes the word hidage was ufed for the
being quit of that tax: which wasalfo c.v\\c& hidegild;
and interpreted, from the Saxon, a “ price, or ranfom
paid to fave one’s ikih or hide from beating.”
HIDE, the fkin of beafts; but the word is parti¬
cularly applied to thofe of large cattle, as bullocks,
cows, horfes, &c.
Hides are either raw or green, juft as taken off the
carcafe, falted, or feafoned with fait, alum, and-falt-
petre, to prevent their fpoiling; or curried and tanned.
See Tanning.
Hide of Land, was fuch a quantity of land as might
be ploughed with one plough within the compafs of a
year, or as much as would maintain a family ; fome
call it 60, fome 80, and others 100 acres.
1ri.\DE-Bound. See Farriery, $. xix.
HIERACIUM, hawkweed ; a genus of the
order of polygamia asqualis, belonging to the fyngCr
nelia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The aurantiacum, commonly called
grim the collier, hath many oblong oval entire leaves,
crowning the root ; an upright, Angle, hairy, and
almoft leaflefs ftalk, a foot high, terminated by red-
dilh orange-coloured flowers in a corymbus. Thefe
flowers have dark oval afti-coloured calyces; whence
the name of grim the collier. 2. The pilofella or
moufe-ear, hath bloffoms red on the outfide, and pale
yellow within ; the cups fet thick with black hairs.
The flowers open at eight in the morning, and clofe
about two in the afternoon. 3. The umbellatum grows
to the height of three feet, with an eredt and firm
fialk, terminated with an umbel of yellow flowers.
Culture. The firft is the only fpecies cultivated in
■gardens. It is propagated by feeds, or parting the
roots. The feed may be fown in autumn or fpring.
In June, when the plants are grown two or three in¬
ches high, they may be picked out and planted in
beds, where they muft remain till the next autumn,
and then tranfplanted where they are to remain.
Properties. The fecond fpecies is common in dry
paftures in England ; it has a milky juice, but is lefs
bitter and aftringent than is ufual with plants of that
clafs. It is reckoned hurtful to fheep. An infeft of
the cochineal genus, (Coccus Polonicus) \$ ohen found
at the roots, (All. Upfal. 1752.) Goats eat it;
fheep are not fond of it; horfes and fwine refufe it.—
The \hird fpecies is a native of Scotland, and grows Hieracitsi
in rough ftony places, but is not very common. The _ !i
flowers are fometimes ufed for dying yarn of a fine
yellow colour. p  
HIERACITES, in church-hiftory, Chriftian he¬
retics in the third century : fo called from their leader
Hierax, a philofopher of Egypt; who taught that
Melehifedek was the Holy Ghoit, denied the refur-
re&ion, and condemned marriage.
HTERANOSIS, or Morbus Sacer. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HIERA picra. See Pharmacy, n° 826.
HIERARCHY, among divines, denotes the fub-
ordination of angels.
Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, orders,
or ranks of angels ; and give them different names-
according to their different degrees of power and-
knowledge.
Hierarchy, likewife denotes the fubordination of
the clergy, ecclefiaftical polity, or the conftitution
and government of the Chriftian church confidered as
a fociety.
HIERES, the name of fome fmall iflands lying
near the coaft of Provence in France, oppofite to the
towns of Hieres and Toulon, where the Englifli fleet
lay many months in 1744, and blocked up the Frencli
and Spanifti fleets in the harbour of Toulon.
Hieres, a town of Provence in France, feated on
the Mediterranean fea. It is a pretty little town, and
was formerly a colony of the Marfilians; and pilgrims
ufed to embark here for the holy land. But its har¬
bour being now choaked up, it is confiderable only
for its fait-works. E. Long. 6. 13. N. Lat. 43. 7.
HIEROI. and II. kings of Syracufe. See Syracuse..
H IEROCLES, a cruel perfecutor of the Chri-
ftians, and a violent promoter of the perfecution under
Dioclefian, flourifhed in 302. -He wrote fome books
againft the Chriftian religion ; in which he pretends
fome inconfiftencies in the Holy Scriptures, and com¬
pares the miracles of Apollonius Tyanseus to thofe of
our Saviour. He was refuted by La&antius and Eu-
febius. The remains of his works were colle&ed into
one volume o&avo, by bifhop Pearfon; and-publifhed
in 1654, with a learned differtation prefixed to the
work.
Hierocles, a Platonic philofopher of the fifth
century, taught at Alexandria, and was admired for
his eloquence. He wrote feven books upon Provi¬
dence and Fate; and dedicated them to the philofo-
fopher Olympiodorus, who by his embaffies did the
Romans great fervices under the emperors Honorius
and Theodofius the younger. But thefe books are
loft, and we only know them by the extrafts in Pho-
tius. He wrote alfo a Commentary upon the golden
verfes of Pythagoras ; which is ftill extant, and has
been feveral times publilhed with thofe verfes.
HIEROGLYPHICS, in antiquity, myftical cha-
rafters, or fymbols, in life among the* Egyptians, and
that as well in their writings as infcriptions ; being the
figures of various animals, the parts of human bodies,
and meachanical inftruments.
The word is compofed of the Greek facer,
“ holy,” zndi ywfiu,fculpere, “ to engrave;” it be¬
ing the cuftorn to have the walls, doors, &c. of their
temples, obelilks, &c. engraven with fuch figures.
After
HIE [ 3^4 J HIE
Hierogly- After Hermes, and the Egyptian priefts who fuc-
phics. ceeded, had, by long ftudy and fpeculation, formed
a fyftem of theology, and natural philofophy, in
which God, the fupreme caufe of all, was the univer-
fal foul diffufed through the whole creation, they en¬
deavoured to exprefs the divine attributes and opera¬
tions of the Deity, in the works of nature, by the
properties and powers of living animals, and other na¬
tural produftions, as the proper fymbols of fuch ama¬
zing caufes.
In order to choofe the mod proper fymbols, and, at
the fame time, the mod expreffive of the divine attri¬
butes, and of the efFe&s of Divine Providence in eve¬
ry part of the univerfe, they dudied with great appli¬
cation and care, not only the peculiar properties of
thofe animals, birds, and fiflies, herbs and plants,
which Egypt produced, but alfo the geometrical pro¬
perties of lines and figures ; and by a regular connec¬
tion of thefe in various orders, attitudes, and com-
pofitions, they formed the whole fydem of their theo¬
logy and philofophy, which was hidden under hiero¬
glyphic figures and charadlers, known only to them-
felves, and to thofe who were initiated into their my-
fieries.
In this fydem their principal hero-gods, Ofiris and
Ifis, theologically reprefented the Supreme Being, and
univerfal nature; and phyfically fignified the two great
celedial luminaries, the fun and moon, by whofe in¬
fluence all nature was a&uated. In like manner, the
inferior heroes reprefented the fubordinate gods, who
were the miniders of the fupreme fpirit; and phyfi¬
cally they denoted the inferior mundane elements and
powers. Their fymbols reprefented, and comprehend¬
ed under them, the natural produ&ions of the Deity;
and the various beneficial effe&s of Divine Providence,
in the works of creation : and alfo the order and har¬
mony, the powers and mutual influence of the feveral
parts of the univerfal fydem.
This is the fum and fubdance of the Egyptian learn¬
ing, fo famed in ancient times throughout the world.
And in this general fydem, the particular hidory of
their hero-gods was contained, and applied to phyfi-
cal caufes, and theological fcience. The hieroglyphic
fydem was compofed with great art and fagacity ; and
was fo univerfally edeemed and admired, that the mod
learned philofophers of other nations came into Egypt
on purpofe to be indru&ed in it, and to learn the phi¬
lofophy and theology conveyed by thefe appofite
fymbols.
In this hieroglyphic fydem the hero-gods not only
reprefented, and were fymbols of, the fupreme God,
and fubordinate deities; but they had each their ani¬
mal fymbol, to reprefent their peculiar powers, energy,
and adminidration : and their figures were compounded
of one part or other of their fymbols, to exprefs more
fenfibly the natural effcfts of divine energy attributed
to them.
Thus Ofiris, when he reprefented the power and all-
feeing providence of the Supreme Being, had a hu¬
man body with a hawk’s head, and a fceptre in his
hand, and decorated with the other regalia or.enfigns
of royalty. Under the fame form alfo he reprefented
the fun, the great celedial luminary; and, as it were,
the foul of the world: his fymbol now was a bull,
and the fcarabteus or beetle, which expreffed the fun’s
motion, by rolling balls of dung, containing its feed, Hierogly.
backwards, or from ead to wed, his face being to- pl"cs-
wards the ead. The fymbolic bull was likewife of a
particular form and make, to denote the various influ¬
ences of the fun.
Ofiris was alfo delineated fometimes with a bull’s,
and fometimes with a lion’s head, to reprefent the
heat, vigour, and influence of the fun, efpecially in
the inundation of the Nile, when the fun was in the
celedial fign Leo ; and likewife to exprefs the folar in¬
fluence in all the produ&ions.of nature. And it is
alfo obfervable, that the bull and lion were parts of
the Jewifli cherub’s fymbol; and as the one was the
head of the wild, and the other of the tame beads,
they reprefented, in conjundlion, the animal-creation ;
while the other two parts, namely, the eagle and hu¬
man figure, reprefented the aerial, rational creation.
Ifis was formed with many beads, to reprefent the
earth, the univerfal mother ; and with a cornucopia in
her hand, denoting the nutritive and produ&ive powers
of nature : her fymbol was a cow, part black and part
white, to reprefent the enlightened and dark parts of
the moon.
Pan had the horns and feet, and fometimes alfo the
head, of a goat, which was his fymbol, to (hew the ge¬
nerative power of nature, over which he prefided. At
the fame time, he fymbolically reprefented univerfal
nature, the caufe of all things.
Hermes had a dog’s head, which was his fymbol,
to denote his fagacity in the invention of arts and fai¬
ences; efpecialiy in his watchful diligence in the cul¬
ture of religious rites and facred knowledge : at the
fame time he fymbolically reprefented the Divine Provi¬
dence, and was worlhipped as the chief counfellor of Sa¬
turn and Ofiris ; he who communicated the will of the
gods to men, and by whom their fouls were condiufl-
ed into the other world. He was likewife reprefented
by the ibis, and with the head of this bird, which
was at the fame time his fymbol, to fignify his con¬
veying literature to the Egyptians,- which they be¬
lieved was done under the form of this bird, and con¬
fined to their nation only, as the ibis was known to
live no where but in Egypt.
Ammon reprefented the deity called Amun, and his
fymbol was a ram. He was alfo delineated with a
ram’s head and horns, to denote the creative power of
God, and his beneficial and diffufive influence through
the works of nature, making every thing fruitful, to
produce and multiply its kind ; and cherifhing and pre-
ferVing them by the warmth of the fun, and an in¬
ternal vital heat and vigour.
The univerfal foul itfelf was beautifully reprefented
by a winged globe, with a ferpent emerging from it.
The globe denoted the infinite divine effence, whofe
centre, to ufe the exprefiion in the Hermetic writings,
was every where, and circumference no where. The
wings of the hawk reprefented the divine all-compre-
henfive intelleft: and the ferpent denoted the vivify¬
ing power of God, by which life and exillence are gi¬
ven to all things.
Typhon reprefented the moft powerful daemon, or
evil genius; who was continually at war with Ofiris
and Ifis, the moft benevolent geniufes of Egypt. His
fymbol was an hippopotamus, or river-horfe, a very
treacherous and cruel animal.
Orus
HIE [ 3635 ] HIE
Hierogly- Orus was a principal deity of the Egyptians; and,
phies. according to his heiroglyphic formsxand habits, figni-
fied fometimesthe fun, and fometimes the harmony of
the whole mundane fyftem. At the fame time, being
the offspring of Ofiris and Ifis, he was always repre-
fented young. He alfo reprefented the order and fit-
nefs of the feveral parts of the external fen fib le world,
formed by the wifdom of Divine Providence, exprefs-
ed by Ifis ; and by the intelleft, power, and goodnefs of
the fupreme God, reprefented by Ofiris. Hence, and
alfo becaufe Ofiris and Ifis reprefented phyfically the
fun and moon, who, by their diffufive light, heat,
and influence, preferve the vilible fyftetn, Orus was
called their offspring.
To exprefs the hieroglyphic mean of Orus, as re-
prefenting the world, he was reprefented with a ftaff,
upon the top of which was the head of the upupa, to
fignify, by the variegated feathers of that bird, the
beautiful variety of the creation. In one of his hands
he held a lituus, to denote the harmony of the fyftem;
and a gnomon in the other, to fliew the perfect pro¬
portions of its parts. Behind him was a triangle in-
fcribed in a circle, to fignify that the world was made
by the unerring wifdom of God. He had alfo fome¬
times a cornucopia in his hand, to denote the fertility
and productions of the earth.
Harpocrates was defcribed holding one of his fin¬
gers on his lips, to denote the myfterious and ineffable
nature of God ; and that the knowledge of him was
to be fearcbed after, with profound and filent medita¬
tion, and, at the fame time, that they are not to be
uttered or divulged.
Upon the whole, almoft all the Egyptian deities
and fymbols centered in two, namely, Ofiris and Ifis;
who reprefented, under various hieroglyphic forms,
both the celeftial and terrellrial fyftem, together with
all the divine attributes, operations, and energy, which
created, animated, and preferred them.
The Egyptians likewife concealed their moral phi-
lofophy under hieroglyphic fymbols; but thefe were
not the fubjeCts of the hieroglyphics delineated on
obeliiks. And as hieroglyphic and fymbolical figures
were very ancient in Egypt, and firft invented, at lead
formed into a fyftem, there ; fo they were thence car¬
ried into other countries, and imitated in all religious
myfteries as well as in political and moral fcience.
The preceding fymbolical figures making the fub-
ftance of hieroglyphics, and all belonging to Ofiris,
his family, and contemporaries, they were probably
formed into a fyftem foon after the death of thofe hero-
gods, by fome who had been inftrmfted, in the art
of hieroglyphics, by Hermes the inventor of them.
The firft he formed himfelf; and the others were pro¬
bably added by his learned fucceffors, who had been
inftrufted by him in all his myfterious learning.
This hieroglyphic fyftem was, in its beginning,
more Ample, and lefs compounded, than afterwards ;
for it had been improving for feveral ages before it
appeared on the obeliiks of the temples. And- hence
we may infer the time of the firft Egyptian hierogly¬
phic fymbols; for, in all probability, they were not
older than the time of the famous Hermes, who flou-
rifhed in the reign, and fome time after the death, of
Ofiris.
The hieroglyphic fymbols were, in early times, car¬
ried into Greece ; and gave the firft occafion to the Hierogram-
fables of the poets, with regard to the metamorphofes niaj‘fts
of the gods, which they improved from inventions of Hillh.
their own; and from the knowledge of them, the 
Greeks afcribed peculiar arts and inventions to their
gods, whofe names they firft received from Egypt.
But befides the hieroglyphics in common ufe among
the people, the Egyptian priefts had certain myftical
chara&ers, in which they wrapped up and concealed
their do&rines from the vulgar. It is faid that thefe
fomething refembled the Chinefe charafters, and that
they were alfo the invention of Hermes. Sir John Mar-
fham conjectures, that the ufe of thefe hieroglyphical
figures of animals introduced the ftrange worftiip paid
them by that nation: for as thefe figures were made
choice of according to the refpe&ive qualities of each
animal, to txprefs the qualities and dignity of the
perfons reprefented by them, who were generally their
gods, princes, and great men, and being placed in
their temples as the images of their deities, hence
they came to pay a fuperftitious veneration to the ani¬
mals themfelves.
HIEROGRAMMATISTS, i. e. holy regijlers,
were an order of priefts among the ancient Egyptians,
who prefided over learning and religion. They had
the care of the hieroglyphics, and were the expofitors
of religious doftrines and opinions. They were looked
upon as a kind of prophets; and it is pretended that
one of them predi&ed to an Egyptian king, that an
Ifraelite (meaning Mofes), eminent for his qualifica¬
tions and'atchievements, would leffen and deprefs the
Egyptian monarchy.
HIEROMANCY, in antiquity, that part of divi¬
nation which predicted future events from obferving
the various things offered in facrifice. See Divina¬
tion and Sacrifice.
HIEROMNEMON, the name of an officer in the
Greek church, whofe principal funftion it was to ftand
behind the patriarch at the facraments and other cere¬
monies of the church, and to ftiew him the prayers,
pfalms, &c. in the order in which they were to be re-
hearfed.
HIERONYMUS. See Jerome.
HIEROPHANTES, in Grecian antiquity, the
name by which the Athenians called thofe priefts and
priefteffes who were appointed by the ftate to have
the fupervifal of things facred, and to take care of the
facrifices.
HIEROPHYLAX,, an officer in the Greek
church, who was guardian or keeper of the holy uten-
fils, veftments, &c. anfwering to our facrjjla or veftry-
keeper.
HIGH, a term of relation, importing one thing’s
being fuperior or above another: thus we fay, a
high mountain, the high court of parliament, high
relievo, &c.
High, in mufic, is fometimes ufed in the fame
fenfe with loud, and fometimes in the fame fenfe with
acute.
High Dutch, is the German tongue in its greateft
purity, &c. as fpoken in Mifnia, &c.
High Operation, in chirurgery, is a method of ex-
tradling the (tone; thus called, becaufe the (lone is
taken out at the upper part of the bladder. See Sur-
GER’..
Highs
H I G [ 3636 ] H I G
High High Way, a free paffage for the king’s fubje&s ;
... jl on which account it is called the king’s high-way,
^rs*n* - though the freehold of the foil belong to the owner
  L_ of the land. Thofe ways that lead from one town to
another, and fuch as are drift or cart ways, and are
for all travellers in great roads, or that communicate
with them, are high-ways only; and as to their repa¬
ration, are under the care of furveyors.
HIGHAM ferrers, an ancient borough of Nor-
thamptonlhire in England, which has its name from
the family of the Ferrers, to whom it formerly be¬
longed, and who had a caftle in its neighbourhood.
It fends one member to parliament. E. Eon. 1. 40.
N. Eat. 52. 20.
HIGHGATE, a village five miles north of Lon¬
don. It has its name from its high fituation, and from
a gate fet up there about 400 years ago, to receive
toll for the bifhopof London, when the old miry road
from Gray’s-inn lane to Barnet was turned through
the bilhop’s park. There was a hermitage where the
chapel now Itands; and one of the hermits caufed a
caufeway to be made between Highgate and Ifiing-
ton, with gravel dug out of the top of the hill, where
there is now a pond. Near the chapel, in 1562, lord
chief baron Cholmondely built and endowed a free
fchool, which was enlarged, in 1570, by Edwin San-
dys, biihop of London.—This village is a noted and
airy retirement for the gentry and wealthy citizens;
and is a place of good accommodation, befides its af¬
fording a delightful and pleafant profpeft over the city
and adjacent country.
HIGHLANDERS, the inhabitants of the moun¬
tainous parts of Scotland, to the north and north-weft,
including thofe of the Hebrides or Weftern Ifles.—
They are a branch of the ancient Celtae; and un¬
doubtedly the defeendants of the firft inhabitants of
Britain, as appears from the many monuments of their
language ftill retained in the moft ancient names of
places in all parts of the ifland. The Highlanders,
or, as they are often termed by ancient authors, the
Caledonians, were always a brave, warlike, and hardy
race of people; and, in the remoteft times, feem to
have poflefted a degree of refinement in fentiment
and manners, then unknown to the other nations
that furrounded them. This appears not only from
their own traditions and poems, but alfo from the
teltimony of many ancient authors. This civilization
was probably owing in a great meafure to the order
of the Bards, or Druids, and fome other inftitutions
peculiar to this people.
The ancient Highlanders lived in the hunting ftate
till fome time after the aera of Fingal, who was one of
their kings, towards the clofe of the third century.
For fome ages after that, they turned their chief at¬
tention to the paftoral life, which afforded a lefs pre¬
carious fubfiftence. Till of late, agriculture in moft
parts of the Highlands, made but little progrefs.
The Highlanders always enjoyed a king and go¬
vernment of their own, till Kenneth M'Alpin, (anno
845,) after having fubdued the Pidtilh kingdom,
transferred thither the feat of royalty. This event
proved very unfavourable to the virtues of the High¬
landers, which, from this period, began to decline.
The country, no longer awed by the prefence of the
fovereign, fell into anarchy and confufion. The chief¬
tains began to extend their authority, to form fa&ions, Higliknu
and to foment divifions and feuds between con- liers-
tending clans. The laws were either too feeble to
bind them, or too remote to take notice of them.
Hence fprung all thofe evils which long difgraced the
country, and difturbed the peace of its inhabitants.
Robbery or plunder, providing it was committed on
any one of an adverfe clan or tribe, was countenanced
and authorifed ; and their rcprifals on one another
were perpetual. Thus quarrels were handed down
from one generation to another, and the whole clan
were bound in honour to efpoufe the caufe of every
individual that belonged to it. By this means the
genius of the people was greatly altered ; and the
Highlanders of a few ages back were almoft as re¬
markable for their irregular and diforderly way of
life, as their predeceffors were for their civilization
and virtue. It is from not attending to this, diftinc-
tion between the ancient Highlanders and their po-
fterity in later times, that many have doubted the
exiftence of thofe exalted virtues aferibed by their
poets to the more ancient inhabitants of the country.
But now that the power of the chieftains is again j
aboliftied, law' eftabliftied, and property fecured, the
genius of the people (where it is not hindered by
fome other extraneous caufe) begins again to (hew it-
felf in its genuine colours; and many of their ancient
virtues begin to ihine with confpicuous luflre. Juftice,
generofity, honefty, friendfhip, peace and love, are
perhaps nowhere more cultivated than among this j
people. But one of the ftrongeft features which
marked the charafter of the Highlanders in every age,
was their hofpitality and benevolence to ftrangers. At
night the traveller was always fure to find a hearty j
welcome in whatever houfe he ftiould go to; and the
hoft thought himfelf happier in giving the entertain¬
ment, than the gueft in receiving it. Even with re¬
gard to their enemies, the laws of hofpitality were
obferved with the moft facred regard. They who
fought againft each other in the day, could in the j
night fealt, and even deep together, in the fame houfe.
From the fame principle, they were, in moft other |
cafes, fo faithful to their truft, that they rarely be- J
trayed any confidence repofed in them. A promife
they thought as binding as an oath, and held it equally
inviolable and facred.
The Caledonians in all ages have been much addiifted
to poetry and mufic. The poems of Oflian, fa uni- 1
verfally repeated, and fo highly efteemed by every
Highlander, are a ftrong proof of the early proficiency
of this people in the poetical art. Even to this day, 1
notwithftanding the many difadvantages they labour ;
under, the moft illiterate of either fex difeover fre¬
quently a genius for poetry, which often breaks forth
in the moft natural and fimple ftrains, when love, grief,
joy, or any other fubjeft of fong, demands it. Where-
ever their circumftances are fo eafy as to allow them i
any refpite from toil, or any cheerfulnefs of fpirits, a
good portion of their time, efpecially of the winter- (
nights, is ftill devoted to the fong and tale. This ;
laft fpecies.of compofition is chiefly of the novel-kind,
and is handed down by tradition like their poems.
It was the work of the bards; and proved, while they
exifted, no contemptible entertainment. But fince
the extindlion of that order, both the Galic poems and
tales
H I G [ 3637 ] H I L
Highknder tales are, in a great meafnre, either loft or adulterated, count of the number of itsquiefcent confonants (which Highlan
-^-The genius and charafter of the Galic poetry is are retained to mark the derivation of words and their . II.
well known. It is tender, Ample, beautiful, and variation in cafe and tenfe), but its found is abun- 1 Jnu
fublime. dantly mufical and harmonious; and its genius ftrong
Among the ancient Highlanders, the harp was the and mafculine. Its alphabet confifts of 18 letters, of
chief inftrument of mufic. It fuited the mildnefs of which one is an afpirate, 12 are confonants, and five
their manners, and was well adapted to the peace and are vowels.
quiet which they enjoyed under their own kings. In The Highlanders are beginning of late to apply
a later period, however, when the conftant quarrels of to learning, agriculture, and efpecially to com-
their chiefs, and the endlefs feuds of contending clans, merce, for which their country, every where indented
turned all their thoughts to war, it was forced to give with arms of the fea, is peculiarly favourable. Cattle
place to the bag-pipe, an inftrument altogether of the is the chief ftaple of the country; but it produces
martial kind, and therefore well fuited to the ftate of more grain than would fupply its inhabitants, if fo
the country at that time. But ever firice the caufe much of it were not confumed in whilky. The
which had brought this inftrument in vogue has ceafed natives are beginning to avail themfelves of their
to operate, the attention to it has been on the decline ; mines, woods, wool, and fifheries; and by a vigorous
fo that the harp, with very little encouragement, might application, with the due encouragement of govern-
again refume the feat from which it was once expelled, ment, may become a profperous and ufeful people.
—The moft, and efpecially the oldeft of the High- The Highlanders are of a quick and penetrating ge-
land mufic, having been compofed to the harp, is of nius, ftrongly tinftured with a curiofity or thirft of
a foft, tender, and elegiac caft, as beft fuited the knowledge, which difpofes them to learn any thing
genius of that inftrument. Thefe pieces are generally very readily. They are aftive and induftrious, where
expreffive of the paffions of love and grief. Other oppreffion does not difeourage them by fecluding even
pieces, which were compofed in their ftate of war, the hope of thriving. They are remarkably bold and
and adapted to a different inftrument, are altogether adventurous, which qualifies them for being excellent
bold and martial. And many are of a fprightly and feamen and foldiers. They are generally of a middle
cheerful caft, the offspring of mirth, and the fport of fize, rather above it than otherwife ; their eyes are
fancy in the feafon of feftivity. Many of thefe laft briik and lively, their features diftinftly marked, and
are of the chorus kind ; and are fung in almoft all the their perfons tight and well made. Their countenance
exercifes in which a number of people are engaged, is open and ingenuous, and their temper frank and
fuch as rowing, reaping, fulling, &c. The time of communicative.
thefe pieces is adapted to the exercifes to which they HIGHNESS, a quality, or title of honour given
are refpedlively fung. They greatly forward the work, to princes.—The kings of England and Spain had
and alleviate the labour. The particular mufick which formerly no other title but that of highnefs ; the firft
is generally ufed by the Highlanders in their dances till the time of James I. and the fecond till that of
is well known by the name of Strathfpey reels. Charles V. The petty princes of Italy began firft to
The language of the Highlanders is ftill the Galic ; be complimented with the title of highnefs in the year
which, with many of their cuftoms and manners, has 1630.—The duke of Orleans affumed the title of royal
been fecured to them by their mountains and faftneffes, highnefs in the year 1631, to diftinguifti himfelf from
amidft the many revolutions which the reft of the the other princes of France.
ifland has undergone in fo long a courfe of ages. The The duke of Savoy, late king of Sardinia, bore the
Galic feems to be the oldeft and pureft dialed!; which title of royal highnefson account of his pretenfions to
remains of the Celtic, as appears from its approach- the kingdom of Cyprus.—It is faid that duke only
ing the neareft to the names of places, &c. which that took the title of royal highnefs, to put himfelf above the
language left in moft countries where it prevailed, and duke of Florence, who was called great duke ; but
from its moft obvious affinity to thofe tongues, ancient the great duke afterwards affumed the title of royal
or modern, which have been in any meafure derived higbnefs, to put himfelf on a level with the duke of
from the old Celtic. The Galic has all the marks of Savoy.
an original and primitive language. Moft of the words The prince of Conde firft took the title of moflferene
are expreffive of fome property or quality of the ob- highnefs, leaving that of fimple highnefs to the natural
jefts which they denote. This, together with the princes.
variety of its founds (many of which, efpecially of HILARIA, an ancient Roman feftival, obferved on
thofe that exprefs the foft and mournful paffions, are the eighth of the kalends of April, or the 25th day of
peculiar to itfelf), renders it highly adapted for poetry. March, in honour of the goddefs Cybele. It was fo
It is generally allowed to have been the language of called from the various expreffions of joy and mirth-on
court, in Scotland, till the reign of Malcom Canmore. this occafion.
The Galic epithet of Casi-more, or “ large head,” HILARIUS, an ancient father of the Chriftian
by which this king is diftinguifhed, feems to intimate church, who flourilhed in the 4th century. He was
fo much. In fome particular parliaments at leaft, it born, as St Jerome informs us, at Poi&iers, of a good
was fpoken much later, as in that held by Robert the family ; who gave him a liberal education in the Pa-
Bruce at Ardchattan. That it has been formerly a gan religion, and which he did not forfake till he
good deal cultivated, appears from the ftyle and com- was arrived at maturity. He was advanced to the bi-
plexion of its poems and tales, and from feveral an- fficpiic of Poi&iers in the year 355, according to Ba-
cient MSS. that have comedown to the prefent times, ronius; and became a moft zealous champion for the
To ftrangers the Galic has a forbidding afpeft, on ac- orthodox faith, particularly againft the Arians, who
VoL. V. 20 T were
H I L [ 3638 ] H I L
Hilarodi were at that time gaining ground in France. He af-
j! fembled fcveral councils there, in which the determi-
Hlil‘ nations of the fynods of Rimini and Seleucia were con¬
demned. He wrote a treatife concerning fynods; and
a famous work in 12 books on the Trinity, which is
much admired by the orthodox believers. He died in
the latter end of the year 367. His works have been
many times publifhed ; but the laft and beft edition
of them was given by the Benedi&ines at Paris in
1693.
HILARODI, in the ancient mufic and poetry, a
fort of poets among the Greeks, who went about fing-
ing little gay poems or fongs, fomewhat graver than
the Ionic pieces, accompanied with fome inftrument.
From the ftreets they were at length introduced into
tragedy, as the magodi were into comedy. They
appeared dreffed in white, and were crowned with
gold. At firft they wore (hoes ; but afterwards they
aflumed the crepida, being only a foie tied over with
a ft rap.
HILARY-term. See Term.
HILDESHEIM, a fmall diftridt of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony. It lies between the du¬
chies of Lunenburg and Brunfwick; and may be about
25 miles from eaft to weft, and 36 from north to fouth.
It is watered by the rivers Leine and Innerfty. The
foil is fertile ; and its principal places are Peine, Sar-
fted, Brnggen, and Alveld. Hilddheim, from whence
it takes its name, is governed as an imperial city. Its
• biftiop is now deftor of Cologne.
Hildesheim, a ftrong city of Germany, in Lower
Saxony, with a Roman-catholic bifhop’s fee, whofe
biftiop is fovereign. It is a free imperial city> tho’in
fome things dependent on the biftiop. It is a large
town, well built and fortified. It is divided into the
Old Town and the New, which have each their fepa-
rate council. It is feated on the river Irneft, in E.
Long. jo. o. N. Lat. 52. 17.
HILL, a term denoting any confiderable eminence
on the earth’s furface. It is fometimes fynonimous
with the word mountain; though generally it denotes
only the leffer eminences, the word mountain being
particularly applied to the very largeft. See Moun-
. TAIN.
Hill (Aaron), a poet of confiderable eminence,
the fon of a gentleman of Malmefbury-abbey in Wilt-
fhire, was born in 1685. His father’s imprudence having
cut off his paternal inheritance, he left Weftminfter
fchool at 14 years of age; and embarked for Conftan-
tinople, to vifit lord Paget the Englifh ambaffador
there, who was his diftant relation. Lord Paget recei¬
ved him with furprize and pleafure, provided him a tu¬
tor, and fent him to travel : by which opportunity he
faw Egypt, Paleftine, and a great part of the eaft; and
returning home with his noble patron, vifited moft of
the courts of Europe. About the year 1709, he pub-
lifhed his firft poem rntitled Ca??iillus, in honour of
the earl of Peterborough who had been general in
Spain; and being the fame year made mafter of
Drury-lane theatre, he wrote his firft tragedy, Elfrid, or
thefair Inconfrant. In 17 to, he became mafter of the
opera-houfe in the Hay-market; when he wrote an
opera called Rinaldo, which met with great fuccefs, be¬
ing the firft that Mr Handel fet to mufic after he came
to England. Unfortunately for Mr Hill, he wasapro-
je&or as well as poet, and in 1715 obtained a patent Hill,
for extra&ing oil from beech-nuts ; which underta-
king, whether good or bad, mifearried after engaging
three years of his attention. He was alfo concerned in
the firft attempt to fettle the colony of Georgia ; from
which he never reaped any advantage: and in 1728 he
made a journey into the Highlands of Scotland, on a
fcheme of applying the woods there to (hip-building ;
in which alfo he loft his labour.
Mr Hill feems to have lived in perfeft harmony with
all the writers of his time,, except Mr Pope, with whom
he had a ftiort paper-war, occafioned by that gentle¬
man’s introducing him in the Dunciad, as one of the
competitors for the prize offered by the goddefs of
Dullnefs, in the following lines.
“ Then Kill effay’d ; fcarce vanilh’d oat of fight,
“ He buoys up an inftant, and returns to light;.
“ He bears no token of the fabler ftreams,
“ And mounts far off among the Swans of Thames.,r
This, though far the gentleft piece of fatire in the
whole poem, and conveying at the fame time an ob¬
lique compliment, roufed Mr Hill to take fome no¬
tice of it; which he did by a poem written during his
perigrination in the north, intitled, “ The progrefs
of wit, a caveat for the ufe of an eminent writer;’*
which he begins with the following eight lines, in which
Mr Pope’s too well known difpofition is elegantly, yet
very feverely, characterized 1
“ Tuneful Alexis on the Thames’ fair fide,
“ The Ladies play-thing and the Mufes pride;
“ With merit popular, with wit polite,
“ Eafy tho’ vain, and elegant tho’ light;
“ Defiring and deferving others praife,
“ Poorly accepts a Fame he ne’er repays:
“ Unborn to cherilh, fnenkingly approves ;
“ And wants the foul sofpread the worth he loves."
The fneakingly approves, in the Taft couplet, Mr
Pope was much affeCIed by ; and indeed, thro’ their
whole controverfy afterwards, in which it was gene¬
rally thought that Mr Hill had much the advantage,
Mr Popejeems rather to exprefs his repentance by de¬
nying the offence,, than to vindicate himfelf fuppofing
It to have been given.
Befides the above poems, Mr Hill, among many
others,, wrote one, called The northern far, upon the
aCtions of Czar Peter the Great; for which he wasfe-
veral years afterwards complimented' with a gold medal
from the emprefs Catharine, according to the Czar’s
defire before his death. He like wife altered fome of
Shakefpeare’s plays, and tranflated forae of Voltaire’s.
His laft production was Mercpe; which was brought
upon the ftage in Drury-lane by Mr Garrick. He
died on the eighth of February 1749, as it is faid^
in the very minute of the earthquake; and after his
deceafe four volumes of his works in profe and verfe
were publiftied in oCtavo, and his dramatic works in
two volumes.
Hill (Sir John), a voluminous writer, was origi¬
nally bred an apothecary ; but his marrying early, and.
without a fortune, made him very foon look round for
other refources than his profeflion. Having, there¬
fore, in his apprenticelhip, attended the botanical lec¬
tures of the company, and being poffeffed of quick na¬
tural parts, he foon made himfelf acquainted with the
theoretical as well as praCIical parts of botany ^
from.
ill
lillel.
H I L [ 3639 ] HIP
from whence being recommended to the late duke of
Richmond and lord Petre, he was by them employed
in the infpeftion and arrangement of their botanic gar¬
dens. Affifted by the liberality of thefe noblemen, he
executed a fcheme of travelling over the kingdom, to
colleA the moft rare and uncommon plants; which he
afterward publifhed by fubfcription : but after great
refearches and uncommon indullry, this undertaking
turned out by no means adequate to his expe&ation.
The ftage next prefented itfelf, as a foil in which ge¬
nius might (land a chance of flourilhing: but after two
or three unfuccefsful attempts, it was found he had no
pretenfions either to the fock or bulkin ; which once
more reduced him to his botanical purfuits, and his
bufinefs as an apothecary. At length, about the year
1746, he tranflated from the Greek a fmall tra&, writ¬
ten by Theophraftus, On gems, which he publilhed by
fubfcription ; and which, being well executed, procured
him friends, reputation, and money. Encouragedby this,
he engaged in works of greater extent and importance.
The firft he undertook was A general natural hijlory,
in 3 vols folio. He next engaged, in conjundfion with
George Lewis Scott, efq ; in furniihing a Supplement
to Chambers's DUHonary., He at the fame time darted
the Britifh Magazine ; and while he was engaged in a
great number of thefe and other works, fome of which
feemed to claim the continued attention of a whole
life, he carried on a daily eflay, under the title of In-
fpeftor. Amidd this .hurry of bufinefs, Mr Hill was
fo laborious and ready in all his undertakings, and was
withal fo exaft anoeconomid of his time, that he fcarce-
]y“ ever miffed a public amufement for many years:
where, while he relaxed from the feverer purfuits of du-
dy, he gleaned up articles of information for his perio¬
dical works. It would not be eafy to trace Mr Hill,
now Dr Hill, (for he procured a diploma from the
college of St Andrews,) through all his various pur¬
fuits in life. A quarrel he had with the Royal So¬
ciety, for being refufed as a member, which provoked
him to ridicule that learned body, in A review of the
works of the Royal Society of London, 410, 1751 ; to¬
gether with his over-writing himfelf upon all fubje&s
without referve ; made him link in the edimation of the
public nearly in the fame pace as he had afcended. He
found as ufual, however, refources iu his own inven¬
tion. He applied himfelf to the preparation of cer¬
tain fimple medicines: fuch as the effehce of water-
dock, tindlure of valerian, balfam of honey, &c. The
well-known fimplicity of thefe medicines, made the
public judge favourably of their effects, infomuch that
they had a rapid fale, and once more enabled the doc¬
tor to figure in that dyle of life ever fo congenial to his
inclination. Soon after the publication of the fird of
thefe medicines, he obtained the patronage of the earl
of Bute, through whofe intered he acquired the ma¬
nagement of the royal gardens at Kew, with an hand-
fome falary : and to wind up the whole of an extraor¬
dinary life, having, a little before his death, feizedan
opportunity to introduce himfelf to the knowledge of
the king of Sweden, that monarch inveded him with
one of the orders of his court, which title he had not
the happinefs of enjoying above two years. He died
toward the clofe of the year 1775.
HILLEL, fenior, of Babylon, prefident of the
fanhedrim of Jerufalem. He formed a celebrated fchool
there, in which he maintained the oral traditions of the
Jews againd Shamai, his colleague, whofe difciples
adhered only to the written law; and this controverfy
gave rife to the fefts of Pharifees and Scribes. He was
likewife one of the compilers of the Talmud. He alfo
laboured much at giving a corredl edition of the fa-
cred text; and there is attributed to him an ancient
manufeript bible, which bears his name. He flou-
riflied about 30 years B. 0. and died in a very advan¬
ced age.
Hillel, the nafi, or prince, another learned Jew,
the grandfon of Judas Hakkadodi, or the Saint, the
author of the Milhna, lived in the fourth century. He
compofed a cycle; and was one of the principal doc¬
tors of the Gamara. The greated number of the
Jewifh writers attribute to him the corredt edition of
the Hebrew text which bears the name of ///7/e/, which,
we have already mentioned in the preceding article.
There have been feveral other Jewifh writers of the
fame name.
HILUM, among botanids, denotes the eye of a
bean.
HIN, a Hebrew meafure of capacity for things li¬
quid, containing the fixth part of an ephah, or one
gallon two pints Englifh meafure.
HIND, a female dag in the third year of its age.
See Cervus.
H1NDGN, a fmall town of Wiltihire in England,
which fends tw’o members to parliament. It isfituated
in E. Long. 2. 14. N. Lat. 51. 12.
HINE, or Hind, a hufbandman’s fervant. Thus
the perfon who overfees the red, is called the mader’s
hine.
HIPPARCHUS, a great aftronomer, born at Nice
in Bithynia, flourilhed between the 154th and 163d
Olympiads. His commentary upon Aratus’s pheno¬
mena is dill extant. Rohault was very much midaken
when he afferted, that this adronomer was not ac¬
quainted with the particular motion of the fixed dars
from wed to ead, by which their longitude changes.
By foretelling eclipfes, he taught mankind not to be
frightened at them, and that even the gods were bound
by laws. Pliny, who tells this, admires him for ma¬
king a review of all the dars; by which his defeen-
dants would be enabled to difeover whether they are
born and die, whether they change their place, and
whether they increafe and decreafe.
HIPPOBOSCA, or Horse-fly, in zoology, a
genus of infedls, belonging to the order of diptera.
The beak confids of two valves, is cylindrical, obtufe,
and hanging ; and the feet have feveral claws. There
are four fpeefes, diftinguiflied by their wings, &c. The
equina is very troublefome to horfes.
HIPPOCAMPUS, in ichthyology. See Syn-
GNATHUS. .
HIPPOCENTAUR, in antiquity, a fabulous ani¬
mal, half man and half horfe.
What gave rife to the fable of Hippoeentaurs was
this. The Theffalians are faid to have been the fird
inventors of the art of breaking horfes; and being
fird feen on horfeback, they feemed to make but one
body with the horfes ; whence the fable took its rife.
HIPPOCRATES, the greated phyfician of anti-
20 T 2 quity,
'Hi 1 let
II
Hippocia
HIP [ 364° ] HIP
^sippocrates quity, was born in the ifland of Cos in the 80th Olym- phia clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, two na-
flippocrcpis pia(j) an(] flourilhed at the .time of the Peloponnefian tives of the warm parts of Europe, and one of Britain.
war. He was the firft that we know of who laid down They are all low herbaceous trailing plants, with yel-
preceptsconcerning phyfic; and, if we may believe the low flowers. They are propagated by feeds; but ha-
author of his life, who goes under the name of Soramis, ving, no great beauty are feldom kept in gardens,
drew his original from Hercules andiEfculapius. He HIPPODROME, in antiquity, the courfe where
wasfirftapupil ofhisownfatherHeraclideSjthenofHe- horfe-races were performed.
rodicus, then of Gorgias of Leontinum the orator, and, HIPPOGLOSSUS, in ichthyology; a fpecies of
according to fume, of Democritus of Abdera. After Pleuronectes.
being inftru&ed in phyfic, and in the liberal arts, and HIPPOMANE, the manchineel-tree ; a genus
lofing his parents, he left his own country, and prac- of the adelphia order, belonging to the monoccia clafs
tifed phyfic all over Greece ; where he was fo much of plants.
admired for his (kill, that he was publicly fent for with Species. 1. The mancinella, with oval fawed leaves,
Euryphon, a man fuperior to him in years, to Per- is a native of all the Well India iflands. It hath a
diccas king of Macedonia,, who was then thought to fmooth brownilh bark; the trunk divides upward into
be confumptive. But Hippocrates, as foon as he ar- many branches, garnilhed with oblong leaves about
rived, pronounced the difeafe to be entirely mental, as three inches long. The flowers come out in Ihort
in truth it was. For-up on the death of his father A- fpikes at the end of the branches, but make no great
lexander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father’s appearance, and are fucceeded by fruit of the fame
miftrefs: and this Hippocrates difcerning by the great fliape and fize with a golden pippin. The tree grows
change her prefence al ways wrought upon him, a cure to the fize of a large oak. 2. The biglandulofa, with
was foon effedled. oblong bay leaves, is a native of South America ; and
Being intreated by the people of Abdera to come and grows to as large a fize as the firfl, from which it
cure Democritus of a fuppofed madnefs, he went; but, differs mollly in the fhape of its leaves. 3. The fpi-
upon his arrival, inftead of finding Democritus mad, nofa, with holly leaves, is a native of Campeachy,
he found all his fellow-citizens fo, and Democritus the and feldom rifes above 20 feet high ; the leaves greatly
only wife man among them. He heard many ledures, refemble thofe of the common holly, and are fet with
and learned much philofophy from him ; which has fharp prickles at the end of each indenture. They
made Cornelius Celfus and fome others imagine, that are of a lucid green, and continue all the year.
Hippocrates was the difciple of Democritus, though Culture. Thefe plants being natives of very warm
it is probable they never faw each other till this in- climates, cannot be preferved in this country without
terview which was occafioned by the Abderites. Hip- a ftove ; nor can they by any means be made to rife
pocrates had alfo public invitations to other countries, above five or fix feet high even with that affiftance.
Thus, when a plague invaded the Illyrians and Paso- They are propagated by feeds ; but mufl have very
mans, the kings of thofe countries begged him to come little moifture, or they will certainly be killed by it.
to their relief: he did not go ; but learning from the Properties. Thefe trees have a very poifonous qua-
meffengers the courfe of the winds there, he concluded lity, abounding, with an acrid milky juice of a highly
that the diftemper would come to Athens ; and, fore- caullic nature. Strangers are often tempted to eat
telling what would happen, applied himfelf to take care the fruit of the firft fpecies; the confequences of which
of the city and the ftudents. He was indeed fuch a are, an inflammation of the mouth and throat, pains in
lover of Greece, that when his fame had reached as the ftomach, &c. which are very dangerous unlefs re-
far as Perfia, and upon that account Artaxerxes had medies are fpeedily applied. The wood is much e-
intreated him by his, governor of the Hellefpont, with fteemed for making cabinets, book-cafes, &c. being
a promife of great rewards, to come to him, he refufed very durable, taking a fine polifti, and not being liable
to go. He alfo delivered his own country from a war to become worm-eaten : but as the trees abound with
with the Athenians, that was juft,ready to break out, a milky cauftic juice already mentioned, fires are made
by prevailing with the Theflalians to come to their af- round their trunks, to burn out this juice ; otherwife
fiftance, for which he received very great honours thofe who fell the trees would be in danger of lofing
from the Coans. The Athenians alfo conferred great their fight by the juice flying in their eyes. This
honours upon him : they admitted him next to Her- juice raifes blifters on the fl<in wherever it falls, turns
cules in ^he Eleufinian ceremonies ; gave him the free- linen black, and makes it fall out in holes. It is alfo
dom of the city ; and voted a public maintenance for dangerous to work the wood after it is fawn out ; for
him and his family in the prytanaeum or council-houfe if any of the faw-duft happens to get into the eyes of
at Athens, where none were maintained at the public the workmen, it caufes inflammations and the lofs of
charge but fuch as had done fignal fervice to the ftate. fight for fome time ; to prevent which, they generally
He died among the Lariflseans, fome fay in his 90th cover their faces with fine lawn during the time of
year, fome in his 85th, others in his 104th, and fome working the wood.
in his 109th. The beft edition of his works is, that HIPPOMANES, a fort of poifon famous among
of Foefius, in Greek and Latin. Hippocrates wrote in the ancients as an ingredient in amorous philters or
the Tonan cdialeft. His aphorifms, prognoftics, and love-charms. The word is Greek, com¬
all that he has written on the fymptoms of difeafes, juft- pofed of<w«r«r, “ a horfe,” and /**>"“* “ fury, or mad¬
ly pafs for mafter-pieces. See Hijlory of Medicine. nets.”
HIPPOCREPIS, common horse-shoe vetch ; a Authors are not agreed about the nature of the
genus of the decandria order,, belonging to the diadel- Hippomanes. Pliny deferibes it as a biackifh caruncle
found
drome
Hippo-
manes.
H'ppophae
i iJippopo-
' tamns.
HIP [ 3641 ] HIP
found on the head of a new-born colt; which the d im
bites off and eats as foon as the is delivered. He adds,
that if (he is prevented herein by any one’s cutting it
off before, (he will- not take to nor bring up the
young. Virgil, and after him Servius and Columella,
defcribe it as a poifonous matter trickling from the pu¬
dendum of a mare when proud, or longing for the
horfe. At the end of Mr Bayle’s Didtionary is a very
learned differtation on the hippomanes, and all its vir¬
tues both real and pretended.
HIPPOPHAE, sea-buckthorn ; a genus of the
tetrandria order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The rhamnoides hath a (hrubby ftem,
branching irregularly eight or ten feet high, having a
dark brown bark. It is armed with a few thorns ;
hath fpear-(haped, narrow, feffile leaves, of a dark green
above, and hoary underneath. 2. The canadenfis hath
a (hrubby brown ftem,branching eight or ten feet high,
with oval leaves, and male and female flowers on dif¬
ferent plants.
Culture, &c. Both thefe fpecies are very hardy,
and may be propagated in abundance by fuckers from
the roots, by layers, and by cuttings of their young
(hoots. They are retained in gardens, on account of
their two-coloured leaves in fummer; and in winter, on
account of the appearance of the young (hoots, which
are covered with turgid, irregular, fcaly buds. Goats,
(heep, and horfes, eat the firft fpecies ; cows refufe it.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, the river-horse ; a genus
of quadrupeds, belonging to the order of bellute ; the
charadlers of which are thefe: it has fix fore-teeth in
the upper jaw, difpofed in pairs at a diftance from each
other; and four prominent fore-teeth in the under jaw,
the intermediate ones being longed : the dog-teeth are
folitary and obliquely truncated; and the feet are hoof¬
ed on the edges.
There is but one fpecies of hippopotamus, viz. the
amphibius, or river-horfe. The hiftory of this qua¬
druped, though next to the elephant in magnitude, is
far from being fufficiently,delineated. The bed de-
fcription hitherto given of him is that of Frederic Ze-
renghi, an Italian furgeon, publilhed in, the year 1603.
Zerenghi killed two of them (a male and a female) on
the banks of the Nile, preferved their (kins, and
brought them to Rome. Every (kin took 400 pounds
of fait in curing. He fays, the (kin of the hippopo¬
tamus is about an inch thick, extremely hard, impe¬
netrable by a common mulket-ball; and there are on¬
ly a few (hort white hairs fcattered very thin over it.
The teeth are not protruded out of the mouth, as is
commonly believed ; for, when the mouth is (hut, al¬
though the teeth be extremely large, they are entirely
covered by the lips. The dimenfions of the female, of
which Zerenghi gives a figure, are as follow: from
the point of the muzzle to the origin of the tail, be¬
tween 1 r and 12 feet; the circumference of the body,,
about 10 feet; the height of the body, 4! feet; the
circumference of the leg, near the (houlder, 2 feet 9
inches, lower down 1 foot 9! inches ; the height
of the legs about foot; the length of the feet from
the extremity of the claws, 44 inches : the claws are
nearly of an equal length and breadth, and are fome-
what more than two inches; each toe is furniflied with
a. claw,, and each foot has four toes. The tail is a¬
bout one foot long, more than a foot in circumference Hippopo-
near the origin, and about 3 inches near the point,
The tail is not round, but flattifli. The head, from the
extremity of the lips to the neck, is about 2 feet
4 inches, and the circumference 5 feet 8 inches. The
ears are about 3 inches long, and nearly as broad ;
they are a little pointed, and covered in the interior
fide with (hort white hair. The mouth, when :open,
is about 14 foot wide, and furnifhed with 44 teeth of
different figures. Their teeth are of fuch a hard fub-
ftance, that they give fire with fteel. Thefe dimen¬
fions are taken from a female hippopotamus ; but the
male is generally about one third larger.
With fuch powerful arms, and fuch a prodigious
ftrength of body, the hippopotamus might render ,
himfelf formidable to every other animal. But he is
naturally of a mild difpofition ; and befides, bis body
is fo heavy, and his motions fo (low, that he cannot
overtake any other quadruped. He fwims fwifter than
he runs, and preys upon fifhes. He dives in the wa¬
ter, and can flay very long under. He has no mem¬
brane betwixt his toes, as the caftor or the otter; and
he only fwims eafily in confequence of the great bulk
of his belly, which makes him nearly of an equal fpe-
cific gravity with the water. Moreover, he often
keeps himfelf at the bottom, and walks upon the chan¬
nel with the fame freedom as upon dry land. Befides
preying upon filhes, crocodiles, &c. he frequently
goes out of the water, and feeds upon fugar-canes,
rufhes, millet, rice, roots, &c. Thefe he devours
in large quantities, and often does great damage in
the cultivated field. But as he is more timid on land
than in the water, he is eafily driven away. His legs are
fb (hort, that he cannot efcape by flight when at a di¬
ftance from the river. He generally flies when ap¬
proached by people in boats; but, if they wound him,
he returns with fury, attacks the boats with his teeth,
and frequently overfets them.
This animal feems to be confined principally to the
rivers of Africa. The male and female generally
go together, and the female is faid to produce but one
at a time.
Concerning this creature Mr Haffelquift relates the
following particulars, which he fays he had from a
credible perfon who lived 12 years in Egypt.
“ 1. The hide of a full-grown hippopotamus is a
load for a camel.
“ 2. The river-horfe is an inveterate enemy to the
crocodile, and kills it whenever he meets it. This,
with fome other reafons, contributes much to the ex¬
tirpation of the crocodile ; which, otherwife, confi-
dering the many eggs they would lay, would utterly
deftroy Egypt.
3. “ The river-horfe never appears below the ca-
tara&s in Egypt; wherefore the inhabitants of Upper
Egypt only can give an account of it; and as very
few Europeans, none at lead who underftood natural
hiftory, have travelled into thofe parts of Egypt, wo
know little of the hiftory of this animal; fuch as have
travelled in India, have had better opportunities of in¬
forming themfelves in this matter. The Egyptians
very feldom bring the hide of it to Cairo ; and it is
impoffible to bring thither the living animal. A hide
has been fent to France, which, I am informed, is
preferved in the royal menagerie.
“ The
4-
H I R [ 3642 ] H I R
HIppopo- «< The rlver-horfe does much damage to the E-
taTUS gyptians in thofe places he frequents. He goes on
Hiich horn ^lore» an<^ *n a ^lort fpace of time deftroys an entire
.   field of corn or clover, not leaving the lead verdure as
he pafles : for he is voracious, and requires much to
fill his great belly. They have a curious manner of
freeing themfclves, in fome meafure, from this deltruc-
tive animal. They remark the places he frequents mod,
and there lay a large quantity of peafe : when the bead
comes on (bore, hungry and voracious, he falls to eat¬
ing what is neared him;, and filling his belly with the
peafe, they occafion an infupportable third: he then
returns immediately into the river, and drinks upon
thefe dry peas large draughts of water, which fudden-
ly caufes his death ; for the peafe foon begin to fwell
with the water, and not long after the Egyptians find
him dead on the (hore, blown up, as if killed with the
dronged poifon.
5. “ The oftener the river-horfe goes on (hore, the
better hopes have the Egyptians of a fufficient fwelling
or increafe of the Nile.
6. “ The Egyptians fay, they can almod didinguilh
the food of this animal in his excrement.”
Mr Pennant in his Synopfis, p. 80. treats the en¬
mity of the hippopotamus and crocodile as a vulgar
error; an eye-witnefs, he tells us, declaring he had
feen them fwimming together without any difagree-
ment. “ They are (fays he) capable of being ta¬
med. Belon fays, he has feen one fo gentle as to be
let loofe out of a fiable, and fed by its keeper, with¬
out attempting to injure any one. They are general¬
ly taken in pitfalls, and the poor people eat the flefh.
In fome parts, the natives place boards full of (harp
irons in the corn-grounds; which thefe beads drike
unto their feet, and fo become an eafy prey. Sometimes
they are druck in the water with harpoons fadened to
cords, and 10 or i 2 canoes are employed in the chace.
The teeth are mod remarkably hard, even harder
than ivory, and much lefs fubjedt to turn yellow. Des
Marchais fays, that the dentids prefer them for the ma¬
king of falfe teeth. The (kin when dried is ufed to
make bticklers, and is of impenetrable hardnefs. It
is the behemoth of Job, and was known to the Ro¬
mans. An ancient writer afierts, that thefe animals
were found in the Indus ; which is not confirmed by
any modern traveller.”
HIPPURIS, mare’s-tail ; a genus of the mo-
nandria order, belonging to the monogynia clafs of
plants. There is only one fpecies, a native of Bri¬
tain, and which grows in ditches and dagnant waters.
The flower of this plant is found at the bafe of each
leaf, and is as Ample as can be conceived ; there being
neither empalement nor bloffom ; and only one chive,
one pointal, and one feed. It is a very weak adrin-
gent. Goats eat it; cows, fheep, horfes, and fwine,
refufe it.
HIRAM, a king of Tyre, cotemporary with Solo¬
mon, whom he fupplied with cedar, gold, filver, and
other materials for building the temple. He died
1000 years B. C.
Hiram of Tyre, an artid who affided in the con-
ftrudlion of Solomon’s temple, and other public build¬
ings at Jerufalem, flouridied 1015. B. C.
HIRCANIA, (anc. geog.) See Hyrcania.
HIRCH-horn, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the lower Rhine, with a drong cadle. It is feat- Hire
ed on the fide of a hill on the river Neckar, and be- _ II
longs to the eledlor Palatine. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. Hinulo‘
49. 28.
HIRE (Philip de la), an eminent French mathema¬
tician and adronomer, born at Paris in 1640. His fa¬
ther, who was painter in ordinary to the king, defigned
him for the fame profeffion: but he devoted himfelf
to mathematical dudies, and was nominated together
with M. Picard to make the neceffary obfervations for
a new map of France by the direftions of M. Colbert.
In 1683, he was employed in continuing the famous
meridian line begun by M. Picard ; and was next en¬
gaged in condruding thofe grand aqueduds which were
projeded by Lewis XIV. He died in 1718, afterha-
ving wrote a great number of works, belides feveral
occafional papers difperfed in journals, and in me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences.
HIRING, in law. See Borrowing
HIRSBERG, a town of Silefia, in the territory of
Jauer, famous for its mineral baths. It is feated on the
river Bofar, in E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 50. 50.
HIRSCHFELD, a town of Germany in the circle
of the upper Rhine, and capital of a jfrincipality of
the fame name, depending on a famous abbey which
was fecularized in favour of the houfe of Caffel. It is
feated on the river Fulda, in E. Long. 9. 52. N. Lat.
51. 46.
HIRUDO, the leech ; a genus of infeds belong¬
ing to the order of vermes intellina. The body moves
either forward or backward. There are nine fpecies,
principally didinguifhed by their colour. The mod re¬
markable are the following.
1. The medicinalis, or common leech, hath an ob¬
long brown body, marked with fix yellow fpots, and is
an inhabitant of ponds, ditches, and other ftagnant wa¬
ters. This animal is well known for the purpofe of
bleeding, children efpecially. This pradice is as old
as the days of Pliny, who gives the creature the name
of hirudo fangufuga. In his time, leeches were ufed
inftead of cupping-glades for perfons of plethoric ha¬
bits, and thofe who were troubled with the gout in
the feet. He afferts, that if they left their head in the
wound, as was fometimes the cafe, the wound was in¬
curable; and he informs us, that Meflalinus, a perfon
of confular dignity, lofl his life by fuch an accident.
Some imagine, that leeches have a poifonous quality,
becaufe the wound they make is not always eafily
healed ; but this depends on the habit of the body, and
will alfo happen when the lancet is ufed. To make
leeches faften foon, keep them hungry, and rub the
part to which they are to be applied with warm milk
or blood. If they flick longer than is thought conve¬
nient, they muft not be pulled off; but if their heads
are touched with common fait, they foon fall off of
themfelves. If they are thought not to have drawn a
fufficient quantity of blood, apply cloths wrung out of
warm water upon the orifice ; or, if convenient, put the
part into warm water; aud thus the bleeding may be
prolonged. They are to be kept in bottles not quite
filled with water, which ought to be renewed every
three or four days at fartheft. A little fugar may be
added to the water in which they are kept. For the
cafes in which the application of leeches is advifable,
fee (theIndex fubjoined to) Medicine.
2. To
H I R [ 3643 ] H I R
Hirndo, 2. The fanguifuga, or horfe-leech, hath a deprefled
Hirundo. body ; in the bottom of the mouth are certain great
{harp tubercles or whitifh caruncles. The flendereft
part-is about the mouth, and the thickeft about the
tail. The tail itfelf is very (lender; the belly of a yel-
lowifh green ; the back duflcy. This fpecies is alfo a
blood-fucker, though not ufed in medicine. The in-
ilruments with which both fpecies perforate the (kin,
are found, on a nice dilfeftion, to be a number of very
fine teeth difpofed in a regular order on three ribs, or
jaws, placed between the aperture of the lips and the
bottom of the mouth ; each of them along a ftrong
mufcle of its own length. Hence the wound made by
leeches confifts of three cuts proceeding like radii from
a centre, and making equal angles with each other.
This ftru&ure of the wound is moft diilin&ly feen
when the fwelling has gone down, and the {kin is
clean, which is ufually on the fourth day.—Leeches
are able to live in oil; and when taken out of this li¬
quid and put into water again, they throw off a tender
flvin or film, of the regular fhape of the whole body.
- Their being able to live in this fluid (hews, that they
refpire by the mouth : which is alfo further proved, by
gently warming the water in which they are kept; for
then the animals being uneafy, breathe hard, and very
vifibly. Thefe animals may in fome ftiape anfwer the
purpofes of barometers ; for when preferred in glaffes,
they predi£l bad weather by their great reftlefnefs and
change of place.
3. The geometra, or geometrical leech, is a native
of the fame places with the two former. It hath a fili¬
form body, greenifh, fpotted with white; both ends
dilatable, and equally tenacious. It moves as if mea-
furingthe fpaces it paflls over like a compafs, whence
its name. It is found on trout and other fifli after the
/pawning feafon.
4. The muricata, or tnberculated leech, hath a ta¬
per body, rounded at the greater extremity, and fur-
nifited with two fmall horns; ftrongly annulated and
tuberculated upon the rings ; the tail dilated. It inha¬
bits the fea, adheres ftrongly to fifli, and leaves a black
mark on the fpot.
5. The myxine, or hag, is about eight inches long,
with a {lender body, carinated beneath, and an adi-
pofe or raylefs fin round the tail, and under the belly.
It inhabits the ocean ; enters the mouths of fifh,
when on the hooks of lines ^hat remain a whole tide
under water; and devours the whole, except the flcin
and bones. The Scarbourough fifliermen often take
it in the robbed fifh, on drawing up their lines. Lin¬
naeus attributes to it the property of turning water
into glue.
HIRUNDO, in ornithology, a genus of birds of
the order of pafleres. There are twelve fpecies, chief¬
ly diftinguiflied by their colour. The moft remarka¬
ble are,
x. The domeftica, or chimney-fwallow, appears in
Great Britain near 20 days before the martin, or any
other of the {Wallow tribe. They leave us the latter
end of September ; and for a few days previous to
their departure, they aflemble in vaft flocks on houfe-
tops, churches, and even trees, from whence they take
their flight. It is now knowm that fwallows take
their winter quarters in Senegal, and pofiibly they
may be fuund along the whole Morocco {hare. We
are indebted to M. Adanfon for this difcovery, who Hirundo.
tirft obferved them in the month of O&ober, after their
migration out of Europe, on the fliores of that king¬
dom: but whether it was this fpecies alone, or all the
European kinds, he is filent.
The name of chimney-fi-jjallow may almoft be con¬
fined to Great Britain; for in feveral other countries
they choofe different places for their nefts. In Swe¬
den, they prefer barns; fo are ftyled there ladu-fwala,
or the barn-fwallow: and in the hotter climates, they
make their nefts in porches, gate-ways, galleries, and
open halls.
The houfe-fvvallow is diftinguiflied from all others
by the fuperior forkinefs of its tail, and by the red
fpot on the forehead and under the chin. The crown
of the head, the whole upper-part of the body, and
the coverts of the wings, are black, glofled with a rich
purplifli blue, moft refplendent in the male: the bread
and belly white, that of the male tinged with red:
the tail is black ; the two middle feathers are plain, the
others marked tranfverfely near their ends vvilfi a white
fpot. The exterior feathers of the tail are much longer
in the male than in the female.
Its food is the fame with the others of its kind,,
viz. infe&s. For the taking of thefe, in their fwifteft
flight, nature hath admirably contrived their feveral
parts : their mouths are very wide to take in flies,
&c. in their quickeft motion ; their wings are long,
and adapted for diftant and continual flight; and their
tails are forked, to enable them to turn the readier in
purfuit of their prey. This fpecies, in our country,
builds in chimneys; and makes its neft of clay mixed
with ftraw', leaving the top quite open. It lines the
bottom with feathers and grafles: and ufually lays
from four to fix eggs, white fpeckled with red; but,
by taking away one of the eggs daily, it will fuccef-
fively lay as far as 19, as Dr Lifter has experienced.
It breeds earlier than any other fpecies. The firft
brood are obferved to quit the neft the laft week in
June, or the firft in July; the laft brood towards the
middle or end of Auguft. The neft being fixed five
or fix feet deep within the chimney, it is with diffi¬
culty that the young can emerge. They even fome-
times fall into the rooms below: but as foon as they
fucceed, they perch for a few days on the chimney-
top, and are there fed by their parents. Their next
eflay is to reach fome leaflefs bough, where they fit in
rows, and receive their food. Soon after they take to
the wing, but ftill want {kill to take their own prey.
They hover near the place where their parents are in
chafe of flies, attend their motions, meet them, and
receive from their mouths the offered fuftenance.—It
has a fweet note, which it emits in Auguft and Sep¬
tember, perching on houfe-tops.
2. The urbica, or martin, is inferior in fize to tho
former, and its tail much lefs forked. The head and
upper-part of the body, except the rump, is black
glofled with blue: the breaft, belly, and rump, are
white: the feet are covered with a fhort white down.
This is the fecond of the fwallow-kind that appears
in our country. It builds under the eaves of houfes,,
with the fame materials, and in the fame form, as the
houfe-fwallow; only its neft is covered above, having
only a fmall hole for admittance. It will alfo build
againft the fides of high cliffs over the fea. For the
time.
Hirundo.
H I R [ 3644 ] H I R
time that the young keep the neft, the old one feeds
them, adhering by the claws to the outfide; but as
foon as they quit it, fhe feeds them flying, by a motion
quick and almoft imperceptible to thofe who are not
ufed to obferve it.
It is a later breed than the preceding by fome
days, but both will lay twice in the feafon; and the
latter brood of this fpecies have been obferved to come
forth fo late as the 18th of September; yet that year
(1766) they entirely quitted our fight by the 5th of
O&ober: not but that they fometimes continue here
much later; the martins and red-wing thrufhes having
been feen flying in view on the 7th of November. Neft-
lings have been remarked in Hamplhire as late as the
2lft of October, 1772.
3. The riparia, or fand-martin, is the leaft of the
genus that frequents Great Britain. The head and
whole upper-part of the body are moufe-coloured;
the throat white, encircled with a moufe-coloured
ring ; the belly white ; the feet fmooth and black.—
It builds in holes in fand-prts, and in the banks of
rivers, penetrating fome feet deep into the bank, bo¬
ring through the foil in a wonderful manner with its
feet, claws, and bill. It makes its ueft of hay, .ftraw,
&c. and lines it with feathers: it lays five or fix white
eggs. It is the earlieft of the fwallow-tribe in bring¬
ing out its young.
4. The apus, or fwift, is the largeft of our fwallows;
but the weight is moft difproportionately fmall to its
extent of wing of any bird : the former being fcarce
one ounce, the latter 18 inches. The length near
eight. The feet of this bird are fo fmall, that the
a&ion of walking and rifing from the ground is ex¬
tremely difficult ; fo that nature hath made it full
amends, by furnifhing it with ample means for an eafy
and continual flight. It is more on the wing than
any other fwallows; its flight is more rapid, and that
attended with a fhrill fcream. It refts by clinging
againft fome wall, or other apt body; from whence
Klein ftyles this fpecies hirundo muraria. It breeds
under the eaves of houfes, in fteeples, and other lofty
buildings; makes its neft of graffes and feathers; and
lays only two eggs, of a white colour. It is entirely
of a glofly dark footy colour, only the chin is marked
with a white fpot: but by being fo conftantly expofed
to all weathers, the glofs of the plumage is loft before
it retires. A pair of thefe birds were found adhering
by their claws, and in a torpid ftate, in Feb. 1766,
under the roof of Longnor-chapel, Shropfhire: on
being brought to a fire, they revived, and moved
about the room. The feet are of a particular ftruc-
ture, all the toes (landing foreward; the leaft confifts
of only one bone ; the others of an equal number,
viz. two each; in which they differ from thofe of all
other birds.
This appears in our country about 14 days
later than the fand-martin ; but differs greatly in
the time of its departure, retiring invariably about
the 10th of Auguft, being the firft of the genus that
leaves us.
The fabulous hiftory of the manucodiata, or bird
of paradife, is, in the hiftory of this fpecies, in great
meafure verified. It was believed to have no feet;
to live upon the celeftial dew ; to float perpetually
on the atmofphere; and to perform all its fundions in
that element.
The fwift a&ually performs what has been in thefe Hirundo.
enlightened times difproved of the former, except the '
fmall time it takes in deeping, and what it devotes to
incubation; every other a&ion is done on wing. The
materials of its neft it colle&s either as they are car¬
ried about by the winds, or picks them up from the
furface in its fweeping flight. Its food is undeniably
the infe&s that fill the air. Its drink is taken in tran-
fient fips from the water’s furface. Even its amorous
rites are performed on high. Few perfons who have
attended to them in a fine fummer’s morning, but muft
have feen them make their aerial courfes at a great
height, encircling a certain fpace with an eafy (leady
motion. On a fudden they fall into each others embra¬
ces, then drop precipitate with a loud (hriek for num¬
bers of yards. This is the critical conjuntfture; and to
be no more wondered at, than that infedls (a familiar
inftance) ftiould difcharge the fame duty in the fame
element.
Thefe birds and fwallows are inveterate enemies to
hawks. The moment one appears, they attack him
immediately : .the fwifts foon defift ; but the fwallows
purfue and perfecute thofe rapacious birds, till they
have entirely driven them away.
Swifts delight in fultry thundery weather, and feem
thence to receive frelh fpirits. They fly at thofe times
in fmall parties with particular violence ; and as they
pafs near fteeples, towers, or any edifices where their
mates perform the office of incubation, emit a loud
fcream, a fort of ferenade, as ,Mr White fuppofes, to
their refpedlive females.
Concerning the difappearance of fwallows in the
winter, Mr Tennant hath given the following differ-
tation.
“ There are three opinions among naturalifts con¬
cerning the manner the fwallow-tribes difpofe of them-
felves after their difappeavance from the countries in
which they make their fummer refidence. Herodotus
mentions one fpecies that refides in Egypt the whole
year : Profper Alpinus afferts the fame ; and Mr Lo-
ten, late governor of Ceylon, affured us, that thofe
of Java never remove. Thefe excepted, every other
known kind obferve a periodical migration, or retreat.
The fwallows of the cold Norway, and of North A-
merica, of the diftant Kamtfchatka, of the temperate
parts of Europe, of Aleppo, and of the hot Jamaica,
all agree in this one point.
“ In cold countries, a defedl of infedl-food on the
approach of winter, is a fufficient reafon for thefe
birds to quit them : but fince the fame caufe probably
does not fubfift in the warm climates, recourfe (hould
be had to fome other reafon for their vanifhing.
“ Of the three opinions, the firft has the utmoft
appearance of probability ; which is, that they remove
nearer the fun, where they can find a continuance of
their natural diet, and a temperature of air fuiting
their conftitutions. That this is the cafe with fome
fpecies of European fwallows, has been proved be¬
yond contradidlion (as above cited) by M. Adanfon.
We often obferve them colle&ed in flocks innumerable
on churches, on rocks, and on trees, previous to their
departure-hence : and Mr Collinfon proves their re¬
turn here in perhaps equal numbers, by two curious
relations of undoubted credit; the one communicated
to him by Mr Wright, mafter of a drip ; the other by
H I R [ 3645 ] H I R
Jlimndo. the late Sir Charles Wager ; who both defcribed (to
■* the fame purpofe) what happened to each in their
voyages. “ Returning home, (fays Sir Charles), in
“ the fpring of the year, as I came into founding in
“ our channel, a great flock of fwallows canie and
“ fetJed on all my rigging ; every rope was covered;
“ they hung on one another like a fwarm of bees ;
“ the decks and carving were filled with them. They
“ feemed almoll famifhed and fpent, and were only
“ feathers and bones; but, being recruited with a
“ night’s reft, took their flight in the morning.” This
vaft fatigue proves that their journey muft have been
very great, confidering the amazing fwiftnefs of thefe
birds: in all probability they had crofled the. Atlantic
ocean, and were returning from the fhores of Senegal,,
or other parts of .Africa ; fo that this account from
that moft able and honed feaman, confirms the later
information of M. Adanfon.
“ Mr White, on Michaelmas day 1768, had the
good fortune to have ocular proof of what may rea-
tonably be fuppofed an adfual migration of fwallows.
Travelling the morning very early between his houfe
and the coaft, at the beginning of his journey he was
environed with a thick fog ; but on a large wild heath
the mill began to break, and difcovered to him num-
berlefs fwaliows, cluftered on the ftanding bufhes, as
if they had roofted there : as foon as the fun burftout,
they were inftantly on wing, and with an eafy and
placid flight prQqeeded towards the fea. After this he
faw no more flocks, oply now and then a ftraggler.
In Kalm’s voyage to America, is a remarkable
inftance of the diftant flight of fwallows j for one
lighted on the (hip he was in, September 2d, when
he had paffed over only two thirds of the Atlantic
ocean. His pafiage was uncommonly quick, being
performed from Deal to Philadelphia in lefs than fix
weeks ; and when this apcident happened, he was four¬
teen days fail from Cape Hinlopen.
“ This rendevpuz-of fwallows about the fame time
of year is very common on the willows, in the little
ifles in the Thames. They feem to aflemble for the
fame purpofe as thofe in -Hampfhire, notwithftanding
no one yet has been eye-witnefs of their departure.
On the 26th of September 1775, two gentlemen who
happened to lie at Maidenhead Bridge, furniihed at
leaft a proof of the multitudes there aflembled : they
went by torch-light to an adjacent ifle, and jn dels
than half an hour brought alhore fifty dozen ; for
they had nothing more to do than to draw the willow-
twigs through their hands, the birds never ftirring till
they were taken.
“ The northern naturalifts will perhaps fay, that
this affembly met for the purpofe of plunging
into their fubaqueons winter-quarters: but were that
the; cafe, they would, nevef efcape difeovery in a river
perpetually fifhed as the Thames, as fome of them inuft
inevitably be brought up in the nets that harrafs that
water. ' '
“ The fecond notion haiS great antiquity .on its fide.
Ariftotje and Pliny, give.it as their belief, thatdwaUpws
do not remove very far from their fummer habitation,
hut winter in the hollows of rocks, and during that
time lofe their feathers. The former part of their,
opinion has been, adopted by feveral ingenious men ;
and of late, feveral proofs have been brought of fome
Vol. V.
fpecies, at kail, having been difcovered in a torpid ftate. Hirundo
Mr Collinfon favoured us with the evidence of three
gentlemen, eye-vvitnefles to numbers of fand martins
being drawn out of a cliff on the Rhine, in the month
of March 1762. And the honourable Daines Bar¬
rington communicated to us the following fadf, on the
authority of the late lord Bejhaven, That numbers of
fwallows have been found in old dry walls, and in
fand-hills near his Lordlhip’s feat in Eaft Lothian ;
not once only, but from year to year ; and that when
they were expofed to the warmth of a fire, they re¬
vived. We have alfo heard of the fame annual difeo-
veries near Morpeth, in Northumberland, but cannot
fpeak of them with the fame aflurance as the two for¬
mer : neither in the two laft inflances are we certain
of the particular fpecies.
“ Other witnefl'es crowd on us to prove the refi-
dencc of thofe birds in a torpid ftate during the feverc
feafon.
“ Firft, In the chalky cliffs of Suflex ; as was feen
on the fall of great fragment fome years ago.
“ Secondly, In a decayed hollow tree that was cut
down, near Dolgelli, in Merionethfhire.
“ Thirdly, In a cliff near Whitby, Yorkfhire;
where, on digging out a fox, whole bufhels of fwal¬
lows were found in a torpid condition. And,
“ Laftly, the reverend Mr Conway, of Sychton,
Flintfhire, was fo obliging as to communicate the fol¬
lowing fatf: A few years ago, on looking down an
old lead-mine in that county, he obferved numbers
of fwallows clinging to the timbers of the fhaft, feem-
ingly afleep ; and on flinging fome gravel on them,
they juft moved, but never attempted to fly or change
their place : this was between All Saints and Chrift-
mas.
“ Thefe are doubtlefs the lurking places of the
later hatches, or of thofe young birds, who are in¬
capable of diftant migrations. There they continue
infenfible and rigid ; but like flies may fometimes be
reanimated by an unfeafonable hot day in the midft of
winter : for very near Chriftmas a few appeared on the
moulding of a window of Merton college, Oxford, in
a remarkably warm nook, which prematurely fet their
blood in motion, having the fame effedf as laying them
before the fire at the fame time of year. Others have
been known to make this premature appearance; but
as foou as the cold natural to the feafon returns, they
withdraw again to their former retreats.
“ I fliali conclude with one argument drawn from
the very late hatches of two fpecies.
“ On the 23d of O&ober 1767, a martin was feen
in .Southwark, flying in and out of his neft: and on
the 29th of the fame month, four or five fwallows
were obferved hovering round and fettling on the
county hofpkal at Oxford. As thefc birds muft have
been of a late hatch, it is highly improbable that at
fo late a feafon of tire year, they would attempt, from
one of our midland counties, a voyage almoft as far
as the equator to Senegal or Goree : we are therefore
confirmed in our notion, that there is only a partial
migration of thefe birds; and that the feeble late
hatches conceal themfelves in this country.
“ The above are circumftances we cannot but af-
fent to, though feemingly contradiftory to the com¬
mon courfe of nature in regard to other birds. We
20 U muft,,
H I R [ 1646 ] H I R
Hirundb. inuft, tlierefore, divide our belief relating to thefe
two fo different opinions; and conclude, that one
part of the fwallow-tribe migrate, and that others
have their winter*quarters near home. If it (hould
be demanded, why fwallows alone are found in a tor¬
pid (late, and not the other many fpecies of foft-billed
birds, which lik£wife difappear about the fame time ?
the following reafon may be affigned :
“ No birds are fo much on the wing as fwallows,
none fly with fuch fwiftnefs and rapidity, none are
obliged to fuch fudden and various evolutions in their
flight, none are at fuch pains to take their prey, and,
we may add, none exert their voice more inceflantly :
all thefe occafion a vaft expence of ftrength and'of fpi-
rits, and may give fuch a texture to the blood as
other animals cannot experience; and fo difpofe, or
we may fay neceflitate, this tribe of birds, or part
of them at leaft, to a repofe more lafting than that
of any others.
“ The third notion is, even at firft fight, too a-
mazing and unnatural to merit mention, if it was not
■ chat feme of the learned have been credulous enough
to deliver for fadt, what has the flrongeft appearance
of impoflibility ; we mean the relation of fwalldws
paffing the winter immerfed under ice, at the bottom
of lakes, or lodged beneath the water of the fea at
the foot of rocks. The firft who broached this opi¬
nion, was Olaus Magnus, archbifhop of Upfal, who
very gravely informs us, that thefe birds are often
found in cluftered maffes at the bottom of the northern
lakes, mouth to mouth, wing to wing, foot to foot;
and that they creep down the reeds in autumn, to
their fubaqueous retreats : That when old filhermen
difeover fuch a mafs, they throw it into the water
again ; but when young inexperienced ones take it,
they will, by thawing the birds at a fire, bring them
indeed to the ufe of their wings, which will continue
but a very fliort time, being owing to a premature and
forced revival.
“ That the good archbilhop did not want credu¬
lity in other inftances, appears from this, that after
having (locked the bottoms of the lakes with birds,
he (lores the clouds with mice, which fometimes fall
in plentiful (howers on Norway and the neighbouring
countries.
“ Some of our own countrymen have given credit
to the fubmerfion of fwallows; and Klein patronifes
the doftrine (Irongly, giving the following hillory of
their manner of retiring, which he received from fome
countrymen and others. They aflerted, that fome¬
times the fwallows a(fembled in numbers on a reed, till
it broke and funk with them to the bottom ; and their
immerfion was preceded by a dirge of a quarter of
an hour’s length : That others would unite in laying
hold of a draw with their bills, and fo plunge down
in fociety. Others again would form a large mafs,
by clinging together with their feet, and fo commit
themfelves to the deep.
“ Such are the relations given by thofe that are
fond of this opinion ; and though delivered without
exaggeration, mud provoke a fmile. They afiign
not the fmalleft reafon to account for thefe birds be¬
ing able to endure fo long a fubmerfion without being
fuffocated, or without decaying, in an element fo un¬
natural to fo delicate a bird; when w£ know that the
otter, the corvorant, and the grebes, foon peri(h, if Hirumfo*
caught under ice, or entangled in netsand it is well  
known, that thofe animals will continue much longer
under water than any others to whom nature hath de¬
nied that particular (Irudlure of heart neceflary for a
long refidence beneath that element. Though entire¬
ly fatisfied in our own mind of the impoffibility of
thefe relations ; yet, defirous of (Irengthening our opi¬
nion with fome better authority, we applied to that
able anatomift, Mr John Hunter ; who was fo oblig¬
ing as to inform us, that he had differed many fvval-
lows, but found nothing in them different from other
birds as to the organs of refpiration : That all thofe
animals which he had difle&ed of the clafs that deep
during winter, fuch as lizards, frogs, &c. had a very
different conformation as to thofe organs : That all
thefe animals, he believes, do breathe in their torpid
(late ; and, as far as his experience reaches, he knows
they do : and that therefore he efteems it a very wild
opinion, that terreftrial animals can remain any long
time under water without drowning.”
To this reafoning of Mr Pennant’s, however, the
following anfwer hath appeared in Kalm’s travels in
North America.—“ It has been a fubjeft of conteil
among naturalifts, to determine the winter-retreat of
fwallows. Some think they go to warmer climates
when they difappear in the northern countries : others
fay, they creep into hollow trees, and holes in clefts
of rocks, and lie there all the winter in a torpid (late:
and others affirm, that they make their retreat into
water, and revive again in fpring. The two firft opi¬
nions have been proved, and it feems have found cre¬
dit; the lad has been tieated as ridiculous, and al-
moft as an old woman’s tale. Natural hiftory, as all
other hiftories, depends not always upon the intriniic
degree of probability, but upon fads founded on the
tertimony of people of noted veracity.—Swallows are
feldom feen finking down into the water ; fwallows
have not fuch organs as frogs or lizards, which are
torpid during winter; ergo, fwallows live not, and
cannot live, under water*—This way of arguing, I
believe, would carry us, in a great many cafes, too
far; for, though it is not clear to every one, it may
however be true ; and lizards and frogs are animals
of a clafs widely different from that of birds, and muft
therefore of courfe have a different ftru&ure ; hence
it is they are claffed feparately. The bear and the
marmot are in winter in a torpid (late, and have how¬
ever not fuch organs as lizards and frogs; and no¬
body doubts of their being, during fome time, in the
moft rigid climates, in a torpid (late : for the Alpine
nations hunt the marmots frequently, by digging their
holes up; and find them fo torpid, that they cut their
throats, without their reviving or giving the leaft fign "
of life during the operation ; but when the torpid mar¬
mot is brought into a warm room, and placed before
the fire, it revives from its lethargy. The queftion
muft therefore be decided by fads ; nor are thefe
wanting here. Dr Wallerius, the celebrated Swedifli
chemift, informs us, That he has feen, more than
once, fwallows affembhng on a reed, till they were all
immerfed and went to the bottom ; this being pre¬
ceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour’s length.
He attefts likewife, that he had feen a fwallow caught
during winter out of a lake with a net, drawn, as is
com-
H I R [ 3647 ] HIS
IMrundo. common in northern countries, under the ice ; tliis
— bird was brought into a warm room, revived, .fluttered
about, and foon after died.
“ Mr Klein applied to many fermiers generaux of the
king of Pruffia’s domains, who had great lakes in
their diftrifts,: the filhery in them being a part of the
revenue.. In winter the filhery thereon is the moft con-
fiderable under the ice, with nets fpreading more than
200 or 300 fathoms, and they are often wound by
fcrews and engines on account of their weight. All
the people quedioned made affidavits upon oath be¬
fore the magillrates. Fird, The mother of the coun-
tefs Lehndorf faid, that (lie had feen a bundle of fwal-
lows brought from the Frifh-HafF, (a lake communi¬
cating with the Baltic at Pillaw), which, when brought
into a moderately warm room, revived and fluttered a-
bout. Secondly, Count Schilebtn gave an indrument
on damped paper, importing, that by fifliing on the
lake belonging to his edate of Gerdauen in winter,
he faw feveral fwallows caught in the net, one of which
he took up with his hand, brought it into a warm
room, where it lay about an hour, when it began to
dir, and half an hour after it flew about in the room.
Thirdly, Fermier general (Amtman) Witkoufld made
affidavit, that, in the year 1740, three fwallows were
brought up with the net in the great pond at Did-
lacken ; in the year 1741, he got two fwallows from
another part of the pond, and took them home (they
being all caught in his prefence ;) after an hour’s
fpace they revived all in a warm room, fluttered about,
and died in three hours after. Fourthly, Amtman
Bonke fays, that having had the edate Klefkow in
farm, he had feen nine fwallows brought up in the net
from under the ice, all which he took into a warm
room, where he diflan&ly obferved how they gradual¬
ly revived ; but a few hours after they all died. Ano¬
ther time his people got likewife fome fwallows in a
net, but he ordered them to be again thrown into the
•water. Fifthly, Andrew Rutta, a mader fiflierman at
Oletfko, made affidavit, in 1747, that 22 years ago,
two fwallows were taken up by him in a net, under
the ice, and, being brought into a warm room, they
flew about.—Sixthly, Jacob Kofiulo, a mader fiflier¬
man 4^ Stradauen, made affidavit, that, in 1736, he
brought up in winter, in a net, from under the
ice of the lake at Rafki, a feemingly dead fwallow,
which revived in half an hour’s time in warm room,
and he faw, in a quarter of an hour after, the bird
grow weaker, and foon after dying. Seventhly, I can
reckon myfelf among the. eye-witnefles of this para-
, doxon of natural hidory. In the year 1735, being a
little boy, I faw feveral fwallows brought in winter by
fifliermen, from the river Viflula, to my father’s houfe;
where two of them were brought into a warm room,
revived, and flew about. I faw them feveral times
fettling on the warm dove (which the northern nations
have in their rooms) ; and I recolledt well, that the
fame forenoon they died, and I had them, when dead, in
my hand. In the year x 754, after the death of my uncle
Godefroy Wolf, captain in the Polifti regiment of foot-
guards ; being myfelf one of his heirs, I adminider-
ed for my co-heirs, feveral edates called the Starojiy
of Difchau, in Polifli Pruffia, which my late uncle
farmed under the king. In January, the lake of Lyb-
(haw, belonging to thefe edates, being covered with Himmler,,
ice, I ordered the'fifliermen to fifli therein, and in my Hiipatnola.
prefence feveral fwallows were taken, which the fifli-
ermen to fifli therein, and in my prefence feveral fwal-
ermen threw in again ; but,one I took up to myfelf,
brought it home, which was five miles from thence, and
it revived, but died about an hour after its reviving.
“ Thefe are fads, attefled by people of the highefi:
quality, by fome in public offices, and by others who,
tho’ of a low rank, however made thefe affidavits upon
oath. It is impoffible to fuppofe indiferiminately, that
they were prompted, by views of intereft, to aflert as a
fad, a thing which had no truth in it. It is therefore
highly probable, or rather incontedably true, that
fwallows retire in the northern countries during win¬
ter, into the water, and flay there in a torpid date>
till the return of warmth revives them again in fpring*
The quedion therefore, I believe, ought for the future
to be thus dated: The fwallows in Spain, Italy,
France, and perhaps fome from England, remove to
warmer climates ; fome Englifli ones, and fome in
Germany and other mild countries, retire into clefts
and holes in rocks, and remain there in a torpid ftate.
In the colder northern countries the fwallows immerfe
in the fea, in lakes, and rivers; and remain in a tor¬
pid date, under ice, during winter. There are dill
fome objedions to this latter aflertion, which we mud:
remove. . It is faid, Why do not rapacious fifli, and
aquatic quadrupeds and birds, devour thefe fwallows?
The anfwer is obvious. Swallows choofe only fuch
places in the water for their winter-retreat, as are near
reeds and ruflies; fo that finking down there between
them and their roots, they are by them fecured againfl
the rapacioufnefs of their enemies. But others objed.
Why are not thefe birds caught in fuch waters as are
continually harrafltd by nets ? I believe the fame an¬
fwer which has been made tc/the firfl objedion will
ferve for this likewife. Fifliermen take care to keep
off with their nets from places filled with reeds and
ruflies, for fear of entangling and tearing their net;
and thus the fituation of fwallows under water, is the
reafon that they are feldom didurbed in their filent
winter-retreats. What confirms this opinion dill more
is, that fwallows were never caught in Pruffia, accord¬
ing to the above-mentioned affidavits, but with thofe
parts of the net which paffed near to the reeds and
ruflies ; and fometimes the fwallows were yet fadened
with their feet to a reed,when they were drawn up by
the net. As to the argument taken from their being
fo long under water without corruption, I believe,
there is a real difference between animals fuffocated in
water and animals being torpid therein. We have ex¬
amples of things being a long time under wrater ; to
which we may add the intenfe cold of thefe northern
regions, which preferves them. Who would have
thought it, that fnails and polypes may be diffefted,
and could reproduce the parts fevered from their body,
if it was not a fad! ? Natural hidory ought to be flu-
died as a colledfion of fadls, not as the hidory of our
gueffes or opinions. Nature varies in an infinite man¬
ner; and Providence has diverfified the indinft of ani¬
mals and their ceconomy, and adapted it to the va¬
rious feafons and climates.”
HISPANIOLA, called alfo St Domingo, the
20 TJ 2 larged..
HIS { 3648 ] HIS
Hifpainola. larged of th« Antilles or Caribbee iflands, extending
about 420 miles from ea(t to weft, and 1 20 in breadth
from north to fouth ; lying between 170 37' and 20° of
‘N. Lat. and between 67° 35' and 740 15' W. Long.
The climate his hot, but not reckoned unwholefome ;
and fome of the inhabitants are faid to arrive at the age
of 120. It is fometimes refrefhed by breezes and
rains; and its falubrity is likewife in a great meafure
owing to the beautiful variety of hills and valleys,
woods and rivers, which every where prefent them-
ftlves. It is indeed reckoned by far the fineft and
moft pleafant ifland of the Antilles, as being the beft
accommodated to all the purpofes of life when duly
cultivated.
This ifland, famous for being the earlieft fettlement
of the Spaniards in the new world, was at firlt in high
eftimation for the quantity of gold it fupplied : this
wealth diminiftied with the inhabitants of the country,
whom they obliged to dig it out of the bowels of the
earth; and the fource of it was entirely dried up,
when they were exterminated, which was quickly done,
by a feries of the moft (hocking barbarities that ever
difgraced the hiftory of any nation. Benzoni relates,
that of two millions of inhabitants, contained in the
ifland when difcovered by Columbus in 1492, fcarce
153 were alive in 1545. A vehement defire of open-
ing again this fource of wealth infpired the thought
of getting flaves from Africa ; but, befides that thefe
were found unfit for the labours they weredeftined to,
the multitude of mines, which then began to be
wrought on the continent, made thofe of Hifpaniola
no longer of any importance. An idea now fuggefted
itfelf, that their negroes, which were healthy, itrong,
and patient, might be ufefully employed in hufbandry;
and they adopted, through necefiity, a wife refolu-
tion, which, had they known their own intereft, they
would have embraced by choice.
The produce of their induftry was at firft extremely
fmall, becaufe the labourers were few. Charles V.
who, like moft fovereigns, preferred his favourites to
every thing, had granted an exclufiye right of the
flave-trade to a Flemifh nobleman, who made over his
privilege to the Genoefe. Thofe avaricious republi¬
cans conduced this infamous commerce as all mono¬
polies are conduced ; they refolved to fell dear, and
they fold but few. When time and competition had
fixed the natural and neceflary price of flaves, the
number of them increafed. It may eafily be imagi¬
ned, that the Spaniards, who had been accuftomed to
treat the Indians as beafts, did not entertain a higher
opinion of thefe negro Africans, whom they fubftitu-
ted in their place. Degraded 'ftill further in their
eyes by the price they had paid for them, even reli¬
gion could not reftrain them from aggravating the
weight of their fervitude. It became intolerable, and
thefe wretched flaves made an effort to recover the un¬
alienable rights of mankind. Their attempt proved
unfuccefsful ; but they reaped this benefit from their
defpair, that they were afterwards treated with lefs
inhumanity.
This moderation (if tyranny cramped by the ap-
prehenfion of revolt can deferve that name) was at¬
tended with good confequences. Cultivation was pur-
fued with fome degree of fuccefs. Soon after the
middle of the 16th century, the mother-country drew
annually from this colony ten million weight of fugar, Hifpaniola.
a large quantity of wood for dying, tobacco, cocoa, 4 \
caffia, ginger, cotton, and peltry in abundance. One
might imagine, that fuch favourable beginnings would
give both the defire and the means of carrying them
further ; but a train of events, more fatal each than
the other, ruined thefe hopes.
The firft misfortune arofe from the depopulation of
the ifland. The Spanifti conquefts on the continent
(hould naturally have contributed to promote the fuc-
cefs of an ifland, which nature feemed to have formed
to be the centre of that vaft dominion arifing around
it, to be the ftaple of the different colonies. But it
fell out quite otherwife : on a view of the immenfe
fortunes railing in Mexico, and other parts, the rich-
eft inhabitants of Hifpaniola began to defpife theirTet-
tlements, and quitted the true fource of riches, which
is on the furface of the earth, to go and ranfack the
bowels of it for veins of gold, which are quickly ex-
haufted. The government endeavoured in vain to put
a flop to this emigration ; the laws were always either
artfully eluded, or openly violated.
The weaknefs, which was a neceffary confequence
of fuch a conduft, leaving the coafts without defence,
encouraged the enemies of Spain to ravage them.
Even the capital of this ifland was taken and pillaged
by that celebrated Englifh failor, Sir Francis Drake.
The cruizers of lefs confequence contented themfelves
with intercepting veffels in their paffage through thofe
latitudes, the belt known at that time of any in the
new world. To complete thefe misfortunes, the Ca-
ftilians themfelves commenced pirates. They attack¬
ed no (hips but thofe of their own nation ; which were
more rich, worfe provided, and worfe defended, than
any others. The cuftom they had of fitting out (hips
clandeftinely, in order to procure flaves, prevented
them from being known ; and the afiiftance they pur-
chafed from the (hips of war, commiflioned to pro-
teft the trade, infured to them impunity.
The foreign trade of the colony was its only refource
in this diftrefs ; and that was illicit: but as it conti¬
nued to be carried on, notwithftanding the vigilance
of the governors, or, perhaps, by their connivance,
the policy of an exafperated and fhort-fighted court
exerted itfelf in demolifliing moft of the fea-ports,
and driving the miferable inhabitants into the inland
country. This aft of violence threw them into a date
of dtjeftion ; which the incurfions and fettlement of
the French on the ifland afterwards carried to the ut-
moft pitch. The latter, after having made fome un¬
fuccefsful attempts to fettle on the ifland, had part of
it yielded to them in 1697, and now enjoy by far the
bell (hare.
Spain, totally taken up with that vaft empire which
(lie had formed on the continent, ufed no pains to dif- >
Spate this lethargy. She even refufed to liften to the
felicitations of her Flemifh fubjefts, who earneftly
preffed that they might have permiflion to clear thofe
fertile lands. Rather than run the rifle of feeing them
carry on'a contraband trade on the coafts, (lie chofe
to bury in oblivion a fettlement which had been of
confequence, and was likely to become fo. again.
This colony, which had no longer any intercourfe
with the mother-country but by a Angle (hip, of no
great burthen, that arrived fropa thence every third year,
confifted
HIS [ 3649 1 HIS
Hifpaniola, confifted, in of 18410 inhabitants, including
_ Spaniards, Meftees, Negroes, or Mulattoes. The com¬
plexion and character of tbefe people differed according
to the different proportions of American, European,
and African blood they had received from that natural
and tranfient union which reftores all races and condi¬
tions to the fame level. Thefe demi-favages, plunged
in the extreme of floth, lived upon fruits and roots,
dwelt in cottages without furniture, and moft of them
without clothes. The few among them, in whom in¬
dolence had not totally fupprefled the fenfe of decency,
and tafte for the conveniences of life, purchafed clothes
of their neighbours the French, in return for their Hlffotio-
cattle, and the money fent to them for the maintenance SbaPher,
of two hundred folffiers, the prie-fts, and the govern- 1 Qry’
ment. It does not appear that the company, formed
at Barcelona in 1757, with exclufne privileges, for
the re-eftablifhment of St Domingo, hath as yet made
any confiderable progrefs. They fend out only two
fmall veflels annually, which are freighted back with
fix thoufand hides, and fome other commodities of lit¬
tle value. See St Domingo.
HISTORIOGRAPHER, a profefled hiftorian, or
writer of hiftory.
HISTORY.
HISTORY, in general, fignifies an account of
fome remarkable fadts which have happened in
the world, arranged in the true order in which they
actually took place, together with the caufes to which
they were owing, and the different effedis they have
produced, as far as can be difcovered.—The word is
Greek, iropia ; and literally denotes a fearch of curi¬
ous things, or a defire of knowing, or even a rehear-
fal of things we have feen ; being formed from the
verb iropiv) which properly fignifies to know a thing by
having feen it. But the idea is now much mere ex-
tenfive, and is applied to the knowledge of things
taken from the report of others. The origin is from the
verb irti/ti) “ I know and hence it is, that among the
ancients feveral of their great men were called fio/jh'-
Jloresi i. e. perfons of various and general knowledge.
Sometimes, however, the word hiftory is ufed to
fignify a defeription of things, as well as an account
of fadts. Thus Theophraftus calls his work, in which
he has treated of the nature and properties of plants,
an hifiory of plants ; and we have a treatife of Arifto-
tle, intitled an hijlory of animals; and to this day the
deferiptions of plants, animals, and minerals, are call-
t ed by the general name of natural kifory.
Hiftory But what chiefly merits the name of hiftory, and
vi'cTd^' w^iat *s ^ere confidered as fuch, is an account of the
principal tranfadlions of mankind fince the beginning
of the world; and which naturally divides itfelf into
two parts, namely, civil and eccleftafical. The firft
contains the hiftory of mankind in their various rela¬
tions to one another, and their behaviour, for their own
emolument, or that of others, in. common life ; the
fecond confiders them as adling, or pretending to adt,
in obedience to what they believe to be the will of the
Supreme Being.—Civil hiftory, therefore, includes an
account of all the different ftates that have exifted in
the world, and likewife of thofe men who in different
ages of the world have moft eminently diftinguiflied
themfelves either for their good or evil aftions. This
laft part of civil hiftory is ufually termed Biography.
Hiftory is now confidered as a very confiderable
branch of polite literature : few accomplifhments are
more valued than an accurate knowledge of the hifto-
ries of different nations; and fcarce any literary pro¬
duction is more regarded than a well-written hiftory
>5 of any nation.
Oftheftudy With regard to the ftudy of hiftory, v.'e muft com
of hiftory. fider, that all the revolutions which have happened in
the world, have been owing to two caufes. x. The
connections between the different ftates exifting toge¬
ther in the world at the fame time, or their different
fituations with regard to one another; and, 2. The
different characters of the people who in all ages
conftituted thefe ftates, their different geniufes and
difpofitions, &c. by which they were either prompted
to undertake fuch and fuch aCtions of themfelves, or
were eafily induced to it by others. The perfotv who
would ftudy hiftory, therefore, ought in the firft place
to make himfelf acquainted with the ftate of the world
in general in all different ages; what nations inhabited
the different parts of it; what their extent of territory
was ; at what particular time they arofe, and when
they declined. He is then to inform himfelf of
the various events which have happened to each par¬
ticular nation ; and, in fo doing, he will difeover
many of the caufes of thofe revolutions, which before
he only knew as fads. Thus, for inftance, a per-
fon may know the Roman hiftory from the time of
Romulus, without knowing in the lead why the city
of Rome happened to be built at that time. This
cannot he underftood without a particular knowledge
of the former ftate of Italy, and even of Greece and
Afia; feeing the origin of the Romans is com¬
monly traced as high as iEneas, one of the heroes
of Troy. But when all this is done, which indeed
requires no fmall labour, the hiftorian hath yet to
ftudy the genius and difpofitions of the different na¬
tions, the characters of thofe who were the principal
directors of their actions, whether kings, minifters,
generals, or priefts; and when this is accomplifhed,
he will difeover the caufes of thofe tranfaCtions in the
different nations which have given rife fo the great
revolutions above mentioned : after which, he may
affume the character of one who is perfectly veiled in
hiftory.
The firft outline of hiftory, as it may be called, is
moft eafily obtained by the infpeCtion of an hiftorical
chart; and that fubjoined to the prefent treatife, will
anfwer the purpofe as well as any. Along with this
it will be proper to perufe a ffiort abridgment of ge¬
neral hiftory, from the creation of the world to the
prefent time ; but in this way there have been but
very few attempts attended with any tolerable fuccefs.
The following is collected from refpeCtable authori¬
ties, and may ferve to help the ideas of the reader on
this fubjed.
Sect.
3650 HIST
9i.vil Sect. I. Civil Hiftory.
Hiftory. J
History, tho’ feemingly Incapable of any natural
divifion, will yet be found, on a nearer Infpe&ion, to
refolve itfelf into the following periods, at each of
which a great revolution took place, either with re-
3 gard to the whole world, or a very confiderable part
of it. 1. The creation of man. 2. The flood. 3.
dIvidcd.10W The beginning of profane hiftory, /. e. when all the
fabulous relations of heroes, demi-gods, &c. were ex¬
pelled from hiftorical narrations, and men began to
relate fafts with fome regard to truth and credibility.
4. The conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus, and the de-
Itrudion of the Babylonian empire. 5. The reign of
Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Per-
fian empire. 6. The deftru&ion of Carthage by the
Romans, when the latter had no longer any rival
capable of oppofing their defigns. 7. The reign of
the emperor Trajan, when the Roman empire was
brought to its utmoft extent. 8. The divifion of the
empire under Conftantine. 9. The deftru&ion of
the Weftern empire by the Heruli, and the fettlement
of the different European nations. 10. The rife of
Mahomet, and the conquefts of the Saracens and
Turks. 11. The crufades, and all the fpace inter¬
vening between that time and the prefent.
Concerning the number of years which have elapfed
fince the creation of the world, there have been many
difputes. The compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory de¬
termine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C.
fo that, according to them, the world is now in the
* 6085th year of its age. Others think it was created
coutnof*"" only 4000 years B. C. fo that it hath not yet attained
the creation its 6000th year. Be this as it will, however, the
the only whole account of the creation refts on the truth of the
probable Mofaic hiftory; and which we muft of neceflity ac-
one‘ cept, becaufe we can find no other which does not
either abound with the groffeft abfurdities, or lead us
into abfolute darknefs. The Chinefe and Egyptian
pretenfions to antiquity are fo abfurd and ridiculous,
that the bare reading muft be a fufficient confutation
of them to every reafonable perfon. See the articles
China and Egypt. Some hiftorians and philofophers
are inclined to diferedit the Mofaic accounts, from the
appearances of volcanoes, and other natural pheno¬
mena : but their obje&ions are by no means fufficient
to invalidate the authority of the facred writings; not
to mention that every one of their own fyftems is
liable to infuperable objeftions. See the article Earth.
It is therefore reafonable for every perfon to accept of
the Mofaic account of the creation as truth: but an
hiftorian is under an abfolute neceffity of doing it, be¬
caufe, without it, he is quite deftitute of any ftandard
or fcale by which he might reduce the chronology of
different nations to any agreement; and, in Ihort,
without receiving this account as true, it would be in a
manner impoflible at this day to write a general hiftory
of the world.
jjjq/ 1. The tranfa&ions during the firft period, viz. from
from the the creation to the flood, are very much unknown, no-
creation to thing indeed being recorded of them but what is to be
the flood, found in the firft fix chapters of Genefis. In general,
we know, that men were not at that time in a favage
ftate ; they had made fome progrefs in the arts, had
invented mufic, and found out the method of working
O R Y. Sea. I.
metals. They feem alfo to have lived in one vaft com- Civil
munity, without any of thefe divifions into different na- Hiftory.
tions which have fince taken place, and which evident- *
ly proceeded from the confution of languages. The
moft material part of their hiftory, however, is, that
having once begun to tranfgrefs the divine commands,
they proceeded to greater and greater lengths of wic-
kednefs, till at laft the Deity thought proper to fend
a flood on the earth, which deftroyed the whole hu¬
man race except eight perfons, viz. Noah and his fa¬
mily. This terrible cataftrophe happened, according
to the Hebrew copy of the Bible, 1656 years after
the creation; according to the Samaritan copy, 1307.
For the different conjeflures concerning the natural
caufes of the flood, fee the article Deluge. c
2. For the hiftory of the fecond period we muft again From the
have recourfe to the Scriptures, almoft as much as for fioocl to the
that of the firft. We now find the human race redu-
ced to eight perfons poffeffed of nothing but what they hilfoTy.3”
had faved in the ark, and the whole world to be ftored
with animals from thofe which had been preferved a-
long with thefe eight perfons. In what country their
original fettlement was, no mention is made. The
ark is fuppofed to have refted on Mount Ararat in Ar- # gee
menia * ; but it is impoffible to know whether Noah Ararat.
and his fons made any ftay in the neighbourhood of
this mountain or not. Certain it is, that, fome time
after, the whole or the greateft part of the human
race were affembled in Babylonia, where they engaged
in building a tower. This gave offence to the Deity;
fo that he punifhed them by confounding their lan¬
guage ; whence the divifion of mankind into different
nations.
According to a common opinion, Noah when dying
left the whole world to his fons, giving Afia to Shem,
Africa to Ham, and Europe to Japhet. But this 7
hath not the leaft foundation in Scripture. By the Nations de-
moft probable accounts, Corner the fon of Japhet tended
was the father of the Gomerians or Celtes ; that is, all Ja*
the barbarous nations who inhabited the northern parts ^
of Europe under the various names of Gauls, Ctm-
brians, Goths, See. and who alfo migrated into Spain,
where they were called Celtiberians. From Magog,
Mefhech, and Tubal, three of Gomer’s brethren, pro¬
ceeded the Scythians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Mo¬
guls. The three other fons of Japhet, Madai, Ja¬
van, and Tiras, are faid to have been the fathers of
the Medes, the lonians, Greeks, and Thracians. g
The children of Shem were Elam, Alhur, Arphaxad, From shem
Lud, and Aram. The firft fettled in Perfia, where
he was the father of that mighty nation : The defeen-
dants of Aftiur peopled Affyria, (now Curdejlan) : Ar¬
phaxad fettled in Chaldsea. Lud is fuppofed by Jo-
fephus to have taken up his refidence in Lydia;
though this is much controverted. Aram, with more
certainty, is thought to have fettled in Mefopotamia
and Syria. 9
The children of Ham were Ciilh, Mizraim, Phut, Froni Ham
and Canaan. The firft is thought to have remain¬
ed in Babylonia, and to have been king of the fouth-
eaftern parts of it afterwards called Khuzejlan. His
defeendants are fuppofed to have removed into the
eaftern parts of Arabia; from whence they by degrees
migrated into the correfponding part of Africa. The
fecond peopled Egypt, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya,
and
Sea. I. HISTORY. 3651
Civil and the reft of the northern parts of the fame conti-
^i'ftor>r' nent. The place where Phut fettled is not known :
but Canaan is univerfally allowed to have fettled in
Phoenicia; and to have founded thofe nations who in¬
habited Judaea, and were afterwards exterminated by
the Jews.
Almoft all the countries of the world, at leaft of the
eaflern continent, being thus fnrnilhed with inhabi¬
tants, it is probable that for many years there would
be few or no quarrels between the different nations.
The paucity of their numbers, their diltance from one
another, and their diverfity of language, would contri¬
bute to keep them from having much communication
with each other. Hence, according to the different
circumftances in which the different tribes were placed,
fome would be more civilized, and others more barba¬
rous. In this interval, alfo, the different nations pro¬
bably acquired different chara&ers, which afterwards
they obftinately retained, and manifefted on all occa-
lions ; hence the propenfity of fome nations to mo¬
narchy, as the Afiatics, and the enthuliaftic defire of
10 the Greeks for liberty and republicanifm, &c.
Foundation The beginning of monarchical government was very
of the king- early; Nimrod, the fon of Cufh, having found means to
do ms of mahe himfelf king of Babylonia. In a Ihort time A-
Allyria^&c ^lur em‘grated from the new kingdom; built Nineveh,
afterwards capital of the Affyrian empire ; and two
other cities called Rezen and Reholoth, concerning the
fituation of which we are now much in the dark.
Whether Afhur at this time fet up as a king for him¬
felf, or whether he held thefe cities as vaffal to Nim¬
rod, is now unknown. It is probable, however, that
about the fame time various kingdoms were founded in
different parts of the world ; and which were great or
fmall, according to different circumftances. Thus the
fcripture mentions the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom,
Gomorrah, &c. in the time of Abraham ; and we
may reafonably fuppofe, that thefe kings reigned over
nations which had exifted for fome confiderable time
11 before.
Migration The firft confiderable revolution we read of is the
of the migration of the Ifraelites out of Egypt, and their e-
Iiraelnes ftablifhment in the land of Canaan. For the hiftory of
fiom ES5'Pt thefe tranfadlions we muft refer to the Old Teftament,
where the reader will fee that it was attended with the
moft terrible cataftrophe to the Egyptians, and with
the utter extermination of fome nations, the defcen-
dants of Ham, who inhabited judsea. Whether the
overthrow of Pharaoh in the Red Sea could affeft the
Egyptian nation in fuch a manner as to deprive them
of the greateft part of their former learning, and to
keep them for fome ages after in a barbarous ftate, is
not eafily determined ; but unlefs this was the cafe, it
feems exceedingly difficult to account for the total fi-
lence of their records concerning fuch a remarkable
event, and indeed for the general confufion and uncer¬
tainty in which the early hiftory of Egypt is involved.
The fettlement of the Jews in the promifed land of Ca¬
naan is fuppofed to have happened about 1491 B. C.
11 For near 200 years after this period, we find no ac-
Hiftory of counts of any other nations than thofe mentioned in
the Greeks. pcrjpture. About 1280 B. C. the Greeks began to
make other nations feel the effedis of that enterprifing
and martial fpirit for which they were fo remarkable,
and which they had undoubtedly exercifed upon one
another long before. Their firft enterprife was an in- fdVI‘
vafion of Colchis (now Mingrelia), for the fake of the or^'
golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this ex¬
pedition, it is probable they fucceeded in it; and it
is likewife probable, that it was this fpecimen of the
riches of Afia which inclined them fo much to Afiatic
expeditions ever after. AH this time we are totally
in the dark about the rtate of Afia and Africa, except
in fo far as can be conje&ured from Scripture. The
ancient empires of Babylon, Affyria, and Perfia, pro¬
bably ftiil continued in the former continent, and
Egypt and Ethiopia feem to have been confiderable
kingdoms in the latter.
About 1184 years B. C. the Greeks again diftin-
guifhed themfelves by their expedition againft Troy, a
city of Phrygia Minor; w’hich they plundered and
burnt, maffacring the inhabitants with the moft unre¬
lenting cruelty. ^Eneas, a Trojan prince, efcaped with
fome followers into Italy, where he became the remote
founder of the Roman empire. At this time Greece
was divided into a number of fmall principalities, moil
of which feem to have been in fubjedtion to Agamem¬
non king of Mycene. In the reign of Atreus, the fa¬
ther of this Agamemnon, the Heraclidae, or defcen-
dants of Hercules, who had been formerly banHhed by
Euriftheus, were again obliged to leave this country.
Under their champion Hyllus, they claimed the king¬
dom of Mycenae as their right, pretending that it be¬
longed to their great ancellor Hercules, who was un- „ Sge
juftly deprived of it by Euryftheus *. The contro- Henules,
verfy was decided by fingle combat; but Hyllus being
killed, they departed as had been before agreed, under
a promife of not making any attempt to return for 50
years. About the time of the Trojan war alfo, we find
the Lydians, Myfians, and fome other nations of A-
fia Minor, firft mentioned in hiftory. The names of the
Greek ftates mentioned during this uncertain period
are, 1. Sicyon. 2. Leleg. 3. Meffina. 4. Athens.
5. Crete. 6. Argos. 7. Sparta. 8. Pelafgia.
9. Theffaly. 10. Attica. 11. Phocis. 12. Locris.
13. Ozela. 14. Corinth. 15. Eleufina. 16. Elis.
17. Pilus. 18. Arcadia. 19. Egina. 20. Ithaca,
2 1. Cephalone. 22. Phthia. 23. Phocidia. 24. E-
phyra. 25. Eolia. 26. Thebes. 27. Califta. 28. E-
tolia. 29. Doloppa. 30. Oechalia. 31. Mycenae.
32. Euboea. 33. Mynia. 34. Doris. 35. Phera.
36. lola. 37. Trachina. 38. Thrafprocia. 39. Myr-
midonia. 40. Salamine. 41. Scyros. 42. Hype-
ria or Melite. 43. The Vulcanian ifles. 44. Mega-
ra. 45. Epirus. 46. Achaia. 47. The ifles of the
Egean Sea. Concerning many of thefe, we know
nothing befides their names ; the moft remarkable par¬
ticulars concerning the reft may be found under their
refpe&ive articles. I3
About 1048 B. C. the kingdom of Judaea under Of the
king David approached its utmoft extent of power. In J4WE*
its moft flouriftiing condition, however, it never was
remarkable for the largenefs of its territory. In this
refpeft it fcarce exceeded the kingdom of Scotland;
though, according to the accounts given in Scripture,
the magnificence of Solomon was fuperior to that of
the 'moft potent monarchs on earth. This extraordi¬
nary wealth was owing partly .to the fpoils amaffed by
king David in his conquefts over his various enemies,
and partly to the Commerce with the Eaft Indies
which
3652
Civil which Solomon had eftabliftied. Of this commerce he
ILftory, OVTecl his lhare to the friendlhip of Hiram king of
Tyre, a city of Phoenicia, whofe inhabitants were
now the molt famed for commerce and flcill in mari¬
time affairs of any in the whole world.
After the death of Solomon, which happened about
975 B. C. the Jewifh empire began to decline, and
foon after many powerful dates arofe in different parts
of the world. 1'he difpofition of mankind in general
feems now to have taken a new turn, not eafily ac¬
counted for. In former times, whatever wars might
have taken place between neighbouring nations, we
have no account of any extenfive empire in the whole
world, or that any prince undertook to reduce far di-
ftant nations to his fubjeft ion. The empire of Egypt
indeed is faid to have been extended immenfely to the
eaft, even before the days of Sefoftris. Of this coun¬
try, however, our accounts are fo imperfect, that
fcarce any thing can be concluded from them. But
now, as it were all at once, we find almoft every nation
aiming at univerfal monarchy, and refufing to fet any
bounds whatever to its ambition. The firft fhock
given to the Jewifh grandeur was the divifion of the
kingdom into two through the imprudence of Reho-
boam.- This rendered it more eafily a prey to Shifhak
king of Egypt; who five years after came and pillaged
Jerufalem, and all the fortified cities of the kingdom
of Judah. The commerce to the Eaft Indies was now
difeontinued, and confequently the fources of wealth
in a great meafure flopped ; and this, added to the
perpetual wars between the kings of Ifrael and Ju¬
dah, contributed to that remarkable and fpeedy decline
which is now fo eafily to be obferved in the Jewifh af¬
fairs.
Whether this king Shifhak was the Sefoftris of pro¬
fane writers or not, his expedition againft Jerufalem as
recorded in Scripture feems very much to refemble the
defultory conquefts aferibed to Sefoftris. His infan¬
try is faid to have been innumerable, compofed of
different African nations; and his cavalry 60,000, with
j200 chariots; which agrees pretty well with the migh-
ty armament aferibed to Sefoftris, and of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Egypt, n° 2. There
indeed his cavalry are faid to have been only 24,000;
but the number of his chariots are increafed to 27,000;
which laft may not unreafonably be reckoned an exag-
eration, and thefe fupernumerary chariots may have
een only cavalry : but, unlefs we allow Sefoftris to be
the fame with Shifhak, it feems impoffible to fix on
any other king of Egypt that can be fuppofed to
have undertaken this expedition in the days of Solo¬
mon.
Though the Jews obtained a temporary deliverance
from Shifhak, they were quickly after attacked by
new enemies. In 941 B. C. one Zerah, an Ethio¬
pian, invaded Judtea with an army of a million of in-
fantry and 300 chariots ; but was defeated with great
Of the Sy- daughter by Afa king of Judah, who engaged him
lians. with an army of 580,000 men. About this time alfo
we find the Syrians grown a confiderable people, and
bitter enemies both to the kings of Ifrael and Judah;
aiming in fadl at the conqueft of both nations. Their
kingdom commenced in the days of David, under Ha-
' dadezer, whofe capital was Zobah, and who probably
was at laft obliged to become David’s tributary, after
Se£t. I.
having been defeated by him in feveral engagements. Civil
Before the death of David, however, one Rezon, who Ihfiory.
it feems had rebelled againft Hadadezer, having found
means to make himfelf mafler of Damafcus, crt£led
there a new kingdom, which foon became very power¬
ful. The Syrian princes being thus in the neighbour¬
hood of the two rival dates of Ifrael and Judah (whofe
capitals were Samaria and Jerufalem), found it an
eafy matter to weaken them both, by pretending to
affift the one againft the other; but a detail of the
tranfaflions between the Jews and Syrians is only to
be found in the Old Tellament, to which we refer.
In 740 B. C. however, the Syrian empire was totally
deftroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of Affyria ; as was
alfo the kingdom of Samaria by Shalmanefer his fuc-
ceflbr, in 721. The people were either maffacred,
or carried into captivity into Media, Perfia, and the
countries about the Cafpian fea. 15
While the nations of the eaft were thus deftroying the
each other, the foundations of very formidable em- Weftern
pires were laid in the weft, which in procefs of time
were to fwallow up almoft all the eaftern ones. In
Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian colony,
about 869 B. C. according to thofe who aferibe the
higheft antiquity to that city; but, according to others,
it was founded only in 769 or 770 B. C. In Europe
a very confiderable revolution took place about 900
B. C. The Heraclidte, whom we have formerly feen
expelled from Greece by Atreus the father of Agamem¬
non, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts, at laft con¬
quered the whole Peloponnefus. From this time the
Grecian ttates became more civilized, and their hi-
ftory becomes lefs obfeure. The inftitution, or rather
the revival and continuance, of the Olympic games, in
776 B. C. alfo greatly facilitated the writing not only
of their hiftory, but that of other nations; for as each
Olympiad confided of four years, the chronology of
every important event became indubitably fixed by re¬
ferring it to fuch and fuch an Olympiad. In 748 B. C.
or the laft year of the feventh Olympiad, the foun¬
dations of the city of Rome were laid by Romulus;
and, 43 years after, the Spartan ftate was new mo¬
delled, and received from Lycurgus thofe laws, by ob-
ferving of which it afterwards arrived at fuch a pitch
of fplendor. j6
3. With the beginning of the 28th Olympiad, or 568 State of t!ie
B. C. commences the third general period above men- world at the
tioned, when profane hiftory becomes fomewhat more of
dear, and the relations concerning the different na-g-Jera^pe-
tions may be depended upon with fome degree of cer- nod."
tainty. The general ftate of the world was at that
time as follows.—The northern parts of Europe were
either thinly inhabited, or filled with unknown and
barbarous nations, the anceftors of thofe who after¬
wards deftroyed the Roman empire. France and
Spain were inhabited by the Gomerians or Celtes.
Italy was divided into a number of petty ftates ari-
fing partly from Gaulifh, and partly from Grecian
colonies; among which the Romans had already be¬
come formidable. They were governed by their king
Servius Tullius; had increafed their city by the de¬
molition of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inha¬
bitants to Rome ; and had enlarged their dominions
by feveral cities taken from their neighbours. Greece
was alfo divided into a number of fmall ftates, among
which
HISTORY.
Sea. I. H I S 1
Civil which the Athenians and Spartans, being the ir,oft
Hiltory. remarkable, were rivals to each other. The former
“had, about 599 B. C. received an excellent legiflation
from Solon, and were enriching themfelves by navi¬
gation and commerce : the latter were become for¬
midable by the martial inftitutions ofLycurgus; and,
having conquered Mefllna, and added its territory to
their own, were juftly elteemed the moft powerful
people in Greece. The other ftates of moft confide-
ration were Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia.^—
In Afia great revolutions had taken place. The an¬
cient kingdom of Affyria was deftroyed by the Medes
and Babylonians, its capital city Nineveh utterly
ruined, and the greateft part of its inhabitants carried
to Babylon. Nay, the very materials of which it was
built were carried off, to adorn and give ftrength to
that (lately metropolis, which was then undoubtedly
the firft city in the world. Nebuchadnezzar, a wife
and valiant prince, now fat on the throne of Babylon.
By him the kingdom of Judaea was totally overthrown
in 587 B.C. Three years before this, he had taken and
razed the city of Tyre, and overrun all the kingdom
of Egypt. He is even faid by Jofephus to have con¬
quered Spain, and reigned there nine years, after which
he abandoned it to the Carthaginians; but this feems
by no means probable. The extent of the Babylonian
empire is not certainly known : but, from what is re¬
corded of it, we tnay conclude, that it was not at all
inferior even in this refpedl to any that ever exifted;
as the Scripture tells us it was fuperior in wealth to
any of the fucceeding ones. We know that it com¬
prehended Phoenicia, Paleftine, Syria, Babylonia,
Media, and Perfia, and not improbably India alfo ;
and from a cqnfideration of this vaft extent of terri¬
tory, and the riches with which every one of thefe
countries abounded, we may form fome idea of the
wealth and power of this monarch. When we con-
fider alfo, that the whole ftrength of this mighty em¬
pire was employed in beautifying the metropolis, we
cannot look upon the wonders of that city as related
by Herodotus to be at all incredible. See Babtlon ;
and Architecture, n° 13. As to what paffed in
the republic of Carthage about this time, we are quite
in the dark ; there being a chafm in its hiftory for no
I7 lefs than 300 years.
Fourth pe- 4. The fourth general period of hiftory, namely, from
riod. Hi- the end of the fabulous times to the conqueft of Ba-
flory of the jjyJojj Cyrus, is very fhort, including no more than
em ^re”1311 31 T631'8, This fudden revolution was occafioned by
the mifconduct of Evil-merodach Nebuchadnezzar’s
fon, even in his father’s life-time. For having, in a
great hunting match on occafion of his marriage, en¬
tered the country of the Medes, and fome of his
troops coming up at the fame time to relieve the gar-
rifons in thofe places, he joined them to thofe already
with him, and without the lead provocation began to
plunder and lay waftethe neighbouring country. This
produced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended
over all Media and Perfia. The Medes, headed by
Aftyages and his fon Cyaxares, drove back Evil-mero¬
dach and his party with great (laughter; nor doth it
appear that they were afterwards reduced even by
Nebuchadnezzar himfelf. The new empire continued
daily to gather ftreng.th j and at laft Cyrus, Atlyagcs’s
Vql. V.
1 o R Y. 3653
grandfon, a prince of great prudence and valour, be-
ing made generalifiimo of the Median and Perfian   ‘ or>r'
forces, took Babylon itfelf, in the year 538 B. C. as
related under the article Babylon. ,3
During this period the Romans increafed in power of the
under the wife adminiftration of their king Servius Romans,
Tullius, who, though a pacific prince, rendered his®re^*,s.
people more formidable by a peace of 20 years than and per.’
his predeceffors had done by all their victories. The fians.
Greeks, even at this early period, began to interfere
with the Perfians, on account of the lonians or Gre¬
cian colonies in Afia Minor. Thefe had been fub-
dued by Croefus king of Lydia about the year 562,
the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s death. Whether the
Lydians had befcn fubduedbythe BabylonHh monarch
or not, is not now to be afcertained ; though it is
very probable that they were either in fubjtdlion to
him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his
death nothing confiderable was undertaken by them.
It is indeed probable, that during the infanity of Nebu-
chadnezar, fpoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his king¬
dom would fall into confufion ; and many of thofe prin¬
ces whom he formerly retained in fubjedlion would fet up
for themfelves. Certain it is, however, that if the Baby¬
lonians did not regard Crcefus as their fubjed, they
looked upon him to be a very faithful ally; infomuch
that they celebrated an annual feaft in commemoration
of a vidory obtained by him over the Scythians. Af¬
ter the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Croefus fubdued
many nations in Afia Minor, and among the reft
the lonians, as already related. They were, however,
greatly attached to his government; for though they
paid him tribute, and were obliged to furnifli him with
fome forces in time of war, they were yet free from
all kind of oppreffibn. When Cyrus therefore was
proceeding in his conquefts of different parts of the
Babylonilh empire, before he proceeded to attack the
capital, the lonians refufed to fubmit to him, though
he offered them very advantageous terms. But foon
after,, Croefus himfelf being defeated and taken pri-
foner, the lonians fent ambaffadors to Cyrus, offering
to fubmit on the terms which had formerly been pro-
pofed. Thefe terms Were now refufed ; and the lo¬
nians, being determined to refill, applied to the Spar¬
tans for aid. Though the Spartans at that time
could not be prevailed upon to give their countrymen
any afliftance, they fent ambaffadors to Cyrus with a
threatening meffage ; to which he returned a contemp¬
tuous anfwer, and then forced the lonians to fubmit
at difcretion, five years before the taking of Babylon.
Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and
Perlians; and thus we fee, that in the two firft great
monarchies the feeds of their deftrudion were fown
even before the monarchies themfelves were eftablifhed.
For while Nebuchadnezzar was raifing the Babylonilh
empirb to its utmoft height, his fon was deftroying
what his father built up ; and at the very, time when
Cyrus was eftablifhing the Perfian monarchy, by his
ill-timed feverity to the Greeks he made that warlike
people h,is enemies, whom his fiiccbffors were by .no
means able to refill, and who would probably have
overcome,Cyrus himfelf, had they united in order to
a tack him. The tranfadions of Africa during this,
period are almoft entirely unknown ; though we can-
20 X not
3^54
HISTORY.
Sea. r.
Civil not doubt that the Carthaginians enriched themfelves
Hiftory. raeans 0f commerce, which enabled them af-
I9 terwards to attain fuch a confiderable fliare of power.
Fifth gene- 5- Cyrus having now become mafter of all the eaft,
neral pe- the Afiatic affairs continued for fome time in a ftate
noth Hifto- 0f tranquillity. The Jews obtained leave to return to
Jews Ha- t^ie'r own coUnt'T> rebuild their temple, and again
byldnian? eftabliih their worlhip, of all which an account is given
Egyptian., in the facred writings, though undoubtedly they mull
&c< have been in a ftate of dependance on the Perfians
from that time forward. Cambyfes the focceflbr of Cy¬
rus added Egypt to his empite, which had either not
fubmitted to Cyrus, or revolted foon after his death.
He intended alfo to have fubdued the Carthaginians;
but as the Phoenicians refufed to fupply him with
fhips to fight againft their own countrymen, he was
obliged to lay this defign afide.
In 517 B. C. the Babylonians finding themfelves
grievoufly oppreffed by their Perfian mafters, refolved
to (hake off the yoke, and fet up for themfelves. For
this purpofe, they took care to ftore their city with all
manner of provifions; and when Darius Hy ftafpes, then
king of Perfia, advanced againft them, they took the
moft barbarous method that can be imagined of pre¬
venting an unneceffary confumption of thofe provi¬
fions, which they had fo carefully amafied. Having
colledled all the women, old men, and children, into
one place, they ftrangled them without diftinftion,
whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or fillers;
every one being allowed to fave only the wife he liked
beft, and a maid fervant to do the work of the houfe.
This cruel policy did not avail them : their city was
taken by treachery (for it was impofiible to take it
by force); after which the king caufed the walls of
it to be beat down from 200 to 50 cubits height,
that their ftrength might no longer give encourage¬
ment to the inhabitants to revolt. Darius then turned
his arms againft the Scythians; but finding that ex¬
pedition turn out both tedious and unprofitable, he
directed his courfe eaftward, and reduced all the coun¬
try as far as the river Indus. In the mean time,
the lonians revolted; and being affifted by the
Greeks, a war commenced between the two na¬
tions, which was not thoroughly extinguilhed but by
the deftruftion of the Perfian empire in 330 B. C.
The lonians, however, were for this time obliged to
fubmit, after a war of fix years ; and were treated with
great feverity by the Perfians. The conqueft of Greece
itfelf was then projeded: but the expeditions for that
purpofe ended moft unfortunately for the Perfians, and
encouraged the Greeks to make reprifals on them, in
which they fucceeded according to their utmoft wilhes;
and had it only been poffible for them to have agreed
among themfelves, the downfal of the Perfian empire
would have happened much fooner than it did. See
Athens, Sparta, Macedon, and Persta.
In 459 B. C. the Egyptians made an attempt to
recover their liberty, but were reduced after a war of
fix years. In 413 B. C. they revolted a fecond time:
and being affifted by the Sidonians, drew upon the
latter that terrible deftru&ion foretold by the pro¬
phets ; while they themfelves were fo thoroughly
bumbled, that they never after made any attempt to
recover their liberty.
The year 403 B. C. proved remarkable for the re- Civil
volt of Cyrus againft his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon ;
in which, through his own raftinefs, he mifcarried, and
loft his life at the battle of Cunaxa in the province of 10
Babylon. Ten thoufand Greek mercenaries, who ferved Xenophon’s
in his army, made their way back into Greece, tho5 retreat,
furrounded on all fides by the enemy, and in the heart
of a hoftile country. In this retreat they were com¬
manded by Xenophon, who has received the higheft
praifes on account of his conduA and military fitill in
bringing it to a happy conclufion. Two years after,
the invafions of Agefilaus king of Sparta threatened
the Perfian empire with total deftru&ion; from which
however it was relieved by his being recalled in order
to defend his own country againft the other Grecian «»-.
ftates; and after this the Perfian affairs continued in a
more profperous way till the time of Alexander. 21
During all this time, the volatile and giddy temper IhlWy of
of the Greeks, together with their enthufiaftic defire 1 e Gree s'
of romantic exploits, were preparing fetters for them¬
felves, which indeed feemed to be abfolutely neceffary
to prevent them from deftroying one another. A zeal
for liberty was what they all pretended ; but on every
occafion it appeared that this love of liberty was only a
defire of dominion. No ftate in Greece could bear to
fee another equal to itfelf ; and hence their perpetual
contefts for pre-eminence, which could not but weaken
the whole body, and render them an eafy prey to an
ambitious and politic prince, who was capable of ta¬
king advantage of thofe divifions. Being all equally
impatient of reftraint they never could bear to fubmit
to any regular government ; and hence their determi¬
nations were nothing but the decifions of a mere mob,
of which they had afterwards almoft conftantly reafon
to repent. Hence alfo their bafe treatment of thofe
eminent men whom they ought moft to have honoured,
as Miltiades, Ariftides, Themiftoeles, Alcibiades, So¬
crates, Phocion, &c. The various tranfaflions be¬
tween the Grecian ftates, though they make a very
confiderable figure in particular hiftory, make none at
all in a general fketch of the hiftory of the world. We
fhall therefore only obferve, that in 404 B. C. the A-
thenian power was in a manner totally broken by the
taking of their city by the Spartans. In 370, that of
the Spartans received a fevere check from the Thebans
at the battle of Leuftra ; and, eight years after, was
{till further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epa-
minondas, the great enemy of the Spartans, was kill¬
ed ; but this only proved a more fpeedy means of fub-
jugating all the ftates to a foreign, and at that time
defpicable, power. The Macedonians, a barbarous na¬
tion, lying to the north of the ftates of Greece, were,
two years after the death of Epaminondas reduced to
the loweft ebb by the Illyrians, another nation of bar¬
barians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon
being killed in an engagement, Philip, his brother,
departed from Thebes, where he had ftudied the art of
war under Epaminondas, in order to take poffeffion of
his kingdom. Being a man of great prudence and po¬
licy, he quickly fettled his own affairs ; vanquifhed the
Illyrians; and, being no ftranger to the weakened fitua-
tion of Greece, began almoft immediately to meditate
the conqueft of it. The particulars of this enterprize
are related under the article Macedon : here it is fuf-
ficient
Sea. I. H I S r
Civil ficient to take notice, that hy firft attacking thofe he
Hiftory- was fure he could overcome, by corrupting thofe whom
he thought it dangerous to attack, by fometimes pre¬
tending to afiift one (late and fometimes another, and
by impofing upon all as belt ferved his turn, he at
laft put it out of the power of the Greeks to make
any reiiftance, at leaft fuch as could keep him from
gaining his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himfelf
to be ekfled general of the Amphi&yons, or council
of the Grecian Hates, under pretence of fettling fome
troubles at that time in Greece; but having once ob¬
tained liberty to enter that country with an army, he
quickly convinced the States that they muft all fubmit
to his will. He was oppofed by the Athenians and
Thebans; but the inteltine wars of Greece had cutoff
all her great men, and no general was now to be found
capable of oppofing Philip with fuccefs.
The king of Macedon, being now mafter of all
Greece, projedted the conqueft of Afia. To this he
was encouraged by the ill fuccefs which had attended
the Perfians in their expeditions againft Greece, the
fucceffes of the Greeks in their invafions, and the re¬
treat of the ten thoufand under Xenophon. All thefe
events fhewed the weaknefs of the Perfians, their vaft
inferiority to the Greeks in military fkill, and how ea-
fily their empire might be overthrown by a proper u-
12 nion among the Hates.
Conqueft of Philip was preparing to enter upon his grand defign,
Alexander w^cn was murdered by fome affafiins. His fon A-
lexander was pofleffed of every quality neceffary for
the execution of fo great a plan ; and his impetuofity
of temper made him execute it with a rapidity un¬
heard of either before or fince. It muft be confefied,
indeed, that the Perfian empire was now ripe for de-
ftrudtion, and could not in all probability have with-
ftood an enemy much lefs powerful than Alexander*
The Afiatics have in all ages been much inferior to the
European nations in valour and military fkill. They
were now funk in luxury and effeminacy ; and what
was worfe, they feem at this period to have been feized
with that infatuation and diftra&ion of counfels which
fcarce ever fails to be a forerunner of the deftruftion
of any nation. The Perfian minifters perfuaded their
fovereign to rejeft the prudent advice that was given
him, of diflreffing Alexander by laying wafte the coun¬
try, and thus forcing him to return for want of provi-
fions. Nay, they even prevented him from engaging the
enemy in the moft proper manner, by dividing his for¬
ces; and perfuaded him to put Charidemus the Athe¬
nian to death, who had promifed, with 100,000 men, of
whom one third were mercenaries, to drive the Greeks
out of Afia. In fhort, Alexander met with only two
checks in his Perfian expedition. The one was from
the city of Tyre, which for feven months refifted his
ntmoft efforts; the other was from Memnon the Rho¬
dian, who had undertaken to invade Macedonia. The
firft of thefe obftacles Alexander at laft got over, and
treated the governor and inhabitants with the utmoft
cruelty. The other was fcarce felt; for Memnon died
after reducing fome of the Grecian iflands, and Da¬
rius had no other general capable of conducing the
undertaking. The power of the Perfian empire was
totally broke by the viftory gained over Darius at Af-
bela in 331 B. C. and next year a total end was put to
■o R Y. 3655
it by the murder of the king by Beffus one of his fub- Civil
je&s. Jiiftory.
The ambition of Alexander was not to be fatisfied *
with the poffeflion of the kingdom of Ptrfia, or in- His *o3n_
deed of any other on earth. Nothing lefs then the to- 0f 0.
tal fubje&ion of the world itfelf feemed fufficient to ther r.a-
him ; and therefore he was now prompted to invade tl: ns*
every country of which he could only learn the name,
whether it had belonged to the Perfians or not. In
confequence of this difpofition, he invaded and reduced
Hyrcania, Ba£tria, Sogdia, and all that vaft tradl of
country now called Bukbaria. At laft, having entered
India, he reduced all the nations to the river Hypha-
fis, one of the branches of the Indus. But when he
would have proceeded farther, and extended his con-
quefts quite to the eaftern extremities of Afia, his
troops pofitively refufed to follow him farther, and he
was conftrained to return. In 323, this mighty con¬
queror died of a fever ; without having time to fettle
the affairs of his vaft extended empire, or even to name
his fucceflbr. J4
While the Grecian empire thus fuddenly fprung up Hiftory of
in the eaft, the rival ftatesof Rome andGarthage were the Ro- '
making confiderable advances in the weft. The Ro- nwns*
mans were eftablifhing their empire on the moft folid
foundations ; to which their particular fituation natu¬
rally contributed. Being originally little better than a
parcel of lawlefs banditti, they were defpifed and hated
by the neighbouring ftates. This foon produced wars;
in which, at firft from accidental circumftances, and af¬
terwards from their fuperior valour and conduft, the
Romans proved almoft conftantly vi&orious. Thejea-
loufies which prevailed among the Italian ftates, and
their ignorance of their true intereft, prevented them,
from combining againft that afpiring nation, and crufh-
ing it in its infancy, which they might eafily have
done ; while in the mean time the Romans, being kept
in a ftate of continual warfare, became at laft fuch ex¬
pert foldiers, that no other ftate on earth could refift
them. During the time of their kings they had made
a very confiderable figure among the Italian nations ;
but after their expulfion, and the commencement of
the republic, their conquefts became much more rapid
and extenfive. In 501 B. C. they fubdued the Sa¬
bines ; eight years after, the Latins ; and in 399 the
city of Veii, the ftrongeft in Italy excepting Rome it¬
felf, was taken after a liege of ten years. But in the
midft of their fucceffes a fudden irruption of the Gauls
had almoft put an end to their power and nation at
once. The city was burnt to the ground in 383 B.C.
and the capitol on the point of being furprized, when
the Gauls, who were climbing up the walls in the night,
were accidentally difcovered and repulfed #. In a Ihort * See 2?e?j:e.
time Rome was rebuilt with much greater fplendor
than before, but now a general revolt and combina¬
tion of the nations formerly fubdued took place. The
Romans, however, ftill got the better of their ene¬
mies ; but, even at the time of the celebrated Camil-
lus’s death, which happened about 352 B. C. their
territories fcarce extended fix or feven leagues from
the capital. The republic from the beginning was
agitated by thofe diflenfions which at laft proved its
ruin. The people had been divided by Romulus into
two claffes, namely Patricians and Plebeians, anfwer-
20 X 2 ing
3656
Civil
Hiftory.
»S
Of the Car
'thaginijns,
and of Si¬
cily.
HISTORY.
Sed. I.
ing to our nobility and commonalty. Between thefe
_ two bodies were perpetual jealoufies and contentions;
which retarded the progrefs of the Roman conquefts,
and revived the hopes of the nations they had conquer¬
ed. The tribunes of the people were perpetually op-
pofing the confuls and military tribunes. The fenate
had often recourfe to a di&ator endowed with ahfolute
power; and then the valour and experience of the Ro¬
man troops made them vi&orious: but the return of
domeftic feditions gave the fubjugated nations an
opportunity of fliaking off the yoke. Thus had
the Romans continued for near 400 years, running
the fame round of wars with the fame enemies, and
reaping very little advantage from their conquefts, till
at laft matters were compounded by choofing one of the
confuls from among the plebeians; and from this time
chiefly we may date the profperity of Rome, fo that
by the time that Alexander the Great died they were
held in confiderable eftimation among foreign na¬
tions.
The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to
enrich themfelves by commerce ; but, being lefs con-
verfant in military affairs, were by no means equal to
the Romans in power, though they excelled them in
wealth. A new date, however, makes its appearance
during this period; which may be faid to have taught
the Carthaginians the art of war, and by bringing
them into the neighbourhood of the Romans proved
the firft fource of contention between thefe two power¬
ful nations. This was the ifland of Sicily. At what
time people were firft fettled on it, is not now to
be afcertained. The firft inhabitants we read of were
called Sicani, Siculi, Lcejirigones, &c. but of thefe
we know little or nothing. In the fecond year of the
feventeenth Olympiad, or 710 B. C. fome Greek co¬
lonies are faid to have arrived, on the ifland, and in a
fhort time founded feveral cities, of which Syracufe
was the chief. The Syracufans at laft fubdued the
original inhabitants ; though it doth not appear that
the latter were ever well affe&ed to their government,
and therefore were on all occafions ready to revolt.
The firft confiderable prince, or (as he is called by the
Greeks) tyrant of Syracufe, was Gelon, who obtained
the fovereignty about the year 483 B. C. At what
time the Carthaginians firft carried their arms into Si¬
cily, is not certainly known ; only we are affured, that
they poffefled fome part of the ifland as early as yoy
B. C. For in the time of the firft confuls, the Ro¬
mans and Carthaginians entered into a treaty chiefly in
regard to matters of navigation and commerce ; by
which it was ftipulated, that the Romans who fhould
touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily which belong¬
ed to Carthage, (hould be received there in the fame
manner as the Carthaginians themfelves. Whence it
appears, that the dominion of Carthage already extend¬
ed over Sardinia and part of Sicily : but in 28 years
after, they had been totally driven out by Gelon ;
■which probably was the firft exploit performed by him.
This appears from his fpeech to the Athenian and
Spartan ambafladors who defired his afliftance againft
the forces of Xerxes king of Perfia. The Carthagi¬
nians made many attempts to regain their pofleffions in
this ifland, which occafioned long and bloody wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, as related under the ar¬
ticles Carthage and Sicily. This ifland alfo proved
the fcene of much flaughter and bloodlhed in the wars Civil
of the Greeks with one another *. Before the year
323 B. C. however, the Carthaginians had made them-*See
felves matters of a very confiderable part of the ifland;anti sParta'
from whence all the power of the Greeks could not
diflodge them. It is proper alfo to obferve, that af¬
ter the deftru&ion of Tyre by Alexander the Great,
almoft all the commerce in the weftern part of the
world fell to the fliare of the Carthaginians. Whether
they had at this time made any fettlements in Spain, is
not known. It is certain, that they7 traded to that
country for the fake of the filver, in which it was very
rich; as they probably alfo did to Britain, for the tin
with which it abounded. *6
6. The beginning of the fixth period prefents us with
a ftate of the world entirely different from the fore- (]ory of t^e
going. We now behold all the eaftern part of theMacedo-
world, from the confines of Italy to the ri^er Indus,nian em-
and beyond it, newly united into one vaft empire, andpuc’
at the fame time ready to fall to pieces for want of a
proper head ; the weftern world filled with fierce and
favage nations, whom the rival republics of Carthage
and Rome were preparing to enflave as fall as they
could. The firft remarkable events took place in the
Macedonian empire.—Alexander, as already obferved,
had not diftindfly named any fucceffor; but he had
left behind him a vi&orious, and, we may fay, invin¬
cible army, commanded by moft expert officers, all of
them ambitious of fupreme authority. It is not to be
fuppofed that peace could long be preferved in fuch a
fituation. For a number of years, indeed, nothing was
to be feen or heard of but the moft horrid flaughters,
and wickednefs of every kind; until at laft the mother,
wives, cbilden, brothers, and even fifters, of Alexander
were cut off; not one of the family of that great con¬
queror being left alive. When matters were a little
fettled, four new empires, each of them of no fmall
extent, had arifen out of the empire of Alexander.
Caffander, the fon of Antipater, had Macedonia, and
all Greece ; Antigonus, Afia-Minor ; Seleucus had
Babylon, and the eaftern provinces; and Ptolemy
Lagus, Egypt, and the weftern ones. One of thefe
empires, however, quickly fell ; Antigonus being
defeated and killed by Seleucus and Ryfimachus at
the battle of Ipfus, in 301 B C. The greateft part of
his dominions then fell to Seleucus: but feveral pro¬
vinces took the opportunity of thefe confufions to
ftiake off the Macedonian yoke altogether; and thus
were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Per-
gamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia. The two moft
powerful and permanent empires, however, were
thofe of Syria founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by
Ptolemy Lagus. The kings of Macedon, though
they did not preferve the fame authority over the
Grecian ftates that Alexander, Antipater, and Caffan¬
der, had done, yet effedtuaily prevented them from
thofe outrages upon one another, for which they had
formerly been fo remarkable. Indeed, it is fomewhat
difficult to determine, whether their condition was
better or worfe than before they were conquered by
Philip; fince, though they were now prevented from
deftroying one another, they were moft grievoufly op-
preffed by the Macedonian tyrants.
While the eaftern parts of the world were thus de¬
luged with blood, and the fucceffors of Alexander
v/ere
Sea. I.
Civil were pulling to pieces the empire which he had efta-
; Hlttory- bliihed; the Romans and Carthaginians proceeded in
their attempts to enflave the nations of the welt. The
Romans, ever engaged in war, conquered one city and
mans'and" ^ate a^ter anothcr, till, about the year 253 B C. they
Carthagi- had made themfelves mailers of almoft. the whole of
niaus. Italy. During all this time they had met only with
a lingle check in their conquefts ; and that was the
invafion of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. That ambitious
and fickle prince had projefted the conquelt of Italy,
which he fancied would be an eafy matter. Accord-
ingly, in 271 B. C. he entered that country, and
maintained a war with the Romans for fix years; till
at laft, being utterly defeated by Curius Dentatus, he
was obliged to return.
The Romans had no fooner made themfelves mailers
of Italy, than they wanted only 3 pretence to carry
their arms out of it; and this pretence was foon found
out. Being invited into Sicily to afiill the Mamer-
tines againit Hiero king of Syracufe and the Car¬
thaginians, they immediately commenced a war with
the latter, which continued with the utmoft fury for
23 years. The war ended greatly to the difadvantage
of the Carthaginians, chiefly owing to the bad con¬
duct of their generals; none of whom, Hamilcar
Barcas alone excepted, feem to have been pof-
felfed of any degree of military fleill ; and the (late
had fullered too many misfortunes before he en¬
tered upon the command, for him or any other
to retrieve it at that time. The confequence of
this war was the entire lofs of Sicily to the Car¬
thaginians; and foon after, the Romans feized on the
illand of Sardinia.
Hamilcar perceiving that there was now no alter¬
native, but that in a Ihort time either Carthage mull
conquer Rome, or Rome would conquer Carthage,
bethought himfelf of a method by which his country
might become equal to that haughty republic. This
was by reducing all Spain, in which the Carthaginians
had already confiderable pofieflions, and from the *
mines of which they drew great advantages. He
had, therefore, no fooner finilhed the war with the
mercenaries, which fucceeded that with the Romans,
than he fet about the conqueft of Spain. This, how¬
ever, he did not live to accomplilh, though he made
great progrefs in it. His fon Afdrubal continued the
war with fuccefs; till at laft, the Romans, jealous of
his progrefs, perfuaded him to enter into a treaty with
them, by which he engaged himfelf to make the river
Iberus the boundary of his conquefls. This treaty
probably was never ratified by the fenate of Carthage;
nor, though it had, would it have been regarded by
Hannibal, who fucceeded Afdrubal in the command,
and had fworn perpetual enmity with the Romans.
The tranfadlions of the fecond Punic war are 'perhaps
the moll remarkable which the hiftory of the world
can afford. Certain it is, that nothing can (hew more
clearly the flight foundations upon which the greateft
empires are built. We now fee the Romans, the na¬
tion mod remarkable for their military (kill in the
whole world, and who, for more than 500 years, had
been conftantly victorious, unable to refill the efforts
of one fingle man. At the fame time we fee this man,
though evidently the firft general in the world, loft
folely for want of a flight fupport. In former times.
3657
the republic of Carthage fupplied her generals in Si- Civil
cily with hundreds of thoufands, though their enter- , Hlft°ry«
prizes were almoft conftantly unfuccefsful; but now
Hannibal, the conqueror of Italy, was obliged to
abandon his defign, merely for want of 20 or 30,000
men. That degeneracy and infatuation, which never
fails to overwhelm a falling nation, or rather which is
the caufe of its fall, had now infedled the counfels of
Carthage, and the fupplies were denied. Neither was
Carthage the only infatuated nation at this time.
Hannibal, vvhofe prudence never forfook him either
in profperity or adverfity, in the height of his good
fortune had concluded an alliance with Philip king of
Macedon. Had that prince fent an army to the af-
fiftance of the Carthaginians in Italy immediately
after the battle of Cannas, there can be no doubt but
the Romans would have been forced to accept of that
peace which they fo haughtily refufed f; and indeed, f gee Car-
this offer of peate in the midft of fo much fuccefs, is ibage, n°
an inftance of moderation which perhaps does more ,J,S*
honour to the Carthaginian general, than all the mili¬
tary exploits he performed. Philip, however, could
not be roufed from his jqd'qjence, nor fee that his own
ruin was conne&ed withjtbjit of Carthage. The Ro¬
mans had now made themfelves mailers of Sicily: after
which they recalled Marcellus, with his vidlorious
army, to be employed againft Hannibal ; and the
confequence at laft was, that the Carthaginian armies,
unfupported in Italy, could not conquer it, but were
recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded.
The fouthern nations feem to have been as blind to
their own intereft as the northern ones. They ought
to have feen, that it was neceffary for them to preferve
Carthage from being deftroyed; but, inllead of this,
Mafiniffa king of Numidia allied with the Romans,
and by his means Hannibal was overcome at the
battle of Zama, * which finilhed the fecond Punic war, * stezama-
in 188 B C.
The event of the fecond Punic war determined the 0f ^
fate of almoft all the other nations in the world. All an(j Syria,
this time, indeed, the empires of Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, had been promoting their own ruin by
mutual wars and inteftine divifions. The Syrian
empire was now governed by Antiochus the Great,
who feems to have had little right to fuch a title.
His empire, though diminilhed by the defection of
the Parthians, was ftill very powerful; and to him
Hannibal applied, after he was obliged to leave
his country, as related under Carthage, n° 152.
Antiochus, however, had not fufficient judgment
to fee the neceffity of following that great man’s
advice; nor would the Carthaginians be prevailed
upon to contribute their afliftance againft the nation
which was foon to deftroy them without any provo¬
cation. The pretence for war on the part of the Ro¬
mans was, that Antiochus would not declare his
Greek fubjefts in Alia to be free and independent
ftates; a requifition which neither the Romans nor
any other nation had a right to make. The event of
all was, that Antiochus was every-where defeated,
and forced to conclude a peace upon very difadvanta-
geous terms.
In Europe, matters went on in the fame way; theofGreece
ftates of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Mace¬
donians, entered into a refolution of recovering their
liberties.
HISTORY.
3658 HISTORY. Sed. I.
Civil liberties. For this purpofe was framed the Achaean
Hittory. League f; but, as they could not agree among them-
fSeeCnwe felves, they at lad came to the imprudent determination
of calling in the Romans, to defend them againft Philip
king of Macedon. This produced a war, in which
the Romans wrere victorious. The Macedonians,
however, were ftill formidable; and, as the intention
of the Romans to enflave the whole world could no
longer be doubted, Perfeus, the fucceffor of Philip, re¬
newed the war. Through his own cowardice he loft
a decifive engagement, and with it his kingdom, which
3(J fubmitted to the Romans in 167 B. C.
Deftruaion Macedon being thus conquered, the next ftep was
of Carthage utterly to exterminate the Carthaginians; whofe re-
and Co- public, notwithftanding the many difafters that had
rlnth. befallen it, was ftilt formidable. It is true, the Car¬
thaginians were giving no offence ; nay, they even
made the moft abje£l fubmiffions to the republic of
Rome: but all was not fufficient. War was declared
a third time againft that unfortunate ftate ; there was
now no Hannibal to command their armies, and the
city was utterly deftroyed 146 B. C. The fame year
the Romans put an end tt^fhe liberties they had pre¬
tended to grant the cities'WfGreece, by the entire de-
3J ftruftion of Corinth. See that article.
Hiftory of After the death of Antiochus the Great, the af-
Egypt. Sy- fairs of Syria and Egypt went on from bad to worfe.
ria, and The degenerate princes which filled the thrones of
Judaea. tfoofe empires, regarding only their own pleafures,
either fpent their time in oppreffing their fub-
jefts, or in attempting to deprive each other of their
dominions, by which means they became a more eafy
prey to the Romans. So far indeed were they from
taking any means to fecure themfelves againft the o-
vergrown power of that republic, that the kings both
of Syria and Egypt fometimes applied to the Romans
as prote&ors. Their downfal, however, did not hap¬
pen within the period of which we now treat.—The
only other tranfaftion which makes any confiderable
figure in the Syrian empire, is the opprefiion of the
Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return
from the Babylonifh captivity, they continued in fub-
jeftion to the Perfians till the time of Alexander.
From that time they were fubjeft to the kings of
Egypt or Syria, as the fortune of either happened to
prevail. Egypt being reduced to a low ebb by Anti¬
ochus Epiphanes, the Jews fell under his dominion,
and being feverely treated by him, imprudently (hew¬
ed fome figns of joy on a report of his death. This
brought him againft them with a powerful army ; and
in 170 B. C. he took Jerufalem by ftorm, commit¬
ting the moft horrid cruelties on the inhabitants, in-
fomuch that they were obliged to hide themfelves in
caverns and in holes of rocks to avoid his fury. Their
religion was totally aboliftied, their temple profaned,
and an image of Jupiter Olympius fet up on the al¬
tar of burnt-offerings; which profanation is thought
to be the abomination of deflation mentioned by the
prophet Daniel. This revolution, however, was of
no long continuance. In 167 B. C. Mattathias re-
ftored the true worfhip in moft of the cities of Judea ;
and, in 165, the temple was purified, and the Worfhip
there reftored by Judas Maccabteus. This was follow¬
ed by a long feries of wars between the Syrians and
Jews, in which the latter were almoft always viftori-
ous ; and before thefe wars Were finifhed, the deftruc- Civil
tion of Carthage happened, which puts an end to the Hiftory. :
fixth general period formerly mentioned. 3l
7. The beginning of the feventh period prefents us Seventh pe-
with a view of the ruins of the Greek empire in the nod. Ge- j
declining dates of Syria and Egypt; both of them ^ate ’
much circumfcribed in bounds. The empire of Syria worjji ■
at firft comprehended all Afia to the river Indus, and
beyond it ; but in 312 B. C. moft of the Indian pro¬
vinces were by Seleucus ceded to one Sandrocottus, or
jdndroeottus, a native, who in return gave him 500
elephants. Of the empire of Sandrocottus we know
nothing farther than that he fubdued all the countries
between the Indus and the Ganges; fo that from this
time we may reckon the greateft part of India inde¬
pendent on the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250 -
B. C. however, the empire fuftained a much greater
lofs by the revolt of the Parthians and Baftrians from
Antiochus Theus. The former could not be fubdued ;
and as they held in fubjeftion to them the vaft tradl
which now goes under the name of Perjia, we muft
look upon their defeftion as an irreparable lofs. Whe¬
ther any part of their country was afterwards recover¬
ed by the kings of Egypt or Syria, is not very certain ;
nor is it of much confequence, fince we are affured
that in the beginning of the feventh period, i. e. 146
B. C. the Greek empires of Syria and Egypt were
reduced by the lofs of India, Perfia, Armenia, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamus, &c. The
general ftate of the world in 146 B. C. therefore was
as follows. In Afia were the empires of India, Par-
thia, and Syria, with the leffer ftates of Armenia,
Pontus, &c. above-mentioned ; to which we muft add
that of Arabia, which, during the fixth period, had
grown into fome confequence, and had maintained its
independency from the days of Iftimael the fon of
Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt
and Ethiopia ; the Carthaginian territories, now fub-
jeft to the Romans ; and the kingdoms of Numidia,
Mauritania, and Getulia, ready to be fwallowed up
by the fame ambitious and infatiable power, now that
Carthage was deftroyed, which ferved as a banier a-
gainft it. To the fouth lay fome unknown and bar¬
barous nations, fecure by reafon of their fituation and
infignificance, rather than their ftrength, or diftance
from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppofe the
progrefs of the Roman arms, except the Gauls, Ger¬
mans, and fome Spanifti nations. Thefe were brave
indeed ; but, through want of military (kill, incapable
of contending with fuch mafters in the art of war as
the Romans then were. 33
The Spaniards had indeed been fubdued by Scipio Conquefts
Africanus in the time of the fecond Punic war: but, of the Ro"
in 155 B. C. they revolted; and, under the condudl inans*
of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a
long time againft all the armies the Romans could fend
into Spain. Kim the Conful Coepio caufed to be
murdered about 138 B. C. becaufe he found it impof-
fibie to reduce him by force. The city of Numantia
defied the whole Roman power for fix years longer;
till at laft, by dint of treachery, numbers, and perfe-
verance, it was not taken, but the inhabitants,
reduced to extremity by famine, fet fire to their
houfes, and perifhed in the flames, or killed one ano¬
ther, fo that not one remained to grace the triumph of
Sed.I. H I S r
Civil the conqueror ; and this for the prefent quieted the
Hiftory. re^ 0f tjie Spaniards.—About the fame time Attains,
king of Pergamus, left by will the Roman people heirs
to all his goods ; upon which they immediately feized
on his kingdom as part of thofe goods, and reduced it
to a Roman province, under the name of v4fia Proper.
Thus they continued to enlarge their dominions on
every fide, without the leaft regard to juftice, to the
means they employed, or to the miferies they brought
upon the conquered people. In 122 B. C. the Bale¬
aric iilands, now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica,
were fubdued, and the inhabitants exterminated; and,
foon after, feveral of the nations beyond the Alps
were obliged to fubmit.
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha foon gave this
ambitious republic an opportunity of conquering the
kingdoms of Numidia and Mauritania : and indeed
this is almoft the only war in which we find the Ro¬
mans engaged, where their pretenfions had the leaft
colour of juftice ; though in no cafe whatever could a
nation fhew more degeneracy than the Romans did on
this oecafion. The particular^ of this war are re¬
lated under the articles Numidia and Rome. The
event of it was the total reduction of the former about
the year 105 B. C. but Mauritania and Getulia pre-
ferved their liberty for fome time longer.
In the eaft, theempire of Syria continued daily to de¬
cline ; by which means the Jews not only bad an op¬
portunity of recovering their liberty, but even of be¬
coming as powerful, or at leaft of extending their do¬
minions as far, as in the days of David and Solomon.
This declining empire was ftill farther reduced by the
civil diffenfions between the two brothers Antiochus
Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; during which the
cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, declared
themfelves independent, and in other cities tyrants
ftarted up who refufed allegiance to any foreign power.
This happened about ico B. C. ; and 17 years after,
the whole was reduced by Tigranes, king of Arme¬
nia. On his defeat by the Romans, the latter redu¬
ced Syria to a province of their empire.. The king¬
dom of Armenia itfelf, with thofe of Pontus, Cappa¬
docia, and Bithynia, foon fhared the fame fate; Pon¬
tus, the moft powerful of them all, being fubdued a-
bout 64 B. C.—The kingdom of Judea alfo was re¬
duced under the fame power much about this time.
This ftate owed the lofs of its liberty to the fame
caufe that had ruined feveral others, namely, calling
in the Romans as arbitrators between two contending
parties. The two Ions of Alexander Jannasus (Hyr-
canus and Ariftobultrs) contended for the kingdom.
Ariftobulus, being defeated by the party of Hyrca-
nus, applied to the Romans. Pompey the Great,
who a£Ied as ultimate judge in this affair, decided it
againft Ariftobulus, but at the fame time deprived
Hyrcanus of all power as a king; not allowing him
even to afiume the regal title, or to extend his terri¬
tory beyond the ancient borders of Judasa. To fuch
a length did Pompey carry this laft article, that he
obliged him to give up all thofe cities in Coelofyria
and Phoenicia which had been gained by his predecef-
fors, and added them to the newly acquired Roman
province of Syria.
Thus the Romans became mafters of all the eaftern
parts of the world, from the Mediterranean fea to the
CORY. 3659
borders of Partliia. In the weft, however, the Gauls 9'vl1
were ftill at liberty, and the Spaniih nations bore the ^ ory*-
Roman yoke with great impatience. The Gauls in-
fefted the territories of the republic by their frequent
iricurfions, which werefometimes very terrible ; and tho’
feveral attempts had been made to fubdue them, they
always proved infufficient till the time of Julius Casfar.
By him they were totally reduced, from the river
Rhine to the Pyrentean mountains, and many of their
nations almoft exterminated. He carried his arms
alfo into Germany and the fouthern parts of Bri¬
tain ; but in neither of thefe parts did he make any
permanent conquefts. The civil wars between him
and Pompey gave him an opportunity of feizing on
the kingdom of Mauritania and thofe parts of Numi¬
dia which had been allowed to retain their liberty.
The kingdom of Egypt alone remained, and to this
nothing belonged except the country properly fo call¬
ed. Cyrenaica was bequeathed by will to the Romans
about 58 B. C.; and about the fame time the ifland of
Cyprus was feized by them without any pretence, ex¬
cept a defire of poffeffing the treafures of the king.—
The kingdom of Egypt continued for fome time long¬
er at liberty ; which in fome meafure muft be afcribed
to the internal diflenfions of the republic, but more
efpecially to the amours of Pompey, Julius Casfar,
and Marc Antony, with the famous Cleopatra queen
of Egypt. The battle of Aftium, however, deter¬
mined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra, and Egypt it¬
felf j which laft was reduced to a Roman province, a-
bout 9 B. C. 34
While the Romans thus employed all means to re- Origin and
duce the world to their obedience, they were ma- of'■
king one another feel the fame miferies at home, which ^ars'In
they infli&ed upon other nations abroad. The firft Rome,
civil difienfions took their rife at the fiege of Numan-
tia in Spain. We have already obferved, that this fmall
city refilled the whole power of the Romans for fix
years. Gnce they gave them a moft terrible and fliame-
ful defeat, wherein 30,000 Romans fled before 4000
Numamines. Twenty thoufand were killed in the
battle, and the remaining ten thoufand fo fhut up,
that there was no poflibility of efcaping. In this ex¬
tremity they were obliged to negotiate with the ene¬
my, and a peace was concluded upon the following
terms : 1. That the Numantines ftiould fuffer the Ro¬
mans toretire unmolefted; and, 2. That Numantia fliould
maintain its independence, and be reckoned among
the Roman allies.—The Roman fenate, with an inju-
ftice and ingratitude hardly to be matched, broke this
treaty, and in return ordered the commander of their
army to be delivered up to the Numantines: but they
refufed to accept of him, unlefs his army was deliver¬
ed along with him ; upon which the war was renew¬
ed, and ended as already related. The fate of Nu¬
mantia, however, was foon revenged. Tiberius Sem-
pronius Gracchus, brother-in-law to Scipio Africanus
the fecond, had been a chief promoter of the peace
with the Numantines already mentioned, and of con-
fequence had been in danger of being delivered up to
them along with the commander in chief. This dif-
grace he never forgot; and, in order to revenge him-
felf, undertook the caufe of the Plebeians againft the
Patricians, by whom the former were greatly oppref-
fed. He began with reviving an old law, which had
ena&ed;
3660
HISTORY.
Sed. I.
Civil enafted that no Roman citizen fhould poffefs more than
Hi ft or y-. ^OQ acreg 0f lan(], overplus he defigned to dif-
tribute among thofe who had no lands, and to reim-
burfe the rich out of the public treafury. This law
met with great oppofition, bred many tumults, and
at laft ended in the death of Gracchus and the perfe-
cution of his friends, feveral hundreds of whom were
put to cruel deaths without any form of law.
The difturbances did not ceafe with the death of
Gracchus. New contefts enfued on account of the
Sempronian law, and the giving to the Italian allies
the privilege of Roman citizens. This laft not only
produced great commotions in the city, but occafioned
a general revolt of the ftates -of Italy againft the re¬
public of Rome. This rebellion was not quelled with¬
out the utmoft difficulty : and in the mean time, the
city was deluged with blood by the contending
faftions of Sylla and Marius; the former of whom
iided with the patricians, and the latter with the ple¬
beians. Thefe difturbances ended in the perpetual dic-
tatorftrip of Sylla, about 80 B. C.
From this time we may date the lofs of the Roman
liberty ; for though Sylla refigned his didtatorfhip two
years after, the fucceeding contefts between Caefar and
Pompey proved equally fatal to the republic. Thefe
contefts were decided by the battle of Pharfalia, by
which Caefar became in effeft mafter of the empire in
43 B. C. Without lofs of time, he then croffed over
into Africa ; totally defeated the republican army
in that continent ; and, by reducing the country
of Mauritania to a Roman province, completed the
Roman conquefts in thefe parts. His vidtory over the
fons of Pompey at Munda 40 B. C. fecured him from
any further apprehenfions of a rival. Being there¬
fore foie mafter of the Roman empire, and having all
the power of it at his command, he projefted the greateft
fchemes; tending, according to fome, not lefs to the
happinefs than to the glory of his country: when he
was aflaffinated in the fenate-houfe, in the 56th year of
his age, and 39 B. C.
Without inveftigating the political juftice of this
aftion, or the motives of the perpetrators; it is im-
pofiible not to regret the death of this great man,
when we contemplate his virtues, and the defigns
which he is faid to have formed: (See Rome.) Nor
is it pofiible to juftify, from ingratitude at leaft, even
the moft virtuous of the confpirators, when we confi-
der the obligations under which they lay to him. And
as to the meafure itfelf, even in the view of expedien¬
cy, it feems to be generally condemned. In fadt, from
the tranfadfions which had long preceded, as well as
thofe which immediately followed, the murder of Cae¬
far, it is evident, that Rome was incapable of pre-
ferving its liberty any longer, and that the people had
become unfit for being free. The efforts of Brutus and
Caffius were therefore unfuccefsful, and ended in their
own deftrudfion and that of great numbers of their
followers in the battles of Philippi. The defeat of the
republicans was followed by numberlefs difturbances,
murders, profcriptions, &c. till at laft Odtavianus, ha-
35 ving cut off all who had the courage to oppofe him,
Odtavianus and finally got the better of his rivals by the vidlory
puts^an end 3t Adtium, put an end to the republic in the year
1 The deftrudfion of the Roman commonwealth pro¬
ved advantageous to the few nations of the world who Civil
ftill retained their liberty. That outrageous defire of Hiftory.
conqueft, which had fo long marked the Roman cha¬
racter, now in a great meal’ure ceafed ; becaufe there
was now another way of fatisfying the defires.of ambi¬
tious men, namely, by courting the favour of the em
peror. After the final redndtion of the Spaniards, there
fore, and the conqueft of the countries of Msefia, Pan
nonia, and fome others adjacent to the Roman terri
tories, and which in a manner feemed naturally to be
long to them, the empire enjoyed for fome time a pro
found peace.
The only remarkable tranfadtions which took place
during the remainder of the period of which we treat were
the conqueft of Britain by Claudius and Agricola, and
the deftrudtion of Jerufalem by Vefpafian and Titus.
The war with the Jews began A. D. 67; and was oc¬
cafioned by their obftinately claiming the city of Cae-
farea, which the Romans had added to the province of
Syria. It ended in 73, with the moft terrible deftruc-
tion of their city and nation; fince which time they
have never been able to affemble as a diftinft people.
The fouthern parts of Britain were totally fubdued by
Agricola about ten years after.
In the 98th year of the Chriftian aera, Trajan was
created emperor of Rome ; and being a man of great
valour and experience in war, carried the Roman con¬
quefts to their utmoft extent. Having conquered the
Dacians, a German nation beyond the Danube, and
who had of late been very troublefome, he turned
his arms eaftward; reduced all Mefopotamia, Chal-
dsea, Aflyria ; and having taken Ctefiphon, the capi¬
tal of the Parthian empire, appointed them a king,
which he thought would be a proper method of keep¬
ing that warlike people in fubjedion. After this, he
propofed to .return to Italy, but died by the way; and
with his reign the feventh general period abovemen-
tioned is concluded. \
8. The beginning of the eighth period prefents us Eeighth
with a view of one vaft empire, in which almoft all the period. j
nations of the world were fwallow-ed up. This empire ^fenersl
comprehended the beft part of Britain, all Spain, 1 ]
France, the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, E- ’ j
gypt, Barbary, Bildulgerid, Turky in Europe, Tur-
ky in Afia, and Perfia. The ftate of India at this
time is unknown. The Chinefe lived in a remote part
of the world, unheard of and unmolefted by the weftern
nations who ftruggled for the empire of the world.
The northern parts of Europe and Afia were filled
with barbarous nations, already formidable to the Ro¬
mans, and who were foon to become more fo. The
vaft empire of the Romans, however, had no fooner
attained its utmoft degree of power, than, like others
before it, it began to decline. The provinces of Ba¬
bylonia, Mefopotamia, and AfTyria, almoft inftantly
revolted, and were abandoned by Adrian the fucceffor
of Trajan in the empire. The Parthians having reco¬
vered their liberty, continued to be very formidable e-
nemies, and the barbarians of the northern parts of E-
rope continued to increafe in ftrength ; while the Ro¬
mans, weakened by inteftine divifions, became daily lets
able to refill them. At different times, however, fome
warlike emperors arofe, who put a ftop to the incur-
fions of thefe barbarians ; and about the year 215, the
Parthian empire was totally overthrown by the Per-
fians,
Sea.
Civil
Hiftory.
Nintli pe¬
riod. De-
ftruftion
of the
vctlern
empire.
I.
'HISTORY.
3661
fians, wlio liad long been fubjeft to them. This revo¬
lution proved of little advantage to the Romans. The
Perfians were enemies ftill more troublefome than the
Parthians had been ; and though often defeated, they
dill continued to infeft the empire on the eaft, as the
barbarous nations of Europe did on the north. In
260, the defeat and captivity of the emperor Valerian
by the Perfians, with the ditturbances which followed,
threatened the empire with utter deftrudlion. Thirty
tyrants feized the government at once, and the barba¬
rians pouring in on all fides in prodigious numbers ra¬
vaged almoft all the provinces of the empire. By the
vigorous conduct of Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Pro¬
bus, and Carus, the empire was reftored to its former
lullre; but as the barbarians were only repulfed, and
never thoroughly fubdued, this proved only a tempo¬
rary relief. What was worfe, the Roman foldiers,
grown impatient of reftraint, commonly murdered
thofe emperors who attempted to revive among them
the ancient military difeipline which alone could en-
fure the vidtory over their enemies. Under Dioclefian,
the dii'orders were fo great, that though the govern¬
ment was held by two perfons, they found themfelves
unable to bear the weight of it, and therefore took
other two partners in the empire. Thus was the Ro¬
man empire divided into four parts ; which by all hi-
ftorians is faid to have been produftive of the greateft
mifehiefs. As each of the four fovereigns would have
as many officers both civil and military, and the fame
number of forces-that had been maintained by the
ftat.e when governed only by one emperor, the people
were not able to pay the fums neceflary for fupporting
them. Hence the taxes and impofts were increafed be¬
yond meafure, the inhabitants in feveral provinces re¬
duced to beggary, the land left untilled for want of
hands, &c. An end was put to thefe evils when the
empire was again united under Conftantine the Great;
but in 330 a mortal blow was given to it by remo¬
ving the imperial feat to Byzantium, now Conftanti-
nople, and making it equal to Rome. The introduc¬
tion and eftablilhment of Chriilianity, already corrup¬
ted with the grofTeft fuperftitions, proved alfo a moft
grievous detriment to the empire. Inftead of that fe¬
rocious and obftinate valour in which the Romans had
fo long been accuftomed to put their truft, they now
imagined themfelves fecured by figns of the crofs, and
other external fymbolsof the Chriftian religion. Thefe
they ufed as a kind of magical incantations, which un¬
doubtedly proved at all times ineffedtual, and hence
alfo in fome meafure proceeded the great revolution
which took place in the next period.
9. The ninth general period fhews us the decline
and miferable end of the weftern part of the Roman
empire. We fee that mighty empire, which formerly
occupied almoft the whole world, now weakened by
divifion, and furrounded by enemies. On the ealt,
the Perfians; on the north, the Scythians, Sarmatians,
Goths, and a multitude of other barbarous nations,
watched all occafions to break into it; and mifearried
in their attempts, rather through their own barbarity,
than the ftrength of their enemies. The devaftations
committed by thofe barbarians when they made their
incurfions are incredible, and the relation (hocking to
human nature. Some authors feem much inclined to
favour them ; and even infinuate, that barbarity and
Vol. V.
ignorant ferocity were their chief, if not their only Civil
faults: but from their hiftory it plainly appears, that HUlory.
not only barbarity and the moft (hocking cruelty, but ^
the higheft degrees of avarice, perfidy, and difregard
to the moft folemn promifes, were to be numbered
among their vices. It was ever a fufficient reafon for
them to make an attack, that they thought their ene¬
mies could not refill them. Their only reafon for
making peace, or for keeping it, was becaufe their
enemies were too ftrong; and their only reafon for
committing the moft horrid maflacres, rapes, and all
manner of crimes, was, becaufe they had gained a vic¬
tory. The Romans, degenerate as they were, are yet to
be efleemed much better than thefe favages; and there¬
fore we find not a fingle province of the empire that
would fubmit to the barbarians, while the Romans could
poffibly defend them.
Some of the Roman emperors indeed withftood this
inundation of favages; but as the latter grew daily
more numerous, and the Romans continued to weaken
themfelves by their inteftine divifions, they were at
laft obliged to take large bodies of barbadians into
their pay, and teach them their military difeipline, in
order to drive away their countrymen, or others who
invaded the empire. This at laft proved its total de-
ftru&ion ; for, in 476, the barbarians who ferved in
the Roman armies, and were dignified with the title of
allies, demanded the third part of the lands of Italy as
a reward for their fervices: but meeting with a re-
fufal, they revolted, and made themfelves mafters of
the whole country, and of Rome itfelf, which from
that time ceafed to be the head of an empire of
any confequence. 33
This period- exhibits a moft unfavourable view General
of the weftern parts of the world: The Romans, ,of
from the height of grandeur, funk to the lowed wor
flavery, nay, in all probability, almoft extermi¬
nated ; the provinces they formerly governed, in¬
habited by human beings fcarce a degree above the
brutes; every art and fcience loft; and the favage con¬
querors even in danger of ftarving for want of a fuffi¬
cient knowledge of agriculture, having now no m^ans
of fupplying themfelves by plunder and robbery as
before. Britain had long been abandoned to the
mercy of the Scots and Pifts: and in 450 the inhabi¬
tants had called in the Saxons to their affiftance, whom
they foon found worfe enemies than thofe againft whom
they had implored their aid. Spain was held by the
Goths and Suevians; Africa (that is, Barbary and
Bildulgerid,) by theVandals; the Burgundians, Goths.,
Franks, and Alans, had ere&ed feveral fmall ftates in
Gaul ; and Italy was fubjeded to the Heruli under
Odoacer, who had taken upon him the title of king of
Italy. In the eaft, indeed, matters wore an afped
fomewhat more agreeable. The Roman empire con¬
tinued to live in that of Conftantinople, which was
ftili very extenfive. It comprehended all Afia-Minor
and Syria, as far as Perfia; in Africa, the kingdom of
Egypt; and Greece in Europe. The Perfians were
powerful, and rivalled the emperors of Conftanti¬
nople ; and beyond them lay the Indians, Chinefe,
and other nations, who, unheard-of by the inhabi¬
tants of the more weftern parts, enjoyed peace and
liberty.
TheConftantinppolitan empire continued to decline
20 Y by
3602
Civil by reafon of ita continual wars with the Perfians,'Bul-
Miilory. jTar;ans> an(} other barbarous nations; to whi^h alfo
fuperftition anti relaxation of military difcipline largely
contributed. The Perfian empire alfo declined, from
the fame caufes, together with the inteftine'broils from
which it was feldom free more than that of Conftanti-
nople. The hiftory of the eaftern part of the world
during this period, therefore, confifls only of the wars
between thefe two great empires, of which an account
is given under the articles Constantinople and
Persia; and which were produftive of no other con-
fequence than that of weakening them both, and nrta-
king them a more eafy. prey to thofe enemies who
were now as it were in embryo, but (hortly about to
ere£t an empire almoft as extenfive as that of the Greeks
or Romans.
Hiftory of Among the weftern nations, the revolutions, as might
Italy. naturally be expe&ed from the charafter of the people,
fucceeded one another with rapidity. The Heruli un¬
der Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under
TheodOric. The Goths were expelled by the Ro¬
mans ; and, while the two parties were contending,
both were attacked by the Franks, who carried off an
immenfe booty. The Romans were in their turn ex¬
pelled by the Goths: the Franks again invaded Italy,
and made themfelves mafters of the province of Ve-
netia; but at laft the fuperior fortune of the emperor
of Conftantinople prevailed, and the Goths were fi¬
nally fubdued in 553.' Narfes, the conqueror of the
Goths, governed Italy as a province of the eaftern
empire till the year 568, when Longinus his fuccefibr
made confiderable alterations. The Italian provinces
had, ever fince the time of Conftantine the Great, been
governed by confulares, correttores, and prafides; no
alteration having been made either by the Roman
emperors or the Gothic kings. But Longinus, being
invefted with abfolute power by Juftinian, fuppreffed
thofe magiftrates; and, inftead of them, placed in each
city of note a governor, whom he diftinguiflied with
the title of duke. The city of Rome was not more
honoured than any other; for Longinus, having abo-
lifhed the very name offenate and confuls, appointed a
duke of Rome as well as of other cities. To himfelf
he affumed the title of exarch; and, refiding at Ra¬
venna, his government was ftyled the exarchate of Ra¬
venna. But while he was eftablifhing this new em¬
pire, the greateft part of Italy was conquered by the
Lombards.
Of France. In France a confiderable revolution alfo took
place. In 487, Clovis, the founder.of the prefent
French monarchy, poffefled himfelf of all the countries
lying between the Rhine and the Loire. By force
or treachery, he conquered all the petty kingdoms
which had been erefted in that country ; his do¬
minions had been divided, re-united, and divided
again; and were on the point of being united a fecond
time, when the great impoftor Mahomet began to make
a figure in the world.
Of Spain- Spain, the Vifigoths erefled a kingdom, ten
years before the conquell of Rome by the Heruli.
This kingdom they had extended eaftward, about the
fame time that Clovis was extending his conquefts to
the weft; fo that the two kingdoms met at the river
Loire. The confequcnce of this approach of fuch
barbarous conquerors towards each other, was an
Sea. T.
immediate war. Clovis proved viclorious, and fub- CiviI
dued great part of the country of the Vifigoths, Hlltci|T‘
which put a final flop to their conquefts on that
fide.
Another kingdom had been founded in the weftern
parts of Spain by the Suevi, a confiderable time be¬
fore the Romans were finally expelled from that
country. In 409 this kingdom was entirely fub-
verted by Theodoric king of the Goths; and the
Suevi were fo pent up in a fmall diftrift of Lufitania
and Galicia, that it feemed impoflible for them to re¬
cover themfelves. During the abovementioned period,
however, while the attention of the Goths was turned
another way, they had found means again to ereft
themfelves into an independent ftate, and to become
mafters of confiderabl^f-extended territories. But this
fuccefs proved of fliort duration. In 584 the Goths
attacked them ; totally deftroyed their empire a fecond
time; and thus became mafters of all Spain, except
fome fmall part which ftill owned fubjedlion to the
emperors of Conftantinople. Of this part, however,
the Goths became mafters alfo in the year 623; which
concludes the 9th general period. 4Z
Africa, properly fo called, had changed its mafters Of Africa,
three times during this period. The Vandals had ex¬
pelled the Romans, and ere&ed an independent king¬
dom, which was at laft overturned by the emperors of
Conftantinople; and from them the greateft part of it
was taken by the Goths in 620.
10. At the commencement of the tenth general period, Tenqf ge_
(which begins with the flight of Mahomet in the year neral pe-
622, from whence his followers date their tera, call-riod- Con¬
ed the Hegira), we fee every thing prepared for the ^*5^
great revolution which was now to take place : the cens,
Roman empire in the w'eft annihilated ; the Perfian
empire and that of Conftantinople weakened by their
mutual wars and inteftine divifions; the Indians and
other eaftern nations unaccuftomed to war, and ready
to fall a prey to the firft invader ; the fouthern parts
of Europe in a diftrafted and barbarous ftate; while
the inhabitants of Arabia, from their earlieft origin,
accuftomed to war and plunder, and now united by the
moft violent fuperftition and enthufiaftic defire of con-
queft, were like a flood pent up, and ready to over¬
whelm the reft of the world.—The northern nations
of Europe and Afia, however formidable in after-times,
were at prefent unknown, and peaceable, at leaft with
refpeft to their fouthern neighbours; fo that there was
in no quarter of the globe any power capable of op-
pofing the conquefts of the Arabs. With amazing
celerity, therefore, they over-ran all Syria, Paleftine,
Peffia, Bukharia, and India, extending their conquefts
farther to the eaftward than ever Alexander had done.
On the weft fide their empire extended over Egypt,
Barbary, and Spain, together with the iflands of Si¬
cily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, &c. and many of
the Archipelago iflands: nor were the coafts of Italy
itfelf free from their incurfions; nay, they are even
faid to have readied the diftant and barren country of
Iceland. At laft this great empire, as well as others,
began to decline. Its ruin was very fudden, and ow¬
ing to its internal divifions. Mahomet had not taken
care to eftablifti the apoftlefhip in his family, or to give
any particular directions about a fucceffor. The con-
fequence of this was, that the caliphat, or fucceffion
to
H I S T O R Y.
Sea. I. H I S 1
Civil to the apoftlefhip, was feizedbymany ufurpers in dif-
Hillory. ferent parts of the empire ; while the true caliphs,
^ho reiided at Bagdad, gradually loft all power, and
were regarded only as a kind of high-prieft's. Of
thcfe divifions the Turks took advantage to eftablilh
their authority in many provinces of the Mohamme¬
dan empire: but as.they embraced the fame religion
with the Arabs, and were filled with, the fame enthu-
fiaftic defire of conqueft, it is of littl* confequence to
diftinguifh between them ; as indeed it fignified little
to the world in general whether the Turks Or Sara-
cenes were the conquerors, fince both were cruel, bar-
barous, ignorant, and fuperftitious.
Of the While the barbarians of the eaft were thusgrafping
Pope’s tem- at the empire of the whole world, great difturbances
Poral happened among the no lefs barbarous nations of the
power. weft, Superftition feems to have been the ruling mo¬
tive in both cafes. The Saracens and Turks conquer¬
ed for the glory of God, or of his apoftle Mahomet
and his fuccelfors ; the weftern nations profeffed an e-
qual regard for the divine glory, but which was only
to be perceived in the refpeft theV paid to the Pope
and clergy. Ever fince the eftablifhment of Chrifti-
anity.by Conftantine, the bifhops of Rome had been
- gradually extending their power, and attempting not
only to render themfelves independent, but even to af-
fume an authority over the emperors themfelves. The
deftfuftion of the empire wasfo far from weakening their
power, that it afforded them opportunities of greatly-
extending it, and becoming judges of the fovereigns
of Italy themfelves, whofe barbarity and ignorance
prompted them to fubmit to their decifions. All this
time, however, they themfelves had been in fubjec-
tion to the emperors of Conftantinople; but on the
decline of that empire, they found means to get
themfelves exempted from this fubje&ion. The prin¬
cipal authority in the city of Rome was then engroff-
ed by the bifhop; though of right it belonged to the
duke appointed by the exarch of Ravenna. But tho’
they had now little to fear from the eaftern empe¬
rors, they were in great danger from the ambition of
the Lombards, who aimed at the conqueft; of all Italy.
This afpiring people the bilhops of Ronle determined
to check; and therefore, in 726, when Luitprand
king of the Lombards had taken Ravenna and expel¬
led the exarch, the pope undertook to reftore him.
For this purpofe he applied to the Venetians, who are
now firft mentioned in hiftory as a ftate of any con¬
fequence ; and by their means the exarch was reftored.
Some time before, a quarrel had happened between
the pope (Gregory II.) and Leo emperor of the eaft,
about the worfhip of images. Leo, who it feems,
in the midft of fo much barbarifm, had dill preferved
fome fliare of common fenfe and reafon, reprobated
the worfhip of images in the ftrongeft terms, and com¬
manded them to be deftroyed throughout his domini¬
ons. The pope, whofe caufe was favoured by the
moft abfurd fuperftitions, and by thefe only, refufed
to obey the emperor’s commands. The exarch of
Ravenna, as a fubjedf of the emperor, was ordered to
force the pope to a compliance, and even to feize or af-
faffinate him in cafe of a refufal. This excited the
pious zeal of Luitprand to afilft the pope, whom he
had formerly defigned to fubdue : the exarch was firft
excommunicated, and then torn in pieces by the enra-
^ o R Y. 3663
ged multitude : the duke of Naples (hared the fame Civil
fate; and a vaft number of the Iconoclajis, or Image- Hift°ry-
breakers, as they were called, were flaughtered with-
out mercy : and to complete all, the fubje&s of the
exarchate, at the inftigation of the pope, renounced
their allegiance to the emperor.
Leo was no fooner informed of this revolt, than he
ordered a powerful army to be raifed, in order to re¬
duce the rebels, and take vengeance on the pope. A-
larmed at thefe warlike preparations, Gregory looked
round for fome power on which he might depend for
prote£tion. The Lombards were pofleffed of fuffi-
cient force, but they were too near and too danger¬
ous neighbours to be trufted ; the Venetians, though
zealous Catholics, were as yet unable to withftand the
force of the empire ; Spain was over-run by the Sa¬
racens : the French feemed, therefore, the only peo¬
ple to whom it was advifable to apply for aid ; as
they were able to oppofe the emperor, and were likewife
enemies to his edict. Charles Martel, who at that
time governed France as mayor of the palace, was
therefore applied to; but before a treaty could be
concluded, all the parties concerned were removed by
death. Conftantine Copronymus, who fucceeded Leo
at Conftantinople, not only perfifted in the oppofition
to image-worfliip, begun by his predecefibr, but pro¬
hibited alfo the invocation of faints. Zachary, who
fucceeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as
zealous an adverfary as his predeceflbrs. Pepin, who
fucceeded Charles Martel in the fovereignty of France,
proved as powerful a friend to the pope as his father
had been. The people of Rome had nothing to fear
from Conftantinople ; and therefore drove out all the
emperor’s officers. The Lombards, awed by the
power of France, for fome time allowed the pope to
govern in peace the dominions of the Exarchate ; but
in 752, Aftolphus, king of Lombardy, not only re¬
duced the greateft part of the pope’s territories, but
threatened the city of Rome itfelf. Upon this an ap¬
plication was made to Pepin, who obliged Aftolphus
to reftore the places he had taken, and gave them to
the pope, or, as he laid, to St Peter. The Greek
emperor, to whom they of right belonged, remonftra-
ted to no purpofe. The pope from that time became
pofiefled of confiderable territories in Italy ; which,
from the manner of their donation, go under the
name of St Peter's Patrimony. It was not however
before the year 774 that the pope was fully fecured
in thefe new dominions. This was accomplifhed when
the kingdom of the Lombards was totally deftroyed
by Charlemagne, who was thereupon crowned king
of Italy. Soon after this monarch made himfelf ma-
fter of all the Low Countries, Germany, and part of
Hungary ; and in the year 800, was folemnly crown-
ad emperor of the weft by the pope.
Thus was the world once mere fliared among three General
great empires. The empire of the Arabs or Saracens (late of the
extended from ihe river Ganges to Spain, compre- world,
bending almoft all of Afia and Africa which has ever
been known to Europeans, the kingdoms of China
and Japan ’excepted. The eaftern Roman empire was
reduced to Greece, Afia Minor, and the provinces ad¬
joining to Italy. The empire of the weft under Char¬
lemagne, comprehended France, Germany, and the
greateft part of Italy. The Saxons, however, as yet
20 Y z pof-
3664 II I s
Civil poffeffed Britain untnolefted by external enemies, tW
Illfior>'- the feven kingdoms erected by them were engaged in
perpetual contefts. The Venetians alfo enjoyed a
nominal liberty; though it is probable, that their fi-
tuation would render them very much dependent on
the great powers which furrounded them. Of all na¬
tions on earth, the Scots and Pifts, and the remote
ones of China and Japan feem to have enjoyed, from
their fituation, the greatelt /hare of liberty; unlcfs^er-
haps, we except the Scandinavians, who, under the
names of Danes and Normans, were foon to infeft their
fouthern neighbours. But of all the European po¬
tentates, the popes certainly exercifed the greateft au¬
thority ; fince even Charlemagne himfelf fubmitted to
accept the crown from their hands, and his fuccefibrs
made them the arbiters of their difl’erences.
Matters, however, did not long continue in this
Bate. The empire of Charlemagne, was, on the death
of his fon Lewis, divided among his three children.
Endlefs difputes and wars enfued among them, till at
laft the fovereign power was feized by Hugh Capet
in 987. The Saxon heptarchy was diffolved in 827,
and the whole kingdom of England reduced under one
head. The Hanes and Normans began to make de¬
predations, and infeft the neighbouring ftates. The
former conquered the Engli/h Saxons, and feized the
government, but were in their turn expelled by the
Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy the greateft
difturbances arofe from the contefts between the
popes and the emperors. To all this, if we add the
internal contefts which happened through the ambition
of the powerful barons of every kingdom, we can fcarce
form an idea of times more calamitous than thofe of
which we now treat. All Europe, nay, all the world,
was one great field of battle; for the empire of the
Mahometans was not in a more fettled ftate than that
of the Europeans. Caliphs, fultans, emirs, &c. wa¬
ged continual war with each other in every quarter;
new fovereignties every day fprung up, and were as
quickly deftroyed. In (hort, thro’ the ignorance and
barbarity with which the whole world was overfpread,
it feemed in a manner impofiible that the human race
could long continue to exift; when happily the crufades,
by dire&ing the attention of the Europeans to one par¬
ticular objedl, made them in fome meafure fufpend
their /laughters of one another.
Eleventh 11 * crufades originated from the fuperftition of
period. tbe two grand parties into which the world was at that
The cm- time divided, namely, the Chriftians and Mahometans,
fedes. Both looked upon the fmall territory of Palettine, which
they called the Holy Land, to be an invaluable acquifi-
tion, for which no fum of money could be an equiva¬
lent ; and both took the moft unjuftifiable methods to
accompli/h their defires. The fuperftition of Omar the
fecond caliph had prompted him to invade this coun¬
try, part of the territories of the Greek emperor, who
was doing him no hurt; and now when it had been fo
long under the fubje&ion of the Mahometans, a fimi-
lar fuperftition prompted the pope to fend an army for
the recovery of it. The crufaders accordingly poured
forth ijn multitudes, like thofe with which the kings of
Perfia formerly invaded Greece; and their fate was
pretty fimilar. Their impetuous valour at firft, in¬
deed, carried every thing before them : they recovered
all Paleftine, Phoenicia, and part of Syria, from the in-
T O R Y. Scd. I.
fidels; but their want of conduft foon loft \vhat their Civil
valour had obtained, and very few of that vaft multi- H'flory.
tude which had left Europe ever returned to their na¬
tive countries. A fecond, a third, and feveral other
crufades, were preached, and were attended with a like
fuccefs in both refpefts ; vaft numbers tbok the crofs,
and repaired to the Holy Land, which they polliited
by the moft abominable maffacres and treacheries, and
from which very few of them returned. In the third
crufade Richard I. of England was embarked, who
feems to have been the belt general that ever went into
the eaft ; but even his valour and /kill were not fuffi-
cient to repair the faults of his companions, and he
was obliged to return even after he had entirely de¬
feated his antagonitts, and was within fight of Jeru-
falem.
But while the Chriftians and Mahometans were thus Conquefls
fuperftitioufly contending for a fmall territory in the of the Mo-
weftern parts of Alia, the nations in the more eafterly Suh*
parts were threatened with total extermination. Jen-
ghiz Kan, the greateft, as well as the moft bloody, '
conqueror that ever exifted, now makes his appearance.
The rapidity of his conquefts feemed to emulate thofe
of Alexander the Great; and the cruelties he com¬
mitted were altogether unparallelled. It is worth ob-
ferving, that Jenghiz Khan and all his followers were
neither Chriftians nor Mahometans, but ftri£t deifts.
For a long time even the fovereign had not heard
of a temple or any particular place on earth ap¬
propriated by the Deity to himfelf, and treated
the notion with ridicule when it was firft mentioned
to him.
The Moguls, over whom Jenghiz Khan affumed the
fovereignty, were a people of Eaft Tartary, divided in¬
to a great number of petty governments as they are at
this day, but who owned a fubje&ion to one fovereign
whom they called Vang-khan, or the Great Khan.
Temujin, afterwards Jenghiz-Khan, was one of thefe -
petty princes, but unjuftly deprived of the greateft part
of his inheritance at the age of 13, which he could not
recover till he arrived at that of 40. This correfponds
with the year 1201, when he totally reduced the re¬
bels, and as a fpecimen of his lenity caufed 70 of
their chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of
boiling water. In 1202, he defeated and killed Vang-
khan himfelf ( known to the Europeans by the name of
Prejier John of Afia); and poffefiing himfelf of his vaft
dominions, became from thenceforward altogether ir-
refiftible. In 1206, having /till continued to enlarge
his dominions, he was declared khan of the Moguls
and Tartars ; and took upon him the title of Jenghiz
Khan, or Lhe mojl Great Khan of khans. This was
followed by the reduction of the kingdom of Hya in
China, Tangut, Kitay, Turkeftan, Karazm (the king¬
dom of Gazna founded by Mahmud Gazni), Great
Bukharia, Perfia, and part of India ; and all thefe vaft
regions were reduced in 26 years. The devaftations and
/laughters with which they were accompanied are un-
parallelled, nofewer than 14,470,000 perfons being com¬
puted to have been malTacred by Jenghiz Khan during
the laft 22 years of his reign. In the beginning of 1227
he died, thereby freeing the world from a moft bloody
tyrant. His fucceflbrs completed the conqueft of China
and Korea; but were foiled in their attempts on Cochin-
china, Tong-king, and Japan. On the weftern fide the
Tartar
Sea.
1 Civil
Hiftory.
I. H I S T O R Y.
Tartar dominions, were not much enlarged till the time to fuch a degree, that they were not for fome time
of Htilaku, who conquered Media, Babylonia, Mefopo- able to recover themfelves. At lafl this great con-
tamia, AfTyria, Syria, Georgia, Armenia, and almoft queror died in the year 1405, while on his way to
ail Alia Minor; putting an end to the empire of the conquer China, as Jenghiz Khan had done before
Saracens by the taking of Bagdad in 1258. him.
The empire of Jenghiz Khan had the fate of all - The death of Timur was followed almoft immedi-
others. Being far too extenfive to be governed by ately by the diffolution of his empire. Moft of the
one head, it fplit into a multitude of fmall king- nations he had conquered, recovered their liberty',
doms, as it had been before his time. All thefe The Turks had now no further obftacle to their con-
princes, however, owned allegiance to the family of quert of Conftantinople. The weftern nations having'
Jenghiz Khan till the time of Timur Bek, or Tamer- exhaufied themfelves in the holy nvars, as they were
lane. The Turks, in the mean time, urged forward called, had loft that infatiable thirft after conqueft
by the inundation of Tartars who poured in from the which for fo long time pofiefled the minds of men.
eaft, were forced upon the remains of the Greek em- They had already made confiderable advances in civi-
pire ; and at the time of Tamerlane above-mentioned, lization, and began to ftudy the arts of peace. Gun-
they had almoft confined this once mighty empire powder was invented, and its application to the pur-
within the wails of Conftantinople. pofes of war already known; and, though no invention
In the year 1335 the family of Jenghiz Khan be- threatened to be more deftrudtive, perhaps none was
coming extindl in Perfia, ,a long civil war enfued, ever more beneficial to the human race. By the ufe
during which Timur Bek, one of the petty princes of fire-arms, nations are put more on a level with
among which the Tartar dominions were divided, each other than formerly they were; war is reduced
found means to aggrandize himfelf in a manner fimi- to a regular fyftem, which may be ftudied with as
lar to what Jenghiz Khan had done about 150 years much fuccefs as any other fcience. Conquefts are not
before. Jenghiz Khan, indeed, was the model whom now to be made with the fame eafe as formerly; and
lie propofed to imitate ; but it muft be allowed that hence the laft ages of thewmrld have been much more
Timur was more merciful than Jenghiz Khan, if in- quiet and peaceable than the former ones. In 1453,
deed the word can be applied to fuch inhuman tyrants, the conqueft of Conftantinople by the Turks fixed
The plan on which Jenghiz Khan conduced his ex- that wandering people to one place; and though now
peditions was that of total extermination. For fome they poffefs very large regions both in Europe, Afia,
time he utterly extirpated the inhabitants of thofe and Africa, an effectual ftop hath long been put to their
places which he conquered, defigning to people them further progrefs.
anew with his Moguls; and in confequence of thi« About this time alfo, learning began to revive
refolution, he would employ his army in beheading in Europe, where it had been long loft ; and the
100,000 prifoners at once. Timur’s cruelty, on the invention of printing, which happened about the
other hand, feldom went farther than the pounding fame time, rendered it in a manner impoflible for bar-
of 3 or 4000 people in large mortars, or building them barifm ever to take place in fuch a degree as formerly,
among bricks and mortar into a wall. We muft ob- All nations of the world, indeed, feem now at once to
ferve, however, that Timur was not a Deift, but a have laid afide much of their former ferocity; and,
Mahometan, and conquered exprefsly for the purpofe though wars have by no means been uncommon, they
of fpreading the Mahometan religion ; for the Moguls have not been carried on with fuch circumftances of
had now adopted all the fuperftitions and abfurdities fury and favage cruelty as before. Inftead of at-
of Mahomet. Thus was all the eaftern quarter of the tempting to enrich themfelves by plunder, and the
world threatened anew with the moft dreadful devafta- fpoils of their neighbours, mankind in general have
tions, while the weftern nations were exhaufting them- applied themfelves to commerce, the only true and
felves in fruitlefs attempts to regain the Holy Land, durable fource of riches. This foon produced im-
The Turks were the only people who feem at this provements in navigation ; and. thefe improvements
period to have been gathering ftrength, and by their led to the difcover.y of many regions formerly un-
..perpetual encroachments threatened to fwallow up known. At the fame time, the European powers
the weftern nations, as the Tartars had done the being at laft thoroughly fenfibie, that extenfive con-
eaftern ones. quefts could never be permanent, applied themfelves
In 1362, Timur invaded Bukharia, which here- more to provide for the fecurity of thofe dominions
duced in five years. He proceeded in his conquefts, which they already pofieffed, than to attempt the con-
though not with the fame celerity as Jengiz Khan, till queft of one another: and this produced the policy to
theyear 1387, when hehad fubdued all Perfia, Armenia, which fo much attention was lately paid, namely, the
Georgia, Karazm, and great part of Tartary. After preferving of the balance of Europe; that is, preventing
this he proceeded weft ward, fubduing all the countries any one of the nations from acquiring fufficient ftrength
to the Euphrates; made himfelf mailer of Bagdad; to overpower another.
and even entered Ruffia, where he pillaged the city of In the end of the 15th century, the vaft continent
Mofcow. From thence he turned his arms to the of America was difeovered ; and, almoft at the fame
eaft, and totally fubdued India. In 1393, he invaded time, the paftage to the Eaft-Indies by the Cape of
and reduced Syria; and having turned his arms againlt Good-Hope. The difeovery of thefe rich countries
the Turks, forced their fultan Bajazet to raife the gave a new turn to the ambition of the Europeans,
fiege of Conftantinople. This brought on an en- To enrich themfelves, either by the gold and filver
gagement, in which Bajazet was entirely defeated and produced in thefe countries, or by traffic with the
taken prifoner; which broke the power of the Turks natives, now became the objedt. The Portuguefe had
the
366-5
Civil x
'iliitory.
State of the
world fince
that time.
3666 HIST
Civil the advantage of being the firfl: difcovej-ers of the
H!ftory- eaftern, and the Spaniards of the weftern coun¬
tries. The former did not negleft fo favourable an
opportunity of enriching themfelves by commerce.
Many fettlements were formed by them in the Eaft-
India iflands, and on the continent; but their avarice
and perfidious behaviour towards the natives, proved
at lall the caufe of their total expulfion. The Spa¬
niards enriched themfelves by the vaft quantities of
the precious metals imported from America, which
were not obtained but by the moll horrid maffacres
committed on the natives, and of which an account is
given under the different names of the American
countries. Thefe poffeffions of the Spaniards and
Portuguefe foon excited other European nations to
make attempts to fhare with them in their treafures,
by planting colonies in different parts of America,
and making, fettlements in the Eaft-Indies: and thus
has the rage of war in fome meafure been transferred
from Europe to thefe diflant regions ; and, after va¬
rious contefts, the Britifh at lad obtained a great fu-
periority both in America and the Eaft-Indies.
In Europe the only confiderable revolutions which
happened during this period, were, The total expulfion
of the Moors or Saracens from Spain, by the taking
of Grenada in 1491 ; the union of the kingdoms of
Arragon and Caitile, by the marriage of Ferdinand
and Ifabeila ; and the revolt of the dates of Holland
from the Spaniards. After much contention and
bloodfhed, thefe lad obtained their liberty, and
were declared a free people in 1609; fince which
time they have continued an independent and very con¬
fiderable nation of Europe.
The European nations at the beginning of the 17th
century were, Sweden, Mufcovy, Denmark, Poland,
Britain, Germany, Holland, France, Spain, Portu¬
gal, Italy, and Turky in Europe. Of thefe the Ruf¬
fians, though the mod barbarous, were by far the
mod confiderable, both in regard to numbers and
the extent of their empire ; but their fituation made
them little feared by the others, who lay at a didance
from them. The kingdom of Poland, which was fird
fet up in the year tooo, proved a barrier betwixt
Ruffia and Germany ; and at the fame time the policy
abovementioned of keeping up the balance of power
in Europe, rendered it probable that no one Euro¬
pean nation, whatever wars it might be engaged in,
would have been totally dedroyed, or ceafed to exid
as a didinft kingdom. The late difmemberment of
Poland, however, or its partition between the three
powers Rufiia, Hungary, and Pruffia, feems to be a
dep very unfavourable to the liberties of Europe in
general. The revolt of the Britifh colonies in America,
mud be a confiderable diminution of the drength of
Great Britain : the advantage taken by France and
Spain of an event fo favourable to their ambition, the
duplicity and evafions of her allies, and the uncon¬
cerned or unfriendly afpedt of the other powers, feem
to indicate a total difregard of that equilibrium for¬
merly fo much and fo wifely attended to.
In Afia nothing of importance hath'happened fince
the taking of Condantinople by the Turks. That
continent is now divided among the following nations.
The mod northerly part, called Siberia, extending to
the very extremity of the continent, is under the
o R Y. Sea. I. ;
power of Ruffia. To the fouthward, from Afia Mi- Civil
nor to China and Korea, are the Tartars, formidable Hidory. i
indeed from their numbers, but, by reafon of their ~j
barbarity and want of union, incapable of attempting
anything. The Turks poffefs the Wedern part of
the continent called Afia Miuor, to the river Euphra¬
tes. The Arabs are again confined within their own
peninfula ; which they poffefs, as they have ever done,
without owning fubjedtion to any foreign power. To
the ead of Turky in Afia lies Ptrfia, now more con¬
fined in its limits than before; and to the call ward of
Perfia lies India, or the kingdom of the Mogul, com¬
prehending all the country from the Indus to the
Ganges, and beyond that river. Still farther to the
ead lie the kingdoms of Siam, Pegu, Thibet, and
Cochin-China, little known to the Europeans. The
vad empire of China occupies the mod eaderly part
of the continent, while that of Japan comprehends
the iflands which go by that name, and which are
fuppofed to lie at no great didance from the wedern
coads of America.
In Africa the Turks polfefs Egypt, which they
conquered in 1517, and have a nominal jurifdidlion
over the dates of Barbary. The interior parts are
filled with barbarous and unknown nations, as they
have always been. On the wedern coads are many
fettlements of the European nations, particularly the
Britifh and Portuguefe, and the foutheru extremity
is pofleffed by the Dutch. The eadern coafls are al-
mod totally unknown. The Afiatic and African
iflands are either poffeffed by the Europeans, or in¬
habit ed by favage nations.
Sect. II. EcclefaJUcal Hijlory.
The hidory of religion, among all the different Revfi°_ ]
nations that have exidid in the world, is a fubjeft no tions in reJ
lefs important and intereding than that of civil hi-g>°n
dory. It is, however, lefs fertile of great events, haJt’Pen* I
affords an account of fewer revolutions, and is much
more uniform, than civil hidory. The reafon of this
is plain. Religion is converfant about things which
cannot be feen ; and which of confequence cannot fud-
denly and firongly affedl the fenfes of mankind, as
natural things are apt to do. The expe&ation of
worldly riches can eafily induce one nation to attack
another ; but it is not eafy to find any thing which
will induce a nation to change its religion. The in-
vifible nature of fpiritual things, the prejudice of ha- !'
bit and of early education, all dand in the way of
changes of this kind. Hence the revolutions in reli¬
gion have been but few, and the duration of aim oft
any religion, of longer danding than the mod cele¬
brated empires ; the changes which have happened,
in general have acquired a long time to bring them
about, and hiftory fcarce affords an inftance of the
religion of any nation being effentially and fuddenly
changed for another.
With regard to the origin of.religion, we mud have
recourfe to the Scriptures; and are as neceffarily con-
drained to adopt the account there given, as w,e are
to adopt that of the creation given in the' fame
book ; namely, becaufe no other hath made its ap¬
pearance which feems in any degree rational, or con-,
fiftent with itfelf.—In what manner the true religion
given
Sea. II.
HISTORY.
3667
Ecclefia- given to Adam was faifified or corrupted by his de-
?'cal feendants before the flood, doth not clearly appear from
1 01^' .Scripture, Idolatry is not mentioned : neverthelefs
we are afliired that the inhabitants of the world were
then exceedingly wicked ; and as their wickednefs did
not confifl. in worfliipping falfe gods, it may be con¬
cluded that they worfhipped none at all ; i. e. that
j, the crime of the antediluvians was deifm or atbeifm.
Origin of After the flood, idolatry quickly made its appear-
idotatry. ance ; but what gave rife to it, is not certainly known.
This fuperftition indeed feems to be natural to man,
efpecially when placed in fuch a fituation that he hath
little opportunity of inltruftion, or of improving his
rational faculties. This feems alfo probable from a
caution given to the Jews, left, when they looked up
to the fun, moon, and ftars, and the reft of the holt
of heaven, they ftiould be driven to, 'worfhip them. The
origin of idolatry among the Syrians and Arabians,
and alfo in Greece, is therefore accounted for with
great probability in the following manner by the au¬
thor of The Ruins of Bailee. “ In thofe uncomfort¬
able defarts, where the (stay prefents nothing to the view
but the uniform, tedious, and melancholy profpedl of
barren fands, xht night difclofes a moft delightful and
magnificent fpe&acle, andappears arrayed with charms
of the moft attraftive kind. For the moft part un¬
clouded and ferene, it exhibits to the wondering eye
the hoft of heaven in all their variety and glory. In
the view of this ftupendous feene, the tranfition from
admiration to idolatry was too eafy to uninftruAed
minds; and a people whofe climate offered no beau¬
ties to contemplate but thofe of the firmament, would
naturally look thither for the objefts of their worlhip.
The form of idolatry in Greece was different from
that of the Syrians, which perhaps may be attributed
to that finding and variegated feene of mountains,
valleys, rivers, woods, groves, and fountains, which
the tranfported imagination, in the midft of its plea-
fing aftoniftiment, fuppofed to be the feats of invifible
deities.
A difficulty, however, arifes on this fuppofition;
for if idolatry is naturally produced in the mind of
uninftru&ed and favage man, from a view of the cre¬
ation, why hath not idolatry of fome kind or other
taken place among all the different nations of the
world. This certainly hath not been the cafe ; of
which the moft linking examples are the Perfians of
old, and the Moguls in more modern times. Both
thefe nations were ftrift Deifts: fo that we muft al¬
low fome other caufes to concur in producing idolatry
befides thofe already mentioned ; and of thefe caufes
an imperfeft and obfeure notion of the true religion
feems to be the moft probable.
General ac- Though idolatry, therefore, was formerly very
count of prevalent, it neither extended over the whole earth,
the Hea- nor were the fuperftitions of the idolaters all of one
ilhions?er kind. Every nation had its refpe&ive gods, over
which one more excellent than the reft was faid to
prefide; yet in fuch a manner, that this fupreme deity
himfelf was controuled by the rigid empire of the
fates, or by what philofophers called eternal neceffity.
The gods of the eaft were different from thofe of the
Gauls, the Germans, and the other northern nations.
The Grecian divinities differed widely from thofe of
the Egyptians, who deified plants, animals, and a great
variety of the produ&ibns both of nature and art. Ecclefia-
Each people alfo had their own particular manner of
worlhipping and appeafing their refpedtive deities, y*
entirely different from the facred rites of other coun¬
tries. All this variety of religions, however, produ¬
ced neither wars nor diffenfions among the different
nations; each nation fuffered its neighbours to follow
their own method of worlhip, without difeovering
any difpleafure on that account. There is nothing
furpriling in this mutual toleration, when we confider,
that they all looked upon the world as one great em¬
pire, divided into various provinces, over each of which
a certain order of divinities prefided ; for which reafon
they imagined that none could behold with contempt
the gods of other nations, or force ftrangers to pay
homage to theirs.—The Romans exercifed this tolera¬
tion in the moft ample manner; for though they
would not allow any change to be made in the reli¬
gions that were publicly profeffed. in the empire, nor
any new form of worlhip to be openly introduced, yet
they granted to their citizens a full liberty of obfer-
ving in private the facred rites of other nations, and
of honouring foreign deities as they thought proper.
The heathen deities were honoured with rites and
facrifices of various kinds, according to their refpec-
tive natures and offices. Their rites were abfurd and
ridiculous; while the priefts, appointed to prefide over
this ftrange worlhip, abufed their authority, by de¬
ceiving and impofing upon the people in the groffeft
manner. J3
From the time of the flood to the coming of State of re-
Chrift, idolatry prevailed among almoft all the nations at ar
of the world, the Jews alone excepted; and even ance8©^^*
they were on all occafions ready to run into it, as is Chrift.
evident from their hiftory in the Old Teftament. At
the time of Chrift’s appearance, the religion of the
Romans, as well as their empire, extended over a
great part of the world. Some people there were
among the heathens who perceived the abfurdities of
that fyftem ; but being deftitute of means, as well as
of abilities, to effedl a reformation, matters went on
in their old way. Though there were at that time
various fe&s of philofophers, yet all of them proceed¬
ed upon falfe principles, and confequently could be of
no fervice to the advancement or reformation of reli¬
gion. Nay, fome, among whom were the Epicureans
and Academics, declared openly againft every kind
of religion whatever.
Two religions at this time flouriftied in Paleftine,
viz. The Jewifh and Samaritan ; between whofe re-
fpeefive followers reigned the moft violent hatred and
contempt. The difference between them feems to
have been chiefly about the place of worfhip ; which
the Jews would have to be in Jerufalem, and the Sa¬
maritans on Mount Gerizzim. But though the Jews
were certainly right as to this point, they had greatly
corrupted their religion in other fefpecls. They ex-
pe&ed a Saviour indeed, but they miftook his charac¬
ter; imagining that he was to be a powerful and war¬
like prince, who fhould fet them free from the Roman
yoke, which they bore with the utmoft impatience.
They alfo imagined that the whole of religion cohfift-
ed in obferving the rites of Mofes, and fome others
which they had added to them, without the lead, re¬
gard to what is commonly called morality or virtue ;
3^68 HISTORY. Sed. II.
Ecclefia- as is evident from the many charges our Saviour brings
Hiftor' aga*r,ft the Pharifees, who had the greatefl reputa-
— -1. tion for fandfity among the whole nation. To thefe
corrupt and vicious principles they added feveral ab-
furd and fuperftitious notions concerning the divine
nature, invifible powers, magic, &c. which they had
partly imbibed during the Babylonian captivity, and
partly derived from their neighbours in Arabia, Sy¬
ria, and Egypt. The principal fedls among them
were the Essenes or Effenians, Pharisees, and Sad-
ducees. The Samaritans, according to the molt ge¬
neral opinion had corrupted their religion ftill more
than the Jews. *
When the true religion was preached by the Savi¬
our of mankind, it is not to be wondered at if he be¬
came on that account obnoxious to a people fo deeply
funk in corruption and ignorance as the Jews then
were. It is not here requifite to enter into the par¬
ticulars of the de&rine advanced by him, or of the
cppofition he met with from the Jews ; as a full
account of thefe things, and likewife of the
preaching of the gofpel by the Apoftles, may be
found in the New Teftament.—The rapid progrefs of
the Chrillian religion, under thefe faithful and infpi-
red minitlers, foon alarmed the Jews, and railed vari¬
ous perfecutions againft its followers. The Jews, in¬
deed, feem at firft to have been every where the chief
promoters of perfecution ; for we find that they offi-
cioufly went from place to place, where-ever they heard
of the increafe of the gofpel, and by their calumnies
and falfe fuggeftions endeavoured to excite the peo¬
ple againft the Apoftles. The Heathens, however,
though at firft they fhowed no very violent fpirit of
perfecution againft the Chriftians, foon came to hate
them as much as the Jews themfelves. Tacitus ac¬
quaints us with the caufes of this hatred, when fpeak-
ing of the firft general perfecution under Nero. That
inhuman emperor having, as was fuppofed, fet fire to
the city of Rome, to avoid the imputation of this
,55, wickednefs, transferred it on the Chriftians. Our
iwcormt of aut^or informs us that they were already abhorred on
the firft account of their many and enormous crimes. “ The
perfecution author of this name (Cbrijlians')” fays he, “ was
by Nero. Christ, who, in the reign of Tiberius, was execu¬
ted under Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judsea. The
peftilent fuperftition was for a while fupprefted : but
it revived again, and fpread, not only over Judaea,
where this evil was firft broached; but reached Rome,
whither from every quarter of the earth is conftantly
flowing whatever is hideous and abominable amongft
men, and is there readily embraced and praftifed.
Firft, therefore, were apprehended fuch as openly
avowed themfelves to be of that fe&; then by them
were difcovered an immenfe multitude; and all were
convidted, not of the crime of burning Rome, but
of hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and
tortures were aggravated by cruel derifion and fport;
for they were either covered with the fkins of wild
beafts and torn in pieces by devouring dogs, or faften-
ed to croft'es, or wrapped up-in combuftiblegarments,
that, when the day-light failed, they might, like
torches, ferve to difptl the darknefs of the night.
Hence, towards the rniferabie fufferers, however guil¬
ty and deferving the moll examplary punilhment, com¬
panion arofe ; feeing they were doomed to peril!], not
with a view to the public good, but to gratify the Ecc!efii-.S
cruelty of one man.” ftical |
That this account of Tacitus is downright mifre- *llflory‘ ;
prefentation and calumny, muft be evident to every
one who reads it. It is impoflible that any perfon
can he convidled of hatred and enmity to mankind,
without fpecifying a number of fails by which this
hatred {hewed itfelf. The burning of Rome would
indeed have been a very plain indication of enmity to
mankind; but of this Tacitus himfelf clears them,
and mentions no other crime of which they were guil¬
ty. It is probable, therefore, that the only reafon
of this charge againft the Chriftians, was their abfo-
lute refufal to have any lhare in the Roman worlhip,
or to countenance the abfurd fuperftitions of Paga-
nifm in any degree.
The perfecution under Nero was fucceeded by ano- 1
ther under Domitian, during which the Apoftle John perfecution,
was banifhed to Patmos, where he faw the vilions, and
wrote the book called his Revelation, which completes
the canon of Scripture. This perfecution commen¬
ced in the 95th year of the Chriftian aera ; and John
is fuppofed to have wrote his Revelation the year af¬
ter, or in the following one.
During the firft century, the Chriftian religion
fpread over a great number of different countries ; but
as we have now no athentic records concerning the
travels of the apoftles, or the fuccefs which attended
them in their miniftry, it was impoflible to determine
how far the gofpel was carried during this period. We
are, however, aflured, that even during this early pe¬
riod many corruptions were creeping in, the progrefs
of which was with difficulty prevented even by the
apoftles themfelves. Some corrupted their profeflion
by a mixture of Judaifm, others by mixing it with the
oriental philofophy; while others were already at¬
tempting to deprive their brethren of liberty, fetting
themfelves up as eminent paftors, in oppofition even to
the apoftles, as we learn from the epiftles of St Paul, and
the third epiftle of St John. Hence arofe the feds of
the Gnoftics, Cerinthians, Nicolaitans, Nazarenes,
Ebionites, &c. with which the church was troubled
during this century.
Concerning the ceremonies and method of worfhip
ufed by the Chriftians of the firft; century, it is impof-
fible to fay any thing with certainty. Neither is the
church order, government, and difcipline, during this
period, afcertained with any degree of exa&nefs. Each
of thofe parties, therefore, which exift at this day,
contends with the greateft earneftnefs for that particu¬
lar mode of worlhip which they themfelves have adopt-
ted, and fome of the moft bigotted would willingly
monopolife the word church in fuch a manner as to ex¬
clude from all hope of falvation every one who is not
attacked to their particular party. It doth not how¬
ever appear that, excepting baptifm, the Lord’s flip¬
per, and anointing the fick with oil, any external ce¬
remonies or fymbols were properly of divine appoint¬
ment. According to Dr Moiheim, “ there are feve¬
ral circumftances which inclines us to think, that the
friends and apoftles of our blefied Lord either tolerated
through necejfity, or appointed for wife reafons, many
other external rites in various places. At the fame
time, we are not to imagine, that they ever conferred
upon any perfon a perpetual, indelible, pontifical au¬
thority.
Sea. II.
HISTORY.
3669
Ecckfia- thon’ty, or that they enjoined the fame rites in all
ftical churches. We learn on the contrary, from authentic
1 ory‘ records, that the Chrillian worlhip was, from the be¬
ginning, celebrated in a different manner in different
places ; and that, no doubt, by the orders, or at leaft
with the approbation, of the apoflles and their difci-
ples. In thofe early times, it was both wife and ne-
ceffary to /hew, in the eftabli/hment of outward forms
of wor/hip, fome indulgence to the ancient opinions,
manners, and laws, of the refpedtive nations to whom
ss the gofpel was preached.”
Hiflory of The fecond century commences with the third year
centu^011^ l^e en'Peror Trajan. The Chriftians were Hill per-
fecuted; but as the Roman emperors were for the moft
part of this century princes of a mild and moderate
turn, they perfecuted lefs violently than formerly.
Marcus Aurelius, notwith(landing the clemency and
philofophy for which he is fo much celebrated, treated
the Chrillians worfe than Trajan, Adrian, or even
Severus himfelf did, who was noted for his cruelty.
This refpite from rigorous perfecution proved a very
favourablecirCumftaneefor the fpreadingof theChriftian
religion ; yet it is by no means eafy to point out the
particular countries through which it was diffufed. We
are, however, affured, that, in the fecond century, Chrift
was wor/hipped as God almoft through the whole eaft;
as alfo among the Germans, Spaniards, Celts, and
many other nations: but which of them received the
gofpel in thehrft century, and •which in the fecond, is a
queftion unanfwerable at this diftance of time. The
writers of this century attribute the rapid progrefs of
Chriftianity chiefly to the extraordinary gifts that
were imparted to the firll Chriftians, and the miracles
which were wrought at their command ; without fup-
pofing that any part of the fuccefs ought to be afcribed
to the intervention of human means, or fecondary cau-
fes. Many of the moderns, however, are fo far from
being of this opinion, that they are willing either to
deny the authenticity of all miracles faid to have been
wrought fince the days of the apoftles, or to afcribe
them to the power of the devil. To enter into the
particulars of this controverfy is foreign to ourprefent
purpofe; for which reafon we muft refer to the writers
of polemic divinity, who have largely treated of this
sS and other points of a fimilar nature.
Ceremonies The corruptions which had been introduced in the
multiplied, firft century, and which were almoft coeval with Chri¬
ftianity itfelf, continued to gain ground in the fecond.
Ceremonies, in themfelves futile and ufelefs, but which
muft be confidered as highly pernicious when joined
to a religion incapable of any other ornament than the
upright and virtuous conduft of its profeffors, were
multiplied for no other purpofe than to pleafe the igno¬
rant multitude. The immediate confequence of this
was, that the attention of Chriftians was drawn afidefrom
the important duties of morality; and they were led to
imagine, that a careful obfervance of the ceremonies
might make amends for the negltft of moral duties.
This was the moft pernicious opinion that could pof-
fibly be entertained; and was indeed the very foun¬
dation of that enormous fyftem of ecclefiaftical power
which afterwards took place, and held the whole world
S7 in flavery and barbarifm for many ages.
Myfteries Another mifchief was the introdudion of inyfieriesy
introduced. Vol. V.
as they were called, into the Chriftian religion; that is, Ecclefia-
infinuating, that fome parts of'the worlhip in common Pici1
life had *a hidden efficacy and power, far fuperior to tory-
the plain and obvious meaning affigned to them by the
vulgar: and by paying peculiar refped to thefe myjle-
ries, the pretended teachers of the religion of Jefus
accommodated their do&rines to the talle of their
heathen neighbours, whofe religion confided in a heap
of myfteries, of which nobody knew the meaning.
By thefe, and other means of a limilar kind, the The teach-
Chriftian pallors greatly abridged the liberty of their ers alfame
flock. Being matters of the ceremonies and myfterics a °”
of the Chriftian religion, they had it in their power to pCOpic.
make their followers worfhip and believe whatever they
thought proper, and this they did not fail to make life
of for their own advantage. They perfuaded the peo¬
ple, that the minifters of theChriftian church fucceed-
ed to the character, rights, and privileges, of the Jewilh
priefthood ; and accordingly, the bilhops coniidered
themfelves as invelled with a rank and charadter fimi¬
lar to thofe of the high-prieft among the Jews, while
the pre/byters reprefented the priefts, and the deacons
the Reviles. This notion, which was firft introduced
in the reign of Adrian, proved a fource of very confi-
derable honour and profit to the clergy. ^
The form of ecclefiaftical government was in this Form of
century rendered permanent and uniform. One in- church go-
fpedlor or bilhop prefided over each Chritlian affembly, ’vernmem.
to which office he was eledled by the voices of the
whole people. To affill him in his office, he formed
a council of pre/byters, which was not confined to any
ftated number. To the bilhops and pre/byters the
minillers or deacons were fubjeft ; and the latter were
divided into a variety of claffes, as the different exigen¬
cies of the church required. During a great part of
this century, the churches were independent of each
oth'er; nor were they joined together by affociation,
confederacy, or any other bonds but thofe of charity.
Each aifembly was a little ftate governed by its own
laws ; which were either enabled, or at leaft approved
of, by the fociety. But, in proCefs of time, all the
Chriftian churches of a province were formed into one
large fcclefiaftical body, which, like confederate ftates,
affembled at certain times, in order to deliberate about
the common interells of the whole. This inftitution
had its origin among the Greeks; but in a fiiort time
it became univerfal, and fimilar affemblies were form¬
ed in all places where the gofpel had been planted.
Thefe affemblies, w’hich confifted of the deputies or
commiffioners from feveral churches, were called fynods
by the Greeks, and cowicils by the Latins ; and the
lawsena&ed in thefe general meetings were called ca-
nons, i. e. ru/es. 6a
Thefe councils, of which we find not the fmalleft changes
trace before the middle of this century,'changed the produced
whole face of the church, and gave it a new form; for Jit thc in*
by them the ancient privileges of the people were con- of
fiderably diminilhed, and the power and authority of
the bifhops greatly augmented. The humility indeed,
and prudence, of thefe pious prelates hindered them
from affuming all at once the power with which they
were a/terwards inve/led. At their firft appearance in
thefe general councils, they acknowledged that they
were no more than the delegates of their refpeftive
20 Z churches,
3670 H I S T
Ecclefia- clnirches, and that they afled In the name and by the
appointment of their people. But they foon changed
  IZl this humble tone; Imperceptibly extended the limits of
their authority ; turned their influence into dominion,
their counfels into laws ; and at length openly aflerted,
that Chrift had empowered them to prefcribe to his
people authoritative rules of faith and. manners. Ano¬
ther effedt of thefe councils was the gradual abolition
of that perfeft equality which reigned among all bi-
fhops in the primitive times. For the order and de¬
cency of thefe aflemblies required, that fome one of
the provincial bilhops met in council (hould be inveft-
ed with a fuperior degree of power and authority ; and
hence the rights of Metropolitans derive their origin.
In the mean time, the bounds of the church were en¬
larged ; the cultom of holding councils was followed
wherever the found of the gofpel had reached ; and the
univerfal church had now the appearance of one vafl; re¬
public formed by a combination of a great number of
little Hates. This occafioned the creation of a new or ¬
der of ecclefiaftics, who were appointed in different
parts of the world as heads of the church, and whofe
office it was to preferve the confiftence and union of
that immenfe body, whofe members were fo widely
difperfed throughout the nations. Such was the na¬
ture and office of the Patriarchs ; among whom, at
length, ambition, being arrived at its mod infolent
period, formed a new dignity, invefting the bifhop of
Rome with the title and authority of the prince of the
<Sz patriarchs.
Account of During the fecond century, all the fedls continued
the Afce- which had fprung up in the firft, with the addition of
tics. feveral others, the mod remarkable of which were the
Jfcetics. Thefe owed their rife to an error propaga¬
ted by fome doftors of the church, who afferted that
Chrid had edablifhed a double rule of fanttity and vir¬
tue for two different orders of Chridians. Of thefe
rules, one was ordinary, the other extraordinary; the
one of a lower dignity, the other more fublime : the
fird for perfons in the aftive feenes of life ; the other
for thofe who, in a facred retreat, afpired after the
glory of a celeflial date. In confequence of this fy-
ilem, they divided into two parts all thofe moral doc¬
trines and indru&ions, which they had received either
by writing or tradition. One of thefe divifions they
called precepts, and the other counfels. They gave the
.name of precepts to thofe laws that were univerfally
obligatory upon all orders of men ; and that of coun¬
fels to thofe which related to Chridians of a more fub-
jime rank, who propofed to themfelves great and glo¬
rious ends, and breathed after an intimate communion
with the Supreme Being.—Thus were produced all
at once a new fet of men, who made pretenfions^ to
uncommon fan&ity and virtue, and declared their re-
folution of obeying all the precepts and counfels of
Chrid, in order to their enjoyment of communion
with God here; and alfo that, after the diffolution of
their mortal bodies, they might afeend to him with
the greater facility, and find nothing to retard their
approach to the centre of happinefs and perfection.
They looked upon themfelves as prohibited from the
ufe of things which it was lawful for other Chridian|,
to enjoy, fuch as wine, flelh, matrimony, and com¬
merce. They thought it their indifpenfable duty to
extenuate their body by watchings, abftinence, labour.
O II Y. Sea. II.
and hunger. They looked for felicity in folitary re- Ecclefia-
treats, and defart places; where, by fevere and alfidu- |
ous efforts of fublime meditation, they railed the foul 1 ory' . .
above all external objefts, and all fenfual pleafures.
They were didinguilhed from other Chridians, not
only by their title of Slfcetics, Sa-aJWi, Ejo-cxtoi, and
philofophers, but alfo by their garb. In this century,
indeed, thofe who embraced fuch an audere kind of life,
fubmitted themfelves to all thefe mortifications in pri¬
vate, without breaking afunder their focial bands, or
withdrawing themfelves from mankind ; but in procefs
of time they retired into defarts, and, after the exam¬
ple of the Effeues and Therapeutae, they formed them¬
felves into certain companies.
This audere fe£t arofe from an opinion which has
been more or lefs prevalent in all ages and in all coun¬
tries, namely, That religion confilis more in prayers,
meditations, and a kind of fecret intercourfe with
God, than in fulfilling the focial duties of life in a£ts 1
of benevolence and humanity to mankind. Nothing
can be more evident than that the Scripture reckons
the fulfilling of thefe infinitely fupertor to the obfer-
vance of all the ceremonies that can be imagined : yet
it fomehow or other happens, that almod every bo¬
dy is more inclined to oblerve the ceremonial part of
devotion, than the moral ; and hence, according to the
different humours or conditutions of different perfons,
there have been numberlefs forms of Chridianity, andl
the mod virulent contentions among thofe who pro-
feffed themfelves followers of the Prince of Peace.
It is obvious, that if the moral conduft of Chridians
was to be made the dandard of faith, indead of fpe-
culative opinions, al] thefe divifions mud ceafe in a
moment; but while Chridianity, or any part of it, is
made to confid in fpeculation, or the obfervance of
ceremonies, it is impoffible there can be any end of
fedts or herefies. No opinion whatever is fo abfurd,
but fome people have pretended to argue in its defence ;
and no ceremony fo infignificant, but it hatli been ex¬
plained and fandtified by hot-headed enthufiads : and
hence ceremonies, fedfs, and abfurdities, have been
multiplied without number, to the prejudice of fo-
ciety and of the Chridian religion.—This ffiort rela¬
tion of the rife of the Afcetic left will alfo ferve to
account for the rife of any other; fo that we appre¬
hend it is needlefs to enter into particulars concerning
the red, as they all took their origin from the fame
general principle varioufly modified, according to
the different difpofitions of mankind.
The Afcetic fedl began fird in Egypt, from whence
it paffed into Syria and the neighbouring countries.
At length it reached the European nations : and hence
that train of audere and fuperditious vows and rites
which totally obfeured, or rather annihilated, Chridi¬
anity ; the celibacy of the clergy, and many other ab¬
furdities of the like kind.—The errors of the Afce-
tics, however, did not dop here. In compliance with
the doftrines of fome Pagan philofophers, they af¬
firmed that it was not only lawful, but even praife-wor¬
thy to deceive, and to ufe the expedient of a lie, in order
to advance the caufe of piety and truth ; and hence
the pious frauds for which the church of Rome hath
been fo notorious, and with which die hath been fo
often and juflly reproached.
As Chridians thus deviated more and more from
the
Sea II.
H I S T O R Y.
367i
•Ecdefia- the true praftice of their religion, they became more
Ihcai zealous in the external profefiion of it. Anniverfary
 1 ory' feftivals were celebrated in commemoration of the death
6i and refurre&ion of Chfilt, and of the effufion of the
Contefts Holy Ghoft on the apoftles. Concerning the days
concerning on which thefe feftivals were to be kept, there arofe
fertivals- vi0lent cOntefts. The Aliatic churches in general dif¬
fered in this point from thofe of Europe ; and towards
the conclufion of the century, Viftor, bifliopof Rome,
took it in his head to force the eaftern churches to
follow the rules laid down by the weftern ones. This
they abfolutely refufed to comply with : upon which
Viftor cut them off from communion with the church
of Rome; though, by means of the interccffion of
fome prudent people, the difference was made up for
64 the prefent.
Third cen- During moft of the third century, the Chriftians
| tury’ were allowed to enjoy their religion, fuch as it was,
without moleftation. The emperors Maximinus and
Decius, indeed, made them feel all the rigours of a
fevere perfecution ; but their reigns were Ihort, and
from the death of Decius to the time of Diocletian
the church enjoyed tranquillity. Thus vaft multitudes
were converted ; but at the fame time, the do&rine
grew daily more corrupt, and the lives of profeffed
Chriftians more wicked and fcandalous. New ceremo¬
nies were invented in great numbers, and an unaccount¬
able paffion now prevailed for the oriental fuperftitions
concerning demons; whence proceeded the whole train
of exorcifms, fpells, and fears for the apparition of
evil fpirits, which to this day are nowhere eradicated.
Hence alfo the cuftom of avoiding all connexions
with thofe who were not baptized, or who lay under
the penalty of excommunication, as perfons fuppofed
to be under the dominion of fome evil fpirit. And
hence the rigour and feverity of that difeipline and
penance impofed upon thofe who had incurred, by
their immortalities, the cenfures of the church—Se¬
veral alterations were now made in the manner of ce¬
lebrating the Lord’s fupper. The prayers ufed on
this otcafion were lengthened, and the folemnity and
pomp with which it was attended were confiderably
increafed. Gold and filver veffels were ufed in the ce¬
lebration ; it was thought effential tofalvation, and for
that reafon adminiftered even to infants.—Baptifm was
celebrated twice a-year to fuch as, after a long courfe
of trial and preparation, offered themfelves candidates.
The remiffion of fins was thought to be its immediate
confequence ; while the bifhop, by prayer and impo-
fition of hands, was fuppofed to confer thofe fanXify-
ing gifts of the Holy Ghoft, that are neceffary to
a life of righteoufnefs and virtue. An evil demon was
fuppofed naturally to refide in every perfon, who was
the author and fource of all the corrupt difpofitions
and unrighteous aXions of that perfon. The driving
out of this demon was therefore an effential requifite
for baptifm ; and, in confequence of this opinion, the
baptized perfons returned home clothed in white gar¬
ments, and adorned with crowns, as facred emblems,
the former of their inward purity and innocence, and
the latter of their viXory over fin and the world.—
Failing began now to be held in more efteem than for¬
merly. A high degree of fanXity was attributed to
this praXice; it was even looked upon as indifpenfa-
bly neceffary, from a notion that the demons direXed
their force chiefly againft thofe who pampered them- EccleHa-
felves with delicious fare, and were lefs troublefome
to the lean and hungry who lived under the feverities
of a rigorous abftinence.—The fign of the crofs alfo
was fuppofed to adminifter a viXorious power overall
forts of trials and calamities ; and was more efpecially
confidered as the fureft defence againft the fnares and
ftratagems of malignant fpirits ; for which reafon, no
Chriftian undertook any thing of moment, without
arming himfelf, as he imagined, with the power of
this triumphant fign.—The herefies which troubled
the church during this century, were the Gnoftics,
(whofe doXrines were new-modelled and improved by
Manes, from whom they were afterwards chiefly call¬
ed A/rf/wdierf/W) ; the Hiep.acites, Noetians, Sa-
bellians, and Novatians j fora particular account
of which, fee thofe articles. - 6;
The fourth century is remarkable for the eftablifh- Fourthcen-
ment of Chriftianity by law in the Roman empire ;tury'
which, however, did not take place till the year 324.
In the beginning of the century, the empire was go¬
verned by four chiefs, viz. Dioclefian, Maximian,
Conftantius Chlorus, and Galerius, under whom the
church enjoyed a perfeX toleration. Dioclefian, tho’
much addiXed to fuperftition, had no ill-will againft:
the Chriftians; and Conftantius Chlorus, having aban¬
doned polytheifm, treated them with condefcenfion
and benevolence. This alarmed the Pagan priefts,
whofe interefts were fo clofely conneXed with the
continuance of the ancient fuperftitions ; and who
apprehended, not without reafon, that the Chriftian
religion would at length prevail throughout the em¬
pire. To prevent the downfal of the Pagan fuperfti¬
tion, therefore, they applied to Dioclefian and Gale¬
rius Casfar; by whom a moft bloody perfecution was
commenced in the year 303, and continued till 311.
An afylum, however, was opened for the Chriftians in
the year 304. Galerius having dethroned Dioclefian
and Maximian, declared himfelf emperor in the eaft;
leaving all the weftern provinces, to which great num¬
bers of Chriftians reforted to avoid the cruelty of the
former, to Conftantius Chlorus. At length Galerius,
being overtaken with an incurable and dreadful
difeafe, publiihed an ediX ordering the perfecution
to ceafe, and reftoring freedom to the Chriftians,
whom he had moft inhumanly oppreffed for eight 66
years. Galerius died the fame year: and in a fhort Chriftia-
time after, when Conftantine the Great afeended the nj.ty efl:a'
throne, the Chriftians were freed from any farther un- Conftan-y
eafinefs, by his abrogating all the penal laws againft tine,
them; and afterwards iffuiugediXs, by which no other
religion than the Chriftian was tolerated throughout
the empire.
This event however, fo favourable to the outward increafe of
peace of the church, was far from promoting its internal its comip-
harmony, or the reformation of its leaders. The clergy, ti0*15’
who had all this time been augmenting theirpower at the
expence of the liberty of the people, now fet no bounds
to their ambition. The bifiiop of Rome was the firft in
rank, and diftinguifhed by a fort of pre-eminency above
the reft of the prelates. He furpaffed all his brethren
in the magnificence and fplendor of the church over
which he prefided; in the riches of his revenues and
poffefiions; in the number and variety of his mlhifters ;
in his credit with the people, and in his fumptuous
20 Z 2 and
3672 HIS’
licclcfu- and fplendid manner of Hying. Hence it happened
BUtCat t^at W^en a new Pont’ff was t0 chofen by the
' ory~ prefbyters and people, the city of Rome was generally
agitated with difienlions, tumults, and cabals, which
often produced fatal confequences. The intrigues and
elilturbances which prevailed in that city in the year
366, when, upon the death of Tiberius, another pon¬
tiff was to be chofen in his place, are a fufficient proof
of what we have advanced. Upon this occafion, one
faftion ele&ed Damafus to that high dignity; while
the oppolite party chofe Urficinus, a deacon of the
vacant church, to fucceed Liberius. This double
deftion gave rife to a dangerous fchifm, and to a fort
of civil war within the city of Rome; which was car¬
ried on with the utmoft barbarity and fury, and pro¬
duced the moft cruel maflacres and defolations. The
inhuman contell ended in the vi&ory of Damafus; but
whether his caufe was more juft than that of Urficinus,
is not fo eafily determined.
Notwithftanding the pomp and fplendor which
furrounded the Roman fee, it is certain that the bi-
fhops of Rome had not yet acquired that pre-emi¬
nence of power and jurifdi&ion which they after¬
wards. enjoyed. In the ecclefiaftical commonwealth,
indeed, they were the moft eminent order of citizens;
but ftill they were citizens as well as their brethren,
and fubjed, like them, to the laws and edifts of the
emperors. All religious caufes of extraordinary im¬
portance were examined and determined, either by
Judges appointed by the emperors, or in councils af-
fembled for that purpofe; while thofe of inferior mo¬
ment were decided in each diftrid by its refpedive
bifhop. The ecclefiaftical laws were enaded either
by the emperor or councils. None of the bifhops ac¬
knowledged that they derived their authority from the
permiffion and appointment of the bifhop of Rome,
or that they were created bifhops by the favour of the
apojiolic fee. On the contrary, they all maintained
that they were the ambafiadors and minifters of Jefus
Chrift, and that their authority was derived from above.
It muft, however, be obferved, that even in this cen¬
tury, feveral of thofe fteps were laid, by which the
bilhops of Rome mounted afterwards to the fummit
of ecclefiaftical power and defpotifm. This happened
partly by the imprudence of the emperors, partly by
the dexterity of the Roman prelates themfelves, and
partly by the inconfiderate zeal and precipitate judg¬
ment of certain bilhops.—The imprudence of the em¬
peror, and precipitation of the bilhops, were remark¬
ably difeovered in the following event, which favoured
extremely the ambition of the Roman pontiff. About
the year 372, Valentinian enabled a law, empowering
the bilhop of Rome to examine and judge other bi¬
fhops, that religious difputes might not be decided by
any profane or fecular judges. The bilhops, affcmbled
in council at Rome in 378, not confidering the fatal
confequences that muft arife from this imprudent law
both to themfelves and ta the church, declared their
approbation in the ftrongeft terms, and recommended
the execution of it in their addrefs to the emperor
Gratian. Some think, indeed, that this law empowered
the Roman bifhop to judge only the bifhops within
the limits of his jurifdifftion; others, that his power
was given only for a certain time, and for a particular
purpofe. This laft notion feems the moft probable;
r O R Y. Sea. II.
but ftill this privilege muft have been an excellent in- Ecdefii-
ftrument in the hands of facerdotal ambition. j
By the removal of the feat of empire to Conftanti.- . .
nopie, the emperor raifed up, in the bifhop of this gg
new metropolis, a formidable opponent to the bifhop Bilhops of
of Rome, and a bulwark which threatened a vigorous ^ome a.IKl
oppofition to his growing authority. For as the em- n°piea"j7ai
peror, in order to render Conftantinople a fecond each other.
Rome, enriched it with all the rights and privileges,
honours and ornaments, of the ancient capital of the
world; fo its bifiiop, meafuring his own dignity and
rank by the magnificence of the new city, and its
eminence as the refidence of the emperor, affumed an
equal degree of dignity with the bifhop of Rome,
and claimed a fuperiority over the reft of the epifcopal
order. Nor did the emperors difapprOve of thefe high
pretenfions, fince they confidered their own dignity as
connefted in* a certain meafure with that of the bilhop
of their imperial city. Accordingly, in a council held
at Conftantinople, in the year 381, by the authority
of Theodofius the Great, the bifiiop of that city was,
during the abfence of the bifhop of Alexandria, and
againll: the confent of the Roman prelate, placed by
the third canon of that council in the firft rank after
the bifhop of Rome, and confequently above thofe of
Alexandria and Antioch. Neftarius was the firft bi¬
fiiop who enjoyed thefe new honours accumulated
upon the fee of Conftantinople. His fucceffor, the
celebrated John Chryfoftom, extended Hill farther the
privileges of that fee, and fubmitted to its jurifdicHon
all Thrace, Afia, and Pontus ; nor were the fucceed-
ing bifhops of that imperial city deftitute of a fervent
zeal to augment their privileges, and extend their do¬
minion. By this unexpe&cd promotion, the moft
difagreeable effefts were produced. The bifhops of
Alexandria were not only filled with the moft invete¬
rate hatred againft thofe of Conftantinople, but a con¬
tention was excited between the bifhops of Rome and
Conftantinople; which, after being carried on for
many ages, concluded at laft in the reparation of the
Greek and Latin churches. tfp
Conftantine the Great, in order to prevent civil com-
motions, and to fix his authority on a ftable and folid
foundation, made feveral changes not only in the laws eftabiiflied
of the empire, but alfo in the form of the Roman go- by Con-
vernment. And as there were many important reafons ftantine.
which inducedhimtofuittheadminiftrationof the church
to thefe changes in the civil conftitution, this neceffarily
introduced among the bifhops new degrees of emi¬
nence and rank. The four bifhops, of Rome, Conftan¬
tinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, were diftinguifhed by
a certain degree of pre-eminence over the reft. Thefe
four prelates anfwered to the four praetorian prefers
created by Conftantine; and it is pofiible, that even
in this century they were diftinguifhed by the Jewifh
title of patriarchs. After thefe followed the exarchs,
who bail the infpe&ion over feveral provinces, and an¬
fwered to the appointment of certain civil officers who
bore the fame title. In a lower clafs were the metro¬
politans, who had only the government of one province;
under whom were the archbifbops, whofe infpe&ion
was confined to certain diftrids. In this gradation
the bifhops brought up the rear; but the fphere of
their authority was not in all places equally extenfive;
being in fome confiderably ample, and in others con¬
fined
Hillory.
Sea. ir.
Ecclefia- fined within narrow limits1.
aftical orders we might add that of the chorepifcopi, or
. fuperintendants of the country-churches; but this la ft
order was in moft places fuppvefled by the bifhops., with
a defign to extend their own authority, and enlarge
the fphere of their power and jurifdidfion. The admi-
niftration of the church itfelf was divided by Conftan-
tine into an external and internal infpe&ion. The lat¬
ter, which was committed to bilhops and councils, re¬
lated to religious controverfies, the forms of divine
worfhip, the offices of priefts, the vices of the ecde-
HISTORY.
To thefe varices ecclefi- of their refpe&ive orders.
3673
Ecclefia-
In the fifth century, the biftiops of Conflar.tinople
having already reduced under their jurifdidfion all the 0
Afiatic provinces, began to grafp at ftill further accef- 7,
fions of power. By the 28th canon of the council held Conteftsbe-'
at Chalcedon in 451, it was refolved, that the fame‘vv^en tlie
fame rights and honours which had been conferred on
the bifiiop of Rome were due to the bifhop of Conftan- Conftanti-
tinople, on account of the eqnal dignity and luftre of nople.
the two cities in which thefe prelates exercifed their
authority. The fame council confirmed alfo, by a fo-
fiafticai orders, &c. The external adminiftration of lemn acf, the bifhop of Conftantinople in the fpiritual
the church the emperor affumed to himfelf. This com’
prehended all thole things which related to the out¬
ward ftate and difeipline of the church; it likewife ex¬
tended to all contefts that fhould arife between the mi-
nifters of the church, fuperior as well as inferior, con¬
cerning their pofi'effions, their reputation, their rights
and privileges, their offences againft the laws, &c. but
no controverfies that related to matters purely fpiri¬
tual were cognifable by this external iufpe&ion. In
confequence of this artful divifion of the ecclefiaftical
government, Conftantine and his fucceflbrs called coun¬
cils, prefided in them, appointed the judges of reli¬
gious controverfies, terminated the differences which
arofe between the bifhops and the people, fixed the li-
government of thofe provinces over which he had
ufurped the jurifdi&ion. Leo the Great, bifhop of
Rome, oppofed with vehemence the palling of thefe
laws; and his oppofition was feconded by that of fe-
veral other prelates. But their efforts were vain, as
the emperors threw in their weight into the balance,
and thus fupported the decilions of the Grecian bi¬
lhops. In confequence, then, of the decifions of this
famous council, the bilhop of Conftantinople began to
contend obftinately for the fupremacy with the Ro¬
man pontiff, and to crulh the bifhops of Antioch and
Alexandria. About the fame time, Juvenal, bilhop
of Jerufalem, attempted to withdraw himfelf and his
church from the jurifdiftion of the bilhop of Casfarea,
Scandalous
lives of the
clergy.
mils of the ecclefiaftical provinces, took cognizance of ar.d afpired after a place among the firit prelates of
the civil caufes that fubfifted between the minifters of the Chriitian world. The high degree of veneration
the church, and punilhed the crimes committed againft and efteem in which the church of Jerufalem was held
the laws by the ordinary judges appointed for that among all other Chriftian focieties (on account of its
purpofe; giving over all caufes purely ecclefiattical to rank among the apoftolical churches, and its title to the
the bifhops and councils. But this famous divifion of appellation of mother-church, as having fucceeded the
the adminiftration of the church was never explained fiift Chriftian affembly formed by the Apoftles), was
with fufficient accuracy; fo that, both in the fourth extremely favourable to the ambition of Juvenal, and
and fifth centuries, there are frequent inllances of the rendered his projeft much more practicable than it
emperors determining matters purely ecclefiaftical, and would otherwife have been. Encouraged by this, and.
likewife of bifhops and councils determining matters likewife by the protection of Theodofius the younger,
which related merely to the extemal form and govern- *L ' r ‘ ' ""—J
ment of the church.
After the time of Conftantine many additions were
made by the emperors and others to the wealth and
honours of the clergy ; and thefe additions were fol¬
lowed by a proportionable increafe of their vices and
luxury, particularly among thofe who lived in great and
opulent cities. The bifhops, on the one hand, contend¬
ed with each other in the moft fcandalous manner con¬
cerning the extent of their refpe6live j^irifdicffions;
while, on the other, they trampled on the rights of the
people, violated the privileges of the inferior minifters.
this afpiring prelate not only aflumed the dignity of
patriarch of all Paleftine, a rank which rendered him
independent of all fpiritual authority; but alfo invaded
the rights of the bifhop of Antioch, and ufurped his
jurifdicffion over the provinces of Phoenicia and Arabia.
Hence arofe a warm conteft between Juvenal and Max¬
imus bifhop of Antioch ; which the council of Chal¬
cedon decided, by reftoring to the latter the provinces
of Phoenicia and Arabia, and confirming the former
in the fpiritual poffeffion of all Paleftine and in the high,
rank which he had affumed in the church.:
_ In588, John, bifhop of Conftantinople, furnamed the
and imitated in their conduft and in their manner of either by his own authority or that of the emperor
living the arrogance, voluptuoufnefs, and luxury of Mauritius, fummoned a council at Conftantinople to in-
magiftrates and princes. This pernicious example was
foou followed by the feveral ecclefiaftical orders. The
prefbyters, in many places, affumed an equality with
the bifhops in point of rank and authority. Many
quire into an accufation brought againft Gregory, bi¬
fhop of Antioch ; and upon this occafion aflumed the
title of oecumenical or univerfal bijloop. This title had
been formerly enjoyed by the bifhops of Conftantinople
complaints are alfo made by the authors of this cen- without any offence; but now, Gregory the Great, at
tury about the vanity and effeminacy of the deacons,
Thofe more particularly of the prefbyters and deacons
that time bifhop of Rome, fufpefting that John was
aiming at the fupremacy over all the churches, oppo-
who filled the firft ftations of thefe orders, carried their fed his claim with the greateft vigour. For this pur-
pretenfions to an extravagant length, and were offend- pofe he applied by letters to the emperor, and others,
ed at the notion of being placed on an equality with whom he thought capable of affifting him in his op-
their colleagues. For this reafon they not only affu- pofition : but all his efforts were without effeft; and
med the titles of arcb-prejbyters and arch-deacons, but the bifhops of Conftantinople were allowed to enjoy
alfo claimed a degree of authority and power much fu- the difputed title, though not in the fenfe which had
perior to that which was vetted in the other members alarmed the Roman pontiff.
Gregory,,
3674
Kcclefia-
ftical
Hiftory.
the fu|,re-
macy of the
.pope.
HISTORY. Sed. IT.
Gregory, however, adhered tenacioufly to his pur- (hop, the fame authority which had belonged to the Eccleha-] |
pofe, raifed new tumults and diflenfions among the chief druid. The Pope received thefe auguft privi- ftical |
clergy, and aimed at nothing lefs than an unlimited fu- leges with great pleafure; and left, upon any change Hiftory, i
pretnacy over the Chriftian church. This ambitious of affairs, attempts fhould be made to deprive him of
defign fucceeded in the Weft; while, in the Eaftern them, he ftrengthened his title to thefe extraordinary
provinces; his arrogant pretenfions were fcarcely refpec- honours by a variety of paffages drawn from ancient
ted by any but thofe who were at enmity with the bi- hiftory, and, what is ftill more aftonifhing, by argu-
ffiop of Conftantinople. How much the people were ments of a religious nature. This fwelled the Roman
at this time deluded by the Roman pontiffs, appears druid to an enormous fize ; and gave to the fee of
from the exprefiion of Ennodius, one of the flatterers Rome that high pre-eminence and defpotic authority
of Symmachus, (who was a prelate of but ambiguous in civil and political matters, that were unknown to
fame) that the Roman pontiff was conftituted judge hi former ages. Hence, among other unhappy circum-
the place of God, which he filled as the vicegerent of ftances, arofe that monftrous and pernicious opinion,
the moft high. On the other hand it is certain, from that fuch perfons as were excluded from the commu-
a variety of the moft authentic records, that both the nion of the church by the pontiff himfelf, or any of
emperors and the nations in general, were far from be- the bifhops, forfeited thereby, not only their civil rights
ing difpbfed to bear with patience the yoke of fervi- and advantages as citizens, but even the common
tude which the fee of Rome was arrogantly impofing claims and privileges of humanity. This horrid opi-
on the whole church. nion, which was a fatal fource of wars, maffacres,
In the beginning of the feventh century, according and rebellions, without number, and which .contri¬
te the moft learned hiftorians, Boniface III. engaged buted more than any thing elfe to confirm and aug-
Phocas, emperor of Conftantinople, to take from the ment the papal authority, was borrowed by the clergy
bilhop of that metropolis, the title of oecumenical or from the Pagan fuperftitions.—Though excommuni-
univerfal bifoop, and to confer it upon the Roman pon- cation, from the time of Conftantine the Great, was
tiff; and thus was firft introduced the fupremacy of the in every part of the Chriftian world attended with
pope. The Roman pontiffs ufed all methods to main- many difagreeable effe&s; yet its higheft terrors were
tain and enlarge this authority and pre-eminence which confined to Europe, where its afpeft was truly for-
they had acquired from one of the moft odious tyrants midable and hideous. It acquired alfo, in the eighth
that ever difgraced the annals of hiftory. century, new acceffions of terror; fo that from that
In the eighth century, the power of the bifhop of period the excommunication pradtifed in Europe dif-
Rome, and of the clergy in general, increafed prodi- fered entirely from that which w’as in ufe in other
gioufly. The chief caufe of this, befides the fuperfti- parts of Chriftendom. Excommunicated perfons were
tion of the people, was the method at that time ufed indeed confidered in all places as objebls of hatred both
by the European princes to fecure themfelves on their to God and man : but they were not, on that account,
thrones. All thefe princes being then employed robbed of the privileges of citizens, nor of the rights
either in ufurpation or in felf-defence, and the whole of humanity ; much lefs were thofe kings and princes,
continent being in the moft unfettled and barba- whom an infolent bilhop had thought proper to ex-
rous condition, they endeavoured to attach warmly to elude from the comiAunionof the church, fuppofed to
their interefts thofe whom they confidered as their forfeit on that account their crowns or their territories,
friends and clients. For this purpofe they diftributed But from this century it was quite otherwife in Eu-
among them extenfive territories, cities, and fortreffes, rope. Excommunication received that infernal power
with the various rights and privileges, belonging to which diffolved all conneftions ; fo that thofe whom
them ; referving only to themfelves the fupreme domi- the birtrops, or their chief, excluded from church com-
nion, and the military fervice of thefe powerful vaffals. munion, were degraded to a level with the beafts.
For this reafon it was by the European princes reckon- The origin of this unnatural and horrid power was as
ed a high inftance of political prudence todiftribute a- follows. On the converfion of the barbarous nations
mong the bifhops and other Chriftian doftors the fame to Chriftianity, thefe ignorant profelytes confounded
fort of donations which had formerly been given to the excommunication in ufe among Chriftians with
their generals and clients. By means of the clergy, that which had been pra&ifed in the times of Pagan-
they hoped to check the feditious and turbulent fpirits ifm, and which was attended with all the dreadful
of their vaffals, and to maintain them in their obedience effefts above-mentioned. The Roman pontiffs, on
by the influence and authority of their bifliops, whofe the other hand, were too artful not to encourage this
commands were highly refpefted, and whofe fpiritual error; and therefore employed all forts of means to
thunderbolts, rendered formidable by ignorance, ftruck gain credit to an opinion fo well calculated to gratify
terror into the boldeft and moft refolute hearts. their ambition, and to aggrandize in general the epif-
This prodigious acceffion to the opulence and au- copal order,
thority of the clergy in the weft, began at their head, • The annals of the French nation furnifh us with the HeI’*omfS
viz. the Roman pontiff; from whence it fpread gra- following inftance of the enormous power which was a temporal '
dually among the inferior facerdotal orders. The at this time veiled in the Roman pontiff. Pepin, who prinCe.
barbarous nations who had received the gofpel, looked was mayor of the palace to Childtric III. king of
upon the bilhop of Rome as the fucceffor of their France, and who in the exer.cife of that high office
chief druid or high prieft : and as this tremendous was poffeffed in reality of the royal power and autho-
druid had enjoyed, under the darknefs of Paganifm, rity, afpired to the titles and honours of majefty alfo,
a kind of boundlefs authority; fo thefe barbarous and formed a fcheme of dethroning his iovereigti.
nations thought proper to confer upon the chief bi- For this purpofe he afiembled the ftates in 751 » an^
though
Sea. II. HIST
Ecclefia- though they were devoted to the interefts of this am*
ftical bJtious uforper, they gave it as their opinion that the
f 1 oryL bifhop Rome was previoufly to be confulted whether
the execution of fuch a fcheme was lawful or not. In
confequence of this, ambaffadors were fent by Pepin
to Zachary, the reigning pontiff, with the follow-
ingqueftion, “ Whether the divine law did not per¬
mit a valiant and warlike people to dethrone a pu-
fillanimous and indolent prince who was incapable
of difcharging any of the fundtions of royalty ; and to
fubftitute in his place one more worthy to rule, and
who had already rendered mod important fervices to
the ftate? ’ The fituation of Zachary, who flood much
in need of the fuccours of Pepin againft the Greeks
and Lombards, rendered his anfwer fuch as the ufurper
defired : and when this favourable decifion of the Ro¬
man oracle was publifhed in France, the unhappy
Childeric was dripped of his royalty without the lead
oppofition ; and Pepin, without the fmalled refidance,
ftepped into the throne of his mader and his fove-
reign. This decifion was folemnly confirmed by Ste¬
phen II. the fucceffor of Zachary ; who undertook a
journey into France in the year 754, in order to fo-
licit afiidance againd the Lombards. The pontiff at
the fame time diffolved the obligation of the oath of
fidelity and allegiance which Pepin had fworn to Chil¬
deric and violated by his ufurpation in the year 751 ;
and to render his title to the crown as facred as pofii-
ble, Stephen anointed and crowned him, with his wife
and two fons, for thefecond time. This complaifance
of the Pope was rewarded with the exarchate of Ra¬
venna and all its dependencies, as we have already re¬
lated. See Civil History, n° 44. ; and Hijlory of
74 Italy.
ftiinncAa t^e ^uccee<^ng centur‘es> t^ie Roman pontiffs con-
^eSi ,'a’ tinued to increafe their power by every kind of artifice
and fraud which can difhonour the heart of man ; and,
by continually taking advantages of the civil diffenfions
which prevailed throughout Italy, France, and Ger¬
many, their influence in civil affairs arofe to an enor¬
mous height. The increafe of their authority in reli¬
gious matters was not lefs rapid. The wifeft and moll
impartial among the Roman Catholic writers acknow¬
ledge, that, from the time of Lewis the Meek, the an¬
cient rules of ecclefiaftical government were gradually
changed in Europe by the counfels and infligation of
the church of Rome, and new laws fubftituted in their
place. The European princes fuffered themfelves to be
divefted of the fupreme authority in religious matters
which they had derived from Charlemagne ; the power
of the bilhops was greatly diminiflied, and even the
authority of both provincial and general councils began
to decline. The popes, elated with their overgrown
profperity, and become arrogant beyond meafure by
the daily acceffions that were made to their authority,
were eagerly bent upon eftablilhing the maxim, That
the bifhop of Rome was conftituted and appointed by
Jefus Chrift, fupreme legiflator and judgeof the church
univerfal; and that therefore the bifftops derived all
their authority from him. This opinion, which they
inculcated with the utmofl zeal and ardour, wasoppo-
fed in vain by fuch as were acquainted with the ancient
ecclefiaftical conftitutions, and the government of the
church in the earlier ages. In order to gain credit to
this new ecclefiaftical code,, and to fupport the preten-
O R Y. 3675
fions of the popes to fupremacy, it was neceffary to pro- Jiccldia-
duce the authority of ancient deeds, in order to (lop the tpical
mouths of fuch as were difpofed to fet bounds to their   1
ufurpations. The bifliops of Rome were aware of this;
and as thofe means were looked upon as the moft law¬
ful that tended bell to the aceomplilhment of their
purpofes, they employed fotne of their moft ingenious
and zealous partifans in forging conventions, adts of
councils, epiftles, and fuch-like records, by which it
might appear, that, in the firft ages of the church, the
Roman pontiffs were clothed with the fame fpiritual
majcfty and fupreme authority which they now affumed.
There were not, however, wanting among the bifliops
fome men of prudence and fagacity, who faw through
thefe impious frauds, and perceived the chains that
were forging both for them and the church. The
French bifliops diftinguiftied themfelves eminently in
this refpedl: but their oppofition was foon quaflied ;
and as all Europe was funk in the groffdl ignorance
and darknefs, none remained who were capable of de¬
tecting thefe odious impollures, or difpofed to fupport
the expiring liberty of the church.
This may ferve as a general fpecimen of the charac- Extreme
ters and behaviour of the pretended vicegerents of Jefus-‘n^°*ence
Chrift, to the 16th century. In the nth century in-
deed, their power feems to have rifen to its utmofl; ^
height. They now received the pompous titles of Ma-
fiers of the world, and Popes, i. e. Univerfal Fathers.
They preftded every where in the councils by their le¬
gates, affumed the authority of fupreme arbiters in all
controverfies that arofe concerning religion or church-
difcipline, and maintained the pretended rights of the
church againft the encroachments and ufurpations of
kings and princes. Their authority, however, was
-confined within certain limits: for, on the one hand, it
was reftrained by fovereign princes, that it might not
arrogantly aim at civil dominion ; and on the other, it
was oppofed by the bifliops themfelves, that it might
not arife to a fpiritual defpotifm, and utterly deftroy
the privileges and liberty of fynods and councils. From
the time of Leo IX. the popes employed every me¬
thod which the moft artful ambition could fnggeft to
remove thofe limits, and to render their dominion both
defpotic and univerfal. They not only afpired to the
character of fupreme legiflators in the church, to an
unlimited jurifdiClion over all fynods and councils whe¬
ther general or provincial, to the foie diftribution of
all ecclefiaftical honours and benefices,’ as divinely au-
thorifed and appointed for that purpofe; but they car¬
ried their infolent pretenfions fo far, as to give them¬
felves out for lords of the univerfe, arbiters of the fate
of kingdoms and empires, and fupreme ruleft over the
kings and princes of the earth. Hence we find inftan-
ces of their giving away kingdoms, and loofing fub-
jeCts from their allegiance to their fovereigns, among
which the hiftory of John king of England is very re¬
markable- At laft, they plainly aflumed. the whole
earth as their property, as well where Chriftianity was
preached as where it was not; and therefore, on the
difcovery of America and the Eaft Indies, the pope,
by virtue of this fpiritual property, granted to the Por-
tuguefe a right to all the countries lying eaftward, and
to the Spaniards all thofe lying to the weftward of
, Cape Non in Africa, which they were able to conquer,
by force of arms ; and that nothing might be wanting
tOi
3676 HIST
Ecclefia- to complete their chara&er, they pretended to be lords
of the future world alfo, and to have a power of reftrain*
1 ory' ing even the Divine Juftice itfelf, and remitting that
punifhment which the Deity hath denounced againll
.7? . the workers of iniquity.
"reatl^cor- this time, the powers of fuperflition reigned
rupted. triumphant over thofe remains of Chriftianity which
Invocations had efcaped the corruptions of the firft four centuries,
of faints, in the fifth century began the invocation of the hap-
rator* P&r fou^s °f departed faints. Their afMance was in-
’introduced! treated by many fervent prayers, while none flood up
to oppofe this prepoflerous kind of worfliip. The i-
mages of thofe who during their lives had acquired the
reputation of uncommon fan&ity, w'ere now honoured
with a particular worfliip in feveral places ; and many
imagined that this drew into the images the propitious
prefence of the faints or celeftial beings which they
’were fuppofed to reprefent. A Angular and irrefiftible
efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and to
the figure of the crofs, in defeating all the attempts of
Satan, removing all forts of calamities, and in healing
not only the difeafes of the body, but alfo thofe of the
mind. The famous Pagan doftrine concerning the pu¬
rification oj departed fouls, by means of a certain kind
of fire, i. e. purgatory, was alfo confirmed and ex¬
plained more fully than it had formerly been ; and
everyone knows of how much confequence this abfurd
do&rine hath been to the wealth and power of the Ro-
mifli clergy.
In the fixth century, Gregory the Great advanced
an opinion, That all the 'words of the facred writings
v/ere images of invifible and fpiritual things; for which
veafon he loaded the churches with a multitude of ce¬
remonies the mofl infignificant and futile that can be
imagined; and hence arofe a new and moft difficult
fcience, namely, the explication of thefe ceremonies,
and the inveftigation of the caufes and circumftances
whence they derived their origin. A new method was
contrived of adminiftering the Lord’s fupper, with a
Introduc- magnificent aflemblage of pompous ceremonies. This
tion of the vvas called the canon of the tnafs. Baptifm, except in
mafs. cafes of neceffity, was adminiftered only on the great
feftivals. An incredible number of temples w’ere erec¬
ted in honour of the faints. The places fet apart for
public worfliip were alfo very numerous: but now they
were confidered as the means of purchafing the protec¬
tion and favour of the faints ; and the ignorant and
barbarous multitude were perfuaded, that thefe de¬
parted fpirits defended and guarded againft evils and
calamities of every kind, the provinces, lands, cities,
and villages in which they were honoured with tem¬
ples. The number of thefe temples was almoft equalled
by that of the feftivals, which feem to have been invent¬
ed in order to bring the Chriflian religion as near the
„8 model of Paganifm as poffible.
Superfti- Lventh century, religion feemed to be alto-
tion IH!I gether buried under a heap of fuperftitious ceremo-
increafes. nies; the worfliip of the true God and Saviour of the
world was exchanged for the worfliip of bones, bits of
wood (faid to be of the crofs), and the images of faints.
The eternal ftate of mifery threatened in Scripture to
the wicked was exchanged for the temporary punifti-
ineut of purgatory; and the expvefiions of faith in
Chrift by an upright and virtuous conduit, for the aug¬
mentation of the riches of the clergy by donations to
ORY. Sea. II.
the church, and the obfervance of a heap of idle cere- Ecclefia-
monies. New feftivals were ftill added ; one in par- |fal.
ticular was inftituted in honour of the true crofs on - 1 °ril
which our Saviour fufiered; and churches were declared
to be fan&uaries to all fuch as fled to them, whatever
tlieir crimes might have been.
Superftition, it would feem, had now attained its
higheft pitch; nor is it eafy to conceive a degree of ig¬
norance and degeneracy beyond what we have already
mentioned. If any thing can poffibly be imagined
more contrary to true religion, it is an opinion which
prevailed in the eighth century, namely, That Chri-
flians might appeafe an offended Deity by voluntary
ads of mortification, or by gifts and oblations lavifli-
ed on the church, and that people ought to place their
confidence in the works and merits of the faints. The
piety in this and fome fucceeding ages confifted in
building and embellifliing churches and chapels; in en¬
dowing monafteries and bafilics; hunting after the re¬
lics of faints and martyrs, and treating them with an
abfurd and exceffive veneration ; in procuring the in-
terceffion of the faints by rich oblations, or fuper¬
ftitious rites; in worfliipping images; in pilgrimages
to thofe places which were efteemed holy, particu¬
larly to Paleftine, &c. The genuine religion of Je-
fus was now utterly unknown, both to clergy and
people, if we except a few of its general doftrines con¬
tained in the creed. In this century alfo, the fuper¬
ftitious cuftom offolitary maffes had its origin. Thefe
were celebrated by the pridt alone in behalf of fouls
detained in purgatory, as well as upon fome other oc-
cafions. They were prohibited by the laws of the
church, but proved a fource of immenfe wealth to the
clergy. Under Charlemagne they were condemned
by a fynod affembled at Mentz, as criminal effe&s of
avarice and floth. A new fuperftition, however, ftill
fprung up in the tenth century. It was imagined, from
Rev. xx. 1. that Antichrift was to make his appear¬
ance on the earth, that foon after the world itfelf would
be deftroyed. An univerfal panic enfued ; vaft num¬
bers of people, abandoning all their connexions )in fo-
ciety, and giving over to the churches and monafteries
all their worldly effeXs, repaired to Paleftine, where
they imagined fhat Chrift would defeend from heaven
to judge the world. Others devoted themfelvcs by a
folemn and voluntary oath to the fervice of the churches,
convents, and priefthood, whofe flaves they became,
in the moft rigorous fenfe of that word, performing
daily their heavy talks; and all this from a notion that
the fupreme Judge would dimintfh the feverity of their
fentence, and look upon them with a more favourable
and propitious eye, on account of their having made
themfelves the flaves of his minifters. When an eclipfe
of the fun or moon happened to be vifible, the cities
were deferted, and their miferable inhabitants fled for
refuge to hollow caverns, and hid themfelves among
the craggy rocks, and under the bending fummits of
fteep mountains. The opulent attempted to bribe the
faints and the Deity himlelf by rich donations confer¬
red upon the facerdotal tribe, who were looked upon
as the immediate vicegerents of heaven. In many
places, temples, palaces, and noble edifices both pub¬
lic and private, were fuffered to decay, nay, were deli¬
berately pulled down, from a notion that they were no
longer of any ufe, as the final diflblution of all things
Sea. II. HISTORY. 3677
Ecdefia- was at hand. In a word, no language is fufficient to
^fheal exprefs the confufion and defpair that tormented the
1 ory~ minds of miferable mortals upon this occaiion. The
general delufion was indeed Oppofed and combated by
the difcerning few, who endeavoured to difpel thefe
terrors, and to efface the notion from which theyarofe
in the minds of theipeople. But their attempts were
ineffeftual; nor could the dreadful apprehenfions of the
fuperftitious multitude be removed before the end of
the century, and this terror became one of the acci-
\ dental cauffs of the Croisades.
That nothing might now be wanting to complete
that Antich.riftian fyftem of religion which had ovef-
fpread all Europe, it was in the nth century deter¬
mined that divine worfhip (hould be celebrated in the
Latin tongue, though now unknown throughout the
whole continent. During the whole of this century
alfo, Chriftians were employed in the rebuilding and
ornamenting their churches, which they had deftroyed
through the fuperftitious fear already taken notice of.
In much the fame way with what is above related,
or worfe if poffible, matters went on till the time of
the reformation. The clergy were immerfed in
crimes of the deepeft dye ; and the laity, imagining
themfelves able to purehafe pardon of their fins for
money, followed the examples of their pallors with-
Extrava- out remorfe* The abfurd principle formerly mention-
gant beha- namely, that religion confifts in a6ls of aufterity,
viour of the and an unknown mental correfpondence with God, pro-
faintte<i duced the mod extravagant and ridiculous behaviour
a!D s" in the devotees and reputed faints. They not only
lived among the wild beads, but alfo after the man¬
ner of thefe favage animals: they ran naked through
the lonely deferts with a furious afpefl, and all the
agitations of madnefs and frenzy ; they prolonged
their wretched life by grafs and wild herbs, avoided
the fight and converfation of men, remained motion-
lefs in certain places for feveral years expofed to the
rigour and inclemency of the feafons, and towards the
conclufion of their lives Unit themfelves up in narrow
and miferable huts; and all this was confidered as true
piety, the only acceptable method of worlhipping the
Deity and attaining a fhare in his favour.—But of
all the in dances of fuperftitious frenzy which difgraced
the times we now fpeak of, none was held in higher
veneration, or excited more the wonder of the multi¬
tude, than that of a certain order of men who were
calle,d; Stilites by the Greeks, and Sanfti Colum-
nares, or Pillar-Saints, by the Latins. Thefe
were perfons of a moft fingular and extravagant
turn of mind, who ftood motionlcfs on the tops
of pillars exprefsly raifed for this exercife of their
patience, and remained there for feveral years a-
mift the admiration and applaufe of the ftupid po¬
pulace. The inventor of this ftrange difcipline was
onea Syrian, who began his follies by chan¬
ging the agreeable employment of a (hepherd for the
aufterities of a monkilh life. He began his devotions
on the top of a pillar fix cubits high ; but as he in-
creafed in fanftity, he alfo increafed the height of his
pillar, till, towards the conclufion of his life, he had
got up on the top of a pillar 40 cubits in height.
Many of the inhabitants of Syria and Paleftine, fe-
duced by a falfe ambition and an utter ignorance ,of
true religion, followed the example of this fanatic,
Vol. V.
though not with the fame degree of aufterity. This Ecdefia-
fuperftitious pradlice began in the fifth century, and
continued in the eaft for 600 years. The Latins, __LTZl.
however, had too much wifdom and prudence to imi¬
tate the Syrians and Orientals in this whimfical fuper-
ftition ; and when a certain fanatic, or impoftor, na¬
med Wulfilaicus, ere6led one of thefe pillars in the
country of Treves, and propofed to live on it after
the manner of Simeon, the neighbouring bifiiops or¬
dered it to be pulled down.
The pra&ices of auftere worlhip and difcipline in
other refpedls, however, gained ground throughout
all parts of Chriftendom. Monks of various kinds
were to be found in every country in prodigious num¬
bers. But though their difcipline was at firft exceed¬
ingly fevere, it became gradually relaxed, and the
monks gave into all the prevailing vices of the times.
Other orders fucceeded, who pretended to ftill great¬
er degrees of fandlity, and to reform the abufes of
the preceding ones ; but thefe in their turn became
corrupted, and fell into the fame vices they had bla¬
med in others. The moft violent animofities, difputes,
and hatred, alfo reigned among the different orders of
monks ; and, indeed, between the clergy of all ranks
and degrees, whether we confider them as claffed in
different bodies, or as individuals of the fame body.
To enter into a detail of their wranglings and dif¬
putes, the methods which each of them took to ag-
grandife themfelves at the expence of their neigh¬
bours, and to keep the reft of mankind in fubjeftion,
would require many volumes. We fhall only obferve,
therefore, that even the external profeflion of the au¬
ftere and abfurd piety which took place in the fourth
and fifth centuries, continued gradually to decline.
Some there were, indeed, who boldly oppofed the
torrent of fuperftition and wickednefs, which threa¬
tened to overflow the whole world : but their oppo-
fition proved fruitlefs, and all of thefe towards the
asra of the reformation had been either filenced or de¬
ftroyed : fo that, at that time, the pope and clergy
reigned over mankind without controul, had made
themfelves mafters of almoft all the wealth in every
country of Europe, and may truly be faid to have
been the only fovereigns; the reft of the human
race, even kings and princes, being only their vaffals
and flaves.
While the Popilh fuperftition reigned thus violent-RifeofMa.
ly in the weft, the abfurd dodlrines of Mahomet over- hometan-
fpread all the eaft. The rife of this impoftor is rela- ifm>
ted under the article Arabia. His fucceffors con¬
quered in order to eftablifti the religion of their apo-
ftle ; and thus the very name of Chriftianity was ex-
tingnilhed in many places where it had formerly flou-
rilhed. The conquefts of the Tartars having inter¬
mingled them with tKe Mahometans, they greedily
embraced the fuperftitions of that religion, which
thus almoft entirely overfprtad the whole continents
of Afia and Africa ; and, by the conqueft of Conftan-
tinople by the Turks in 1453, was likewife eftabliihed £.(atc8*fre
throughout a confiderable part of Europe. ligion-in
About the beginning of the 16th century, the Ro- thebegin-
man pontiffs li ved in the utmoft tranquillity ; nor had rung of the
they, according to the appearance of things at l^iat
time, any reafen to fear an oppofition to thiir ^Utho-
rity in any refpdft, fince the commotions which had time.
21 A been
3678 HIST
Ecclefia- been raifed by the Waldenfes, Albigenfes, See. were
fHcal now entirely fuppreflld. We muft not, however,
lliltory. conc]u(Je, from this apparent tranquillity and fecurrty
of the pontiffs and their adherents, that their meafures
were univerfally applauded. Not only private perfons,
but alfo the moft powerful princes and fovereign ftates,
exclaimed loudly againft the tyranny of the popes,
and the unbridled licentioufnefs of the clergy of all
denominations. They demanded, therefore, a refor¬
mation of the church in its head and members, and a
general council to accomplifh that necefiary purpofe.
But thefe complaints and demands were not carried to
fuch a length as to produce any good effeft ; fince
they came from perfons who never entertained the lead
doubt about the fupreme authority of the pope in re¬
ligious matters, and who of confequence, inftead of
attempting themfelves to bring about that reformation
which was fo ardently defired, remained entirely in-
adfive, or looked for redrefs to the court of Rome, or
to a general council. But while the fo much defired re¬
formation feemed to be at fuch a great diftance, it fud-
denly arofe from a quarter whence it was not at all
expected. A Tingle perfon, Martin Luther, a monk of
the order of St Auguftine, ventured to oppofe him-
felf to the whole torrent of papal power and defpo-
tifm. This bold attempt was firft made public
on the 30th of September 1517; and notwith-
ftanding all the efforts of the Pope and his adhe¬
rents, the do&rines of Luther continued daily to
gain ground. Others, encouraged by his fuccefs, lent
their afliftance in the work of Reformation ; which at
laft produced new churches, founded upon principles
quite different from that of Rome, and which ftill
continue. But for a particular account of the tran-
faftions of the firft Reformers, the oppofition they
met with, and the final fettlement of the reformed
churches in different nations in Europe, fee the ar¬
ticles Luther and Reformation.
The ftate of religion in other parts of the world
feems as yet to be but little altered. Alia and Africa
are funk in the groffeft fuperftitions either of the
Mahommedan or Pagan kinds. The fouthern conti¬
nent of America belonging to the Spaniards, conti¬
nues immerfed in the moft abfurd fuperftitions of Po¬
pery. The northern continent, being moftly peopled
with colonies from Great Britain, profeffes the re¬
formed religion. At the fame time it muff be owned,
that fome kind of reformation hath taken place even
in Popery and Mahommedanifm themfelves. The
Popes have no longer that authority over ftates and
princes, even thofe moft bigotted to Popery, which they
formerly had. Neither are the lives either of the
clergy or laity fo corrupt as they were before. The
increafe of learning in all parts of the world hath con¬
tributed to caufe men open their eyes to the light of
reafon, and this hath been attended with a propor¬
tional decreafe of fuperftition. Even in Mahommedan
countries, that furious enthufiafm which formerly em¬
boldened the inhabitants to face the greateft dangers,
hath now almoft vanifhed ; fo that the credit of Ma¬
homet himfelf feems to have funk much in theeftima-
tion of his followers. This is to beunderftoodeven of the
moft ignorant and bigotted multitude ; and the fenfible
part of the Turks are faid to incline much towards
Deifm. With regard to thofe nations which ftill pro-
1 o r y. Sea. nr.
fefs Paganifm, the intercourfe of Europeans with Compofi-
them is fo fmall, that it is impofiible to fay any thing
concerning them. As none of them are in a ftate of 5
civilization, however, it may be conje&ured, that their
religion is of the fame uupoliftied call with their
manners, and that it confifts of a heap of barbarous
fuperftitions which have been handed down among
them from time immemorial, and which they continue
to obferve without knowing why or wherefore.
Sect. III. 0/ the Compnfition of Hi/lory.
Cicero has given us the whole art of compofing
hiftory, in a very (hort and comprehenfive manner.
We lhall firft tranferibe what he fays, and then con-
fider the feveral parts of it in their proper order.
“ No one is ignorant (fays he), that the firft law in . 87
writing hiftory is, Not to dare to fay any thing that ^'^os
is falfe ; and the next, Not to be afraid to fpeak the
truth : that on the one hand there be no fufpicion of
affe&ion, nor of prejudice on the other. Thefe foun¬
dations are what all are acquainted with. But the
fuperftrudlure confifts partly in things, and partly in
the ftyle or language. The former require an order
of times, and deferiptions of places. And becaufe
in great and memorable events, we are defirous to
know firft their caufes, then the aflions themfelves,
and laftly their confequences; the hiftorian ftiould
take notice of the fprings or motives, that occafioned
them ; and, in mentioning the faffs themfelves, ftionld
not only relate what was done or faid, but likewife
in what manner; and, in treating upon their confe¬
quences, fhew if they were the effe&s of chance, wif-
dom, or imprudence. Nor fhould he only recite the
aftions of great and eminent perfons, but likewife de-
fpribe their charafters. The ftyle ought to be fluent,
fmooth, and even, free from that harfhnefs and poig¬
nancy which is ufual at the bar.” Thus far Cicero. DeOrat.
An hiftory written in this manner, and furnifhed with L7\ii.c. is.
all thefe properties, muft needs be very entertaining,
as well as inftruflive. And perhaps few have come
nearer this plan than Tacitus; though his fubjeff is
attended with this unhappy circumftance, or at leaft
unpleafant one, that it affords us examples rather of
what we ought to avoid, than what to imitate. But
it is the bufinefs of the hiftorian, as well as of the
philofopher, to reprefent both virtues and vices in
their proper colours ; the latter doing it by precepts,
and the former by examples. Their manner is dif¬
ferent; but the end and defign of both is, or fhould
be, the fame : And therefore hiftory has not impro¬
perly been faid by fome to be moral philofophy, ex¬
emplified in the lives and a&ions of mankind.
We fhall reduce thefe feveral things mentioned by
Cicero to three heads, Matter, Order, and Style ; and
treat upon each of them feparately. But as Truth is
the, bafis and foundation of all hiftory, it will be ne-
ceffary to confider that in the firft place.
Art. I. Of Truth in Hiftory.
Truth is, as it were, the very life and foul of 0f jJ^jc
hiftory, by which it is diftinguifhed from fable or ro- truth,
mance. An hiftorian therefore ought not only to be
a man of probity, but void of all pafiion or bias. He
muft have the fteadinefs of a philofopher, joined with
the vivacity of a poet or orator. Without the former,
her
Sea. III. HISTORY.
Compofi- he will be infenfibly fwayed by fotne paflion, to give think it proper to omit what I have been told.” By
ll?" of a falfe colouring to the aftions or chara&ers he de- fuel) a conduft the author fecures his credit, whether
  iL feribes, as favour or diflike to parties or perfons affeft the things prove really true or falfe ; and gives room
his mind. Whereas he ought to be of no party, nor for further inquiry, without impofing on his readers,
to have either friend or foe while writing ; but to The other branch of hiltorical truth is, Not to omit
preferve himfelf in a ftate of the greateft fndifferency any thing that is true, and neceffaryto fet the matter
to all, that he may judge of things as they really are treated of in a clear and full light. In the adlions of
in their own nature, and not as conne&ed with this paft ages, or diftant countries, wherein the writer has
or that perfon or party. And with this firm and fe- no perfonal concern, he can have no great induce-
date temper, a lively imagination is requifite ; with- ment to break in upon this rule. But where intereft
out which his deferiptions will be flat and cold, nor or party is engaged, it requires no fmall candour, as
will he be able to convey to his readers a juit and ade- well as finnnefs of mind, conftantly to adhere to it.
qwate idea of great and generous actions. Nor is the Affe&ion to fome, averfion to others, fear of difob-
aflittance of a good judgment lefs neceffary than any liging friends or thofe in power, will often inter-
of the former qualities, to direft him what is proper pofe, and try his integrity. Befides, an omiffion is
to be faid and what to be omitted, and to treat every lefs obvious to cenfure, than a falfe aflertion : for the
thing in a manner fuitable to its importance. And one may be eafily aferibed to ignorance or forgetful-
fince thefe are the qualifications mecefTary for an hi- nefs ; whereas the other will, if difeovered, be com-
ftorian, it may perhaps feem the lefs ftrange, that we monly looked upon as defign. He therefore, who in
have fo few good hiftories. fuch circumftances, from a generous love to truth, is
But hiftorical truth confifts of two parts; one is, Not fuperior to all motives to betray or ftifle it, juftly de-
not to fay any thing we know to be falfe : Tho’ it is ferves the eharafter of a brave, as well as honed man.
not fufficient to excufe an hidorian in relating a falfe- What-Polybius fays upon this head is very well worth
hood, that he did not know it was fo when he wrote remarking: “ A good man ought to love his friends
it; unlefs he fird ufed all the means in his power to and his country, and to have a like difpofition with
inform himfelf of the truth. For then undoubtedly, them, both towards their friends and enemies. But
an invincible error is as pardonable in hitlory as in when he takes upon him the charafter of an hidorian,
morality. But the generality of writers in this kind they mud all be forgot. He mud often fpeak well
content themfelves with taking their accounts from of his enemies, and commend them when their actions
hearfays, or tranferibing them from others; with- deferve it; and fometimes blame, and even upbraid
out duly weighing the evidence on which they are his greated friends, when their conduit makes it ne-
founded, or giving themfelves the trouble of a drift cedary. Nor mud he forbear fometimes to reprove,
inquiry. Few will ufe the dilligence necedary to in- and at other times to commend, the fame perfons; fince
form themfelves of the certainty of what they under- all are liable to midake in their management, and
take to relate. And as the want of this greatly abates there are fcarce any perfons who are always in the
the pleafure of reading fuch writers, while perfons wrong. Therefore, in hidory, all perfonal confidera-
read with diffidence; fo nothing more recommends an tions ffiould be laid afide, and regard had only to their
hidorian, than fuch indudry. Thus we are informed aftions.”
of Thucydides, that when he wrote his hidory of the What a different view of mankind and their aftions
Peloponnefian war, he did not fatisfy himfelf with the ffiould we have, were thefe rules obferved by all hi-
bed accounts, he could get from his countrymen the dorians ? Integrity is undoubtedly the principal qua-
Athenians, fearing they might be partial in their own lification of an hidorian ; when we can depend u[
caufe; but fpared no expence to inform himfelf how this, other imperfeftions are more eafily paffed over,
the fame fafts were related by their enemies the Lace- Suetonius is faid to have written the lives of the fird
demonians ; that, by comparing the relations of both twelve Roman emperors with the fame freedom where-
parties, he might better judge of the truth. And with they themfelves lived. What better charafter
Polybius took greater pains than he, in order to write can be given of a writer ? The fame ingenuous tem-
his hidory of the Roman affairs; for he travelled into per appears in the two Grecian hidorians above men-
Africa, Spain, Gaul, and other parts of the world, tioned, Thucydides and Polybius: The former of
that by viewing the feveral feenes of aftion, and in- whom, though baniffied by his countrymen the Athe-
forming himfelf from the inhabitants, he might come nians, yet expreffes no marks of refentment in his
at a greater certainty of the fafts, and reprefent them hidory, either againd them in general, or even a-
in a juder light. But as an hidorian ought not to affert gaind the chief authors of it, when he has occafion
what he knows to be falfe; fo he ffiould likewife be to mention them ; and the latter does not forbear
cautious in relating things which are doubtful, and cenfuring, what he thought blameable in his neared
acquaint his readers with the evidence he goes upon relations and friends. But it is often no eafy matter to
in fuch fafts, from whence they maybe able to judge know, whether an hidorian fpeaks truth or not, and
how far it is proper to credit them. So Herodotus keeps up to the feveral charafters here mentioned ; tho'
tells us what things he faw himfelf in his travels, and it feems reafonable, upon the common principles of
what he heard from the information of the Egyptian judice due to all mankind, to credit him where no
prieds and others with whom he converfed. And Cur- marks of partiality or prejudice appear in his writings,
tins, in the life of Alexander, fpeaking of the affairs Sometimes, indeed, a judgment may in a good mea-
of India, ingenuoufly confeffes, that he wrote more fure be formed of the veracity of an author, from his
than he fully believed. “ For (fays he) I neither manner of expreffing himfelf. A certain candour and
dare to affirm pofittvely, what I doubt of; nor can I franknefs, that is always uniform and confident with
2J A 2 itfelf
3679
Compofi-
Hiftory.
3680
Compofi-
Hiftory.
84
Subjcit of
hiftory.
HIST
itfulf runs through their writings, who have nothing
in view but truth, which may be juftiy efteetned as a
very good evidence of their fincerity. Whereas thoie,
who have partial defigns to anfwer, are commonly
more clofe and covert; and if at other times they af-
fume an air of opennefs and freedom, yet this is not
conftant and even, but foon followed again with the
appearance of fome bias and referve : for it is very
difficult to aft a part long together, without lying
open to a difcovery. And therefore though craft and
defign is exceeding various, and, Proteus hke, afiiimes
very different ffiapes; there are certain charafters, by
which it may often be perceived and detefted. Thus,
where things are uncertain by reafon of their being
reported various ways, it is partiality in an hiflorian
to give into the moft unfavourable account, where
others are as well known and equally credible. Again,
it is a proof of the fame bad temper, when the fafts
themfelves are certain and evident, but the defign and
motives of thofe concerned in them are unknown and
obfcure, to affign fome ill principle, fuch as avarice,
ambition, malice, intereft, or any other vitious habit,
as the caufe of them. This conduft is not only un¬
juft to the perfons, whole adiions they relate ; but
hurtful to mankind in general, by endeavouring to
deftroy the principal motive to virtue, which fprings
from example. Others, who affeft to be more covert,
content themfelves with fufpicions and fiy infinuations
and then endeavour to come off, by intimating their
unwillingnefs to believe them, tho’ they would have
their readers do fo. And to mention no more, there
are others, who, when they have loaded perfons with
unjuft calumnies and refleftions, will allow them fome
flight commendations, 'to make what they have faid
before look more credible, and themfelves lefs partial.
But the honeft and faithful hiftorian contemns all fuch
low and mean arts; he confiders things as they are
in themfelves, and relates tliem as he finds them, with¬
out prejudice or affeftion.
Art. II. The Subject or Argument of Hiftory.
The fubjeS in general is fafts, together with fuch
things as are either connefted with them, onjnay at
leaft be requifite to fet them in a juft and proper light.
But although the principal defign of hiftory be to ac¬
quaint us with fafts, yet all fafts do not merit the
regard of an hiftorian; but fuch only as may be thought
of ufe and fervice for the conduft of human life. Nor
is it allowable for him, like the poet, to form the plan
and fcheme of his work as he pleafes. His bufinefs
is to report things as he finds them, without any co¬
louring or difguife to make them more pleafing and
palatable to his reader, which would be to convert bis
hiftory into a novel. Indeed, fome hiftories afford
more pleafure and entertainment than others, from the
nature of the things of which they confift; and it may
be efteemed the happinefs pf an hiftorian to meet with
fuch a fubjeft, but it is not his fault if it be otherwife.
Thus Herodotus begins his hiftory with {hewing, that
the barbarians gave the firft occalion to, the wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, and ends it with an ac¬
count of the punifiiment which, after fome ages, they
fufferedfromtheGreeks on that account. Such a relation
muft uot only be very agreeable to his countrymen the
Grecians, for whofe fakes it was written; but likewife
O R Y. Sea
very inftruftive, by informing them of the juftice of •
Providence in punifhing public injuries in this world,
wherein focieties, as fuch, are only capable of punifh-
ment. And therefore tliofe examples might be of ufe
to caution them againft the like praftices. On the
contrary, Thucydides begins his hiftory with the un¬
happy ftate of his countrymen the Athenians; and in
the courfe of it plainly intimates, that they were the
caufe of the calamitous war between them and the
Lacedemonians. Whereas, had he been more inclined
to pleafe and gratify his countrymen, than to write
the truth, he might have fet things in fuch a light as
to have made their enemies appear the aggreflbrs.
But he fcorned to court applaufe at the txpence of
truth and juftice, and has fet a noble example of in¬
tegrity to all future hiftorians. But as all aftions do
not merit a place in hiftory, it requires no fmall judg¬
ment in an hiftorian to feleft fuch only as are proper.
Cicero obferves very juftiy, that hiftpry “ is conver-
fant in great and memorable aftions,” For this rea¬
fon, an hiftorian fhould always keep* pofterity in view,
and relate nothing which may not, upon fome account
or other, be worth the notice of after-ages. To de-
feend to trivial and minute matters, fuch as frequently
occur in the common affairs of life, is below the dig¬
nity of hiftory. Such writers ought rather to be deemed
journalifts than hiftorians, who have no view or ex-
peftatibn that their works fhould furvive them. But
the fkilful hiftorian is fired with a more noble ambi¬
tion, His defign is to acquaint fucceeding ages with
what remarkable occurrences happened in the world
before them ; to*do juftice to the memory of great
and virtuous men; and at the fame time to perpetuate
his own. Pliny the younger has fome fine refleftions
upon this head, in a letter to, a friend. “ You advife
me (fays he) to write an hiftory; and not you only,
for many others have done the fame, and I am myfelf
inclined to it. Not that I believe myfelf qualified for
it, which would be rafh to think, till I have tried ;
but becaufe I efteem it a generous aftion not to fuffer
thofe to be forgotten, whofe memory, ought to be
eternized; and to perpetuate the names of others, to¬
gether with one’s own. For there is nothing l am fo
defirous or ambitious of, as to be remembered here¬
after; which is a thing worthy of a man, efpecially
of, one who, confcious of no guilt, has nothing to
fear from pofterity. Therefore I am thinking day
and night by what means, as Virgil fays,
 My name
To raife aloft:
That would fuffice me; for it is above my wifh to add
with him,
and wing my flight to fame.
But oh!
However, this is enough, and what hiftory alone feems
to promife.” This was Pliny’s opinion, with regard
to the ufe and, advantage of hiftory; the fubjefts of
which are. generally matters of weight and importance.
And therefore, when a prudent hiftorian thinks it
convenient to take notice of things in themfelves lefs
confiderable, he either does it with brevity, or for
fome apparent reafon, or accounts for it by fome juft
apology. So £)!on Cafjius, when he has mentioned
fome things of leffer moment in the life of Commodus
(as indeed that emperor’s life was chiefly filled up with
cruelty
.III.
Compofi-
tion of
Hirtory.
Jl. v. cp. 8v
Sed. III.
HISTORY.
36S1
Campofi- cruelty and folly), makes this excufe for himfelf: “I
wou^ not ^ave ^ thought that I defeend below the
  L.°'J-L gravity of hiftory in writing thefe things. For, as
they were the aftions of an emperor, and I was
prefent and faw them all, and both heard and con*
verfed with him, I did not think it proper to omit
them.” He feems to think thofe aftions, when per¬
formed by an emperor, might be worth recording,
which, if done by a perfon of inferior rank, would
fcarce have deferved notice. Nor does he appear to
have judged amifs, if we confider what an influence
the condu& and behaviour of princes, even in the
common circumftatrces of life, have upon all beneath
them ; which may fometimes render them not un¬
worthy the regard of an hiftorian, as examples either
for imitation, or caution.
But, although fa&s in general are the proper fub-
jeft of hiftory, yet they may be differently confidered
with regard to the extent of them, as they relate ei¬
ther to particular perfons, or communities of men.
Different And from this conflderation, hiftory has been diftin-
kindsof guifhed into three forts, viz. biography, particular, and
hiftory. general hijlory. The lives of Angle perfons is called
biography. By particular hiftory is meant that of par¬
ticular ftates, whether for a fhorter or longer fpace of
time. And general hijlory contains an account of fe-
veral ftates exifting together in the fame period of
time.
1. The fubje&s of biography are the live^ either of
public or private perfons ; for many ufeful obferva-
tions in the conduft of human life may be' made from
juft accounts of thofe who have been eminent and be¬
neficial to the world in either Ration. Nay, the lives
of vitious perfons are not without their ufe, as warn¬
ings to others, by obferving the fata] confequences
which fooner or later generally follow fuch pra&ices.
But, for thofe who expofed their lives, or otherwife
employed their time and labour for the fervice of their
fellow-creatures, it feems but a juft debt that their
memories fhould be perpetuated after them, and po-
fterity acquainted with their benefaiftors. The ex¬
pectation of this was no fmall incentive to virtue in
the Pagan world. And perhaps every one, upon due
reflection, will be convinced how natural this paffion is
to mankind in general. And it was for this reafon,
probably, that Virgil places not only his heroes, but
alfo the inventors of ufeful arts and fciences, and
other perfons of diftinguifhed merit, in the Elyfian
fields, where he thus deferibes them:
Here patriot? live, who, for their country’s gooJ,.
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood:
Priefts of unldemifh’d lives here make abode; 1
And poets worthy their infpiring god;
And fearebihg wits, of more mechanic parts.
Who grac’d their age with new-invented arts;
Thofe who to worth their bounty did extend.
And thofe who knew that bounty to commend:
The heads of thefe with holy fillets bound,
And all their temples were with garlands crown’d.
yENEiD, 1. vi. v. co¬
in the lives of public perfons, their public characters
are principally, but not folely, to be regarded. The
world is inquifitive to know the conduCt of princes
and other great men, as well in private as public.
And both, as has been faid, may be of fervice, confi-
dering the influence of their examples. But to be
over-inquifitive in fearcht’ng into the W’eakneffes and Compofi-
infirmities of the greateft or beft of men, is, to fay
no more of it, but a needlefs curiofity. In the
writers of this kind, Plutarch is juftly allowed to
excel.
But it has been a matter of difpute among the
learned, whether any one ought to write his own
hiftory. It may be pleaded in favour of this, that
no one can be fo much mafter of the fubjeCt as the
perfon himfelf: and befides, there are many in-
ftances, both ancient and modern, to juftify fuch a
conduCt. But on the other hand it muft be owned,
that there are many inconveniencies which attend it,
fome of which are mentioned by Cicero. “ If (fays
he) there is any thing commendable, perfons are
obliged to fpeak of themfelves with greater modefty,
and to omit what is blameable in others. Beiides,
what is faid is not fo foon credited, and has lefs au¬
thority; and after all, many will not ftick to cenfure
it.” And Pliny fays very well to the fame purpofe,
“ Thofe who proclaim their own virtues, are thought Ad Fain,
not fo much to proclaim them becaufe they did them, v"
as to have done them that they might proclaim them. eP' IJ"
So that which would have appeared great if told by
another, is loft when related by the party himfelf.
For when men cannot deny the faCt. they refleft'upon
the vanity of its author. Wherefore, if you do things
not worth mentioning, the aCtions themfelves are
blamed; and if the things you do are comt>endable,
you are blamed for mentioning them.” Thefe reflec- Lib- vifis-
tions will be generally allowed to be very juft; and **
yet confidering how natural it is for men to love them¬
felves, and to be inclined in their own favour, it feems
to be a very difficult talk for any one to write an im¬
partial hiftory of his own a&ions. There is fcarce
any treatife of this kind that is more celebrated than
Caefar’s Commentaries. And yet Suetonius tells us,
that “ Afinius Pollio (who lived at that time,) thought
they were neither written with due care nor integrity:
that Csefar was often too credulous in his accounts of
what was done by other perfons ; and mifreprefented
his own aCtions, either defignedly, or through forget-
fulnefs: and therefore he fuppofes he'would have re-
vifed and corrected them.” However, at fome times
it may doubtlefs be juftifiable for a perfon to be his
own hiftorian. Plutarch mentions two' cafes wherein
it is allowable for a man to commend himfelf, and be
the publilher of his own merits. Thefe are, when
the doing of it may be of confiderable advantage, ei¬
ther to himfelf or others. It is indeed lefs invidious
for other perfons to undertake the province. And
efpecially for a perfon to talk or write ot his own vir¬
tues, at a time when vice and a general.corruption of
manners prevails, let what he fays be ever fo true, it
will be apt at leaft to be taken as a reflection upon
others. “ Anciently (fays Tacitus), many wrote
their own lives, rather as a teftimony of their conduCt,
than from pride.”' Upon which he makes this judi¬
cious remark: “ That the more virtue abounds, the
fooner the reports of it are credited.” But the an¬
cient writers had a way of taking off the reader’s at¬
tention from themfelves, in recording their own ac¬
tions, and fo rendering what they faid lefs invidious:
and that was, by fpeaking of themfelves in the third
perfon, and not in the firlt. Thus Csefar never fays.
3682 HISTORY. Soft. Ill
Compofi- « / did,” or “ 1 faid, this or that;” but always,
non °f «( Q^Jaf or faid, fo and fo.” Why the moderns
have not more chofen to follow them in this, we know
not, fince it feems lefs exceptionable.
2. In a continued hiftory of particular faxes, fome
account maybe given of their original, and founders ;
the nature of their foil, and fituation ; what advan¬
tages they have for their fupport or improvement, ei¬
ther within themfelves, by foreign traffic, or con-
quefts; with the form of their government. Then
notice ffiould be taken of the methods by which they
increafed in wealth or power, till they gradually ad¬
vanced to their highdl pitch of grandeur; whether
by their virtue, the goodnefs of their conftitution,
trade, indullry, wars, or whatever caufe. After this
the reafons of their declenfion ffiould be ffiewn, what
•were the vices that principally occafioned it, (for that
is generally the cafe), whether avarice, ambition, lu¬
xury, difcord, cruelty, or feveral of thefe in conjunc¬
tion. And laftly, where that has been their unhappy
fate, how they received their final ruin and fubver-
fipn. Mod of thefe things Livy had in view, when
he wrote his hifiory of the Roman date, as he ac¬
quaints his readers in the preface. “ The accounts
(fays he) of what happened either before, or while
the city was building, confiding rather of poetical
fables than any certain records of fadts, I ffiall nei¬
ther afiert nor confute them. Let antiquity be allow¬
ed to make the origin of their cities more venerable,
by uniting things human and divine. But if any na¬
tion may be fuffered to fetch their origin from the
gods, fuch is the military glory of the Romans, that
when they reprefent Mars as the father of their found¬
er, other nations may as eafily aequiefce in this, as
they do in their government. But I lay no great
ftrefs upon thefe things, and others of the like nature,
whatever may be thought of them. What I am deli-
rous every one ffiould carefully attend to, are our lives
and manners; by what men, and what arts, civil and
military, the empire was both acquired and enlarged:
then let him obferve, how our manners gradually de¬
clined with our difcipline ; afterwards grew worfeand
worfe; and at length fo far degenerated, that at pre-
fent we can neither bear with our vices, nor fuffer them
to be remedied. This is the chief benefit and advan¬
tage to be reaped from hiftory, to fetch inftru&ions
from eminent examples of both kinds ; in order to imi¬
tate the one, which will be of ufe both to yourfelf and
your country, and avoid the ottier, which are equally
bafe in their rife and event.” Thus far Livy. And
how well he has executed this defign, muft be ac¬
knowledged by all who will be at the pains to perufe
his work.
3. But as a particular hiftory confifts in a number
of fads relating to the fame ftate, fuitably conne&ed
and laid together in a proper feries; fo a general hi¬
ftory is made up of feveral particular hiftories, whofe
feparate tranfadions within the fame period of time,
or part of it, ffiould be fo diftindly related as to caufe
no confufion. Such was the hiftory of Diodorus Si¬
culus, which contained an account of moft of the emi¬
nent ftates and kingdoms in the world, though far the
greateft part of it is now unhappily loft. Of the fame
nature is the hiftory of Herodotus, though not fo ex-
tenfive; to whom we are efpecially indebted for the
Perfian affairs. And to this kind may likewife be re- Compofi- !
ferred Juftin’s hiftory, though it be only the epitome ti.oil of j
of a larger work, written by another hand. The Iilllury' j
rules proper for conduding fuch hiftories are much *^|
the fame as thofe above mentioned concerning parti¬
cular hiftories; excepting what relates to the order, of
which we ffiall have occafion to fpeak hereafter.
But the hiftories, both of particular ftates and
thofe which are more general, frequently contain only
the affairs of fome ffiort period of time. Thus the
hiftory of the Peloponnefian war, written by Thucy¬
dides, comprifes only what was done in the firft twenty
years of that war, which lafted feven years longer
than his account reaches ; though indeed the reafon
of that might be, becaufe Thucydides died before the
war was finiffied, othervvife he would very probably
have continued his hiftory to the conclufion of it.
But the hiftory of the war between the Romans and
king Jugurtha in Africa, given us by Salluft, as alfo
Csefar’s hiftories of the Gallic and civil wars, are all
confined within a much lefs number of years than that
of Thucydides. Nay, fometimes one fingle tranfadfion
is thought fufficient to furniffi out an hiftory. Such
was the confpiracy of Catiline to fubvert the Roman
ftate, written likewife by Salluft. As to more gene- >1
ral hiftories, Xenophon’s hiftory of Greece may be
efteemed as fuch, which in order of time fucceeds
that of Thucydides, and contains the affairs of forty-
eight years. And Polybius called his a general hijlo*
ry; which, though it principally contained the Roman
affairs, yet took in the moft remarkable tranfadfions
of feveral other ftates, for the fpace of fifty-three
years: though it has met with the fame hard fate as
that of Diodorus Siculus, fo that only the firft five
books out of forty, of which it confifted at firft, now
remain entire. And to mention no more, the cele¬
brated hiftory of Thuanus is another inftance of this
fort, in which the principal tranfadtions of Europe
for about fixty years, chiefly in the fixteenth century,
are defcribed with that judgment and fidelity, and in
a manner fo accurate and beautiful, that he has been
thought fcarcely inferior to any of the ancient hifto- j
rians. Now, in fuch hiftories as thefe, to go farther
back than is requifite to fet the fubjedt in a juft light,
feems as improper as it is unneceffary.
The general fubjedt or argument of hiftory, in its
feveral branches, may be reduced to thefe four heads;
tiarration, reflexions, fpeeches, and digrejfwns.
I. By narration is meant a defcription of fadfs or Of naira- !
adfions, with fuch things as are neceffarily connedted ci<>n.
with them, namely, perfons, time, place, defign, and
event.
As to aXions themfelves, it is the bufinefs of the
hiftorian to [acquaint his readers with the manner in
which they were performed ; what meafures were con¬
certed on all fides, and how they were condudted,
whether with vigilance, courage, prudence, and cau¬
tion, or the contrary, according to the nature of the
adtion ; as likewife, if any unforefeen accidents fell
out, by which the defigned meafures were either pro¬
moted or broken. All actions may be referred to
two forts, military and civil. And as war arifes from '
injullice, and injuries received, on one fide or the o-
ther, it is fit the reader ffiould be informed who were
the
Sea. III. H I S T O R T.
Compofi- the aggreflbrs. For though war is never to be defi-
Hlfbr°’f Ve^’ ^et 's ^omet'mes neceffary. In the defcription
■ 1 ~ir^' of battles, regard (hould be had equally to both par¬
ties, the number of forces, conduft of the generals,
in what manner they engaged, what turns and chan¬
ges happened in the engagement, either from accidents,
courage, or ftratagem, and how it ifftied; The like
circumftances ihould all be obferved in fieges and other
a&ions. But the mod agreeable fcene of hiftory ari-
fes from a date of peace. Here the writer acquaints
us with the conditution of dates, the nature of their
Jaws, the manners and cudoms of the inhabitants, the
advantages of concord and unanimity, with the dif-
advantages of contention and difeord ; the invention
of arts and fciences, in what manner they were im¬
proved and cultivated, and by whom ; with many
other things, both pleafant and profitable in the con-
dud! of life.
As to perfons, the ch a rafters of all thofe fhould be
deferibed who aft airy confiderable part in an hidory.
This excites the curiofity of the reader, and makes
him more attentive to what is faid of them ; as every
ode is more inquifitive to hear what relates to others,
in proportion to his knowledge of therm And it will
likewife be of ufe to obferve, how their aftions agree
with their charafters, and what were the effefts of
their different qualifications and abilities.
The circumdances of time and place are carefully to
be regarded by an bidorian, without which his ac¬
counts of fafts will be frequently very lame and im-
perfeft. And therefore chronology and geography
feem not improperly to have been called the two eyes
of hiftory. Befides, they very much affid the memory.
For it is much eafier to remember any thing faid to
be done at fuch a time, and in fuch a place, than if
only related in general. Nay, the remembrance of
thefe often recalls thofe things to mind, which other-
wife had been obliterated. By time is meant not
only the year of any particular sera or period; but
likewife the feafon, as fummer or winter; and the
age of particular perfons. For it is oftentimes from
hence that we are principally enabled to make a jud
edimate of fafts. Thus Cicero commends Pompey for
undertaking and finifhing the Piratic war at a feafon of
the year when other generals would not have thought
it fafe to venture out at fea. This double danger,, as
Marti'11 we^ fr°m ^ie weat^er as the enemy, confidering the
’ neceffity of the cafe, heightens the glory of the ac¬
tion ; fince to have done the fame thing in fummer,
would not have been an equal proof of the courage
and intrepidity of the general. And there is nothing
more furprifing in the conqueds of Alexander, than
that he fhould fubdue fo large a part of the world by
that time he was little more than thirty years old; an
age at which few other generals have been much di-
ftinguifhed. Had we not known this, a confiderable
part of his charafter had been lod.
The like advantages arife from the other circum¬
ftances of place. And therefore, in marches, battles,
and other military aftions, the hidorian fhould take
notice of the nature of the country, the paffes, rivers,
didances of places, fituation of the armies, and drength
of the towns, either by nature or art; from which
the reader may the better form a judgment of the dif¬
ficulties and greatnefs of any enterprife. Csefar is ge¬
nerally very particular in thefe things, and feems to
have thought it highly requifite in order to give his
readers a jud idea of his aftions. The deferiptions of
countries, cities, and rivers, are likewife both ufeful
and pleafant; and help us to judge of the probability
of what is related concerning the temper and genius
of the inhabitants, their arts, traffic, wealth, power,
or whatever elfe is remarkable among them.
But an accurate hidorian goes yet further, and con-
fiders iht caufes of aftions, and what were the deftgns
and views of thofe perfons who were principally con¬
cerned in them. Some, as Polybius has well obferved,
are apt to confound the beginnings of afttons with
their fprings and caufes, which ought to be carefully
feparated. For the caufes are often very remote, and
to be looked for at a confiderable didance from the ac¬
tions themfelves. Thus, as he tells us, fome have re-
prefented Hannibal’s befieging Saguntum in Spain,
and pafiing the Ebro, contrary to a former agreement
between the Romans and Carthaginians, as caufes of
the fecond Punic war. But thefe were only the begin¬
nings of it. The true caufes were the jealoufies and
fears of the Carthaginians from the growing power of
the Romans; and Hannibal’s inveterate hatred to them,
with which he had been impreffed from his infancy.
For his father, whom he fucceeded in the command of
the Carthaginian army, had obliged him, when but nine
years old, to take a mod folemn oath upon an altar never
to be reconciled to the Romans: and therefore he was
no fooner at the head of the army, than he took the
fird opportunity to break with them. Again, the true
fprings and caufes of aftion are to be didinguilhed
from fuch as are only feigned and pretended. For gene¬
rally the worfe defigns men have in view, the more feli¬
citous they are to cover them with fpecious pretences.
It is the hidorian’s bufinefs, therefore, to lay open,
and expofe to view, thefe arts of politicians. So, as
the fame judicious hidorian remarks, we are not to
imagine Alexander’s carrying over his army into Afia
to have been the caufe of the war between him and the
Perfians. That had its being long before. The Gre¬
cians had formerly two armies in Afia, one under Xe¬
nophon, and the other commanded byAgefilaus. Now
the Afiatics did not venture tooppofe or moled either
of thefe armies in their march. This made king Phi¬
lip, Alexander’s father, who was an ambitious prince,
and afpired after univerfal monarchy, think it might
be a practicable thing to make a conqued of Alia. Ac¬
cordingly, he kept it in his view, and made prepara¬
tions for it; but did not live to execute it. That was
left for his fon. But as king Philip could not have
done this, without fird bringing the other dates of
Greece into it, his pretence to them was only to avenge
the injuries they had ail fuffered from the Perfians;
though the real defign was an univerfal government,
both over them and the Perfians, as appeared after¬
wards by the event. But in order to our being well
affured of a perfon’s real defigns, and to make the ac¬
counts of them more credible, it is proper we fhould
be acquainted with his difpofition, manners, way of
life, virtues, or vices; that by comparing his aftions
with thefe, we may fee how far they agree and fait
each other. For this reafon Sailud is fo particular in
his defcription of Catiline, and Livy of Hannibal; by
which it appears credible, that the one was capable of
entering
36S3
Coro peti¬
tion of
Hiftory.
3684
Com poll- entering into fuch a eonfpiracy againft his country, and
tion of tjjC other of performing fuch great things as are re-
■ lated concerning him. But if the caufes of actions lie
in the dark and unknown, a prudent hiftorian will not
trouble himfelf, or his readers, with vain and trifling
conjectures, unlefs fomething very probable offers it-
felf.
Laftly, an hiftorian ftiould relate the ijfue and event
of the aCtions he defcribes. This is undoubtedly the
moft ufeful part of hiftory ; fince the greateft advan¬
tage arifing from it is to teach us experience, from
what has happened in the world before us. When we
learn from the examples of others the happy effeCts of
wifdom, prudence, integrity, and other virtues, it na¬
turally excites us to an imitation of them, and to pur-
fue the fame meafures in our own conduCt. And, on
the contrary, by perceiving the unhappy confequences
which have followed from violence, deceit, ralhnefs, or
-the like vices, we are deterred from fuch practices.
But fince the wifeft and moft prudent meafures do not
always meet with the defired fuccefs, and many crofs
accidents may happen to fruftrate the beft concerted
defigns; when we meet with inftances of this nature,
it prepares us for the like events, and keeps us from
too great a confidence in our own fchemes. However,
as this is not commonly the cafe, but in the ordinary
courfe of human affairs like caufes ufually produce like
effeCts ; the numerous examples of the happy confe¬
quences of virtue and wifdom, recorded in hiftory, are
fufficient to determine us in the choice of our meafures,
and to encourage us to hope for an anfwerable fuccefs,
though we cannot be certain we (hall in no inftance
meet with a difappointment. And therefore Polybius
very juflly obferves, that “ he who takes from hi¬
ftory the eaufes, manner, and end of aCtions, and o-
mits to take notice whether the event was anfwerable
to the means made ufe of, leaves nothing in it but a
bare amufement, without any benefit or inftruCtio^.’,
Thefe then are the feveral things neceffary to be at¬
tended to in hiftorical narrations, but the proper dif-
pofition of them muft be left to the Ikill and prudence
8g of the writer.
Of reflec- II. made by the writer. Somejiave con-
•tions. demned thefe, as having a tendency to bias the reader ;
who ftiould be left to draw fuch conclufions from the
accounts of faCts, as he fees proper. But fince all
readers are not capable of doing this for themfelves,
what difadvantage is it for the author to fuggeft to
them fuch obfervations as may affift them to make the
beft ufe of what they read ? And if the philofopher is
allowed to draw fuch inferences from his precepts, as he
thinks juft and proper ; why has not the hiftorian an
equal right to make reflections upon the faCts he re¬
lates ? The reader is equally at liberty to judge for
himfelf in both cafes, without danger of being preju¬
diced. And therefore we find, that the beft hilto-
rians have allowed themfelves this liberty. It would
be eafy to prove this by a large number of inftan-
ces, but one or two may here fuffice. When Sal-
luft has given a very diftinCl account of the de¬
figns of Catiline, and of the whole fcheme of the
confpiracy, he concludes it with this reflection :
“ All that time the empire of the Romans feems
to me to have been in a very unhappy ftate. For
when they had extended their cpnquefts through the
Sea. III. j
whole world from eaft to weft, and enjoyed both peace Compbfi-1
and plenty, which mankind efteem their greateft hap- 'I‘)n of ij
pinefs; fome perfons were obftinately bent upon their y* - J
own ruin, and that of their country. For notwith-
Handing two decrees were publifhed by the fenate, not 3 * * jj
one out of fo great a multitude was prevailed with, by 0
the rewards that were offered, either to difcover tl\e
confpiracy, or to leave the army of Catiline. So defpe-
rate a difeafe, and as it ^ere infeCtion, had feized the -
minds of moft people!” And it is a very handfome
obfervation that Livy makes upon the ill conduCl of
Hannibal in quartering his army in Capua after the
battle of Cannas; by which means they loft their mar¬
tial vigour through luxury and eafe. “ Thofe (fays xxiit. !
he), who are Ikilled in military affairs reckon this a c. iS.
greater fault in the general, than his not marching his
army immediately to Rome after his victory at Can¬
nae ; for fuch a delay might have feemed only to defer
the victory, but this ill itep deprived him of the power
to gain it.” The modefty of the hiftorian in this paf-
fage is worth remarking, in that he does not reprefent '
this as his own private opinion, and by that means un¬
dertake to cenfure the conduCt of fo great a general as
Hannibal was; but as the fenfe of thofe who were
Ikilled in fuch affairs. However, an hiftorian fhould
be brief in his remarks ; and confider, that altho’ he
does not exceed his province, by applauding virtue,
expreffing a juft indignation againft vice, and interpo-
fing hisjudgment upon the nature and confequences of
the faCts he relates ; yet there ought to be a diffe¬
rence between his reflections, and the encomiums or
declamations of an orator. 87 i
III. inferted by hiftorians. Thefe are of Of fpeeches
two forts, oblique and direCt. The former are fuch,
as the hiftorian recites in his own perfon, and not in
that of the fpeaker. Of this kind is that of Hannibal -
in Juftin ; by which he endeavours to perfuade king
Antiochus to carry the feat of the war againft thq
Romans into Italy. It runs thus: “ Having defired
liberty to fpeak, (he faid,) none of the prefent coun-
fels and defigns pleafed him; nor did he approve of
Greece for the feat of the war, which might be mana¬
ged in Italy to greater advantage : becaufe it was im-
poffible to conquer the Romans but by their own arms,
or to fubdue Italy but by its own forces ; fince both
the nature of thofe men, and of that war, was diffe¬
rent from all others. In other wars, it was of great im¬
portance to gain an advantage of place or time, to ra¬
vage the countries and plunder the towns; but tho’
you gain fome advantage over the Romans, or defeat
them, you muft ftill fight with them when beaten.
Wherefore, ftiould any one engage with them in Italy,
it was poffible for him to conquer them by their own
power, ftrength, and arms, as he himfelf had done.
But ihould he attempt it out of Italy, the fource of
their power, he would be as much deceived, as if he
endeavoured to alter the courfe of a river, not at the
fountain-head, but where its ftreams were largeft and
deepeft. This was hisjudgment in private, and what
he had ofl’ered as his advice, and now repeated in
the prefence of his friends; that all might know, in
what manner a war ought to be carried on againft the
Romans, who were invincible abroad, but might be
conquered at home. For they might fooner be driven
out of their city than their empire, and from Italy than .
their'
HISTORY.
Se£l. III.
HISTORY.
3685
Compofi- their provinces ; having been taken by the Gauls, and
tion of almoit fubdued by himfelf. That he was never defeat-
Hiftory, tjp jie w;thdrew out of their country ; but upon
^ xxxj his return to Carthage, the fortune of the war was
( S' * changed with the place.” He feems to intimate by
this fpeech, that the Romans were like fome fierce,
and impetuous animals, which are no otherwife to be
fubdued than by wounding them in fome vital part.
In fpeeches related after this manner, we are not ne-
cefiarily to fuppofe the hiftorian gives us the very words
in which they were at fir ft delivered, but only the
fenfe. But, in direct fpeeches, -the perfon himfelf is in¬
troduced as addreffing his audience; and therefore, the
words, as well as the fenfe, are to be fuited to his
character. Such is the fpeech of Eumenes, one of A-
Jexander’s captains and fuccefibrs, made to his foldiers
when they had traiteroufly bound him in chains, in or¬
der to deliver him up to his enemy Antigonus, as we
have it in the fame writer. “ You fee, foldiers, (fays
he), the habit and ornaments of your general, which
have not been put upon me by mine enemies ; that
would afford me fome comfort: it is by you, that of a
conqueror I am become conquered, and of a general a
captive ; though you have fworn to be faithful to me
fourtimes within the fpace of a year. But I omit that,
fince refledtions do not become perfons in calamity. One
thing I intreat, that, if Antigonus muft have my life,
you would let me die among you. For it no way con¬
cerns him, how, or where I fuffer, and I (hall efcape
an ignominioas death. If you grant me this, I free
you from your oath, with which you have been fo of¬
ten engaged to me. Or, if fhame reftrains you from
offering violence to me at my requeft, give me a fword,
and fuffer your genera! to do that for you without the
Ui. xiv. obligation of an oath, which you have fworn to do
^ 4* for your general.”
But this likewife is a matter in which critics have
been divided in their fentiments; whether any, or
what kind, of fpeeches ought to be allowed in hiftory.
Some have thought all fpeeches (hould be excluded.
And the reafon given for that opinion is this ; that it
breaks the thread of the difcourfe, and interrupts the
reader, when he is defirous to come to the end of an
aftion, and know how it iffued. This is true indeed,
when fpeeches are either very long, or too frequent;
but otherwife they are not only entertaining, but like¬
wife inftruftive. For it is of fervice to know the fprings
and reafons of aftions ; and thefe are frequently open¬
ed and explained in the fpeeches of thofe by whom
they were performed. Others therefore have not been
againft all fpeeches in general, but only diredt ones.
And this was the opinion of Trogus Pompeius, as Ju-
LAxxxvui. ,-nfonns us . though he did not think fit to follow
C‘ 3‘ him in that opinion, when he abridged him, as we have
feen already by the fpeech of king Eumenes. The
reafon offered againft diredt fpeeches is, becaufe they
are not true, and truth is the foundation of all hiftory,
from which it never ought to depart. Such fpeeches,
therefore, are faid to weaken the credit of the writer;
fince he, who will tell us, that another perfon fpoke
fuch things, which he does not know that he ever did
fpeak, and in fuch language as he could not ufe, may
take the fame liberty in reprefenting his adtions. Thus,
for example, when Livy gives us the fpecches of Ro¬
mulus, the Sabine women, Brutus, and others, in the
Vol. V.
firft ages of the Roman ftate, both the things them- Compofi-
felves are imaginary, and the language wholly difagree- ti.'fn of
able to the times in which thofe perfons lived. Ac- 1 ory‘
cordingly we find, that when feveral hiftorians relate
fome particular fpeech of the fame perfon, they wide¬
ly differ both in the fubjedf-matter and expreffions. So
the fpeech of Veturia, by which fire diffuaded her fon
Coriolanus from befieging Rome when he came againft
it with an army of Volfcians to^venge the injuries he
had received, is very differently related by Livy, Dio- ^
nyfius of Halicarnaffus, and Plutarch. Such fidtitious
fpeeches therefore are judged more fit for poets, who in. viii.
are allowed a greater liberty to indulge their fancy c. 46-
than hiftorians. And if any diredf fpeeches are to be In Cor>0'
inferted, they {hould be fuch only as were really fpo-lani>'
ken by the perfons to whom they are afcribed, where
any fuch have been preferved. Thefe have been the
fentiments of fome critics, both ancient and modern. See Voff.
However, there is fcarce an ancient hittorian now ex- Ars Hijl.
tant, either Greek or Latin, who has not fome 10"
fpeeches, more or lefs, in his works; and thofe not on¬
ly oblique, but alfo diredi. They feem to have
thought it a neceffary ornament to their writings ; and
even where the true fpeeches might be come at, have
chofen rather to give them in their own words, in order,
probably, to preferve an equality in the ftyle. Since
therefore the beft and moft faithful hiftorians have ge¬
nerally taken this liberty, we are to diftinguifti be¬
tween their accounts of fadls, and their fpeeches. In
the former, where nothing appears to the contrary, we
are to fuppofe they adhere to truth, according to the
beft information they could get; but in the latter,
that their view is only to acquaint us with the caufes
and fprings of aftions, which they chofe to do in the
form of fpeeches, as a method moft ornamental to the
work, and entertaining to the reader: Though the
beft hiftorians are cautious of inferting fpeeches, but
where they are very proper, and upon fome folemn and
weighty occafions. Thucydides is faid to have been
the firft who brought complete and finifhed fpeeches
into hiftory, thofe of Herodotus being but ftiort and
imperfedl. And tho’ Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, in his
cenfure upon Thucydides, feems then to have difliked
that part of his condudl ; yet he afterwards thought
fit to imitate it in his Antiquities of Rome, where we
find many, not only oblique, but alfo dirtft, fpeeches.
What has been faid of fpeeches, may likewife be
underftood of letters, which we fometimes meet with
in hiftories ; as that of Alexander to Darius in
Curtius, thofe of Tiberius and Drufus in Tacitus, and^- iv.
many others. Some letters are wholly fi&itious; andc' *• .
in others perhaps the hiftorian reprefents the fubftance ^
of what was really faid, but gives it his own drefs. 59! * Js
Thus we find, that fhort letter of Lentulus to Catiline,
at the time of his confpiracy, differently related by Ci¬
cero and Salluft. The reafon of which feems to be
this: That as Cicero recited it publicly to the people
of Rome, in his third oration againft Catiline, it is
reafonable to imagine; he did it in the very words of
the letter, which he had by him; whereas Salluft, as
an hiftorian, might think it fufficient to give the fenfe
of it in his own words.
IV. Digrejjions. Thefe, if rightly managed, afford
the reader both delight and profit. Like fpeeches, they
{hould neither be too long nor frequent; left they in-
21 B inter-
3686
Compofi-
tion of
Hiftory.
S3
€f order.
H I S 1
terrupt the courfe of the hiftory, and divert the reader
from the main defign of the work. But now and then
to introduce a beautiful defcription, or fome remark¬
able incident, which may give light to the fubjeft, is
fo far from an interruption, that it is rather a relief to
the reader, and excites him to go on with greater plea-
fure and attention. See further on this head, Ora¬
tory, n° 37.
Art. III. Of Order.
Since moft hiftories confift of an introdu&ion and
the body of the work, in each of which fome order is
requifite, we lhall fpeak to them feparately.
1. The defign of the introdudf ion is the fame here
as in orations. For the hiftorian propofes three things
by his introdu&ion, which may be called its parts ;
to give his reader fome general view of the fubjed, to
engage his attention, and to poflefs him with a candid
opinion of himfelf and his performance. Some have
thought this laft unneceffary for an hiftorian. But if
we confider how differently mankind are apt to judge of
the fame perfons and adions, it feems as requifite for
an hiftorian to be well efteemed as an orator. And
therefore we find fome of the beft hiftorians have not
omitted this part. Livy’s introdudion has been very
much applauded by the learned, as a mafter-piece in
its kind. It begins with an account of his defign.
“ Whether (fays he) it may anfwer any valuable end
for me to write the hiftory of the Roman affairs from
the beginning of the city, I neither am certain, nor,
if I was, fiiould I venture to declare it.” Soon after
he endeavours to prepare the reader’s attention, by
reprefenting the grandeur and ufefulnefs of the fub-
jed in the following words : “ Either I am prejudiced
in favour of my fubjed, or there never was any ftate
greater, more virtuous, and fruitful of good examples,
or in which avarice and luxury had a later admittance,
or poverty and thriftinefs were either more highly or
longer efteemed, they always coveting lefs, the lefs they
enjoyed.” And then he prefently proceeds to ingratiate
himfelf with his readers, and gain their favourable
opinion : “ Although my name is obfcure m fo great
a number of writers, yet it is a comfort, that they
cloud it by their fame and charader. But I (hall gain
this advantage by my labour, that I (hall be diverted
for a time from the profped of thofe evils which the
age has feen for fo many years; while my mind is
wholly intent upon former times, free from all that care
which gives the writer an uneafinefs, though it cannot
bias him againft the truth.” In this paffage we fee
he endeavours to gain the good efteem of his readers
from two very powerful motives, modefty, and a ftrid
regard to trnth. It may fcarce feem ncceffary to ob-
ferve, that thofe introdudions are efteemed the beft
which are moft natural; that is, fuch as are taken
from the fubjed-matter of the hiftory itfelf, and clofe-
ly conneded with it. Such are thofe of Herodotus,
Thucydides, Livy, Tacitus, and others. And there¬
fore Salluft is greatly blamed by Quintilian on the ac¬
count of his introdudions, which are fo general, that
they might fuit other hiftories as well as thofe to
which they are prefixed. Introdudions fhould like-
wife be proportioned to the length of the work. We
meet with fome few hiftories, in which the writers im¬
mediately enter upon their fubjed, without any intro*
’ O R Y. Sea. III.
dudion; as Xenophon in his Expedition of the younger Compofi-
Cyrus, and Cjefar in his Commentaries of the Gallic ‘‘P" of
and Civil Wars. But the latter does not profefs to 1 °r^‘
write a juft hiftory ; and therefore left himfelf more at
liberty, as well in this refped as in fome others.
2. But order is principally to be regarded in the
body of the work. And this may be managed two
ways ; either by attending to the time in a chronolo¬
gical feries, or the different nature and circumftances
of the things contained in the hiftory. However, as
thefe two methods do not equally fuit all fubjeds, we
(hall a little confider to what kind of hiftories each of
them feems more properly adapted. All hiftory then,
as we have obferved already, may be reduced to three
forts ; biography* the hiftory of particular fates* and
the general hifory of fevcral fates exifting at the fame
time.
In biography, or the lives of particular perfons,
moft writers follow the order of time ; though fome
reduce them to certain general heads, as their virtues
and vices, or their public and private charader. Plu¬
tarch and Cornelius Nepos have taken the former me¬
thod, and Suetonius the latter.
As to the hiftory of particular dates, the order of
time is generally bed, as being moft natural and eafy.
And therefore it has ufually been obferved by the belt
hiftorians, as Thucydides, Livy, and others. Taci¬
tus, indeed, wrote two diftind works; one of which he
called Annals* and the other Hifories. And, as in both
he has kept to the order of time, critics have been at a
lofs to affign any other reafon for thefe different titles,
unlefs that in the former work he confines himfelf
more clofely to the fads themfelves, and does not treat
fo largely upon the caufes, manner, or event of them,
as he has done in the latter. And even in the cir¬
cumftances of fads, there is a certain order proper to
be obferved, for rendering the account more plain and
intelligible. Thus, for inftance, in the defcription of
a battle or fiege, the time (hould firft be known, then
the chief perfon or perfons who conduded it, then
the number of forces and other requifites, afterwards
the nature of the place, then the adion itfelf, and
laftly the event. But fometimes it is neceffary to add
the time in which feveral of the other circumftances
happened, efpecially in adions of any confiderable
length. Where the order of thefe circumftances is
confufed, it perplexes the account, and renders it both
lefs entertaining to the reader, and more difficult to
remember.
In a general hiftory, the order of time cannot al¬
ways be preferved ; though, where the adions of dif¬
ferent communities have refped to one as the princi¬
pal, they (hould all, as far as poffible, be referred to
the tranfadions of that ftate. But even here the fc-
veral affairs of thofe different dates ought to be rela¬
ted feparately, which will neceffarily occafion the an¬
ticipating fome things, and poftponing others, fo that
they cannot all (land in the order of time in which
they were performed. However, Velleius Paterculus
fays very juftly with regard to this fubjed, That “ e-
very entire adion, placed together in one view,l is
much better apprehended than if divided by different
timesr” In this cafe, therefore, for better preferving
the chronology, it is ufual with hiftorians, when they
havefinifhed any particular narrative, in paffing to the.
next,.
Sea. HI. HIST
Compofi- next, to exprefs the time by fome ftiort and plain
tion of tranfition ; and fometimes to apologize for themfelves,
Hiftory. aflign;ng tlie reafons of their conduft. So Poly-
bins, whofe hiftory is of this kind, fays concerning
himfelf: “ As in writing the aftions of each year, in
in the order of time, I endeavour to reprefent the af¬
fairs of the fame nation together in one fummary view,
it is plain that inconvenience muft of courfe attend this
way of writing.” Curtius profefies only to write the
aflions of Alexander king of Macedon ; but his hi¬
ftory contains in it the principal affairs of the greateft
ftates in the world during that period. Now although,
in the courfe of thofc tranfatlions, the war between Ar-
chelaus governor of Macedonia, and Agis king of Spar¬
ta, happened before the battle of Alexander at Arbela;
yet the hiftorian not only relates that battle firft, but
carries on the account of Alexander’s affairs in Afia to
the death of Darius without interruption ; for which
he gives this reafon : “ If I Ihould relate the affairs of
Alexander, which happened in the mean time, cither
in Greece, or Illyrium and Thrace, each in their pro¬
per order and time, I muft interrupt the affairs of A-
fia ; which it is much better to reprefent together in
one continued feries as they fell out, to the flight and
death of Darius.” Such anachronifms, therefore, are
rr- v< nothing more than what neceffarily arife fometimes
from the nature of the fubjeft : As every thing, the
more complex it is, and contains under it a greater
number of parts, is more difficult to be digefted in a
regular order. But in an hiftory compofed of feveral
ftates, whofe affairs are independent of one another,
the aftions of each nation muft neceffarily be fepara-
ted, in order to reprefent them in a juft view, and
prevent confufion. This is the method which Hero¬
dotus has taken, as likewife Diodorus Siculus and Ju-
ftin. Now both the pleafure and benefit which fuch
hiftories afford, arife from obferving the conduft of
each ftate feparately in the courfe of their affairs, and
then comparing one with the other. And as the or¬
der of time muft frequently be interrupted, it is not
unufual to continue the chronology at proper diftan-
ces in relating the affairs of each nation ; which pre-
ferves an unity in the whole, and conneds it in one
confiftent body.
The divifion of hiftories into books was defigned
only for the better diftindion of the fubjed and eafe
of the reader. And the dividing thefe books again
into chapters, is rather a pradice of later editors,
(founded, as they have thought, on the fame reafons),
than countenanced by the example of ancient writers.
Art. IV. Of Style.
89 An hiftorical ftyle is faid to be of a middle nature,
Of ftyle. between that of a poet and an orator, differing from
both not only in the ornamental parts, but likewife in
the common idioms and forms of exprelfion.
Cicero obferves, that “ nothing is more agreeable
in hiftory than brevity of expreffion, joined with pu-
Ve Clar. rity and perfpicuity.” Purity indeed is not peculiar
Oral. c. 7S- to hiftory, but yet it is abfolutely neceffary. For no
one will ever think him fit to write an hiftory who is
not mailer of the language in which he writes. And
therefore, when Albinus had written an hiftory of the
Roman affairs in Greek, and apologized for any flips
or improprieties that might be found in the language
O R Y. 3687
upon the account of his being a Roman, Cato called Compofi-
him a trifler, for choofing to do that which, after he tio'1 of
had done it, he was obliged to a/k pardon for doing. 1 ory'
Nor is perfpicuity lefs requifite in an hiftorical ftyle. ^
The nature of the fubjeft plainly direfts to this. For xi. c. 8.
as hiftory confifts principally in narration, clearnefs
and perfpicuity is nowhere more neceffary than in a re¬
lation of fa£ls. But thefe two properties are to be ac¬
companied with brevity, fince nothing is more difa-
greeable than a long and tedious narrative. And in
this refpeft an hiftorical ftyle differs both from that
of poetry and oratory. For the poet frequently
heightens and enlarges his deferiptions of fadls, by
dwelling upon every circumftance, placing it in differ¬
ent views, and embellilhing it with the fineft ornaments
of wit and language, to render his images more a-
greeable. And the orator often does the like, with a
defign to ftrike the paflions. But fuch colouring is
not the bufinefs of an hiftorian, who aims at nothing
more than a juft and faithful reprefentation of what
he relates, in a way beft fuited to its nature, and in
fuch language as is molt proper to fet it in a plain and
eafy light.
Again, Cicero, treating of in hiftorical ftyle, fays : 0raJ
“ It ought to be fluent, fmooth, aud even, free from
that harlhnefs and poignancy which is ufual at thee.
bar.” The properties here mentioned diftinguilh this
ftyle from, that of judicial difeourfes, in which the
orator often finds it neceffary to vary his manner of
fpeaking, in order to anfwer different views, either of
purfuing an argument, prefling an adverfary, addref-
fing a judge, or recommending the merits of his caufe.
This occafions an inequality in his ftyle, while he
fpeaks fometimes diredily, at other times by way of
queftion, and intermixes ftiort and concife expreflions
with round and flowing periods. But the hiftorian
has no neceflity for fuch variations in his ftyle. It
is his province to efpoufe no party, to have neither
friend nor foe, but to appear wholly difinterefted and
indifferent to all; and therefore his language ftiould
be fmooth and equal in his relations of perfons and
their adlions.
But further: Dionyfius makes “ decency a princi- ad
pal virtue in an hiftorianwhich he explains by fay- Cn. Pom*
ing, that “ he ought to preferve the charadlers of the ?«««.
perfons, and dignity of the adlions of which he treats.”
And to do this it feems neceffary that an hiftorical
ftyle ftiould be animated with a good degree of life
and vigour; without which neither the charadlers of
eminent perfons, nor their remarkable adlions, which
make up the main bufinefs of hiftory, can be duly re-
prefented. For even things in themfelves great and
excellent, if related in a cold and lifelefs manner, of¬
ten do not affedt us in a degree fuitable to their dig¬
nity and importance. And this feems particularly ne¬
ceffary in fpeeches, in order to reprefent what every
one fays, according to his different country, age, tem¬
per, and ftation of life, in the fame manner we may
fuppofe he either really did, or would have fpoken
himfelf on^hat occafion. Befides, there are fome feenes
of adlion which require very pathetic and moving lan¬
guage, to reprefent them agreeably to their nature.
And, in deferiptions, the moft beautiful tropes and
lively figures are often neceffary to fet the ideas of
things in a proper light. From whence it appears,
21 B 2 that
3688 HISTORY. Sed. III.
Compofi- that painting and imagery make up no fmall part of
irn "°f t^ie hiflorian’s province, though his colours are not fo
“ °‘y' ftrong and glittering as thofe either of the poet or o-
rator. He ought, therefore, to be well acquainted
with the manners of men and the nature of the paf-
fions, fince he is often obliged to defcribe both ; in
the former of which Herodotus excels, and Thucydi¬
des in the latter, as Dionyfius has obferved.
Now from thefe feveral properties laid down by an¬
cient writers, as requifite for an hiftorical ftyle, it
feems upon the whole to agree bed with the middle
charadier. And this will further appear, by what
they fay relating to the ornamental parts of ftyle ;
namely, compofition and dignity. As to the former
of thefe, which refpedts the ftrudlure of fentences, and
the feveral parts of them, Demetrius remarks, that,
“ An hiftorical period ought neither to rife very high,
nor fink very low, but to preferve a medium.” This
fimplicity, (he fays,) “ becomes the gravity and cre¬
dit of hiftory ; and diftinguifiies it from oratory on the
one hand, and dialogue on the other.” His meaning
is, that hiftorical periods ftiould neither be fo full and
fonorous, as is frequent in oratory; nor yet fo (hort
and flat, as in dialogue . the former of which, as he
fays, require a ftrong voice to pronounce them ; and
the latter have fcarce the appearance of periods. So
that, according to this judicious writer, the periods
bell fuited for hiftory are thofe which, being of a mo¬
derate length, will admit of a juft rife and cadency,
and may be pronounced with eafe. And Dionyfius
tells us, that “ Hiftory fhould flow fmooth and even,
every where confiftent with itfelf, without roughnefs
or chafms in the found.” This relates to the harmony
of periods, which arifes from fuch a pofition of the
words as renders the found pleafant and agreeable,
and, as he thinks, ought to be attended to in hiftory.
And as to dignity, which refpedts the ufe of tropes
and figures, the fame author fays, that “ Hiftory
fhould be embellilhed with fuch figures, as are neither
vehement, nor carry in them the appearance of art.”
This is agreeable to what Cicero obferves, in com¬
paring Xenophon and Califthenes, two Greek hifto-
rians. “ Xenophon the Socratic, (fays he), was the
HIT
History of Nature, or Natural History.
See Nature. _
Hithe. HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, fignified an a£lor
 or comedian ; but more efpecially a pantomime, who
exhibited his part by geftures and dancing.
HITCHING, a large and populous town ofHart-
fordlhire in England, fituated near a large wood called
Hitch'viood. The inhabitants make large quantities of
malt; and the market is one of the greateft in Eng¬
land is one of the greateft in England for wheat. W.
Dong. o. 20. N. Lat. 51. 55.
HITHE, a town of Kent in England, which had
formerly four parifties ; but, by the choaking up of
its harbour and other accidents, it is now reduced to
one. It is a cinque port, and is governed by a ju-
ftice of the peace and conftables. It confifts of one
ilreet, which is paved ; and contains about 150 low
houfes, moftly built with wood and ftone. The chief
fupport of the inhabitants is fifhing. It is remarkable
firft philofopher, and after him Califthenes the fcbo- Compofi.
lar of Ariftotle, who wrote an hiftory ; the latter al- b'011 of
moft like a rhetorician ; but the llyle of the former is Hlltory*
more moderate; and has not the force of an orator,
lefs vehement perhaps, but in my opinion more fweet jj.
and pleafant.” The difference between thefe " two c. 14.
writers, with regard to their ftyle, confifted chiefly
in the choice of their, figures, which in Xenophon were
more gentle and moderate, and therefore in the judg¬
ment of Cicero more agreeable to hiftory. Now thefe
feveral properties relating to the ornaments of lan¬
guage, as well as thofe before mentioned, which by
ancient writers have been thought requifite for hiftory,
are all fuited to the middle ftyle, as we have elfewhere
fhewn at large. See Oratory, n° 99—21.
But notwithftanding this general account of the
feveral properties which conftitute an hiftorical ftyle,
it adlftits of confiderable varieties from the different
nature and dignity of the fubjedl. The lives of par¬
ticular perfons do not require that ftrength and ma-
jefty of exprefiion, nor all thofe ornaments of lan¬
guage, as an hiftory of the Roman empire. And ac¬
cordingly we find the ftyle of Nepos and Suetonius
very different from that of Livy. The former is fmooth
and eafy, fcarce rifing above the low chara&er ; but
the latter often approaches near to the fublime. And
other hiftorians again have kept a medium between
thefe. Upon the whole, therefore, we may con¬
clude, that the middle ftyle is the proper chara&er
for hiftory, tho’ hiftorians may fometimes fink into
the low chara&er, and at other times rife to the gran¬
deur and magnificence of the fublime, from the dif¬
ferent nature of their fubjedl, or fome particular parts
of it. For that is to be efteemed the proper charac¬
ter of any writing, which in the general beft fuits it.
And this diftinflion may help us in fome meafure to
reconcile the fentiments of writers upon this head
who feem to attribute different charadlers to an hifto¬
rical ftyle, or at leaft to judge where the truth lies ;
fince a variety of ftyle is not only requifite in different
fubjedts, but likewife in different parts of the fame
work.
H O A
for a great pile of dry bones in the town, 28 feet Hive
long, fix broad, and eight high. E. Long. t. 7. II I
N. Lat. 51.6. 6 S a 7 Hoadley, 1
HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle
for bees. See Aris.
Hiving of Bees. See Apis.
HO ACHE, in natural hiftory, a kind of earth 1
approaching to the nature of chalk, but harder, and
feeling like foap ; whence fome think that it is either J
the fame with the foap-rock of Cornwall, or very
like it. The Chinefe diffolve it in water, till the li¬
quor is of the confiftence of cream, and then varnifh
their China-ware with it.
HOADLEY (Benjamin), fucceflively bifhop of
Bangor, Hereford, Salifbury, and Winchefter, was
born in 1676. His firft preferment in the church was
the redlory of St Peter le Poor, and the le&urefhip of
St Mildred’s in the Poultry. In the year 1706, he
publiftred loros. Remarks on the late bilhop Atterbury’s
feraaou
Ay C- AjAtm Al/) ^A/yAyf^^ '^y/Am/A^Ai/oj^i/tiyiri^^^^nittsnfjAyi^C^tAnA/nyA1.
EXPLANATION.
By this plan events may be referred to the year of the world; and, within the proper periods, to the aeras of the Olympiads, of Nabonailar, and of Rome ! but the principal reference is to the birth of Chrift,
^narked as above by a deep black line.
The plan extends only to the Flood; the preceding period of r6j6 years is left blank as above. , n..
There being 1348 years from the Flood to the birth of Chrift, the fpace between them is divided into 23 parts, each reprefenting an hundred years or century, and a fraaion reprefenting the remaining 48 years.
As we are now in the 18th century, the (pace from the birth of Chrift downwards is divided into eighteen parts or centuries; and all thefe parts, together with fome centuries preceding the birth oi Chrift,
are fubdlvided ififiSTeinr"- ~
The vertical columns, titled as above, are geographical divifions; and events are marked in their proper centuries and proper columns. Thus the rife of any ftate, as that of Affyria, is marked in its proper
geographical column, and in that place of the-arft century before Chrift at which the beginning of its niftory is dated ; from thence we trace its continuance to the end of the 7th century before Chrift, when
It became extinft. The building of Rome is marked about the middle of the 8th century before Chnft. Its territory extends by degrees to the conqueft of all Italy ; next to Spain, Macedonia, &c. until it
comes to extend from Britain to Egypt. It continues of this greatnefs until about the middle of the sth century after chrift, when it oegins tolofethofe provinces out of which the modern kingdoms of Europe
have been formed in the order here fet down. —As the order in which ttates hive rifen or fallen, relatively to one another, appears on mere infpeftion, it will be more eafily remembered than when it is con*
veyed in numbers alone.
The dates are taken chiefly from that comprehenfive and ufeful work, Blair’s Chronological Tables. Ufe has likewife been made of the Chart of Univerfal Hiftory, formed on a defign like this, but differently
executed. —Compared to that chart, the prefent may be thought incomplete. Nor would it have been difficult for the gentleman who (ketched it, to Have filled it up with remarkable events, fucceffions of
kings, and lives of men ; but be preferred clearnefs and fimplicity, leaving to every perfon the filling up of his own plan with fuch articles as are moft in the way of his curiofity and ftudy. He has contented
himfelf with a few fpecimens of this fort, in the fucceffion of the Roman emperors, of the kings of England and France-; and in the lives of one or two remarkable men, as in thofe of Tacitus the hiftorian, and
Attila. One perfon may choofc to fill his plan with the names of ftatefmen and warriors, anothsr with fcholars and men of letters. To attempt inferring all that deferve- being recorded, would crowd and
embarrafs the whole.
As fpace is here employed to reprefent time, it is material that equal periods should be reprefented bv equal fpaces; and, if poffible, that the parts of the fame empire ihould be placed together. Both thefe
circumltances are negicctcd in the Chart of Univerfal Hiftory,
H O A [ 3689 1 HOB
Hoadley. fermon at the funeral of Mr Bennet, in which Dr At-
— terbury had, in the opinion of Mr Hoadley, laid
down fome dangerous propofitions. Two years after,
Mr Hoadley again entered the lifts againft this for¬
midable antagonift ; and in his exceptions againft a
fermon publifhed. by Dr Atterbury, intitled “ The
Power of Charity to cover Sin,” he attacked the doc¬
tor with his ufual ftrength of reafoning, and difpaf-
fionate inquiry.—In 1709, another difpute arofe be¬
tween thefe two learned combatants, concerning the
dodrine of non-refiftance, occafionedby a performance
of Mr Hoadley’s, intitled “ The Meafures of Obe¬
diencefome pofitions in which, Dr Atterbury en¬
deavoured to confute in his elegant Latin fermon,
preached that year before the London clergy. In
this debate Mr Hoadley fignalized himfelf in fo.
eminent a degree, that the honourable houfe of com¬
mons gave him a particular mark of their regard, by
reprefenting, in an addrefs to the queen, the fignal
fervices he had done to the caufe of civil and religious
liberty.—The principles, however, which he efpoufed
being repugnant to the general temper of thofe times,
drew on him the virulence of a party 5 yet it was at
this period (1710, when, as he himfelf expreffed it,
fury feemed to be let loofe upon him), that the late Mrs
Howland prefented him tpthe redoryof Streatham in
Surry, unalked, unapplied to, and without his either ha¬
ving feen her or been feen by her. Soon after the ac-
ceffion of king George I. Mr. Hoadley was confecrated
to the fee of Bangor; and 1717 having broached
fome opinions concerning the nature of Chrift’s king¬
dom, he again became the obje& of popular cla¬
mour. At this juncture he was diftinguifhed by an¬
other particular mark of the royal regard, by means
of which the convocation was fucceffively prorogued,
and it was not permitted to fit, nor do any bulinefs,
till that refentment was entirely fubfided. In 1721,
he was tranflated to Hereford; and from thence, in
1723, to Saliftury. In 1734, he was tranflated to
Winchefter (on the demife of Dr Willis), and pub-
liftied his Plain Account of the Sacrament: a perform¬
ance which ferved as a butt for his adverfaries to (hoot
at, yet impartially owns it to be clear, rational, and
manly, wrote with great candour and judgment, and
fuited to the capacity of every ferious and confiderate
inquirer after truth.—His latter days were embittered
by a moft vile inftance of fraud aud ingratitude. The
bifliop took a French pried, who pretended to abjure
his religion, under his proteftion, with no other re¬
commendation than that of his neceflities; in return for
which aft of humanity, the prieft found an opportunity
of getting the biihop’s name wrote by his own hand,
and caufing a note of fome thoufand pounds to be placed
before it, offered it in payment. But the bifliop deny¬
ing it to be his, it was brought before a court of juftice,
and was there found to be a grofs impofition. The un¬
grateful villain had now recourfe to a pamphlet, in
which he charged the bifliop with being a drunkard,
and alleged that he had the note of him when he was
in liquor. To this calumny the bifliop made a full
and nervous anfwer; in which he expofed the man’s
falfehood, and folemnly averred that he was never
drunk in his whole life. The world with becoming
ardour embraced his defence, and he had the happi-
aefs to find himfelf perfeftly acquitted even of any
fufpicion of fuch a charge. As a writer, he poflefled Hoadley
uncommon abilities. His fermons (publiftied in 1 754
and 1755) are efte.emed inferior to few writings in the 7 „
Englifli language, for plainnefs and perfpicuity, ener¬
gy and ftrength of reafoning, and a free and mafterly
manner. In private life, he was naturally facetious,
eafy, and complying, fond of company, yet would
frequently leave it for the purpofes of ftudy or devo¬
tion. He was every where happy ; and particularly
in his own family, where he took all opportunities of
inftrufting by his influence and example. He died in
1761, aged 83. Befides the works already mentioned,
he wrote, 1. Terms of Acceptance, 8vo. 2. Reafon-
ablenefs of Conformity. 3. On the Sacrament.—His
trafts and pamphlets are extremely numerous; and
the reader may fee a complete catalogue of them in
his life inferted in the fupplement to the Biographia
Britannica.
Hoadley (Benjamin), M. D. fon of the former,
was born in 1706, and ftudied at Bennet college
Cambridge, under the tuition of Dr Herring after¬
wards archbifhop of Canterbury. He took his de¬
gree in phyfic; and particularly applying himfelf to
mathematical and philofophical ftudies, was, when very
young, admitted a member of the royal fociety. He
was made regifter of Hereford, while his father filled
that fee, and was early appointed phyfician to his ma-
jefty’s houfehpld, but died at his houfe in Chelfea in
1757. He wrote, 1. Three Letters on the organs of
refpiration, 410. 2. The Sufpicious Hufband, a co¬
medy. 3. Obfervations on a feries of eleftrical expe¬
riments;, and, 4. Oratio anniverfaria, in Theatre CoL
Med. Londin. ex Harvei injlituto habita die, Oftob.
1742*
HOAR-hound, in botany. See Marubium.
HOARSENESS, in medicine, a diminution of the
voice, commonly attended with a preternatural afperity
and roughnefs thereof. The parts affefted are the a-
fpera arteria and larynx. For its caufes and cure, fee
(the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HOBBES (Thomas), a famous writer, born at
Malmfbury in 1588, was the fon of a clergyman. He
completed his ftudies at Oxford, aud was afterwards
governor to the eldeft fon of William Cavendiflr earl of
Devonfhire. He travelled through France and Italy
with that young nobleman, and at length applied him¬
felf entirely to the ftudy of polite literature. He tranf¬
lated Thucydides into Englifti; and publiflied his
tranflation in 1628, in order to ftiewhis countrymen,
from the Athenian hiftory, the diforders and confu-
fions of a democratical government. In 1626, his
patron the earl ofDeyonfhire died; and in 1628, his
fon died alfo': which lofs affefted Mr Hobbes to fuch
a degree, that he very willingly accepted an offer made
him of going abroad a fecond time with the fon of Sir
Gervafe Clifton ; whom he accordingly accompanied
into France, and ftaid there fome time. But, while
he continued there, he was folicited to return to Eng¬
land, and to refume his concern for the hopes of that
family to whom he had attached himfelf fo early,
and to which he owed fo many and fo great obliga¬
tions.
In 1631, the countefs dowager of Devonfhire de-
fired to put the young earl under his care, who was
then about the age of 13. This was very fuitable to
Mr
HOB [ 3690 ] HOB
Hobbes. Mr Hobbes’s inclinations, who difcharged that truft
with great fidelity and diligence. In 1634, he repub-
lifhed his tranflation of Thucydides, and prefixed toil
a dedication to that young nobleman, in which he gives
a large chara&er of his father, and reprefents in the
ftrongeft terms the obligations he was under to that il-
luftrious family. The fame year he accompanied his
noble pupil to Paris, where he applied his vacant hours
to the ftudy of natural philofophy, and more efpecially
to the perfedt underftanding of mechanifm, and the
caufes of animal motion. He had frequent converfa-
tions upon thefe fubjefls with father Marin Merfenne ;
a man defervedly famous, and who kept up a corre-
fpondence with almoft all the learned in Europe. From
Paris he attended his pupil into Italy, where at Pifa he
became known to that great aftronomer Galileo Gali¬
lei, who communicated to him his notions very freely ;
and after having feen all that was remarkable in that
country, he returned with the earl of Devonlhire into
England; afterwards, forefeeing the civil wars, he went
to feek a retreat at Paris, where, by the good offices
of his friend father Merfenne, he became known to the
famous Renatus des Cartes, and afterwards held a cor-
refpondence with him upon feveral mathematical fub-
jefts, as appears from the letters of Mr Hobbes pub-
liffied in the works of Des Cartes. But when this
philofopher printed afterwards his Meditations, where¬
in he attempted to eftablifh points of the higheft confe-
quence from innate ideas, Mr Hobbes took the liberty
of diffenting from him; as did alfo the French king’s
mathematical profeflbr, the illuftrious Peter Gaffendi,
with whom Mr Hobbes contrafted a very clofe friend-
fhip, which was not interrupted till the death of the
former. In 1642, Mr Hobbes printed a few copies
of his famous book De Civst which, in proportion as
it became known, raifed him many adverfaries, who
charged him with inftilling principles which had a dan¬
gerous tendency.
Among many illultrious perfons who, upon ffiipwreck
of the royal caufe, retired to France for fafety, was Sir
Charles Cavendilh, brother to the duke of Newcaftle:
and this gentleman, being {killed in every branch of
the mathematics, proved a conftant friend and patron
to Mr Hobbes; who, by embarking in 1645 ‘n a con*
troverfy about fquaring the circle, was grown fo fa¬
mous for it, that in 1647 he was recommended to in-
ftruft Charles prince of Wales, afterwards kingChar. II.
in that kind of learning. His care in the difeharge of
this office gained him the efteem of that prince in a
very high degree: and though he afterwards withdrew
his public favour to Mr Hobbes on account of his wri¬
tings, yet he always retained a fenfe of thefervices he
had done him ; ffiewed him various marks of his favour
after he was reftored to his dominions; and, as fome fay,
had his pi&ure hanging in his clofet. This year alfo
was printed in Holland, by the care of M. Sorbiere, a
fecond and more complete edition of his book De Give;
to which are prefixed two Latin letters to the editor,
the one by Mr Gaffendi, the other by father Merfenne,
in commendation of it: and in 1650 was publifhed
at London a fmall treatife of Mr Hobbes’s, intitled,
“ Human Nature ;” and another, “ De corpore politi¬
co, or of the elements of the law.”
All this time Mr Hobbes had been digefting with
great care and pains his religious, political, and moral
principles, into a complete fyftem, which he called the Hobbes.
Leviathan, and which w’as printed in Englilh at Lon-
don in 1650 and 1651. After the publication of his
Leviathan he returned to England, and paffed the fum-
mer commonly at his patron the earl of Devonffiire’s
feat in Derbylhire, and fome of his winters in town,
where he had for his intimate friends fome of the greateft
men of the age.
In 1660, upon the reftoration, he quitted the coun¬
try, and came up to London, where he obtained from
the king affurance of proteftion, and had an annual
penfion of L. 100 fettled upon him out of the privy
purfe. Yet this did not render him entirely fafe: for, in
] 666, his Leviathan and his treatife De Give were
cenfured by parliament, which alarmed him very much;
as did alfo the bringing in of a bill into the houfe of
commons to punilh atheifm and profanenefs. When
this ftorm was a little blown over, he began to think
of procuring a beautiful edition of his pieces, that were
in Latin ; but finding this imprafticable in England,
he caufed it to be undertaken abroad, where they were
publilhed in quarto in 1668, from the prefs of John
Bleau. In 1669, he was vifited by Cofmo de Medi-
cis, then prince, afterwards duke of Tufcany, who
ave him ample marks of his efteem and refpeft ; and
aving received his pi&ure, and a complete collection
of his writings, caufed them to be repofited, the for¬
mer among his curiofities, the latter in his noble li¬
brary at Florence. The like vifits he received from
foreign ambaffadors and other ftrangers of diftinftion ;
who were curious to fee a perfon whofe lingular opi¬
nions and numerous writings had made fo much noife
all over Europe. In 1672, he wrote his own life in
Latin verfe, when, as he obferves, he had completed
his 84th year: and, in 1674, he publilhed in Englilh
verfe four books of Homer’s Odyffey, which was fo
well received, that it encouraged him to undertake the
whole Iliad and Odyffey, which he like wife performed
and publilhed in 1675. About this time, he took his
leave of London, and went to fpend the remainder of
his days in Derbylhire ; where, however, he did not
remain inadtive, notwithftanding his advanced age; but
publilhed from time to time feveral pieces, to be found
in the colle&ion of his work. He died in 1679, a*
ged 92.
As to his chara&er and manners, they are thus de-
feribed by Dr White Kennet, in his Memoirs of the
Cavendilh family. “ The earl of Devonfhire (fays
he) for his whole life entertained Mr Hobbes in his
family, as his old tutor, rather than as his friend or
confident. He let him live under his roof in eafe and
plenty, and in his own way, without making ufe of him
in any public, or fo much as domeftic affairs. He
would often exprefs an abhorrence of fome of his prin¬
ciples in policy and religion ; and both he and his la¬
dy would frequently put off the mention of his name,
and fay, * He was a humourift, and nobody could ac¬
count for him.’ There is a tradition in the family, of
the manners and cuftoms of Mr Hobbes, fomewhat ob-
fervable. His profeffed rule of health was to dedicate
the morning to his exercife, and the afternoon to his
ftudies. And therefore, at his firft riling, he walked
out, and climbed any hill within his reach ; or if the
weather was not dry, he fatigued himfelf within doors
by fome exercife or other, to be in a fweat: recom¬
mending
HOB [ 3691 ] HOE
Hobbes, mending that pra&ice upon this opinion, that an old
'' man had more moifture than heat, and therefore by
fuch motion heat was to be acquired and moifture ex¬
pelled. After this, he took a comfortable breakfaft ;
and then went round the lodgings to wait upon the
earl, the countefs, and the children, and any confider-
able ftrangers, paying fome fhort addreffes to all of
them. He kept thefe rounds till about 12 o’clock,
when he had a little dinner provided for him, which
he eat always by himfelf without ceremony. Soon af¬
ter dinner he retired to his ftudy, and had his candle
with 10 or 12 pipes of tobacco laid by him; then flint-
ting his door, he fell to fmoking, thinking, and wri¬
ting, for feveral hours. He retained a friend or two at
court, and efpecially the lord Arlington, to proteft
him if occafion fliould require. He ufed to fay, that
it was lawful to make ufe of ill inftruments to do our-
felves good : ‘ If I were caft (fays he) into a deep pit,
and the devil fliould put down his cloven foot, I would
take hold of it to be drawn out by it.’ After the re*
ftoration,he watched all opportunities to ingratiate him¬
felf with the king and his prime minifters; and looked
upon his penfion to be more valuable, as an earneft of
favour and proteftion, than upon any other account.
His future courfe of life was to be free from dan-
er. He could not endure to be left in an empty
oufe. Whenever the earl removed, he would go along
with him, even to his laft ftage, from Chatfworth to
Hardwick. When he was in a very weak condition,
he dared not be left behind, but made his way upon a
feather-bed in a coach, though he furvived the journey
but a few days. He could not bear any difconrfe of
death, and feemed to call off all thoughts of it: he
delighted to reckon upon longer life. The winter be¬
fore he died, he made a warm coat, which he faidmuft
laft him three years, and then he would have fuch an¬
other. In his laff licknefshis frequent queftions were.
Whether his difeafe was curable ? and when intimations
were given, that he might have eafe, but no remedy,
he ufed this expreffion, ‘ I (hall be glad to find a hole
to creep out of the world at;’ which are reported to
have been his laft fenfible words ; and his lying fome
days following in a filent ftupefa&ion, did feem owing
to his mind more than to his body.”
The reverend Mr Granger obferves, that Hobbes’s
ftyle is incomparably better than that of any other wri¬
ter in the reign of Charles I. and was for its uncom¬
mon ftrength and purity fcarcely equalled in the fuc-
ceeding reign. “ He has in tranflation (fays he)
done Thucydides as much juftice as he has done injury
to Homer ^ but he looked upon himfelf as born for
much greater things than treading in the fteps of his
predecefibrs. He was for ftriking out new paths in
fcience, government, and religion; and for removing
the land-marks of former ages. His ethics have a
ftrong tendency to corrupt our morals, and his politics
to deftroy that liberty which is the birthright of every
human creature. He is commonly reprefented as .a
fceptic in religion, and a dogmatift in philofophy; but
he was a dogmatift in both. The main principles of
his Leviathan are as little founded in moral or evanr
gelical truths, as the rules he has laid down for fqua-
ring the circle are in mathematical demonftration. His
book on human nature is efteemed the Left of his
works.
HOBBY, the name of a hawk called by fome au- Hobby
thors fubbuteo. See Falco. II
It is a hawk of the lure, and not of the fift ; and is
very like the faker, only much lefs. It makes excel- 
lent fport with net and fpaniels; for when the birds
fee the hobby, they dare not commit themfelves to
the wing, but lie clofe to the ground, and fo are ta¬
ken in nets.
HODY (Humphry), a learned Englifh divine, was
born in 1659. At 21 years of age, he publiflied his ce¬
lebrated Dijfertation againjl Ariftxus's hiftery of the 70
interpreters; which was received with great applaufe
by all the learned, Ifaac Voflius excepted, who could
not bear to have his opinions oppofed by fuch a youth.
Twenty years after, he treated the fubjeft more fully
in his De Bibliorum textibus originalibus, verfonibus
Gracis it Latina vulgata, libri IV. In 1689, he
wrote the Prolegomena to John Melala’s Chronicle,
printed at Oxford ; and the year after was made chap¬
lain to Dr Stillingfleet, bifliop of Worcefter. The
deprivation of the nonjuring bifhops engaged him in
a controverfy with Mr Dodwell; which recommended
him to archbilhop Tillotfon, to whom, and his fuc-
ceflbr Dr Tenifon, he was domeftic chaplain. In
1698, he was made regius profefTor of the Greek
tongue at Oxford, and archdeacon of Oxford in 1704,.
On occafion of the controverfy about the convocation,
he in 1701 publifhed A hijlory of Englijh councils and
convocations, and of the clergy's Jilting in parliament,
isc. He died in 1706, leaving in MS. vf/; account of
thofe learned Grecians 'who retired to Italy on the taking
of Confaniinoplc, itc. which was publiflied in 1742 by
Dr Jebb.
HOE, in country affairs, a tool made like a coop¬
er’s adze, to cut up weeds in gardens, &c. This tool
is commonly called the hand-hoe.
Hoeing, according to Tull, is the breaking and
dividing the foil by tillage, whilft the corn and other
plants are growing thereon.-—It differs from common
tillage (which is always performed before the corn
or plants are fown or planted), in the time of per¬
forming it, and it is much more beneficial to the
crops than any other tillage. See Agriculture,
n° 17I — I75-
HOEMATOPUS, in ornithology, a genus of
birds, of the order of grallae. It has a long com-
preffed hill, with the end cuneated; the noftrils are
linear, and the feet have only three toes. There is
but one fpecies, the oftraleg.us, fea-pie, or oyfter-
catcher. They are very common on moft of our
coafts, feeding on marine infers, oyfters, limpets, &c.
Their bills, which are compreffed fideways, and end
obtufely, are very fit inftruments to infinuate between
the limpet and the rock to which thefe. (hells adhere;
which they do with great dexterity, to get at the fifh.
On the coaft of France* where the tides recede fo far
as to leave the beds of oyfters bare, thefe birds feed
on them, forcing the (hells open with their bills.
They keep in fummer-time in pairs, laying their, eggs
on the bare ground: they lay four of a whitifti-brown
hue, thinly fpotted and dripped with black ; andiwhen
any one approaches their young, they make a loud
and (brill noife.. In winter, they affemhle in vaft flocks,
and are very wild. The head, neck, fcapulars, and
coverts of the wings, of this bird are.of a fine black;
ija
HOG [ 3692 ] HOG
in forne the neck is marked with white} the wings
dufky, with a broad tranfverfe band of white ;
the bill three inches long, and of a rich orange
colour.
HOFFMAN, the name of feveral eminent phyfi-
eians; of whom Maurice Hoffman, and John Maurice
Hoffman his fon, prafitifed at Altorf. Maurice died
in 1698, leaving behind him many works; and was
fucceeded by his fon John Maurice, who wrote as well
as his father, and died in 1727, highly efteemed by
the faculty.—Frederic Hoffman, probably of the fame
family, was born at Magdeburg in 1660. The prin¬
cipal known circumffances of his life are, his journey
intb Holland, and England, where he became inti¬
mately acquainted with Paul Herman, and Robert
Boyle; never taking any fees, being fupported by his
annual ftipend ; his curing the emperor Charles VI.
and Frederic I. king of Pruffia of inveterate difeafes;
to which may be added, his accurate knowledge of the
nature and virtues of mineral waters. He furvived
his 80th year ; and his works, which are in great
efteem, were printed in fix volumes folio at Geneva,
in 1740. _
HOG, in zoology. See Sus.
Hog’s Dung is, by Mortimer, reckoned one of the
richeft manures we are acquainted with, and the next
in value to fheep’s dung, and is found to be equal in
virtue to twice the quantity of any other dung except
this. The ancients feem to have been difpleafed with
it, on account of its breeding weeds; but this is only
acciifing it of being too rich, for any dung will do
this when laid too thick. It is an excellent manure
for pafture-grounds, and excels all other kinds of dung
for trees. The farmers who ufe this dung for their
lands, generally take care to fave it, by well-paving
the ftyes; and increafe the quantity by throwing in
bean-ffalks, ftubble, and many other things of a like
nature: and, by good management of this kind, many
farmers have procured 50 or 60 loads of excellent
manure a-year out of a fmall ftye. The very beft way
of ufing this dung is, by mixing it with horfe-dung;
and for this reafon, it is belt to have the ftye near the
liable, that the two cleanfings may be mixed in one
heap, and ufed together.
They have in many parts of Staffordfhire a poor,
light, (hallow land, on which they fowa kind of white
pea: the land is neither able to bear this nor any
thing elfe to advantage for their reaping; but, when
the peas are ripe, they turn in as many hogs as the
quantity of pea'fe will fatten, fuffering them to live at
large, and to remain there day and night: in confe-
quence of this, the land will produce good crops of
hay for feveral years afterwards; or, if too poor for
that, it will at worft raife grafs enough to make it
good pafture-ground.
HOGARTH (William), an excellent moral
painter, was born in London, in the parifti of St
Bartholomew. His father,being poor, puthim appren¬
tice to an engraver of pewter-pots; and in this hum¬
ble fituation he paffed through his time, without feem-
ing to have any higher views. His apprenticefhip
was however no fooner expired, than he purfued every
method of improving himfelf in the art of drawing, of
which his former mailer had given him but a rude idea.
This ambition was productive of diftrefs; and while
he fpent his time in preparing for his future excel¬
lence, he felt all the contempt that indigence could
produce. Being one day arrefted by his landlady for
the trifling fum of 20 (hillings, and being bailed by
one of his friends; in order to be revenged on her, he
drew her pifture in caricatura, and in that Angle fi¬
gure gave marks of the dawn of a fuperior genius.
The firft piece in which he diftinguilhed himfelf as a
painter, was in the figures of the Wandfworth afftm-
bly; which are drawn from the life, without any cir-
cumftances of his burlefque manner. His next piece
was his Pool of Bethefda, which he prefented to St
Bartholomew’s hofpital. His being afterwards em¬
ployed to draw defigns for a new edition of Hudibras,
proved the firft opportunity of fignalizing himfelf in
that ftyle. The Harlot’s Progrefs was the firft of his
burlefque pictures, or rather life-piCtures; for it is
unjuft to give them the character either of burlefque
or grotefque pieces, fince both the one and the other
convey to us a departure from nature, to which Ho¬
garth almoft always ftriCtly adhered. 'The ingenious
Abbe du Bos has often complained, that no hiftory-
painter of his time went through a feries of ac¬
tions, and thus, like an hiftorian, painted the fuc-
cefiive fortunes of an hero from the cradle to the
grave. What du Bos wilhed to fee done, Hogarth
performed. In the above piece, he lanches out his
young adventurer a Ample girl upon the town, and
condufts her through all the viciffitudes of wretched-
nefs, to a premature death. This was painting to
the reafon and to the heart; none had ever before
made the art fubfervient to the purpofes of morality
and inftruCtion: a book like this is fitted to every
foil and every obferver, and he that runs may read.
The Rake’s Progrefs fucceeded the former; which,
though not equal to it, came (hort only of that fingle
excellence, in which no other could come near him in
that way. It confifts of eight prints; and, like the
former, it exhibits a complete hiftory adapted to an-
fwer the moft moral purpofes: as is alfo his marriage
A-la-mode, in fix prints; and The EffeCIs of Idlenefs
and Induftry, exemplified in the conduCt of two fel¬
low-apprentices, in 12 prints, &c.—Mr Hogarth tra¬
velled with feveral of his companions to Paris ; but
had no fooner landed at Calais, than, attempting to
draw the gate of that city, he was taken into cuftody,
on fufpicion of his being a fpy. He was foon fet at
liberty: but the refentment he felt on this occafion,
induced him to defign the fatyrical print called the
Gate of Calais; and he never after drew a Frenchman
but in caricatura. The laft remarkable circumftance
of his life was his conteft with Mr Churchill. It is
faid that both met at Weftminfter-hall; Hogarth to
take by his eye a ridiculous likenefs of the poet, and
Churchill to furnilh a defcription of the painter. But
Hogarth’s print of the poet was not much efteemed,
and the poet’s letter to him was but little admired.
Some pretend, indeed, to fay that it broke the painter’s
heart; but this we can from good authority fay is not
true. Indeed the report falls of itfelf;1 for we may
as well fay, that Hogarth’s pencil was as efficacious
as the poet’s pen, fince neither long furvived the
conteft.
The following chara&er of this artift is given by
Mr Gilpin in his EJfay on Prints. “ The works of
this
HOG [ 3693 ] HOG
Hogarth, this mailer abound in true humour; and fatire, which
is generally well-dire£led: they are admirable moral
lefibns, and a fund of entertainment fuited to every
tafte ; a circumftance, which fhews them to be juft
copies of nature. We may coniider them too-as va¬
luable repofitories of the manners, cuftoms, and dreflcs
of the prefent age. What a fund of entertainment
would a colleftion of this kind afford, drawn from
every period of the hiftory of Britain?—How far the
works of Hogarth will bear a critical examination,
may be the fubjedt of a little more inquiry.
“ In dejign, Hogarth was feldom at a lofs. His
invention was fertile ; and his judgment accurate. An
improper incident is rarely introduced; a proper one
rarely omitted. No one could tell a ilory better; or
make it, in all its circumftances, more intelligible.
His genius, however, it muft be owned, was fuited
only to low or familiar fubjedls. It never foared
above common life: to fubjedts naturally fnblime, or
which, from antiquity or other accidents, "borrowed
dignity, he could not rife.
“ In compofition we fee little in him to admire. In
. many of his prints the deficiency is fo great, as plainly
to imply a want of all principle; which makes us ready
to believe, that when we do meet with a beautiful
group, it is the effedt of chance. In one of his minor
works, the Idle Prentice, we feldom fee a crowd more
beautifully managed than in the laft print. If the
(heriff’s officers had not been placed in a line, and had
been brought a little lower in the pidfure, fo as to
have formed a pyramid with the cart, the compofition
had been unexceptionable ; and yet the firft print of
this work is fuch a ftriking inftance of difagreeable
compofition, that it is amazing how an artift who had
any idea of beautiful forms, could fuffer fo unmafterly
a performance to leave his hands.
“ Of the difribution of light Hogarth had as little
knowledge as of compofition. In fome of his, pieces
we fee a good effedl ; as in the Execution juft men¬
tioned: in which, if the figures at the right and left
corners had been kept down a little, the light would
have been beautifully diftributed on the fore-ground,
and a fine fecondary light fpread over part of the
crowd. But at the fame time there is fo obvious a
deficiency in point of effedt, in moft of his prints,
that it is very evident he had no principles.
“ Neither was Hogarth a mafter in drawing. Of
the mufcles and anatomy of the head and hands he
had perfedf knowledge; but his trunks are often badly
moulded, and his limbs ill fet on: yet his figures,
upon the whole, are infpired with fo much life and
meaning, that the eye is kept in good-humour, in fpite
of its inclination to find fault.
“ The author of the Analyfis of beauty, it might be
fuppofed, would have given us more inttances oigrace
than we find in the works of Hogarth; which fhews
ftrongly, that theory and pradtice are not always
united. Many opportunities his fubjedls naturally
afford of introducing graceful attitudes; and yet we
have very few examples of them. With inftances of
pidturefque grace his works abound.
“ Of his exprejjion, in which the force of his genius
lay, we cannot fpeak in terms too high. In every
mode of it he was truly excellent. The paffions he
thoroughly underftood; and all the effedts which they
V'ol. V.
produce in every part of the human frame: he had Hogarth
the happy art alfo of conveying his ideas with the li
fame precifion with which he conceived them.- He Holb£l.n’
was excellent too in exprefling any humorous oddity
which we often fee ftamped upon the human face.
All his heads are call in the very mould of nature.
Hence that endlefs variety, which is difplayed through
his wprks; and hence it is, that the difference arifes
between his heads, and the affedted caricaturas of thofe
mailers who have fometimes amufed themfelves with
patching together an affemblage of features from their
own ideas. Such are Spaniolet’s; which, though ad¬
mirably executed, appear plainly to have no archetypes
in nature. Hogarth’s, on the other hand, are collec¬
tions of natural curiofities. The Oxford-heads, the
Phyjician's - arms, and fome of his other pieces, are ex-
preisly of this humorous kind. They are truly comic,
though ill-natured effuiions of mirth: more entertain¬
ing than Spaniolet’s, as they are pure nature; but
lefs innocent, as they contain ill-diredled ridicule.—
But the fpecies of expreffion in which this mafter per¬
haps moft excels, is that happy art of catching thofe
peculiarities of art and gefture which the ridiculous
part of every profefiion contradl, and which for that
reafon become charadleriftic of the whole. His
counfellors, his undertakers, his lawyers, his ufurers,
are all confpicuous at fight. In a word, almoft every
profeffion may fee in his works, that particular fpe¬
cies of affedlation which they fliould moft endeavour
to avoid.
“ The execution of this mafter is well fuited to his
fubjedls, and manner of treating them. He etches
with great fpirit, and never gives one unneceffary
ftroke.”
HOGSHEAD, in commerce, a meafure of capa¬
city containing 63 gallons.
HOGUE, a town and cape on the north-weft point
of Normandy in France ; near which admiral Rook
burnt the French admiral’s Ihip called the Rifing Sun,
with 12 more large men of war, the day after the vi&ory
obtained by admiral Ruffell near Cherburgh, in May
1692. W. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 49. yo.
HOKE-tide, a folemn feftival celebrated for many
ages in England, in memory of the great flaughter of
the Danes in the time of king Ethelred, they having
been in that reign almoft all deftroyed in one day in
the different parts of the kingdom, and that princi¬
pally by the women. This is ftill kept up in fome
counties, and the women bear the principal fway in it,
flopping all paffengers with ropes and chains, and
exadling fome fmall matter to make merry with.
HOLBEIN (Hans), a celebrated painter, born at
Bafil in Switzerland in 1498, learned the rudiments
of his art from his father, who was a painter ; but
foon fhewed his fuperior genius. In the town-houfe
of Bafil he painted our Saviour’s Paffion; and in the
filh-market of the fame city, Death’s dance, and a
dance of peafants, which were extremely admired ;
and Erafmus was fo pleafed with them, that he defired
him to draw his picture, and was ever after his friend.
He ftaid fome years longer at Baiil, till his neceffi-
ties, occafioned by his own extravagance and an in-
creafing family, made him comply with Erafmus’s
perfuafions to go to England. In his journey he ftaid
fome days at Strafburg, where it is faid he applied to
H O L [ 3694 ] H O L
Holbein, a very great painter for work, who took him in, and
ordered him to give a fpecirr.en of his (kill. On which
Holbein finifhed a piece with great care, and painted
a fly on the moft eminent part of it ; after which he
.privately withdrew in the abfence of his 'mailer, and
purfued his journey, without faying any thing to any
body. When the painter returned home, he was afto-
nifhed at the beauty and elegance of the drawing ;
and efpecially at the fly, which he at firft took for a
real one, and endeavoured to remove it with his hand.
He now fent all over the city for his journeyman ; but
after many inquiries, difcovered that he had been thus
deceived by the famous Holbein.
Holbein having in a manner begged his way to Eng¬
land, prefented a letter of recommendation from Erafmus
to Sir Thomas More, and alfo (hewed, him Erafmus’s
pi&ure. Sir Thomas, who was then lord-chancellor, re¬
ceived him with all the joy imaginable, and kept him in
his houfe between two and three years, in which'time he
drew Sir Thomas’s picture, and thofe of many of his
relations and friends. Holbein one day happening to
mention a nobleman who had fome years before invited
him to England, Sir Thomas was very folicitous to
know who it was. Holbein faid that he had forgot
his title, but remembered his face fo well, that he be¬
lieved he could draw his likenefs ; which he did fo
perfectly, that the nobleman it is faid was immediately
known by it. The chancellor having now adorned
his apartments with the productions of this great
painter, refolved to introduce him to Henry VIII.
For this purpofe, he invited that prince to an enter¬
tainment ; having, before he came, hung up all Hol¬
bein’s pieces in the great hall, in the bell order, and
placed in the bell light. The king, on his firll en¬
trance into this room, was fo charmed with the fight,
that he alked whether fuch an artift was now alive,
and to be had for money? Upon this, Sir Thomas
prefented Holbein to his majelly; who immediately
took him into his fervice, and brought him into great
efteem with the nobility and gentry; by which means
he drew a vail number of portraits.
But while he was here, there happened an affair
which might have proved fatal to him, had he not
been protected by the king. On the report of this
painter’s charafter, a lord of the firll quality came to
fee him, when he was drawing a figure after the life.
Holbein fent to defire his lordfhip to defer the honour
of his vifit to another day; which the nobleman taking
for an affront, broke open the door, and very rudely
went up Hairs. Holbein hearing a noife, came out of
his chamber, and meeting the lord at his door, fell
into a violent paffion, and pulhed him backwards from
the top of the (lairs to the bottom. However, imme¬
diately refle&ing on what he had done, he efcaped
from the tumult he had raifed, and made the bell of
his way to the king. The nobleman, much hurt,
though not fo much as he pretended, was there foon
after him; and upon opening his grievance, the king
ordered Holbein to afle his pardon. But this only
irritated the nobleman the more, who would not be
fatisfied with lefs than his life; upon which the king
llernly replied, “ My lord, you have not now to do
11 with Holbein, but with me; whatever punilhment
“ you may contrive by way of revenge againft him,
“ ffiall certainly be inflifted on yourfelf. Remember,
“ pray, my lord, that I can, whenever I pleafe, make Holcus
“ (even lords of feven ploughmen, but Icannot make It
“ one Holbein of even feven-lords.” Holbein died Ho 1
of the plague at his lodgings at Whitehall, in 1.554.
“ It is amazing (fays De Piles), that a man born in
“ Switzerland, and who had never been in Italy,
“ fhould have fo good a gtifto, and fo fine a genius for
“ painting.” He painted alike in every manner; in
frefco, in water-colours, in oil, and in miniature. His
genius was fufficiently (hewn in the hillorical llyle, by
two celebrated compofitions which he painted in the
hall of the Stillyard company. He was alfo eminent
for a rich vein of invention, which he (hewed, in a mul¬
titude of defigns which he drew for engravers, 11a*
tuaries, jewellers, &c. and he had this fingularity, that
he painted with his left-hand.
HOLCUS, Indian millet or corn ; a genus
of the moncecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are ten fpecles, two of
which are natives of Britain. The mod remarkable of
thefeisthelanatus,or creeping foft-grafs of Hudfon; for
the defcription and properties of which, fee Agricul¬
ture, n° 57. The moll remarkable of the foreign
fpecies is the forghum, or Guinea-corn. The llalks
are large, compafl, and full eight feet high. In Se¬
negal the fields are entirely covered with it. ~ The ne*
groes, who call it guiarnot, cover the ears when ripe
with its own leaves to (helter it from the fparrows, which
are very mifchievous in that country. The grain made
into bread, or otherwife ufed, is elleemed very whole-
fome. With this the Haves in the Well Indies are ge¬
nerally fed, each being allowed from a pint to a quart
every day. The juice of the flalks is fo agreeably luf-
cious, that, if prepared as the fugar-canes, they would
afford an excellent fugar. The negroes on the coall of
Guinea make of two kinds of millet a thick-grained
pap called coufcous, which is their common food.
HOLD, the whole interior cavity or belly of a
(hip, or all that part of her infide which is compre¬
hended between the floor and the lower-deck though-
out her whole length.—This capacious apartment
ufually contains the ballaft, provifions, and llores of a
(hip of war, and the principal part of the cargo in a
merchantman. The difpolition of thefe articles with
regard to each other, naturally falls under confideration.
in the article Stowage ; it fuffices in this place to fay,
that the places where the ballad, water, provifions,
and liquors are flowed, are known by the general
name of the hold. The feveral (lore-rooms are fepa-
rated from each other by bulk-heads, and are deno¬
minated according to the articles which they contain,
the fail-roam, the bread-room, the f/Jo-room, the fpirit--
poorn, &c.
HOLDERNESS, a peninfula in the eall-riding
of Yorklhire, having the German fea on the call, and
the Humber on the fouth. It has the title of an earl¬
dom.
HOLERACEiE (from W«/, “ pot-herbs ’). The
name of the 12th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a
natural metho*d, confiding of plants which are ufed for
the table, and enter into the ceconomy of domeftic af¬
fairs. See Botany, p. 1307.
HOLI BUT, in ichthyology. See Pleuron ectes.
HOLIDAY (Dr Barten), a learned divine and
ppet,
H O L [ 3695 ] H O L
ITolinefs poet, was the fon of a taylor in Oxford, and born
l! there about the year 1593. He ftudied at Chrift-
**olland- church college, and irv 1615 took orders. He was be-
fore admired for his flcill in poetry and oratory; and
now diftinguifhihg himfelf by his eloquence and popu¬
larity as a preacher, he had two benefices conferred on
him in the diocefe of Oxford. In 1C18, he went as
chaplain to Sir Francis Stewart, when he accompa¬
nied count Gondamore to Spain. Afterwards he be¬
came chaplain to the king, and before the year 1626
was promoted to the archdeaconry of Oxford. In 1642
he was made doftor of divinity at Oxford ; near which
place he fheltered himfelf during the time of the rebel¬
lion ; but after the reftoration returned to his arch¬
deaconry, where he died in 1661. His works are,
1. Twenty fermons, publilhed at different times.
2. Philofopkia polito-barbane fpecimen, quarto. 3. Sur¬
vey of the world, a poem in ten books, odtavo. 4. A
tranflation of the fatires of Juvenal and Perfius.
5. Technogamia, or the marriage of the arts, a co¬
medy.
HOLINESS, or sanctity ; the quality which
conftitutes or denominates a perfon or thing holy; i. e.
pure, or exempt from fin. The word is alfo ufed in
refpeft of perfons and things that are facred, i. e. fet
apart to the/ervice of God, and the ufes of religion.
Holiness, is alfo a title or quality attributed to the
pope; as that of majejly is to kings. Even kings, when
writing to the pope, addrefs him under the venerable
appellation of Tour Holinefs, or. Holy Father ; in La¬
tin, Santtiflime or BeatiJJime Pater. Anciently the
fame title was given to all bifhops. The Greek empe¬
rors alfo were addreffed under the title of Holinefs, in
regard of their being anointed with holy oil at their
coronation. De Cange adds, that fame of the kings
of England have had the fame attribute ; and that the
orientals have frequently refufed it to the pope.
HOLINSHED (Raphael), an Englilh hiftcrian fa¬
mous for the Chronicles under his name, was defcended
from a family that lived at Bofely in Chefliire; but
neither the time of his birth, nor fcarcely any circum-
ftances of his life are known. However, he appears to
have been a man of confiderable learning, and to have
had a genius particularly adapted for hiftory. His
chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, were firil
publifhed at London in 1570, in 2 vols folio; and then
in 1587, in 3 vols. In this fecond edition feveral Iheets
in the 2d and 3d vols were caftrated for containing
fome paifages difagreeable to queen Elizabeth and her
minifters ; but the caftrations have fince been printed
apart. Holinfned was not the foie compiler of this
work, being affifted in it by feveral other hands. The
time of his death is unknown ; but from his will, which
is prefixed to Hearne’s edition of Cambden's Annals,
it appears to have happened between 1578 and 1582.
HOLLAND (Philemond), M. D. commonly call¬
ed the Tranfator general of his age, was educated in
the univerfity of Cambridge. He was for many years
a fchoolmafter at Coventry, where he alfo praftifed
phyfic. He tranflated Livy, Pliny’s Natural Hiftory,
Plutarch’s Morals, Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus.
Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, and Cambden’s Britannia, in¬
to Englifh ; and the geographical part of Speed’s
Theatre of Great Britain, into Latin. The Britan-
aia, to which he made many ufeful additions^ was the
moft valuable of his works. It is furprifing, that a Holland,
man of two profefiions could find time to tranflate fo
much; but it appears from the date of the Cyropte-
dia, that he continued to tranflate till he was 80 years
of age. He died in 1636, aged 85. He made the
following epigram upon writing a large folio with a
Angle pen:
With one foie pen f wrote this book,
Made of a grey goofe quill;
A pen it was when it 1 took,
And a pen I leave it (till.
HOLLAND, the larged of the feven United Pro¬
vinces, divided into South and North Holland, the
latter of which is alfo called Wefl Friefland, is bound¬
ed on the wed by the German ocean, or north fea; to
the eaft by the Zuyder-fee, the province of Utrecht,
and part of Gelderland ; to the fouth by Dutch Bra¬
bant and Zealand ; and to the north by the Zuyder-
fee. Its greated extent from north to fouth, including
the ifland of Texel, is about 90 Englifli miles ; but
from ead to wed its extent varies from 40 to 25. To
defend it againd the fea, dykes have been erected at an
immenfe expence, and innumerable canals cut to drain
it, as being naturally very low and marfliy. Some
parts of the province are very fruitful in corn ; but the
greater part confids of rich padures, wherein are kept
large herds of kine, which fupply them with incredible
quantities of butter and cheefe. Of the latter, that of
Edam, in North Holland, is highly edeemed. The
many rivers and canals that interfeft the province are
of great advantage to its commerce, but contribute to
render the air foggy and unwholefome. There is a
communication by water betwixt almod every town and
village. Towards the middle alfo of the province are
great numbers of turf pits. It is fo populous, that
the number of the inhabitants is computed at 1,200,000.
In point of cleanlinefs, no country furpafles, and few
come up to it, efpecially in North Holland, and that
even in the villages. From the counts of Holland this
province devolved, in 1436, to the dukes of Burgun¬
dy, and from them to the houfe of Audria, along with
the other provinces. The States of Holland and Wed
Friefland are compofed of the nobility and deputies of
the towns: of the latter there are 18 that fend depu¬
ties to the affembly of the dates, which is held at the
Hague. The grand penfionary is a perfon of great
dignity and weight in this aflembly, and his office re¬
quires extraordinary abilities. There are alfo two
councils compofed of deputies, one for South, and an¬
other for North Holland, who have the cognizance of
the revenue and military affairs. The whole province
fends one deputy from among the nobl^ffe to the dates-
general, who-takes precedence of all others, together
with three or four more. There are two fupreme
courts of judicature for Holland and Zealand; viz. the
great council of Holland and Zealand, and the hof
or court of , Holland. To thefe appeals lie from the
towns ; but the caufes of noblemen come before them
in the fird indance. With refpedt to the ecclefiadical
government, there is a fynod held annually both in
South and North Holland, of which the former con¬
tains eleven claffes, and the latter fix ; and the mini-
ders of both together amount to 331. In the whole
province are 37 towns, 8 boroughs, and 400 villages.
Holland, one of the divifions of Lincolnfliire in
21 C 2 Eng-
H O L [ 3696 ] H O L
Holland. England. It fo much re females the province of that
name upon the continent, in moft refpefts, being low
and marlhy, with the fea on one fide, and canals run¬
ning through it, that it muft either have had its name
from thence, or on the fame account. On the ead it
has what the ancient geographers call fiLftuarium Me-
taris, now the Wafhes, which are overflowed at high
water, and part of Cambridgefliire on the fouth. The
lower part of it is full of bogs and marflies, and has
huge banks to defend it againll the fea and land floods.
The whole divifion feems to have been gained from the
fea. The ground is fo foft, that horfes are worked un-
fliod ; and it produces plenty of graft, but little corn.
Though there are no Hones to be found in or upon the
ground, yet the churches are all of (tone. They have
no frefh water but from the clouds, which is preferved
in pits: but if thefe are deep, it foon turns brackifh ;
and if they are fliallow, they foon become dry.
Ne-jj Holland, the largeft ifland in the world,
reaching from 10 to 44 deg. S. lat. and between 110
and 154 of E. long, eait from London. It received
its name from having been chiefly explored by Dutch
navigators. The land firft difcovered in thofe parts
was called Eendragkt (Concord) Land, from the name
of the fhip on board w'hich the difcovery was made,
in 1616 ; 24 deg. and 25 deg. fouth. In 1618, an¬
other part of this coaft, nearly in 15 deg. fouth, was
w’as difcovered by Zeachen, who gave it the name of
ylrnheim and Diemen; though a different part from
wLat afterwards received the name of Diemen’s Land
from Tafman, w'hich is the fouthern extremity, in la¬
titude 43 deg. In 1619, Jan Van Edels gave his
name to a fouthern part of New-Holland. Another
part, fituated between 30 and 33 deg. received the
name of Leu’wen. Peter Van Nuitz gave his name,
in 16.27, to a coaft which communicates to Leuwen’s
Land towards the weftward ; and a part of the weft-
ern coatt, near the tropic of Capricorn, bore the name
of De Wits. In 1628, Peter Carpenter, a Dutch¬
man, difcovered the great gulph of Carpentaria, be¬
tween 10 and 20 deg. fouth. In 1687, Dampier, an
Englifhman, failed from Timor, and coafted the weft-
ern parts of New-Holland. In 1699, he left Eng¬
land, with a defign to explore this country, as the
Dutch fuppreffed whatever difcoveries had been made
by them. He failed along the weftern coaft of it,
from 28 to 15 deg. He faw the land of Eendraght
and of De Wit. He then returned to Timor : from
whence he went out again, examined the ifles of Pa¬
pua, coafted New-Guinea, difcovered the paffage that
bears his name; called a great ifland which forms this
paffage, or ftrait, on the eaft fide, New-Britain; and
failed back to Timor along New-Guinea. This is the
fame Dampier who, between 1683 and 1-891, failed
round the world by changing his ftiips. This im-
menfe ifland, which many late writers have ftyled a
continent from its extent, which is more than equal to
the habitable parts of the continent of Europe, has
been explored on the eaftern coaft with great perfeve-
rance and peril by captain Cook, in the Endeavour
bark, 1770, to which he gave the name of New
South Wales. Captain Furneaux, in the Adventure,
attempted to difcover the connexion which Van Die¬
men’s land bears to New-Holland ; but the tempe-
ftuous weather which he had to conflift with baffled
all his attempts, and he was forced (not poflefling the Holl
fame ardour as his leader) to leave that point in the
fame indeterminate ftate as Tafman had before tranf-
mitted it. As this coaft was explored to a very great
extent, without much time being (pent on any part of
the country, or any friendly intercourfe being efta-
blifhed with the inhabitants, we ftrall follow the ftiip
in its progrefs along the eaftern coaft, after defcribing
the country and its inhabitants as fully as the lights
which are thrown upon them will enable us.
This country is not mountainous; but chiefly con-
fifts of valleys and plains, rather barren than fruitful.
The face of the country is much the beft to the fouth-
ward, the trees being taller, and the herbage richer ;
but no underwood was feen any where. The whole
eaftem coaft is well watered by brooks and fprings,
but there are no great rivers. There are but two
forts of timber-trees, the gum-tree, and a kind of
pine. Here is the palm-tree of three forts. Though
this country affords very few efculent plants, yet
it abounds with fuch as gratify the curiofity of the
naturalift. Here is an animal refembling a pole¬
cat, which the natives call quell; the back is brown,
fpotted with white, and the belly unmixed white.
Here are many kinds of bats ; alfo gulls, ftiags, fo-
land geefe or gannets of two forts, boobies, nod¬
dies, curlieus, ducks, pelicans of an enormous fize,
among the water-fowl ; crows, jrarrots, paroquets,
cockatoos, and other birds of the fame kind, of ex-
quifite beauty, pigeons, droves, quails, buftards, he¬
rons, cranes, hawks, and eagles, among the land-
birds. Here are ferpents, fome of which are veno¬
mous, others harmlefs; fcorpions, centipedes, and li¬
zards. The moft remarkable infeft found iti this
country is the ant, of which there are feveral forts.
One is green, and builds its neft upon trees: Thefe
wonderful infefts form their nefts by bending down
feveral leaves, each of which is as broad as a man’s
hands, and gluing the points of them together, fo as
to form a purfe. The vifcus ufed for this purpofe is
an animal-juice which nature has enabled them to ela¬
borate. Thoufands of thefe bufy infefts were feen
uniting all their ftrength to hold the leaves in this po-
fition, u’hile other bufy multitudes were employed
within, in applying the gluten that was to prevent
their.returning back. “ To fatisfy ourfelves, (fays
captain Cook), that the leaves were bent and held
down by the effort of thefe diminutive artificers, we
difturbed them in their work ; and as foon as they
were driven from their ftation, the leaves on which
they w'ere employed fprung up with a force much
greater than we could have thought them able to con¬
quer by any combination of their ftrength. But tho’
we gratified our curiofity at their expence, the injury
did not go tmrevenged ; for thoufands immediately
threw themfelves upon us, and gave us intolerable
pain with their flings, efpecially thofe which took
poffeffion of our necks and our hair, from whence they
were not eafily driven. The fling was fcarcely lefs
painful than that of a bee ; but except it was repeat¬
ed, the pain did not laft more than a minute.” Ano¬
ther kind burrows in the root of a plant which grows
on the bark of trees, in the manner of mifletoe. This
root is commonly as big as a large turnip; when cut,
it appears interfered by innumerable winding paffa-
ges;>-
H O L [ 3697 ] H O L
Jfo'iiatid. ges, all filled with thefe animals; but notwithftand-
~~ ' ing, the vegetation of the plant fuffers no injury. The
infects are very fmall, not more than half as big as
the common red ant in England. Their flings give
no pain,; but, by running about on the hands, and
fuch parts of the body where they light, produce a
titillation. more intolerable than pain, if not excrucia¬
ting. There is ftill another fort, pofleffing no power
of tormenting; they refemble the white ants of the
Eaft-Indies. Thefe conftrudt nefts on the branches
of trees, three or four times as big as a man’s head :
the materials of thefe houfes feem to be formed of
fmall parts of vegetables kneaded together with a
glutinous matter, with which nature has probably fur-
nilhed them. Upon breaking the outfide cruft of this
dwelling, innumerable cells, fwarming with-inhabi¬
tants, appear in a great variety of winding direftions,
all communicating with each other, and with feveral
apertures that lead to other nefts upon the fame tree.
They have alfo another houfe built upon the ground,
generally at the root of a tree: it is formed like an
irregularly Tided cone; and fometimesis more than fix
feet high, and nearly as much in diameter. The out¬
fide of thefe is of well-tempered clay, about two inches
thick; and within are the cells, which have no open¬
ing outward. Between thefe two dwellings, one of
which is their fummer and the other their winter refi-
dence, there is a communication by a large avenue, or
covered way, leading to the ground, and by a fubter-
ranean paffage. The ftrudlures on the ground are
proof againft any wet that can fall, which thofe on
the trees are not, from the mature and thinnefs of
their cruft or wall.—The fifti here are of kinds un¬
known to Europe, except the mullet, and fame of the
fhell-fifh. Upon the flioals and reef are great quan¬
tities of the fineft green turtle in the world, and oy-
fters of various kinds, particularly the rock-oyfter and
the pearl-oyfter. In the rivers and fait creeks are ali-
gators.
This extenfive country appears to be very thinly in¬
habited : the natives never appeared in larger com¬
panies than thirty together. The inland parts are moft
probably quite uninhabited, as no part of the coaft
which was vifited had any appearance of cultivation,
and the miferable natives drew their fubfiftence from
the fea. The only tribe with which any intercourfe was
eftablifhed, confifted of twenty-one perfons; twelve
men, feven women, a boy and a girl. The women
were never feen but at a diftance ; for when the men
croffed the river to the fhip, they left them behind.
The men are of a middle fize, and In general well
made, clean-limbed, and remarkably vigorous, aftive,
and nimble : their countenances were not altogether
without expreffion, and their voices are remarkably
foft and effeminate. They encruft their bodies with
dirt, which makes them appear as black as negroes ;
their hair, which naturally grows long and black,
they crop fhort; their beards grow bufhy and thick,
but they keep them fhort by finging them. Neither
fex have any fenfe of indecency in difcovering their
whole body. Here they perforate the cartilage
that divides the noftrils from each other, through
which they thruft a bone, which is as thick as a man’s
finger, and between five and fix inches long; it
reaches quite acrofs the face, and fo effedtualiy flops
up both the noflrils, that they are forced to keep their Holland,
mouths wide open for breath, and fnufflle fo when""
they attempt to fpcak, that they are fcarcely intelli¬
gible even to each other. Befides this nofe-jewel,
they have necklaces made of fhells, very neatly cut
and fining together; bracelets of fmall cord, wound
two or three times round the upper part of their
arm, and a firing of plaited human hair, about as
thick as a thread of yarn, tied round the waift. Be-
fides thefe, fame of them had gorgets of fhells hang¬
ing round the neck, fo as to reach crofs the breaft.
They paint their bodies both white and red, and draw
a circle of white round each eye. They have holes in
their ears, but were not feen to wear any thing in
them. They were fo attached to their own ornaments,
that they preferred them to any beads and ribbons that
were offered them, though more fhowy, and regularly
made. They received the things that were given
them, but were infenfible to all the*figns which were
made them that fomething was expedled in return.
Many of the trinkets that had been given them were
afterwards found thrown negligently away in the
woods, like the playthings of children, which pleafe
only while they are new. The bodies of many were
marked with large fears, which appeared to be the re¬
mains of wounds that they had inflidled on them-
felves with fome blunt inftrument, and which they fig-
nified by figns to have been memorials of grief for the
dead. There was no appearance of a town or village
in the whole country. Their houfes are formed with¬
out art or induftry ; fome of them were juft high
enough for a man to Hand upright in, but not large
enough for him to extend his whole length in any di-
redtion : they are built with pliable rods, about as
thick as a man’s finger, in the form of an oven, by
flicking the two ends into the ground, and covering
them with palm-leaves andjbroad pieces of bark : the
door is nothing but a large hole at one end. Under
thefe houfes or fheds they fleep, coiled up with their
heels to their heads ; in which pofition one fhed
will hold three or four perfons: towards the north¬
ward, as the climate becomes hotter, thefe fheds were
conflrudled much flighter : one fide was entirely open,
and none of them were more than four feet deep.
Thefe hovels were fet up occafionally by a wandering
hord, in anyplace that would furnifh them fora time
with fubfiftence, and left behind them when they re¬
moved to anothey fpot. When they mean to continue
only a night or two at one place, they fleep without
any fhelter except the bufhes and grafs, the latter of
which is near two feet high. They have a veffel to
hold the water they fetch from fprings, made of bark,
only by tying up the two ends with a withy, which
not being cut off, ferves for a handle. They have a
fmall bag, about the fize of a moderate cabbage-net,
which the men carry upon their back by a firing
which paffes over their heads. It generally contains
a lump or two of paint and refiu, fome fifh-hooks and
lines, a fhell or two, out of which their hooks are
made, a few points of darts, and their ufual orna¬
ments; which is an inventory of the whole worldly
treafure of the richeft man among them. Their fifh-
hooks are very neatly made, and fome of them are
extremely fmall. For linking turtle, they have a peg
of wood, which is about a foot long, and very well
bearded 5,;
H O L [ 3698 1 H O L
Holland, bearded ; this fits into a focket at the end of a ftaff
 of light wood, about as thick as a man’s wrift, and
about feven or eight feet long. To the ftaff is tied
one end of a loofe line, about three or four fathoms
long, the other end of which is faftened to the peg.
To ftrike the turtle, the peg. is fixed into the focket;
and when it has entered his body, and is retained
there by the barb, the ftaff flies off, and ferves for a
float to trace their vidlim in the water. It affifts alfo
to tire him, till they can overtake him with their
canoes, and haul him alhore. One of thefe pegs was
found buried in the body of a turtle, which had heal¬
ed up over it. Their lines are made of the fibres of
a vegetable, and are from the thicknefs of a half-inch
rope to the finenefs of a hair. They are unacquaint¬
ed with the ufe of nets in fifliing ; and can only catch
fifft by finking them, or with a hook and line, or
groping for them in the hollows of the rocks and
flioals, which are dry at half-ebb. They bake their
provifions by the help of hot ftones, like the inhabi¬
tants of the South-fea iflands. They produce fire
with great facility, and fpread it in a wonderful man¬
ner. To produce it, they take two pieces of dry,
foft wood ; one is a ftick about eight or nine inches
long, the other piece is flat. The ftick they ftiape
into an obtufe point at one end; and preffing it upon
the other, turn it nimbly, by holding it between both
their hands, as we do a chocolate-mill; often fluffing
their hands up, and then moving them down upon it,
to increafe the preffure as much as poffible. By this
method they get fire in lefs than two minutes, and
from the fmalleft fpark they increafe it with great
fpeed and dexterity. “ We have often feen (fays cap¬
tain Cook) one of them run along the ftiore, to all
appearance with nothing in his hand, who Hooping
down for a moment, at'the difiance of every fifty or
an hundred yards, left fire behind him, as we could
fee, firft by the fmoke, and then by the flame along
the drift of wood and other litter which was fcatter-
ed along the place. We had the curiofity to examine
one of thefe planters of fire when he fet off, and. we
faw him wrap up a fmall fpark in. dry grafs, which,
■when he had run a little way, having been fanned by
•the air that his motion produced, began to blaze ; he
then laid it down in a place convenient for his purpofe,
inclofing a fpark of it in another quantity of grafs,
and fo continued his courfe.” Their weapons are
fpears or lances ; fome have four prongs pointed with
bone, and barbed. To the northward, the lance has
but one point; the (haft is made of cane, very ftraight
and light, and from eight to fourteen feet long, con¬
fiding of feveral joints, where the pieces are let into
each other and bound together. The points of thefe
darts are either of hard heavy wood, or bones of filh :
thofe points that are of wood, are alfo fometimes arm¬
ed with (harp pieces of broken fiiells, which were ftuck
in, and at the jun&ures covered with refin. The
lances which are thus barbed, are indeed dreadful
weapons, as they cannot be drawn out of a wound
without tearing away the flefh, or leaving the (harp
ragged fplinters of the bone or (hell which forms the
barb behind them in the wound. The canoes to the
northward are not made of bark, but of the trunk of
a tree, hollowed probably by fire: none of thefe boats
will carry more than four people. The only tools feen
among them were, an adze wretchedly made of (lone, Hollar
fome fmall pieces of the fame fubftance in form of a ll
wedge, a wooden mallet, and fome (hells and fragments Holle5,
of coral. It is difficult to account for the fmall number
of the human fpecies which are found difperfed over
this country ; whether they are thinned by civil broils,
excited by the horrid appetite for devouring each other
that prevails in New Zeeland, or that their population
is prevented by any other caufes, cannot be afcertain-
ed. Their total ignorance of every method to pro¬
cure the comforts of life, both from the cultivation of
the ground, and furniftiing materials for clothing and
fifhing, place them among the lowed of the human
fpecies.
Holland in commerce, a fine and clofe kind of
linen, fo called from its being firft manufa&ured in
Holland.
HOLLAR (Wenceflaus), a celebrated engraver,
born at Prague, in 1607. He employed himfelf chiefly
in copying portraits ; and his delicate little views of
many of the cities in Germany, got him fuch reputa¬
tion, that the earl of Arundel our ambaffador at the
Imperial court brought him over to England. Here
he executed feveral plates from the fine Arundelian
colle&ion of paintings, engraved many landfcapes
and views about London, and of London itfelf, as
well before as after the great fire : but it being his
fate to work chiefly for printfellers and bookfellers,
in a ftate of fubordination, more for the profit of his
employers than for himfelf; fo he could not even in
his old age keep clear of the encumbrances of debt.
About the year 1672, he travelled northward, and
took views of towns, caftles, churches and tombs, that
would prove almoft endlefs to enumerate. Few artifts
have been able to imitate his works, and the lovers of
art are always zealous to colleft them. It is melan¬
choly to add, that on the verge of his 70th year, he
was attached with an execution at his lodgings in
Gardener’s lane, Weftminifter; when he defired only
the liberty of dying in his bed, and that he might
not be removed to any other prifon than the grave :
a favour which it is uncertain whether he obtained or
not. He died, however, in 1677.—The merits of this
artift are thus charaifferifed in the EJfay on Prints :
“ Hollar gives us views of particular places, which he
copies with great truth, unornamented, as he found them.
If we are fatisfied with exadft reprefentations, we have
them no where better than in Hollar’s works: but if
we expeft pi&ures, we muft feek them elfewhere.
Hollar was an antiquarian, and a draughtfman ; but
feems to have been little acquainted with the principles
of painting. Stiffnefs is his charadteriftic, and a pain¬
ful exa&nefs void of tafte. His larger views are
mere plans. In fome of his fmaller, at the expence
of infinite pains, fomething of an effedf is fometimes
produced. But in general, we confider him as a re-
pofitory of curiofities, a record of antiquated dreffes,
aboliflied ceremonies, and edifices now in ruins.”
HOLLES (Thomas Pelham), duke of Newcaftle,
was born in 1693, and fucceeded his father as baron
Pelham of Loughton : by the laft will of his uncle
John Holies duke of Newcaftle, who died in 1711, he
was adopted heir to his great eftate, and empowered
to bear the arms and name of together with the
title of duke of Newcajlle upon Tyne. His power and
intereft
H O L [ 3699 ] H O L
Holloa intereft were now very great, and he exerted both in
II , fupporting George I. againft the Tory party that op-
•^ol^ein pofed him. The whole weight of authority had for
fome time been in the hands of the tories at the ac-
ceffion of this king, while the whigs remained with¬
out credit or influence: but this ftate of affairs w'as
now reverfed ; and the duke ofNewcaflle, among the
reft, w7as diftinguifhed by the royal favour. He was
created duke of Newcaftle-under-Line, with remainder
to the female iffue of his brother the honourable Hen¬
ry Pelham ; was made lord chamberlain of the king’s
houfehold, and a knight of the garter ; and w'as one of
the peers commiffioned to fign the quadruple alliance
in 1718. In 1724, he reiigned the place of lord
chamberlain, and was appointed fecretary of ftate.
It would be tedious to trace him farther through his
places and honours: it need therefore only be added,
that after his long fervices to the crown, he gave way
to lord Bute, who fucceeded him in 1762 as firft lord
of the treafury. (Quitting now the fatigues of bufinefs,
he lived in retirement to his death in 1768, leaving
the chara&er of a moft difinterefted patriot; having
greatly impoverifhed his private eftate during his pub¬
lic fervices, and retiring without accepting any pen-
fion.
HOLLOA, in the fea-language, an exclamation
of anfwer, to any perfon who calls to another to
afk fome queftion, or to give a particular order. Thus,
if the mafter intends to give any order to the people
in the main-top, he previoufly calls, Main top, koay !
to which they anfwer, Holloa ! to fhew that they hear
him, and are ready. It is alfo the firft anfwer in hail¬
ing a ftiip at a diftance. See Hailing.
HOLLY, in botany. See Ilex.
.Serf-HoLLY. See Eryngium.
HOLM (Sax. hulmus, infula amnica), an ifle or
fenny ground, according to Bede; or a river ifland.
And where any place is called by that name, and this
fyllable is joined with any other in the names of places,
it fignifies a place furrounded with water ; as the
Flathobnes and Stepholmes in the Severn near Briftol:
but if the fituation of the place is not near the water,
it may then fignify a hilly place; holm, in Saxon,
fignifying alfo a hill or cliff.
HOLOCAUST, a burnt-offering, or facrifice,
wholly confumed by fire : of this kind was the daily
facrifice in the Jewifti church. This was done, by way
of acknowledgment, that the perfon offering and all
that belonged to him were the effe&s of the divine
bounty.
HOLOGRAPH, among civilians, a will wholly
written by the hand of the teftator.
HOLSTEIN, a duchy of Germany, bounded by
the German ocean on the weft ; the Baltic, or the
gulph of Lubeck, on the eaft ; the duchy of Meck¬
lenburg, on the fouth-eaft ; that of Bremen, with the
river Elbe, on the fouth-weft ; and Lauenburg, with
the territory of Hamburg, on the fouth. Its greateft
length is about 80 miles, and its breadth 60. The
diocefe of Eutin, and the county of Ranzau, though
they make a part of the duchy of Holftein, yet being
lands belonging to the empire and circle, fhall be d.e-
fcribed feparately.
A great part of this country confifts of rich marfh-
limd, which being much expofed to inundations both
from the fea and rivers, dykes have been raifed at a Holftein.
great expence, to guard and defend them. The pa- “
ftures in the marlhes are fo rich, that cattle are bred
in vaft numbers and fattened in them, and great
quantities of excellent butter and cheefe made of their
milk. They are alfo very fruitful in wheat, barley,
peafe, beans, and rape-feed. In the more barren,
fandy, and heathy parts of the country, large flocks
of iheep are bred and fed : nor are orchards wanting,
or woods, efpecially of oak and beech ; nor turf,
poultry, game, and wild-fowl. Here is a variety
both of fea and river fifh ; and the beef, veal, mut¬
ton, and lamb, are very fat and palatable. Holftein
is alfo noted for beautiful horfes. The gentry ufually
farm the cows upon their eftates to a Hollander, as
he is called, who for every cow pays from fix to ten
rix-dollars ; the owner providing pafture for them in
fummer, and ftraw and hay in winter. It is no un¬
common thing here, to drain the ponds and lakes
once in three or four years, and fell the carp, lam¬
preys, pikes, and perch, found in them; then fow
them for feveral years after with oats, or ufe them for
pafture ; and after that, lay them under water again,
and breed fifti in them. There are hardly any hills in
the country ; but feveral rivers, of which the principal
are the Eyder, the Stor, and the Trave. The duchy
contains about 30 towns great and fmall: moft part
of the peafants are under villenage, being obliged to
work daily for their lords, and not even at liberty to
quit their eftates. The nobility and the proprietors
of manors are pofTefled of the civil and criminal jurif-
didlion, with other privileges and exemptions. For¬
merly there were diets, but now they feem to be en¬
tirely laid afide .* meetings, however, of the nobility
are ftill held at Kiel. The predominant religion here-
is Lutheranifm, with fuperintendencies as in other
Lutheran countries. In feveral places the Jews are
allowed the exercife of their religion. At Gluck-
ftadt, and Altena, are both Galvinift and Popiih
churches; and at Kiel, a Greek Ruffian chapel. Be-
fides the Latin fchools in the towns, at Altena is a
gymnafiiim, and at Kiel an univerfity. Notwithftand-
ing this country’s advantageous fituation for commerce
there are few manufactures and little trade in it.’
Hamburg and Lubec fupply the inhabitants with
what they want from abroad; from whence and Al¬
tena, they export fome grain, malt, grots, ftarch,
buck-wheat, peafe, beans, rapefeed, butter, cheefe,
iheep, fwine, horned cattle, horfes, and fifti. The
manufactures of the duchy are chiefly carried on at
Altena, Kiel, and Gluckftadt. The duchy of Hol¬
ftein, confifts of the ancient provinces of Holftein,
Stormar, Ditmarfti, and Wagria. It belongs partly
to the king of Denmark, and partly to the dukes of
Holftein Gottorf and Ploen. Anciently the counts
of Holftein were vaffals of the dukes of Saxony ; but
afterwards they received the inveftiture of their terri¬
tories from the emperor, or the bilhops of Lubec in
the emperor’s name, though now the inveftiture is-
given by the emperor in perfon. The king of Den¬
mark appoints a regency over his part of Holrtein
and the duchy of Slefwick, which has its office at
Gluckftadt. The feat of the great duke’s privy coun¬
cil, and regency-court, together with the chief con-
fiftory, which is united to it, is at Kiel: there are;
many/
H O L [ 37
Holftein many inferior courts and confiftories, from which an
ll appeal lies to the higher. In the duchy of Holftein,
0 ^ the government of the convents and nobility is alter¬
nately in the king and duke, for a year, from Mi¬
chaelmas to Michaelmas. The perfon in whom the
overnment is lodged, adminifters it by his regency,
n fome cafes an appeal lies from this court to the Au-
lic council or chamber at Wetzlar: the convents, the
nobility, and the proprietors of manors in the country,
have a civil and criminal jurifdi&ion over their eftates.
The revenues of the fovereigns arife principally from
their demefnes and regalia ; befides which, there is a
land and feveral other taxes and impofts. The duke’s
income, fetting afide his ducal patrimony, has been
eftimated at 70,000 or 80,000 pounds. The king
ofually keeps here fome regiments of foot and one of
horfe. With refpeft to the duke’s military force, it
amounts to about 800 men. The king, on account
of his (hare in this country, ftyleshimfelf duke of Hol-
Jleitiy Stormar, and Ditmarfli. The dukes, both of
the royal and princely houfe, ftyle themfelves heirs of
Norway, dukes of Slcfwick, Holftein, Stormar, and
Ditmarjh, and counts of Oldenburg and Delmenhorf.
On account of Holftein, both the king of Denmark
and the grand duke have a feat and voice in the col¬
lege of the princes of the empire, and in that of the
circle. Together with Mecklenburg they alfo nomi¬
nate an afleffor for this circle in the Aulic chamber.
The matricular afleffment of the whole duchy is 40
horfe and 80 foot, or 800 florins ; to the chamber of
Wetzlar both princes pay tSg rix-dollars, 31 kruit-
zers. In 1735, duke Charles Frederic, of Holftein
Gottorf, founded an order of knighthood here, viz.
that of St Anne, the enfign of which is a red crofs,
enamelled, and worn pendant at a red ribbon edged
with yellow.—The principal places of that part of the
duchy belonging to the king of Denmark and the
duke of Ploen are Gluckftadt, Itzhoe, Rendfburg,
and Ploen ; and that part belonging to the great
duke are Kiel, Oldenburgh, Preetz, and Altena.
HOLSTENIUS (Lucas), an ingenious and learn¬
ed German, born at Hamburg in 1596, was bred a
Lutheran; but being converted to popery by father
Sirmond the Jefuit, he went to Rome, and attached
himfelf to cardinal Francis Barberini, who took him
under his prote&ion. He was honoured by three
popes ; Urban VIII. gave him a canonry of St Peter’s;
Innocent X. made him librarian of the Vatican ; and
Alexander VII. fent him in 1655 to queen Chriftina
of Sweden, whofe formal profeffion of the Catholic
faith he received at Infpruck. He fpent his life in
ftudy, and was very learned both in facred and pro¬
fane antiquity. He died in 1661; and though he
was not the author of any great works, his notes and
diflertations on the works of others have been highly
efteemed for the judgment and precifion with which
they are drawn up.
HOLT (Sir John), knight, eldeft fon of Sir Tho¬
mas Holt, ferjeant at law, was born in 1642. He en¬
tered himfelf of Gray’s Inn in 1658 ; and applied to
the common law with fo much induftry, that he foon
became a very eminent barrifter. In the reign of
James II. he was made recorder of London, which of¬
fice he difcharged with much applaufe for about a year
and a half; byt loft his place for refufing to expound
'OO ] H O L
the law fuitably to the king’s defigns. On the arrival Holy I
of the prince of Orange, he was chofen a member of Ghoft |
the convention parliament, which afforded him a good ^ J
opportunity of difplaying his abilities; fo that as foon 1
as the government was fettled, he was made lord chief —-—J
juftice of the court of king’s bench, and a privy coun-
fellor. He continued chief juftice for 22 years, with
great repute for fteadinefs, integrity, and thorough
knowledge in his profefiion. Upon great occafions he
aflerted the law with intrepidity, though he thereby
ventured to incur by turns the indignation of both the
houfes of parliament. He died in 1709, and publiflr-
ed fome reports.
Holt (Sax.) “ a wood;” wherefore the names of
towns beginning or ending with holt, as buck-holt,
&c. denote that formerly there was great plenty of
wood in thofe places.
HOLY-GHOST, one of the perfons of the holy
Trinity. See God and Trinity.
Order of the Holy-ghost, the principal military
order in France, inftituted by Henry III. in 1569.
It confifts of 100 knights, who are to make proof of
their nobility for three defcents. The king is the
grand-mafter, or fovereign; and as fuch, takes an oath,
on his coronation-day, to maintain the dignity of the
order. -
The knights wear a gplden-crofs, hung about their
necks by a blue filk ribbon, or collar. But before
they receive the order of the Holy-ghoft, that of St
Michael is conferred as a neceflary degree ; and for this
reafon their arms are furrounded with a double collar.
Holyhead, a town and cape of the ifle of Anglefea
in Wales, and in the Irifti channel, where people
ufually embark for Dublin, there being three packet-
boats that fail for that city every Monday, Wednef-
day, and Friday, wind and weather permitting. It has
a very convenient harbour for the northern trade, when
taken ftiort by contrary winds. If this was properly
repaired, and warehoufes built, it would be very con¬
venient for the Irifti, to import fuch of their goods as
pay Englifh duty, it being but a few hours fail from
Dublin. Befides, the Dublin merchants might come
over with the packets, to fee their goods landed. The
commodities are, butter, cheefe, bacon, wild-fowl,
lobfters, crabs, oyfters, razor-fifti, fhrimps, herrings,
cod-fifti, whitings, whiting-pollacks, cole-fifti, lea-
tenches, turbots, foies, flounders, rays, and plenty of
other fifli. On the rocks the herb grows of which
they make kelp, a fixed fait ufed in making glafs, and
in alum works. In the neighbourhood there is a large
vein of white fullers earth, and another of yellow
which might be ufeful to fullers. On the ifle of Sker¬
ries, nine miles to the north, is a light-houfe, which
may be feen 24 miles off. Large flocks of puffins are
often feen here ; they all come in one night, and de¬
part in the fame manner. W. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat.
53. 20.
Yio^'i-lfand, a fmall ifland lying on the coaft of
England, iix miles fouth of Berwick, in Northumber¬
land. It is not above two miles and a quarter in
length, nor much above a mile in breadth. The foil
is rocky and full of ftones, for which reafon it is thinly
peopled: it has but one town, with a church, and a
caftle, under which there is a commodious harbour, de¬
fended by a block-houfe.
Holy-
H O M [37
Holywell Holywell, a town of North Wales, In the county
Homier ^'nt' ^ *s a P^acc note, for the well of
om -erg, •Yy;nn;frj(j> js repUtecl a virgin martyr ; and it
is much frequented by people that come to bathe in it,
as well as by popilh pilgrims out of devotion. The
fprlng gullies forth with fuch impetuofity, that at a fmall
dillance it turns feveral mills. Over the fpring is a cha¬
pel built upon pillars, and on the windows are painted
the hiftory of St Winnifrid’s life. There is a mofs a-
bout the well, which fome foolilhly imagine to be St
Winnifrid’s hair. W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 54. 23.
HOLYOAK (Francis), author of the Latin dic¬
tionary, became re&or of South-ham in Warwickfhire
in 1604; and being greatly efteemed, was chofen mem¬
ber of tbe convocation in the firft year of Charles I.’s
reign. He fuffered much for the king; and died in
I^53> age<^ S?1 His fon Thomas made enlargements
to the faid Diflionary.
HOLYWOOD (John), or Halifax, or Sacro-
lofco, was, according to Leland, Bale, and Pits, born
at Halifax in Yorklhire ; according to Stainhurft, at
Holywood near Dublin ; and, according to Dempfter
and Mackenzie, in Nithfdale in Scotland. The laft-
mentioned author informs us, that, having finilhed his
ftudies, he entered into orders, and was made a canon
regular of the order of St Auguftin in the famous mo-
naftery of Holywood in Nithfdale. The Englilh bio¬
graphers, on the contrary, tell us, that he was edu¬
cated at Oxford. They all agree, however, in alfert-
ing that he fpent moft of his life at Paris; where, fays
Mackenzie, he was admitted a member of the univer-
fity on the fifth of June in the year 1221, under the
fyndics of the Scotch nation; and foon after, ele&ed
profeflbr of mathematics, which he taught for many
years with applaufe. We are told by the fame author,
that he died in 1256, as appears from the infeription
on his monument in the cloifters of the convent of St
Mat urine at Paris. Holywood was certainly the firft;
mathematician of his time. He was cotemporary with
Roger Bacon, but probably older by about 20 years.
He wrote, 1. De fphara mundis often reprinted, and
illuftrated by various commentators. 2. De anni ra-
ticne,feu ds compute ecclejtq/lico. 3. Dc algorifmo, print¬
ed with Comm. Petri Cirvilli Hifp. Paris 1498.
HOMAGE, in law, is the fubmiflion, loyalty, and
fervice, which a tenant promifed to his lord, when he
■was firft admitted to the land which he held of the lord
in fee: alfo that owing to a king, or to any fuperior.
HOMBERG (William), a celebrated phyfician,
chemift, and philofopher, was the fon of a Saxon gen¬
tleman, and born in Batavia, in the Eaft Indies, in
1652. His father afterwards fettling at Amfterdam,
William there profecuted his ftudies ; and from thence
removed to Jena, and afterwards to Leipfic, where he
ftudied the law. In 1642, he was made advocate at
Magdeburg, and there applied himfelf to the ftudy of
experimental philofophy. Some time after, he travelled
into Italy; and applied himfelf to the ftudy of medi¬
cine, anatomy, and botany, at Padua. He afte-wards
ftudied at Bologna ; and at Rome learned optics,
painting, fculpture, and mufic. He at length travel¬
led into France, England, and Holland; obtained the
degree of doftor of phyfic at Wittemherg; travelled
into Germany and the North ; vifited the mines of
Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and .Sweden ; and re-
Vol. V.
01 1 H O M
turned to France, where he acquired the efteem of the Homtcrg,
learned. He was on the point of returning into Ger- Homer-
many, when M. Colbert being informed of his merit, ~
made him fuch advantageous offers, as induced him to
fix his refidence at Paris. M. Homberg, who was al¬
ready well known for his phofphorus, for a pneumatic
machine of his own invention more perfetft than that
of Guericke, for his microfcopes, for his difeoveries in
chemiftry, and for the great number and variety of his
curious obfervations, was received into the academy of
fciences in 1691, and had the laboratory of that aca¬
demy, of which he was one of its principal ornaments.
The duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of the king¬
dom, at length made him his chemift, fettled upon him
a penfion, gave him the moft fuperb laboratory that
was ever in the poffefiion of a chemift, and in 1704
made him his firft phyfician. He had abjured the
Proteftant religion in 1682, and died in 1715. There
are a great number of learned and curious pieces of his
writing, in the memoirs of the academy of fciences,
and in feveral journals. He had begun to give the
elements of chemiftry in the memoirs of the academy,
and the reft were found among his papers fit for print¬
ing.
Homberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and landgravate of Heffe, feated ten
miles north of Francfort, and gives title to one of the
branches of the houfe of Heffe, who is its fovereign.
E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. 50. 20.
Homberg, a town of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, and duchy of Deuxponts. E. Long. 7. 6.
N. Lat. 49. 20.
HOMER, the prince of the Greek poets, flourifli-
ed, according to Dr Blair, about 900 B. C. accord¬
ing to Dr Prieftley 850, according to the Arundelian
marbles 300, after the taking of Troy; and agreeable
to them all, above 400 years before Plato and Ari-
ftotle. Seven cities difputed the glory of having gi¬
ven him birth, viz. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Sa-
lamis, Chios, Argos, and Athens; which has been ex-
preffed by the following diftich:
* Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athene ;
Orlis de patria cert at, Homere, tua.
We have nothing that is very certain in relation to the
particulars of his life. The moft regular account is
that which goes under the name of Herodotus, and is
ufually printed with his hiftory: and though it is ge¬
nerally fuppofed to be a fpurious piece, yet as it is an¬
cient, was made ufe of by Strabo, and exhibits that idea
which the later Greeks, and the Romans in the age of
Auguftus, entertained of Homer, we muft content otir-
felves with giving an abftraft of it.
A man of Magnefia, whofe name was Menalippus,
went to fettle at Cumae, when: he married the daugh¬
ter of a citizen called Homyres, and had by her a
daughter called Critkeii. The father and mother dy«-
ing, the young woman was left under the tuition of
Cleonax her father’s friend, and fuffering herfelf to be
deluded was got with child. The guardian, though
his care had not prevented the misfortune, was how¬
ever willing to conceal it; and therefore fent Critheis
to Smyrna, which was then building, ) 8 years after
the founding of Cumse, and about 168 after the taking
of Troy. Critheis being near her time, went one day
to .a feftival, which the town of Smyrna was celebra-
21 D ting
H O M
ting on the banks of the river Meles; vvhere her pains
coming upon her, fne was delivered of Homer, whom
fhc called MeUfiger.es, becanfe he was born on the
banks of that river. Having nothing to maintain her,
Hie was forced to fpin: and a man of Smyrna called
Phemltis, who taught literature and mufic, having of¬
ten feen Critheis, who lodged near him, and being plea-
led with her houfewifery, took her into his houfe to
fpin the wool he received from his fcholars for their
fchooling. Here (he behaved herfelf fo modeftly and
difcreetly, that Phemius married her; and adopted her
f'on, in whom he difeovered a wonderful genius, and
the beft natural difpofition in the world. After the
death of Phemius and Critheis, Homer fucceeded to
his father-in-law’s fortune and fchool; and was admi¬
red, not only by the inhabitants of Smyrna, but by
ilrangers, who rtforted from all parts to that place of
trade. A (hipmafter called Mentes, who was a man
of learning and a lover of poetry, was fo taken with
Homer, that he perfuaded him to leave his fchool, and
to travel with him. Homer, who had then begun his
poem of the Iliad, and thought it of great confequence
to fee the places he fhould have occafion to treat of,
embraced the opportunity. He embarked with Mentes,
and during their feveral voyages never failed carefully
to note down all that he thought worth obferving. He
travelled into Egypt; from whence he brought into
Greece the names of their gods, the chief ceremonies
of their worihip, and a more improved knowledge in
the arts than what prevailed in his own country. He
vifited Africa and Spain; in his return from whence
he touched at Ithaca, where he was much troubled
with a rheum falling upon his eyes. Mentes being in
hade to take a turn to Leucadia his native country,
left Homer well recommended to Mentor, one of the
chief men of the ifland of Ithaca, who took all pof-
lible care of him. There Homer was informed of many
things relating to Ulyfles, which he afterwards made
ufe of in compofing his Odyffey- Mentes returning to
Ithaca, found Homer cured. They embarked toge¬
ther ; and after much time fpent in vifiting the coafts
of Peloponnefus and the iflands, they arrived at Colo¬
phon, where Homer was again troubled with the de-
Huxion upon his eyes, which proved fo violent, that he
is faid to have loft his fight. This misfortune m:-Je
him refolve to return to Smyrna, where he finiftied his
Iliad. Some time after, the ill pofture of his affairs
obliged him to go to Cumae, where he hoped to have
found fome relief. Here his poems were highly ap¬
plauded : but when he propofed to immortalize their
town, if they would allow him a falary, he was an-
fwered, that “ there would be no end of maintaining
all the 'pfiogoi, or blind men;” and hence got the name
of Homer. He afterwards wandered through feveral
places, and flopped at Chios, where he married, and
compofed his Odyffey. Some time after, having add¬
ed many verfes to his poems in praife of the cities of
Greece, efpecially of Athens and Argos, he went to
Samos, where he fpent the winter, finging at the houfes
of the great men, with a train of boys after him. From
Snmos he went to lo, one of the Sporades, with a de-
fign to continue his voyage to Athens; but landing
by the way at Chios, he fell fick, died, and was bu¬
ried on the fea-fhore.
The only inconteftable works which Homer has left
H O M
behind him are the Iliad and Odyffey. The Batra-
chomyomachia, or battle of the frogs and mice, has
been difputed. The hymns have been difputed alfo,
and attributed by the fcholiafts to Cynasthus the rhap-
fodift: but neither Thucydides, Lucian, nor Paufa-
nias, have fcrnpled to cite them as genuine. Many
other pieces are afcvibed to him: epigrams, the Ear-
tiges, the Cecropes, the ddtrudlion of Oechalia, of
which only the names are remaining.
Nothing was ever comparable to the clearnefs and
majelly of Homer’s ftyle ; to the fublimity of his
thoughts; to the ftrength and fweetnefs of his verfes.
All his images are ftriking ; his defcriptions juft and
exadl ; the paflions fo well expreffed, and nature fo
finely painted, that he gives to every thing motion,
life, and a£tion. But he more particularly excels in
invention, and in the different charafters of his heroes,
which are fo varied, that they affedt us in an inexpref-
fible manner. In a word, the more he is read by a
perfon of good tafte, the more he is admired. Nor
are his works to be efteemcd merely as entertaining
poems, or as the monuments of a fublime and varied
genius. He was in general fo accurate with refpedl to
coftume, that he feldom mentioned perfons or things
that we may not conclude to have been known during
the times of which he writes ; and it was Mr Pope’s
opinion, that his account of people, princes, and coun¬
tries, was purely hiftorical, founded on the real tranf-
adlions of thofe times, and by far the moft valuable
piece of hiftory and geography left us concerning the
Hate of Greece in that early period. His geographi¬
cal divifions of that countty were thought fo exadl,
that we are told off many controverfies concerning the
boundaries of Grecian cities which have been decided
upon the authority of his poems.
Alcibiades gave a rhetorician a box on the ear for
not having Homer’s writings in his fchool. Alexander
was ravifhed with them, and commonly placed them
under his pillow with his fword; he inclofed the Iliad
in the precious cafket that belonged to Darius ; “ in
order, (faid he to his courtiers,) that the moft perfect
produdlion of the human mind might be inclofed in
the moft valuable cafket in the world.” And one day
feeing the tomb of Achilles in Sigxa, “ Fortunate he¬
ro! (cried he), thou haft had a Homer to ling thy vic¬
tories!” Lycurgus, Solon, and the kings and princes
of Greece, fet fuch a value on Homer’s works, that
they took the utmoft pains in procuring corretft edi¬
tions of them, the moft efteemed of which is that of
Ariftarchus. Didymus was the firft who wrote notes
on Homer; and Euftathius, archbifhop of Theffalo-
nica, in the 12th century, is the moft celebrated of his
commentators. Mr Pope has given an elegant tranf-
lation of the Iliad, adorned with the harmony of poetic
numbers; and Mad. Dacier has tranflated both the
Iliad and Odyffey in profe. But thofe who deiire to
know the feveral editions of Homer, and the writers
who have employed themfelves on the works of that
great poet, may confult Fabricius, in the firft volume
of his Bibliotheca Greeca.
HOMICIDE, fignifies in general, the taking away
of any perfon’s life. It is of three kinds; juJlifiabU,
excufable, and felonious. The firft has no fhare of
guilt at all; the fecond very little; but the third is the
higheft crime againft the law of nature, that man is
car
[ 3702 ]
Homer,
Homicide.
H O M [ 370.3 1 H O M
Homicide, capable of committing.
I. Juftifiable homicide ii of divers kinds.
1. Such as is owing to fome unavoidable
without any will, intention, or ddire, and without any
inadvertence or negligence, in the party killing, and
therefore without any fhadow of blame; as, for in-
ftance, by virtue oCfuch an office as obliges one, in the
execution of public juftice, to put a malefadfor to
death, who hath forfeited his life by the laws and ver-
di& of his country. This is an a£t of necefiity, and
even of civil duty; and therefore not only juftiliable,
but commendable, where the law requires it. But the
law muft require it, otherwife it is not jultifiable:
therefore wantonly to kill the greateft of malefadlors,-
a felon'or a traitor, attainted or outlawed, deliberate¬
ly, uneompelled, and extrajudicially, is murder. And
farther, if judgment of death be given by a judge not
authorized by lawful commiffion, and execution is done
accordingly, the judge is guilty of murder. Alfo fuch
judgment, when legal, mull be executed by the proper
officer, or his appointed deputy; for no one elfe is re¬
quired by law to do it, which requilition it is that ju-
flifies the homicide. If another perfon doth it of his
own head, it is held to be murder: even though it be
the judge himfelf. It muft farther be executed, fer-
vato juris ordine ; it muft purfue the fentence of the
court. If an officer beheads one who is adjudged to
be hanged, or vice verfa, it is murder: for he is mere¬
ly minilterial, and therefore only juftified when he ads
under the authority and compulfion of the law. But,
if a ftieriff changes one kind of punilhment for ano¬
ther, he then ads by his own authority, which ex¬
tends not to the commiffion of homicide: and befides,
this licence might occafion a very grofs abufe of his
power. The king indeed may remit part of a fentence,
as in the cafe of treafon, all but the beheading: but
this is no change, no introdudion of a new punilh¬
ment; and in the cafe of felony, where the judgment
is to be hanged, the king (it hath been faid) cannot le¬
gally order even a peer to be beheaded.
Again: In fome cafes homicide is juftifiable, rather
by the permijjion, than by the abfolute command, of the
law: either for the advancement of public jufiice, which
without fuch indemnification would never be carried
on with proper vigour; or, in fuch inftances where it
is committed for the prevention of fome atrocious crime,
which cannot othervvife be avoided.
2. Homicides, committed for the advancement of
public jujiice, are, 1. Where an officer, in the execu¬
tion of his office, either in a civil or criminal cafe,
kills a perfon that alfaults-and refills him. 2. If an
officer, or any private perfon, attempts to take a man
charged with felony, and is refilled; and, in the en¬
deavour to take him, kills him.. 3. In cafe of a riot,
or rebellious aflembly, the officers endeavouring to dif-
perfe the mob are jultifiable in killing them, both at
common law, and by the riot ad, 1 Geo. I. c. 5.
4. Where the prifoners in a gaol, or going to gaol,
affault the the gaoler or officer, and he in his defence
kills any of them, it is jullinable, for the fake of pre¬
venting an efcape. 5. If trefpalfcrs in forefts, parks,
chafes, or warrens, will not furrender themfelves to the
keepers, they may be llain; by virtue of the flatute
21 Edward I. ft. 2. de malefattoribus in parcis, and
3&4W. & M. c. 10. But, in all thefe cafes, there
muft be an apparent neceffityon the officer’s fide; viz. Homicidc-
that the party could not be arrelled or apprehended, ' ~~
the riot could not be fupprefled, the prifoners could
not be kept in hold, the deer-ftealers could not but
efcape, unlefs fuch homicide were committed: other-
wife, without fuch abfolute neceffity, it is not jufti¬
fiable. 6. If the champions in a trial by battel killed
either of them the other, fuch homicide was juftifiable,
and was imputed to the juft judgment of God, who
was thereby prefumed to have decided in favour of the
truth.
3. In the next place, fuch homicide as is commit¬
ted for the prevention of any forcible and atrocious
crime, is juftifiable by the law of nature; and alfo by
the law of England, as it ftood fo early as the time of
Bradlon, and as it is fince declared by flat 24 H. VIII.
c. 5. If any perfon attempts a robbery or murder of
another, or attempts to break open a houfe in the night¬
time, (which extends alfo to an attempt to burn it,)
and ftiall be killed in fuch attempt, the flayer fhall be
acquitted and difeharged. This reaches not to any
crime unaccompanied with force, as picking of poc¬
kets ; or to the breaking open of any houfe in the day¬
time, unlefs it carries with it an attempt of robbery
alfo. . So the Jewifti law, which punilhed no theft
with death, makes homicide only juftifiable in cafe of
Jz<Ji7«r«tf/houfe-breaking: “ if a thief be found break- Exodus
ing up, and he be fmitten that he die, no blood ftiall XX1I‘ 2*
be filed for him : but if the fun be rifen upon him,
there fiiall blood be fhed for him ; for he ftiould have
made full reftitution.” At Athens, if any theft was
committed by night, it was lawful to kill the crimi¬
nal, if taken in the fadl: and, by the Roman law of
the twelve tables, a thief might be flain by night
with impunity ; or even by day, if he armed him¬
felf with any dangerous weapon: which amounts very
nearly to the fame as is permitted by our own confti-
tutions.
The Roman law alfo jollifies homicide, when com¬
mitted in defence of the chaftity either of one’s fclf or
relations: and fo alfo, according to Selden, ftood the
law in the Jewilh republic. The Englilh law likewife
jollifies a woman killing one who attempts to ravilh
her: and fo too the hulband or father may jollify kill¬
ing a man, who attempts a rape upon his wife or
daughter; but not if he takes them in adultery by
confent; for the one is forcible and felonius, but not
the other. And there is no doubt but the forcibly at¬
tempting a crime, of a dill more detellable nature,
may be equally refilled by the death of the unnatural
aggrefior. For the one uniform principle that runs
thiough our own, and all other laws, feems to be
this: That where a crime, in itfelf capital, is endea¬
voured to be committed by force, it is lawful to repel
that force by the death of the party attempting. But
we muft not carry this doctrine to the fame vilionary
length that Mr Locke does ; who holds, *c that all
manner of force without right upon a man’s perfon,
puts him in a ftate of war with the aggreflbr ; and, of
confequence, that, being in fuch a llate of war, he
may lawfully kill him that puts him under this unna¬
tural reftraint.” However juft this conclufion maybe
in a ftate of uncivilized nature, yet the law of Eng¬
land, like that of every other well-regulated commu¬
nity, is too tender of the public peace, too careful of
21 D 2 the
H O M [ 3704 ] H O M
Ilomicide. the lives of the fubje&s, to adopt fo contentious a fy*
Item ; nor will fuffer with impunity any crime to be
prevented by death, unlefs the fame, if committed,
would alfo be punijhed by death.
In thefe inltances of juJUfialle homicide, it may be
obferved, that the flayer is in no kind of fault whatfo-
ever, not even in the minuteft degree ; and is there¬
fore to be totally acquitted and difcharged, with com¬
mendation rather than blame. But that is not quite
the cafe in excnfable homicide, the very name where¬
of imports fome fault, fome error, or omiflion ; fo
trivial, however, that the law excufes it from the guilt
of felony, though in ftriftnefs it judges it deferving of
fome little degree of punilhment.
II. Excufable homicide is of two forts; either per
infortunium, by mifadventure; or fe dfendendo, upon
a principle of felf-prefervation. We will fir A fee where¬
in thefe two fpecies of homicide are diftindf, and then
wherein they agree.
1. Homicide per infortunium, or mifadventure, is
where a man, doing a lawful a£t, without any inten¬
tion of hurt, unfortunately kills another : as where a
man is at work with a hatchet, and the head thereof
flies off and kills a flander-by ; or, where a perfon,
qualified to keep a gun, is fhooting at a mark, and
undefignedly kills a man : for the aft is lawful, and
the effeft is merely accidental. So where a parent is
moderately correfting his child, a mafier his appren¬
tice or fcholar, or an officer punilhing a criminal, and
happens to occafion his death, it is only mifadventure;
for the aft of correftion was lawful: but if he exceeds
the bounds of moderation, either in the manner, the
inArument, or the quantity of puniihnsent, and death
enfues, it is manflaughter at leaft, and in fome cafes
(according to the circumflances) murder ; for the aft
of immoderate correftion is unlawful. Thus by an
edift of the emperor ConAantine, when the rigour of
the Roman law with regard to flaves began to relax
and foften, a mafier was allowed to chafiife his flave
with rods and imprifonment, and, if death accidental¬
ly enfued, he was guilty of no crime : but if he Aruck
him with a club or a Aone, and thereby occafioned his
death; or if in any other yet grofler manner “ immo¬
derate fuojure utatur, tunc reus homicidiifit”
But, to proceed. A tilt or tournament, the mar¬
tial diverfion of our ancefiors, was however an unlaw¬
ful aft ; and fo are boxing and fvvord-playing, the fuc-
ceeding amufement of their poAerity : and therefore,
if a knight in the former cafe, or a gladiator in the
latter, be killed, fuch killing is felony of manflaugh¬
ter. But if the king command or permit fuch diver¬
fion, it is faid to be only mifadventure ; for then the
aft is lawful: In like manner as, by the laws both
of Athens and Rome, he who killed another in the
pancratium, or public games, authorifed or permitted
by the Aate, was not held to be guilty of homicide.
Likewife to whip another’s horfe, whereby he runs
over a child and kills him, is held to be accidental in
the rider, for he has done nothing unlawful ; but
manflaughter in the perfon who whipped him, for the
aft was a trefpafs, arid at befi a piece of idlenefs, of
inevitably dangerous confequence. And in general,
if death enfues in confequence of an idle, dangerous,
and unlawful fport, as fhooting or caAing Aones in a
town, or the barbarous diverfion of cock-throwing; in
thefe and fimilar cafes, the flayer is guilty of man- Homicide,
daughter, and not mifadventure only; for thefe are
unlawful afts.
2. Homicide in felf defence, or fe dejendendo, upon a
hidden affray, is alfo excufable rather than juAifiable,
by the Englilh law. This fpecies of felf-defence muA
be diffinguifhed from that juA now mentioned, as cal¬
culated to hinder the perpetration of a capital crime ;
which is not only a matter of excufe, but of juAification.
But the felf-defence which we are now fpeaking of, is
that whereby a man may proteft himfelf from an af-
fault, or the like, in the courfe of a hidden brawl or
quarrel, by killing him who affaults him. And this
is what the law' expreffes by the word chance-medley,
or (as fome rather choofe to write it) chaud-medley; the
former of which in its etymology fignifies a cafual af¬
fray, the latter an affray in the heat of blood or paf-
fion : both of them of pretty much the fame import;
but the former is in common fpeech too often erro-
neoufly applied to any manner of homicide by mifad¬
venture; whereas it appears by the Aatute 24 H. VIII.
c. 5. and our ancient books, that it is properly ap¬
plied to fuch killing as happens in fdf-defence upon
a hidden rencounter. The right of natural defence
does not imply a right of attacking : for, inAead of
attacking one another for injuries paff or impending,
men need only have recourfe to the proper tribunals of
juAice. They cannot therefore legally exercife this
right of preventive defence, but in hidden and violent
cafes; when certain and immediate fuffering would be
the confequence of waiting for the affiAance of the
law. Wherefore, to excufe homicide by the plea of
felf-defence, it muA appear that the flayer had no o-
ther poffible means of efcaping from his affailant.
In fome cafes this fpecies of homicide (upon chance-
medley in felf-defence) differs but little from manflaugh¬
ter, which alfo happens frequently upon chance-med¬
ley in the proper legal fenfe of the word. But the true
criterion between them feems to be this; when both
parties are aftually combating at the time when the
mortal Aroke is given, the flayer is then guilty of man¬
flaughter ; but if the flayer hath not begun to fight,
or (having begun) endeavours to decline any farther
ftruggle, and afterwards, being clofely preffed by his
antagoniA, kills him to avoid his own deAruftion, this-
is homicide excufable by felf-defence. For which rea-
fon the law requires, that the perfon, who kills another
in his own defence, fliould have retreated as far as he
conveniently or fafely can, to avoid the violence of the
affault, before he turns upon his affailant ; and that
not fiftitioufly, or in order to watch his opportunity,
but from a real tendernefs of (bedding his brother’s
blood. And though it may be cowardice, in time of
war between twm independent nations, to flee from an
enemy; yet between two fellow-fubjefts, the law
countenances nq fuch point of honour: becaufe the
king and his courts are the vindices injuriarum, and will
give to the party wronged all the fatisfaftion he de-
ferves. In this the civil law alfo agrees with ours, or
perhaps goes rather faither; “ qui cum aliter tueri fe
non pojfunt, damni culparn dedcrint, inmxii funt.” The
party affaulted muA therefore flee as far as he conve¬
niently can, either by reafon of fome wall, ditch, or
other impediment; or as far as the fiercenefs of the
affault will permit him-: for it may be fo fierce as not
to
H O M [ 3705 ] H O M
|Homicif!e. t0 allow him to yield a ftep, without manifefl danger
I of his life, or enormous bodily harm ; and then in his
defence he may kill his afl’ailant inftantly. And this is
the dodtrine of univerfal juftice, as well as of the mu¬
nicipal law.
And, as the manner of the defence, fo is alfo the
time to be confidered : for if the pcrfon aflaulted does
not fall upon the aggrefibr till the affray is over, or
when he is running away, this is revenge and not de¬
fence. Neither, under the colour of felf-defence, will
the law permit a man to fcreen himfelf from the guilt
of deliberate murder : for if two perfons, A and B,
agree to fight a duel, and A gives the firft onfet, and
B retreats as far as he fafely can, and then kills A,
this is murder ; ,becaufe of the previous malice and
concerted defign. But if A upon a fudden quarrel af-
faults B firft, and, upon B’s returning the aflault, A
really and Iona fide flees; and, being driven to the
wall, turns again upon B and kills him ; this may be
fe defendendo, according to fome of our writers: tho’
others have thought this-opinion too favourable ; in-
afmuch as the neceflity, to which he is at laft reduced,
originally arofe from his own fault. Under this ex-
cufe of felf-defence, the principal civil and natural re¬
lations are comprehended : therefore, mafter and fer-
vant, parent and child, hufband and wife, killing an
aflailant in the neceflary defence of each other re-
fpedfively, are excufed; the aft of the relation affift-
ing being conftrued the fame as the aft of the party
himfelf.
There is one fpecies of homicide fe defendendo, where
the party flain is equally innocent as he who occafions
his death : and yet this homicide is alfo excufable from
the great univerfal principle of felf-prefervation, which
prompts every man to fave his own life preferable to
that of another, where one of them muft inevitably
perifti. As, among others, in that cafe mentioned by
lord Bacon, where two perfons, being fhipwreckedj
and getting on the fame plank, but finding it not able
to fave them both, one of them thrufts the other from
it, whereby he is drowned. He who thus preferves his
own life at the expence of another man’s, is excufable
through unavoidable neceffity, and the principle of
felf-defence; fince their both remaining on the fame
weak plank is a mutual, though innocent, attempt
upon, and an endangering of, each other’s life.
Let us next take a view of thofe circumftances
wherein thofe two fpecies of homicide, by mifadven-
ture and felf-defence, agree ; and thofe are in their
blame and punifhment. For the law fets fo high a
value upon the life of a man, that it always intends
fome mifbehaviour in theperfon who takes it away,.un-
Jefs by the command or esprefs permiffion of the law^
In the cafe of mifadventure, it prefumes negligence, or
at leaft a want of fufficient caution in him who was fo
unfortunate as to commit it; who therefore, is not al¬
together faultlefs. And as to the neceffity which ex-
cufes a man who kills another fie defendendo, lord Ba¬
con entitles it Tiecejfitas culpabilis, and thereby diftin-
guifhes it from the former neceffity of killing a thief
or a malefactor. For the law intends that the quarrel
or affault arofe from fome unknown wrong, or fome
provocation, either in word or deed: and fince in
quarrels both parties' may be, and ufually are, in fome
fault j and it fearce can be tried who was originally in
the wrong ; the law will not hold the furvivor entirely Homicide,
guiltlefs. But it is clear, in the other cafe, that
where I kill a thief who breaks into my houfe, the
original default can never be upon my fide. The law
befides may have a farther view, to make the crime
of homicide more odious, and to caution men how
they venture to kill another upon their own private
judgment ; by ordaining, that he who flays his neigh¬
bour, without an exprefs warrant from the law fo to
do, (hall in no cafe be abfolutely free from guilt.
Nor is the law of England Angular in this refpeft.
Even the daughter of enemies required a folemn pur¬
gation among the Jews; which implies, that the death
of a man, however it happens, will leave fome ftain
behind it. And the Mofaical law appointed certain
cities of refuge for him “ who killed his neighbour un¬
awares ; as if a man goeth into the wood with his
neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a ftroke
with the ax to cut down a tree, and the head flippeth
from the helve, and lighteth upon his neighbour that
he die, he fliall flee unto one of thofe cities and live.’’
But it feems he was not held wholly blamelefs, any
more than in the Englifh law; fince the avenger of
blood might flay him before he reached his afylum, or
if he afterwards ftirred out of it till the death of the
high prieft. In the imperial law likewife cafual homi¬
cide was excufed, by the indulgence of the emperor
figned with his own fign manual, “ adnotatiane priu-
cipis otherwife, the death of a man, however com¬
mitted, was in fome degree puniihable. Among the
Greeks, homicide by misfortune was expiated by vo¬
luntary banifhment for a year.. In Saxony, a fine is
paid to the kindred of the flain; which alfo, among the
weftern Goths, was little inferior to that of voluntary
homicide: and in France, no perfon is ever abfolved
in cafes of, this nature, without a largefs to the poor,
and the charge of certain mafles for the foul of the
party killed.
The penalty inflifted by our laws is faid by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke to have been anciently no lefs than death;
which, however, is with reafon denied by latter and
more accurate writers. It feems rather to have confift-
ed in a forfeiture, fome fay of all the goods and chat¬
tels, others of only a part of them, by way of fine or
•voeregild: which was probably difpofed of, as in
France, /#-pios ufus, according to the humane fuper-
ftition of the times, for the benefit of his - foul who
was thus fuddenly fent to his account with all his im-
perfeftions on-his head. But that reafon having long
ceafed, and the penalty (efpecially if a total forfei¬
ture) growing more fevere than was intended, in pro¬
portion as perfonal property has become more confide-
rable, the delinquent has now, and has had as early as
our records will reach, a pardon and writ of reftitution
of his goods as a matter of courfe and right, only pay¬
ing for fuing out the fame. And, indeed, to prevent
this expenfe, in cafes where the death has notorioufiy
happened ty mifadventure orin felf-defence, the judges
will ufually permit (if not direft) a general verdift of
acquittal.
III. Felonious homicide is an aft of a very different
nature from the former, being the killing of a human
creature, of any age or fex, without juftification or
excufe. This may be done either by killing one’s felf,
or another man: for the confideration of which, fee the
HON [ 3706 ] HON
Homily articles Suv-Murder, Murder, and Manslaugh-
na”l— HOMILY, in ecclefiaftical writers, a fermon, cr
difcourfe, upon fome point of religion, delivered in a
plain manner, fo as to be eafily underftood by the
common'people.—The word is Greek, opikia; form¬
ed of oy.t\<grt catus, “ affembly, or council.”
At the time of the reformation, there were feveral
of thefe homilies made and printed, and ordered to be
read in fuch churches as were not provided with a fuf-
ficiently learned minirter, in order to prevent unfound
do&rine being taught in remote country places.
In the primitive church, homily rather meant a
conference or converfalion by way of queftion and
anfwer, which made part of the office of a bifhop,
till the 5th century, when the learned priefts were al¬
lowed to preach, catechife, &c. in the fame manner as
the bifhops ufed to do.
There are ftill extant feveral fine homilies, compo-
fed by the ancient fathers, particularly St Chryfoftom
and St Gregory.
De Homine Repkgiando. See Imprison¬
ment.
The writ de homino replegiando lies to replevy a man
out of prifon, or out of the cuftody of any private
perfon (in the fame manner that chattels taken in any
diftrefs may be replevied), upon giving fecurity to the
IherifF, that the man fhall be forthcoming to anfwer
any charge againlt him. And if the perfon be con¬
veyed out of the fheriffs jurifdiftion, the fherifif may re¬
turn that he is e\o\gneA, elongatus; upon which a pro-
cefs iffues (called capias in ’withernam'), to imprifon
the defendant himfelf, without bail or mainprize, till
he produces the party. But this writ is guarded with
fo many exceptions, that it is not an effedfual remedy
in numerous inftances, efpecially where the crown is
concerned. See Habeas Corpus.
HOMMOC, a name given by mariners to a hilloc,
or fmall eminence of land, refembling the figure of a
■cone, and appearing on the fea-coaft of any country.
HOMO, man, is ranked by Linnaeus under the
order of primates; and chara&erifed by having four
parallel foreteeth both in the upper and lowerjaw, and
two mammae on the bread. The fpecies, according
to this author, are two, viz. the homo fapiens, and
the homo troglodytes.
He fubdivides the homo fapiens into five varie¬
ties, viz. the American, the European, the Afiatic,
the African, and what he calls the morjlrous. See
Man.
The troglodytes, or orang outang, is a native of
Ethiopia, Java, and Amboina. His body is white ;
he walks ere& ; and is about one half the ordinary hu¬
man fize. He generally lives about 25 years. He
conceals himfelf in caves during the day, and fearches
for his prey in the night. He is faid to be exceed¬
ingly fagacious, but is not endowed with the faculty
of fpeech. See Troglodytes, Orang Outang, and
Si mi a.
HOMOLOGOUS, in geometry, an appellation
given to the correfponding fides and angles of fimilar
figures, as being proportional to each other.
HONAN, a province of China, bounded on the
north by that of Pecheli and Chanfi, on the weft by
Chanfi, on the fouth by Houquang, and on the eaft
by Chantong. It is watered by the river Hohango ; Honder-
and befides the forts, caftles, and garrifoned towns, it ko<)ttv
contains eight cities of the firft rank, and 102 of the „
fecond and third. The ai#| of this province is ver,jr orie>''. ,
temperate and healthful, abounding with wheat, rice,
paftures, cattle, oranges of feveral forts, pomegranates,
and all forts of European fruits. Towards the weft
it is mountainous and woody, and towards the eaft
it is all cultivated like a garden. It is well watered
with fountains, brooks, and rivers, which render it
very pleafant.
HONDERKOOTER(Melchior), a famous Dutch
painter born at Utrecht, excelled in painting animals,
and efpecially birds. His pi&ures fell at a high price,
and are much fought after. He died at Utrecht in
1695, aged 59.
HONDURAS, a province of North America in
New Spain, lying on the North Sea, being about 370
miles in length, and 200 in breadth ; it was difcover-
ed by Chriltopher Columbus in the year 1502. The
Englilh have been pofleffed of the logwood country
on the bay of Honduras a great while, and cut large
quantities every year. The Mofquito native Americans
live in the eaftern parts; and being independant of the
Spaniards, have entered into treaties with the Englifti,
and ferve them in feveral capacities. This province is
watered by feveral rivers, which enrich the country
by their inundations; and it is very fertile in Indian
corn. It is faid there are fome mines of gold and filver
in this province. Valadolid is the capital town.
HONE, a fine kind of white ftone, ufed for fetting
razors, pen-knives, and the like.
HONEY, a fweet vegetable juice, colle&ed by the
bees from the flowers of various plants, and depofited
in the cells of the comb ; from which it is extra&ed
either by fpontaneous percolation through a fieve in a
warm place, the comb being feparated and laid there¬
on, or by expreflion. That which runs fpontaneoufly
is purer than that which is exprefled, a quantity of
the wax and other matters being forced out along with
it by the preflure. The bell fort of honey is of a thick j
confiftence, a whitilh colour inclining to yellow, an
agreeable fmell, and plcafant tafte ; both the colour
and flavour are faid to differ in fome degree, accord¬
ing to the plants which the bees colle& it from. It
is fuppofed that honey is merely the juice of the flower
perfpiring, and becoming infpiffated thereon; and
that the bee takes it up with its probofcis, and car¬
ries it to be depofited in its waxen cells, with which
the young bees are to be fed in fummer, and the old
ones in winter: but it is certain, that honey can be
procured by no other method of colle&ing this juice
than by the bees. The honey v/rought by the young
bees, and that which is permitted to run from the
comb without heat or preffure, is white and pure, and
called virgin’s honey. The honey of old bees, and that
which is forced from the comb by heat or preffure, is
yellow, from the wax. Honey produced where the
air is clear and hot, is better than that where the air
is variable and cold.— The honey of Narbonne in
France, where rofemary abounds, is faid to have a
very manifeft flavour of that plant, and to be imitable
by adding to other honey an infufion of rofemary
flowers.—Honey, confidered as a medicine, is a very
ufeful detergent and aperient, powerfully diffoUing
vifeid
HON t 37°7 ] HON
Jl.snry. vifcid juices, and promoting the expefloration of tough hedge of rofemsry near my bees at Sauvages: the ho*
fk'v- phlegm : in fome particular conftitutions it has an in- ney has tailed of it ever lince, that Ihrub continuing
convenience of griping, or of proving purgative ; this long in flower.
is faid to be in fome meafure prevented by previoufly “ I have obferved two fpecies of ^ine-fretters,which
boiling the honey. live unlheltered on the bark, of young branches ; a
HoNEY-ZVie, a fw'eet faccharine fubftance founded larger and a lefier.
on the leaves of certain trees, of which bees are very “ The lefler fpccies is of the colour of the bark up-
fond, by the hufbandmen fuppofed to fall from the on which it feeds, generally green. It is chiefly di¬
heavens like common dew. This opinion hath been ftinguilhed by two horns, or ftrait, immoveable, flefhy
refuted, and the true origin of this and other faccha- fubllances, which rife perpendicularly from the lower
vine dews (heum by the Abbe Boiflier de Sauvages, in hides of the belly, one on each fide. This is the fpe-
a memoir read before the Society of Sciences at Mont- cies which live on the young branches of bramble and
pelier, “ Chance (fays the Abbe) afforded me an elder.
opportunity of feeing this juice in its primitive form “ The larger fpecies is double the fize of the other;
on the leaves of the holm-oak: thefe leaves were co- is of a blackifli colour; and inftead of the horns
vered wuth thoufands of fmall round globules, or drops, which diftinguifh the other, have in the fame part of
which, without touching one another, feemed to point the flrin a fmall button, black and fhining like jet.
out the pore from whence each of them had proceed- “ The buzzing of bees in a tuft of holm-oak, made
ed. My tafte informed me that they were as fweet as me fufpedt that fomething very interefling brought fo
honey : the honey-dew on a neighbouring bramble many of them thither. I knew that it was not the
did not refembie the former, the drops having run to- feafon for expe&ing honey-dew, nor was it the place
gether ; owing either to the moifture of the air which where it is ufually found; and was furprized to find
had diluted them, or to the heat which had expand- the tuft of leaves and branches covered with drops
ed them. The dew was become more vifeous, and lay which the bees colle&ed with a humming noife. The
in large drops, covering the leaves; in this form it is form of the drops drew my attention, and led me to
ufually feen. the following difeovery. Inftead of being round like
“ The oak had at this time two forts of leaves; the drops which had fallen, each formed a fmall longiffi
old, which were ftrong and firm; and the new, which oval. I Toon perceived from whence they proceeded,
were tender, and newly come forth. The honey-dew The leaves covered with thefe drops of honey were
was found only on the old leaves; tho! thefe were cover- fituated beneath a fvvarm of the larger black vine-
ed by the new ones, and by that means flieltered from fretters; and on obferving thefe infefts, I perceived
any moifture that could fall from above. I obferved the them from time to time raife their bellies, at the ex¬
fame on the old leaves of the bramble, while the new tremityofwhich there then appeared a fmall drop of an
leaves were quite free from it. Another proof that amber colour, which they inftantly eje&ed from them
this dew proceeds from the leaves is, that other neigh- to the diftanee of fome inches. I found by tailing
bouring trees not furnilhed with a juice of this kind, fome of thefe drops which I had catched on my hand,
had no moifture on them; and particularly the mul- that it had the fame flavour with what had before
berry, which is a very particular circumftance, for this fallen on the leaves. I afterwards faw the fmaller
juice is a deadly poifon to Tilk-worms. If this juice fpecies of vine-fretters eje£t their drops in the fame
fell in the form of a dew, mill, or fog, it would wet manner.
all the leaves without diftin&ion, and every part of the “ This ejedlion is fp far from being a matter of
leaves, nnder as well as upper. Heat may have fome indifference to thefe infe&s themfelves, that it feems
ftiare in its produftion : for though the common heat to have been wifely inftituted to procure clennli-
promotes only the tranfpiration of the more volatile and nefs in each individual, as well as to preferve the
fluid juices, a fultry heat, efpecially if refledled by whole fwarm from deftrudlion; for preffing as they
clouds, may fo far dilate the veffel, as to produce a do one upon another, they would otherwife foon
morevifcousjui.ee, fuch as the honey-dew. be glued together, and rendered incapable of ftir-
“ The fecond kind of honey-dew, which is the chief ring,
refource of bees after the fpring-flowers and dew by “ The drops thus fpurted out fall upon the ground,
tranfpiration on leaves are paft, owes its origin to a if not intercepted by leaves or branches; and the fpot^
fmall infeft called a vine-fretter; the excrement ejec- they make on ftones remain fome time, unlefs walhed
ted with fome force by this infeft makes a part of the off by rain. This is the only honey-dew that falls;
moft delicate honey known in nature. See Aphis. and this never falls from a greater height than a branch.
“ Thefe vine-fretters reft during feveral months on where thefe infefts can clufter.
the barks of particular trees, and extradl their food by “ It is now eafy to account for a phasnomenon
piercing that bark, without hurting or deforming the which formerly puzzled me greatly. Walking under
tx-ee. Thefe infefts alfo caufethe leaves of fome trees a lime-tree in the king’s garden at Paris, I felt my
to curl up, and produce galls upon others. They hand wetted with little drops, which I at firftfook
fettle on branches that are a year old. The juice, at for fmall rain. The tree indeed (hould have fheltered
firft perhaps hard and crabbed, becomes, in the bowels me from the rain, but I efcaped it-by going from un-
of this infeft, equal in fweetnefs to the honey obtain- der the tree. A feat placed near the tree.fhone with
ed from the flowers and leaves of vegetables; excep- thefe drops. And being then unacquainted with any
ting that the flowers may communicate fome of their thing of this kind, except the honey-dew found on the
effential oil to the honey, and this may give it a pe- leaves of fome particular trees, I was at a lofs to con-
e a liar flavour, as happened to myfelf by planting a ceive how fo glutinous a fubftance could fall from the
leaves:
Honey-
dew.
HON [ 3708 ] HON
Honey- leaves in fuch fmall drops: for I knew that rain
<lew could not overcome its natural attra£lion to the leaves
I! till it became pretty large drops; but I have fince
Honour’ found, that the lime-tree is very fubjeft to thefe vine-
fretters.
“ Bees are not the only infe&s that feaft upon this
honey ; ants are equally fond of it. Led into this
opinion by what naturalifts have faid, I at iirft believed
that the horns in the lefler fpecies of thefe vine-fretters
had in their extremity a liquor which the ants went in'
fearch of: but I foon difcovered that what drew the
ant's after them came from elfewhere, both in the larger
and Idler fpecies, and that no liquor is difcharged by
the horns.
♦« There are two fpecies of ants which fearch for
thefe infe&s. The large black ants follow thofe w'hich
live on the oaks and chefnut; the lefler’ants attend
thofe on the elder. But as the ants are not, like the
bees, provided with the means of fucking up fluids;
they place themfelves near the vine-fretters, in prder
to feize the drop the moment they fee it appear upon
the anus; and, as the drop remains fame time on the
fmall vine frettera before they can caft it off, the ants
have leifure to catch it, and thereby prevent the bees
from having any fliare : but the vine-fretters of
the oak and chefnut being ftronger, and perhaps
more plentifully fupplied with juice, dart the drop
inftantly, fo that the larger ants get very little
of it.
“ The vine-fretters finding the greateft plenty of
juice in trees about the middle of fummer, afford alfo
at that time the greateft. quantity of honey ;
and this leflens as the feafon advances, fo that in the
autumn the bees prefer it to the flowers then in
feafon.
“ Though thefe infefts pierce the tree to the fap
in a thoufand places, yet the trees do not feem to
fuffer at all from them, nor do the leaves lofe the
leaft of their verdure. Thehufbandman therefore ads
injudicioufly when he deftroys them.”
Honey-Grr/Ve, a curious fpecies of cuckow. See
■Cuculus.
Hosey-Suckle. See Lonicera.
HONFLEUR, a confiderable fea-port town of
France, in Upper Normandy, with a good harbour,
and trade in bone-lace. It is feated on the river Seine,
in E. Long. o. 8. N. Lat. 17. 49.
HONITON, a town of Devonfhire in England,
feated near the river Otter, over which there is a bridge
on the road from London to Exeter. A dreadful fire
happened here in July 1747, which confumed three
parts of the town, and the damage was computed at
43,0001. It fends two members to parliament; but
being no corporation, a portrieve is the returning
officer. It has one church, which is half a mile from
the town, and a chapel within it; with about 400
houfes, which are chiefly in one broad-paved ftreet.
Here is a large manufadory of bone-lace. W. Long.
3. 11. N. Lat. 50. 43.
HONOUR, a teftimony of efteem or fubmiffion,
expreffed by words, a&ions, and an exterior behavi¬
our, by which we make known the veneration and re-
fped we entertain for any one on account of his dig¬
nity or merit. The word honour w alfo ufed in ge¬
neral for the efteem due to virtue, glory, and reputa*
tion. It is alfo ufed for virtue and probity therofelves,
and for an exadnefs in performing whatever we have
promifed ; and in this laft fenfe we ufe the term, a
man of honour. But honour is more particularly ap¬
plied to two different kinds of virtue; bravery in men,
and chaftity in women.—Virtue and Honour were
deified among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and
had a joint temple confecrated to them at Rome: but
afterwards each of them had feparatc temples, which
were fo placed, that no one could enter the temple of
Honour, without pafiing through that of Virtue ; by
which the Romans were continually put in mind, that
virtue is the only dired path to true glory. Plutarch
tells us, that the Romans, contrary to their ufual
cuftom, facrificed to Honour uncovered ; perhaps to
denote, that wherever honour is, it wants no covering,
but (hews itfelf openly to the world.
Honour, or Rank.—The degrees of honour which
are obferved in Britain, may be comprehended under
thefe two heads, viz. nob lies majores, and nobiles minores.
Thofe included under the firft rank are, archbifhops,
dukes, marquifes, earls, vifeounts, biftiops, and ba¬
rons ; which are all diftinguiftied by the refpedive
ornaments of their efcutcheons: and thofe of the laft
are baronets, knights, efquires, and gentlemen. There
are fome authors who will have baronets to be the laft
under the firft rank; and their reafon is, becaufe their
honour is hereditary, and by patent, as that of the
nobility. See Commonalty and Nobility.
Honours of War, in a fiege, is, when a governor,
having made a long and vigorous defence, is at laft
obliged to furrender the place to the enemy, for want
of men and provifions, and makes it one of his prin¬
cipal articles to march out with the honours of ‘war;
that is, with ftiouldered arms, drums beating, colours
flying, and all their baggage, &c.
Military Honours. All armies falute crowned
heads in the moft refpe&ful manner, drums beating a
march, colours and ftandards dropping, and officers
faluting. Their guards pay no compliment, except
to the princes of the blood ; and even that by cour-
tefy, in the abfence of the crowned head.
To the commander in chief the whole line turns out
without arms, and the camp-guards beat a march, and
falute.
To generals of horfe and foot, they beat a march,
and falute.
Lieutenant-generals of ditto, three ruffs, and
falute.
Major-generals of ditto, two ruffs, and falute.
Brigadiers of ditto, refted arms, one ruff, and
falute.
Colonels of ditto, refted arms, and no beating.
Centinels reft their arms to all field-officers, and
(houlder to every officer.
All governors, that are not general officers, (hall,
in all places where they are governors, have one ruff,
with refted arms; but for thofe who have no com-
miffion as governors, no drum (hall beat.
Lieutenant-governors ftiall have the main-guard
turned out to them with ftiouldered arms.
PruJJian Honours of War, chiefly imitated by moft
powers in Europe, are,
To the king, all guards beat the march, and all
officers falute.
Hononr,
Honours.
Field-
Honour.
HON [ 3709 ] H O O
Field-marrtials received with the march, and faluted
in the king’s abfence.
General of horfe or foot, four ruffs; but if he
commands in chief, a march and falute.
Mil. Dili. Lieutenant-generals of horfe or foot, commanding
or not, guards beat three ruffs.
Major-generals of horfe or foot, two ruffs.
Offfcers, when their guards are under arms, and a
general makes a fignal, mud relt to him, but not beat;
when not got under arms, and a fignal made, only
.{land by,their arms.
Village-guards go under arms only to the king,
field-marfhals, generals of horfe and foot, and to the
general of the day.
Generals guards go under arms only to the king,
field-marfhals, and the general over whom’ they
-mount.
Commanding officers of regiments and battalions,
their own ^quarter and rear guards to turn out ; but
not to other field-officers, unlefs they are of the day.
Generals in foreign fervice, the fame.
Honours paid by Centinels. Field-marfhals ; two
centinels with ordered firelocks, at their tent or quar¬
ters.
Generals of horfe or foot; two centinels, one with
his firelock fhouldered, the other ordered.
Lieutenant-generals ; one, with firelock ordered.
Major-generals ; one, with firelock fhouldered.
The fii-fi battalion of guards go under arms to the
king only; not to ftand by, nor draw up in the rear
of their arms to any other ; nor to give centinels to
foreigners. Second and third battalions draw up be¬
hind their arms to the princes, and to field-marfhals;
but when on grenadier-guards or out-pofts, they turn
out, as other guards do, to the officers of the day.
They give one centinel with fhouldered arms to the
princes of the blood, and to field-marfhals when {hey
lie alone in garrifon.
Court of Honour. See Court of Chivalry.
Fountain of ttonov*.. The king is fo ftyled, as
being the fource of honours, dignities, &c. See Pre¬
rogative.
. It is impoffible that government can be maintained
without a due fubordination of rank ; that the people
may know and dillinguifh fuch as are fet over them,
in order to yield them their due refped and obedience;
and alfo that the officers themfelves, being encouraged
by emulation and the hopes of fuperiority, may the
better difcharge their functions : and the law fuppofes,
that no one can be fo good a judge of their feveral
merits and fervices, as the king himfelf who employs
them. It has therefore intrufted him with the foie
power of conferring dignities and honours, in confi¬
dence that he will beftow them upon none but fuch
as deferve them. And therefore all degrees of nobi¬
lity, of knighthood, and other titles, are received by
immediate grant from the crown : either expreffed in
writing, by writs or letters patent, ,38 in the crea¬
tions of peers and baronets; or by corporeal invefti-
ture, as in the creation of a fimple knight.
From the fame principle alfo arifes the prerogative
of ere&ing and difpofing of offices : for honours and
offices are in their nature convertible and fynonymous.
All offices under the crown carry in the eye of the
law an honour along with them ; becaufe they imply
Vol. V.
a fuperiority of parts and abilities, being fuppofed to Honour
be always filled with thofe that are molt able to exe- :
cute them. And, on the other hand, all honours in fTo0(^-
their original had duties or offices annexed to them :
an earl, cotnet, was the confervator or governor of a
county ; and a knight, miles, was bound to attend
the king in his wars. For the fame reafon therefore
that honours are in the difpofal of the king, offices
ought to be fo likewife ; and as the king may create
new titles, fo may he create new offices : but with this
reftriftion, that he cannot create new offices with
new fees annexed to them, nor annex new fees to
old offices ; for this would be a tax upon the fub-
je£t, which cannot be impofed but by aft of parlia¬
ment. Wherefore, in 13 Hen. IV. a new office be¬
ing created by the king’s letters patent for meafuring
cloths, with a new fee for the fame, the letters pa¬
tent were, on account of the new fee, revoked and
declared void in parliament.
Upon the fame, or a like reafon, the king has alfo
the prerogative of conferring privileges upon private
perfons. Such as granting place or precedence to
any of his fubjefts, as ffiall feem good to his royal
wifdom : or fuch as converting aliens, or perfons born
out of the king’s dominions, into denizens; whereby
fome very confiderable privileges of natural-born fub¬
jefts are conferred upon them. Such alfo is the pre¬
rogative of ertfting corporations ; whereby a number
of private perfons are united and knit together, and
enjoy many liberties, powers, and immunities in their
politic capacity, which they were utterly incapable
of in their natural.
Maids of Honour, are fix young ladies in the
houfehold of the queen and princefs-royal; the falary
of thofe of a queen are 3001. per ann. each, and thofe
of a princefs dowager of Wales, 2001.
Honour-Po/V?/, in heraldry, is that next above the
centre of the efcutcheon, dividing the upper part into
two equal portions.
Honourable, a title conferred on the younger
fons of earls, the fons of vifcounts and barons; as alfo
on fuch perfons as have the king’s commiffion, and
upon thofe who enjoy places of trull and honour.
HONOURARY, fomething done or conferred
upon any one, to do him honour. See the article
Honour.
Honourary is fometimes underftood of a perfon
who bears or poffeffes fome poll or title, only for the
name’s fake, without doing any thing of the funftions
belonging to it, or receiving any advantage from it:
thus we fay, honourary counfellors, honourary fel¬
lows, &c.
Honourary is alfo ufed for a lawyer’s fee, or a fa¬
lary given to public profeffors in any art or fcience.
HOOD (Robin), a famous outlaw'and deer-Healer,
who chiefly harboured in Sherwood forert in Notting-
bamlhire. He was a man of family, which by his
pedigree appears to have had fome title to the earl¬
dom of Huntingdon ; and played his pranks about
the latter end of the 12th century. He was famous
for archery, and for his treatment of all travellers who
.came in his way ; levying contributions on the rich,
and relieving the poor. Falling fick at laft, and re¬
quiring to be bled, he is faid to have been betrayed
and bled to death. He died in 1247 ; and was bu-
21 E ried
K 0 ° t 37’
Ilnnd r;ed at Kirklees in Yorkihire, then a Benecii&ine mo¬
ll naftery, where his graveftone is Itill fhewn.
—.. ttoon-IJland, one of the Marquesas IJlands in
the South Sea. It was difcovered in April 1774 by
captain Cook, who gave it that name from the perfon
who firft faw the land. It is the molt northerly of
the clufter, and lies in S. Lat. 9. 26. W. Long.
139- I3*
HOOF, the horny fubftance that covers the feet
of divers animals, as oxen, horfes, &c.
Hooy-bound, in Farriery. See there, 5 xlii.
HOOFT (Peter Cornelius Van), an eminent hi-
itorian and poet, born at Amfterdam in 1581. He
was lord of Muyden, judge of Goyland, and knight
of the order of St Michael. He died at the Hague
in 1647. He wrote, 1. An excellent hiftory of the
Netherlands, from the abdication of Charles V. to
the year 1588. 2. Several Comedies, and cither
works. By thefe he acquired fuch reputation, that
the Flemings coniidered him as the Homer and Ta¬
citus of the Netherlands.
HOOGUESTRATT£N, a town of the Nether¬
lands in Dutch Brabant, and capital of a county of
the fame name. E. Long. 4. 41. N. Lat. 51. 25.
HOOKE (Robert), a very eminent Englifh ma¬
thematician and philofopher, was the fon of Mr John
Hooke minifter of Frefhwater in the Ifle of Wight,
where he was born in 1635. He very early difcovered
a genius for mechanics, by making curious toys with
great art and dexterity. He was educated under Dr
Bufby in Weftminfter fchool; where he not only ac¬
quired a competent (hare of Greek and Latin, toge¬
ther with an infight into Hebrew and fome other
Oriental languages, but alfo made himfelf mafter of a
good part of Euclid’s elements. About the year 1653
he went to Chrift-church in Oxford, and in 1655 was
introduced to the Philofophical Society there ; where,
difcovering his mechanic genius, he was firft employed
to affift Dr Willis in his operations in chemiftry, and
afterwards recommended to the honourable Robert
Boyle, Efq ; whom he ferved feveral years in the fame
capacity. He was alfo inftrudled in aftronomy about
this time by Dr Seth Ward, Savilian profeffor of
that fcience; and from henceforward diftinguilhed
himfelf by many noble inventions and improvements
of the mechanic kind. He invented feveral aftrono-
mical inftruments, for making obfervatiens both at
fea and land ; and was particularly ferviceable to Mr
Boyle in completing the invention of the air-pump.
Sir John Cutler having founded a mechanic fchool in
1664, he fettled an annual (Upend on Mr Hooke for
life, intruding the prefident, council, and fellows, of
the Royal Society to direft him with refpeft to the
number and fubjeft of his leftures; and on the t ith
of January 1664-5, he was ele&ed by that fociety,
curator of experiments for life, with an additional fa-
lary. In 1666 he produced to the Royal Society a
model for rebuilding the city of London deftroyed by
fire, with which the fociety was well pleafed ; and
the lord mayor and aldermen preferred it to that of
the city furveyor, though it happened not to be car¬
ried into execution. It is faid, by one part of this mo¬
del of Mr Hooke’s, it was defigned to have all the
chief ftreets, as from Leaden-hall to Newgate, and
the like, to lie in exatt ftraight lines, and all the
0 ] H O O
other crofs-ftreets turning out of them at right angles. Hooks."
with all the churches, public buildings, markets, i
&c. in proper and convenient places'. The re¬
building of the city according to the aft of parlia¬
ment requiring an able perfon to fet out the ground
to the proprietors, Mr Hooke was appointed one of
the furveyors ; in which employment he got mod of
part of his eftate, as appeared pretty evident from a
large iron cheft of money found after his death, locked
down with a key in it, and a date of the time, which
(hewed it to have been fo (hut up above 30 years.—.
Mr Oldenburg, fecretary to the Royal Society, dying
in 1677, Hooke was appointed to fupply his
place, and began to take minutes at the meeting in
Oftober, but did not publiflr the Tranfaftions. In
the beginning of the year 1687, his’brother’s daugh¬
ter, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had lived with him fe¬
veral years, died ; and he was fo affefted with grief
at her death, that he hardly ever recovered it, but
was obferved from that time to become lefs aftive,
more melancholy, and, if that could be, more cynical
than ever. At the fame time, a chancery fuit in which
he was concerned with Sir John Cutler, on account
of his falary for reading the Cutlerian leftures, made
him very uneafy, and increafed his diforder. In 1691,
be was employed in forming the plan of the hofpital
near Hoxton, founded by Robert Atk alderman of
London, who appointed afchbifhop Tiilotfon one of
his executors; and in December the fame year, Hooke
was created doftor of Phyfic, by a warrant from that
prelate. In July 1696, the chancery fuit with Sir John
Cutler was determined in his favour, to his inexpref-
fible fatisfaftion. His joy on that occafion was found
in his diary thus expreffed ; do m s h l G i s s a : that
is, Deo, Optimo, ’Maximo, Jit honor, laus, gloria, in j
fa; c id a feculorum, Amen. “ I was born on this day
of July 1635, and God has given me a new birth :
may I never forget his mercies to me ! while he gives
me breath may I praife him!”—In the fame year
1696, an order was granted to him for repeating moft
of his experiments at the expence df the Royal So¬
ciety, upon a promife of his finifhing the accounts,
obfervations, and deduftions from them, and of per-
fefting the defeription of all the inftruments contrived
by him ; but his inertafing illnefs, and general decay,
rendered him unable to perform it. He continued
fome years in this wafting condition ; and thus lan-
guifhing till he was quite emaciated, he died March
3d, 1702, at his lodgings in Greftiam college, and
was buried in St Helen’s church, Bifhopfgate ftreet;
his corpfe being attended by all the members of the
Royal Society then in London.
As to the charadter of Mr Hooke, it is not in all
refpefts one of the moft amiable. He made but a
defpicable figure as to his perfon, being (hort of fta-
ture, very crooked, pale, lean, and of a meagre afpedf,
with dark brown hair, very long, and hanging over
his face uncut and lank. Suitable to his perfon, his
temper was penurious, melancholy, miftruftful: and,
though poffeffed of great philofophicnl -knowledge, he
had fo much ambition, that he would be thought tha
only man who could invent or difeover; and thus fre¬
quently laid claim to the inventions and difeoveries of
others, while he boafted of many of his own which
he never communicated. In the religious part of his
charafter
H O O [37
Hooker, chara&er lie was fo far exemplary, that he always ex-
~ prefled a great veneration for the Deity ; and feldotn
received any remarkable benefit in life, or made any
confiderable difcovery in nature, or invented any ufe-
ful contrivance, or found out any difficult problem,
without fetting down his acknowledgment to God, as
many places in his diary plainly (hew. He frequently
ftudied the facred writings in the original ; for he
was acquainted with the ancient languages, as well as
with all parts of the mathematics.—He wrote, 1. Lee-
tionet Cutleriancc. 2. Micrographia, or Defcriptions
of minute bodies made by magnifying glafies. 3. A
defcription of heliofcopes. 4. A defcription of fome
mechanical improvements of lamps and water-poizes,
quarto. 5. Philofophical colleftions. After his
death were publilhed, 6. Pofthumous works colledled
from his papers by Richard Waller fecretary to the
Royal Society.
HOOKER (John), alias Vowell, was born in
Exeter, about the year 1524, the fecond fon of Ro¬
bert Hooker, who in 1529 \fras mayor of that city.
He was inftruded in grammar learning by Dr More-
man, vicar of Menhinit in Cornwall, and thence re¬
moved to Oxford; but to what college is uncertain.
Having left the univerfity, he travelled to Germany,
and refided fome time at Cologne, where he kept ex-
ercifes in law, and probably graduated. Thence he
went to Strafburg, where he ftudied divinity under
the famous Peter Martyr. He now returned to Eng¬
land, and foon after vilited France, intending to pro¬
ceed to Spain and Italy; but was prevented by a de¬
claration of war. Returning therefore again to Eng¬
land, he fixed his refidence in his native city, where,
having married, he was in 1554 ele&ed chamberlain,
being the firft perfon who held that office, and in
15 71 reprefented his fellow-citizens in parliament.
He died in the year 1601, and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church at Exeter. He wrote, among other
works, i. Order and ufage of keeping of parliaments
in Ireland. 2. The events of comets or blazing ftars,
made upon the fight of the comet Pagonia, which
appeared in November and December 1577. 3- An
addition to the chronicles of Ireland from 1546 to
1568 ; in the fecond volume of Holinfhed’s chronicle.
4. A defcription of the city of Exeter, and of the
fondrie affaults given to the fame ; Holinlh. chron.
vol. iii. 5 A book of eufigns. 6. Tranflation of
the hiftory of the conqueft of Ireland from the Latin
of Giraldus Cambrenfis; in Holinfh. chron. vol. ii.
7. Synopjis chorographica, or an hiftorical record of
the province of Devon ; never printed.
Hooker (Richard), a learned divine, was born at
Heavy-tree, near Exeter, in the year 1553- Some
of his anceftors were mayors of that city, and he was
nephew to John Hooker the hiftorian. By this
uncle he was firft fupported at the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, with the addition of a fmall penfion from Dr
Jewel, bifhop of Salifbury, who in 1561 got him ad¬
mitted one of the clerks of Corpus-Chrifti college.
In 1573 he was ele&ed fcholar. In 1577 he took
the degree of mafter of arts, and was admitted fellow
the fame year. In July 1579, he was appointed de¬
puty profeflbr of the Hebrew language. In Oflober,
in the fame year, he was for fome trivial mifdemea-
nor expelled the college, but was immediately reftored.
ii ] H O O
In 1581 he took orders; and, being appointed to Hooker
preach at St Paul’s cr.ofs, became to London, where ll
he was unfortunately drawn into a marriage with 0°r'£l'‘
Joan Churchman, the termagant daughter of his hoftefs.
Having thus loft his fellowlhip, he continued in the
utmoft diftrefs till the year 1584, when he was pre-
fented by John Cheny, Efq. to the reftory of Dray¬
ton-Beaucham in Buckinghamfhire. In this retire¬
ment he was vifited by Mr Edwin Sandys, and Mr
George Cranmer, his former pupils. They found
him, with a Horace in his hand, tending fome ftieep
in the common field, his fervant having been ordered
home by his fweet Xantippe. They attended him to
his houfe ; but were foon deprived of his company by
an order, from his wife Joan, for him to come and
rock the cradle. Mr Sandys’s reprefentation to his
father, of his tutor’s fituation, procured him the maf-
terlhip of the Temple. In this fituation he met
with confiderable moleftation from one Travers,
lefturer of the Temple, and a bigoted Puritan, who
in the afternoon endeavoured to confute the doc¬
trine delivered in the morning. From this dif-
agreeable fituation he folicited archbilhop Whitgift
to remove him to fome country retirement, where he
might profecute his ftudies in tranquillity. Accord¬
ingly, in 15:91, he obtained the reftory of Bofcomb in
Wikfhire, together with a prebend in the church of
Salilbury, of which he was alfo made fub-dean. In
1594 he was prefented to the redtory of Bifhops-
bourne in Kent, where he died in the year 1600. He
was buried in his own parifti-church, where a monu¬
ment was erefted to his memory by William Cooper,
Efq. He was a meek, pious, and learned divine.
He wrote, 1. Ecclefiaftical politic, in eight books,
fob 2. A difcourfe of juftification, &c. with two
other fermons, Oxf. 1612, 410. Alfo feveral other
fermons printed with the Ecclefiaftical Politic.
Hooker, in naval architefture, a veflel much ufed
by the Dutch, built like a pink, but rigged and
mafted like a hoy.
Hookers will lie nearer a wind than veffels with
crofs-fails can do. They are from 50 to 200 tons
burthen, and with a few hands will fail to the Eaft
Indies.
HOOP, a piece of pliant wood, or iron, bent into
a circular form, commonly ufed for fecuring caiks, &c.
Driving a Hoop, a boyifti exercife, of good effeft
in rendering the limbs pliable, and for ftrengthening
the nerves.
HOOPER (John), biftiop of Worcefter, and a
martyr in the Proteftant caufe, was born in Somerfet-
(hire, and educated at Oxford, probably in Merton-
college. In 1518 he took the degree of bachelor of
arts, and afterwards became a Ciftercian monk; but
at length, diflikipg his fraternity, he returned to Ox¬
ford, and there became infetted with Lutheranifm. In
1539 he was made chaplain and houfe-fteward to Sir
John Arundel, who afterwards fnffered with the pro-
teftor in the reign of Edward VI. But that very ca¬
tholic knight, as Wood calls him, difcovering his chap¬
lain to be a heretic, Hooper was obliged to leave the
kingdom. After continuing fome time in France, he
returned to England, and lived with a gentleman
called Seintlo'w: but, being again difcovered, he
efcaped in the habit of a failor to Ireland; thence
21 E 2 em-
Hooper
HOP [ 3712 ] HOP
embarked for the continent) and fixed his abode in
Switzerland.
When king Edward came to the crown, Mr Hooper
returned once more to his native country. In 1550,
by his old patron Sir John Arundel’s intereft with
the earl of Warwick, he was confecrated bifhop of
Gloucefier; and in 1552 was nominated to the fee of
Worcefter, which he held in commendam with the
former. But queen Mary had fcarce afcended the
throne, before his lordfnip was imprifoned, tried, and,
not choofing to recant, condemned to the flames. He
fuffered this terrible death at Gloucefter, on the 9th
of February 1554, being then near 60 years of age.
He was an avowed enemy to the church of Rome,
and not perfectly reconciled to what he thought rem¬
nants of Popery in the church' of England. In the
former reign he had been one of Bonner’s accufers,
which fufficiently accounts for his being one of queen
Mary’s firft facrifices to the holy fee. He was a perfon
of good parts and learning, as may be found in Fox’s
Book of Martyrs.
Hooper (George), a very learned writer, bifhop of
Bath and Wells, was well {killed in mathematics, and
in the eaftern learning and languages. He fat in thofe
fees above 24 years, often refufed a feat in the privy
council, and could not be prevailed upon to accept
of the bifhopric of London on the death of bifhop
Compton. He wrote, 1. The church of England
free from the imputation of Popery. 2. A difcourfe
concerning Lent. 3. New danger of Prefbytery.
4. An inquiry into the ftate of the ancient meafures.
3. De Valentinianorum hareji conjeftura. 6. Several
fermons; and other works.
HOOPING cough. See (the Index fubjoinedto)
Medicine.
HOOPOE. See Upupa.
HOORNBECK (John), profeflbr of divinity in
the univerfities of Leyden and Utrecht, was born at
Haerlem in 1617. He underftood the Latin, He¬
brew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Rabbinical, Dutch, German,
Englifh, French, and Italian languages; and publifhed
many works, among which are, 1. A refutation of
Socinianifm, in 3 vols 410. 2. A treatife for the con-
vi&ion of the Jews. 3. Of the converfion of the
Heathens. 4. Theological inftitutions, &c. which
are written in Latin. Mr Bayle reprefents him as a
complete model of a good pallor and divinity profef-
for.
HOP, in botany. See Humulus.
New land is found to fucceed better with hops than
©Id ; and on this principle they are very cautious in
their plantations in Kent, and look forward for the
after-produce. When they make a new hop-ground,
they plant it with apple-trees at a large diftance afun-
der, and with cherry-trees between : by this means,
when the hops have grown ten years, which they judge
as much as they will do well, they place their account
in the cherry-trees, which bear large crops : thefe they
gather for about 30 years, and then they cut them
up, and depend upon their apple-trees only ; which
they find very large and flrong by that time.
The dry ftalks of hops fhould be burnt on the ground
in winter, covering them with a little frefh earth as
they burn. This makes together an excellent compoft,
to make the bills of. The land muft be dug or plow¬
ed well, and laid very even ; and then the places for
the hills marked out by a line, and a dick put in every
place where one is to be. A thoufand hills may be
made in an acre of ground, and fix or feven plants fet
on every hill. From fix to nine feet fhould be allow¬
ed between every hill, and1 the grounds in the hills
fhould be better and richer than the common earth.
Some plant hops in March and April, but the moft
experienced people prefer the month of October, be-
caufe they will then llrike firm roots, and be ftrong
and vigorous againll fpring. The largeft plants are to
be chofen ; and it is bed to procure them from fomc
rich ground, where the hills have been laid high ; they
{hould be about eight or ten inches long, and have
three or four joints or buds a-piece; the holes for
planting them are to be dug eight or ten inches deep,
and about a foot over; and in each of thefe holes four
plants are to be fet, one in each corner: they may
be covered an inch deep over the top, if planted in
OAober; but in fpring, when they have {hot from
the joints, then they muft not be buried: after this,
the ground muft be carefully kept clear of weeds.
DreJJing iy"Hops. This is preparing the ground in
winter and fpring for the making a good fummer-crop.
In doing this, the hills upon which the plants Hand
muft be all pulled down, and undermined on every
fide, till the fpade comes near the principal root; then
fhake off or remove with the hand the loofe mould
from the upper or loofe roots, that you may fee where
the new rots grow out of the old fets. ' The old fets
are to be carefully preferved, but the other roots may
be cut away. Whatever time the hills are pulled
down, the roots muft not be cut till March. When
the young hops are dreffed for the firft time, all the
roots are to be cut away that grew the year before,
and the fets are to be cut off within one inch of the
fame ; and every year after, they muft be cut as clofe
as may be to the old roots ; but to a weak hop, fome
of the {hoots are to be left at the drefling. Thofe
roots of the plant which grow downwards, are never
to be injured, but only thofe which run horizontally
are to be cut. The old roots and the young ones may
be eafily diftinguifhed, in that the old ones are always
red, and the young white. If there are by accident
any wild hops got among the reft, the places where
they grow are to be marked with flicks, or otherwife,
at the time of their being gathered ; and after this, at
the time of drefling the ground, that whole bill is to
be deftroyed, and a new one made with new plants in
the room of it. When the roots are cut and drefled,
the rich compoft is to be put to them ; and the hills
muft not be made too high at firft, left they hinder the
young {hoots.
Gathering and drying of Hops. Hops blow in the
latter end of July ; in the beginning of Auguft they
bell.; and they are fometimes ripe at the beginning of
September, fometimes later. When they begin to
change colour, are eafily pulled to pieces, and their
feeds look brown within them, they are ripe ; and they
are then to be gathered as quick as poflible, for the
leaft blaft of wind will hurt them at this time.
The manner of gathering hops, is to take down
four hills Handing together in the midft of the garden,
and to cut the roots even with the ground, then lay
the ground level; and when it is.fwept clean, it makes
H O R [ 37
Hop. a floor, on which the hops may be laid and picked.
f~ The hop-plants are firft unwound from the poles, and
then the people fit round and pick off the hops into
baflcets.
Care fliould be taken to dry the bops as faft as they
are picked, for in lying undried they are apt to heat
and change colour very quickly. If the quantity pick¬
ed be fo large, that the kiln in which they are to be
dried is over-fiocked, they muft be fpread thin upon
a floor, and they will keep two or three days in that
manner without any harm. Indeed, where the quan¬
tity is but fmall, there is no need to have recourfe to
the kiln at all; for they will dry much better than any
other way, by being laid thin upon a floor, and often
turned. The drying of hops is the moft material part
of (heir manufa&urej for if they be ill dried, they lofe
all their agreeable flavour; and great caution fhould
be ufed, that they be all equally dried.
Bagging c/TIops, a term ufed by the farmers, who
cultivate hops, for the laft thing they have to do with
them in order to bring them to market; that is, the
putting them up in large bags of coarfe cloth, for car¬
riage. When the hops have been picked and dried in
the ooft, or tin-floor, they are fo brittle that they
would break to pieces and be fpoiled if they were im¬
mediately to be put up ; they are therefore to lie to¬
gether three weeks, or thereabouts, that they may be¬
come tough : if they are covered from the air by blan¬
kets in the heap, they may be bagged much fooner
than if left open.
The manner of bagging them is this. A hole is
made in an upper-floor, fo large that a man may ea-
fily go up and down it; then a hoop is fitted to the
mouth of the bag, and fo firmly fewed on, that it can¬
not be torn off; the bag is then letdown through the
hole, and the hoop remaining above, flops it from be¬
ing pulled quite through, being larger than the hole:
a few hops are to be firft thrown into the bag, and a
perfon below is to take up a parcel of thefe in each
corner of the bag, tying it with a packthread ; this
makes a fort of taffel, by which the bags are after¬
wards the eafier managed and turned about. When
this is done, one man muft go down into the bag, and,
while another cafts in the hops, he muft tread them
down equally every way with his feet; when the bag
is in this manner filled, it is to be ripped from the
hoop, and fewed up, leaving two taffels at the cor¬
ners, as at the bottom. A bag of hops thus prepa¬
red, may be kept for feveral years in a dry place.
Ufes, &c. The tops of this plant, being of a cooling
quality, are eaten, when boiled, as an emollient. A decoc¬
tion of hop-flowers is alfoaccounted an antidote againft
poifon ; cures the itch, as well as the fyrup there¬
of; and is efleemed excellent in choleric and peftilen-
tial fevers. The heads and tendrils are good in the
fcurvy and moft cutaneous difeafes. Juleps and apo-
zems are alfo prepared with hops for hypochondriacal
and hyfterical affedtions, and to promote the menfes :
but the chief ufe of this plant confifts in preferving
beer and other malt-liquors (in which the flower of
this plant is a principal ingredient) from turning four,
and rendering it wholefome and grateful to the tafte,
&c.
Hops were introduced about 250 years ago, from
Slanders, and from that time have been affiduoufly
13 ] h o R
cultivated in this kingdom. The duties arifing from Hop
them are reckoned about 55,000!. per annum, for I! .
which reafon all public brewers are enjoined under a 1 orapo °;
fevere penalty to ufe no other bitter than hops.
The benefits derived from hops are fubjedl to great
uncertainty, no plant being more exp ofed to accidents;
and, independent of this, too great fertility is to the
induftrious owner fometimes as fatal as too flender a
crop. But thofe who have money, and of courfe are
able to wait for a market, avail themfelves of both.
The great hop-planter, if a man of ikill and fubftance,-
feldom fails of making, or rather earning a large
eftate. He is continually attentive to his grounds ;
and by that attention provides for the accurate culture
of them, at a fmall, or at lead a moderate expence.
In a common year, his profits are conliderable. In
a year of plenty, he lays by a ftock ; and when, in
the courfe of four or five years, crops in general fail,
his ftock fetches a large price, and he has a fure fale.
It hath been computed by thofe who are efteemed the
beft judges, that in an acre of hops, producing to the
value of 301. one moiety goes clear into the pocket of
the proprietor, and that the other moiety of it goes in
difcharge of the rent, tythe, and all other expences,
except the duty by excife, which is, however, drawn
back on exportation. The duties on hops imported
are fo high as to prevent their coming in, except in a
time of extreme fcarcity, when the brewery might be
otherwife injured ; and in many other refpefls provi-
fions have been made by law to render the proprietors-
of fo precarious a commodity as fafe as poffible.—The
deftroying hops while growing, hath been made felony
without benefit of clergy.
HOPKINS (Ezekiel), bifhop of Derry in Ireland,
was the fon of an obfcure clergyman in Devonftiire
and was for fome time a chorifter of Magdalen col¬
lege, Oxford, and uftier of the adjoining fchool. He
was afterwards a Prelbyterian minifter, and was ex¬
tolled as an excellent preacher. John, lord Roberts,
happening to hear him preach, was fo pleafed with
his perfon, his difcourfe, and his manner, that he re¬
tained him as his chaplain, when he was fent in quali¬
ty of lord lieutenant into Ireland, and preferred him to
the deanery of Raphoe ; and, on his being recalled, fo
ftrongly recommended him to his fucceffor, that he was
foon preferred to the bifliopric at Raphoe, whence he
was tranflated to Derry. During the war under the
earl of Tyrconnel, at the revolution, he withdrew in¬
to England ; and was chofen minifter of St Mary, AI-
dermanbury, in London, where he died in 1690. His
fermons, his expofition of the ten commandments, and
that of the Lord’s prayer, are much efteemed. His
works were printed together in 1710, folio. He was
the father of Mr Charles Hopkins, feveral of whofe
poetical pieces are in Dryden’s Mifcellanies.
HOR, a mountain, or mountainous tradl of Ara¬
bia Petrasa, fituated in that circuit which the Ifraelites
took to the fouth and fouth-eaft of Edom in their way
to the borders of Moab : on this mountain Aaron
died. The inhabitants were called/fbr/Ve/. Thistradl
was alfo called Seir, either from a native Horite, or
from Efau, by way of anticipation from his hairy
habit of body; whofe pofterity drove out the Horites.
HORAPOLLO, or Horus Apollo, a gram¬
marian of Panaplus in Egypt, according to Suidas,
who*
H O R [ 3714 ] H O R
Horatii who firft taught at Alexandria, and then at Conftan-
N tinople nnder the reign of Theodofius. There are ex-
or ' tant under his name, two books on the hieroglyphics
of the Egyptians ; which Aldus firft publiftied in
Greek in 1505, in folio; and they have often been
publilhed fince, with a Latin verfion and notes. It is
not certain, however, that the grammarian of Alexan¬
dria was the author of thefe books ; they being ra¬
ther thought to belong to another Horapollo of more
ancient date: on which head, fee Fabricius's Biblio¬
theca Graca.
HORATII, three Roman brothers, who, under
the reign of Tullus Hoftilius, fought againft the three
Curiatii, wlro bejonged to the Albanian army. Two
of the Horatii were firft killed; but the third, by his
addrefs, fucceffively flew the three Curiatii, and by
this victory rendered the city of Alba fubje& to the
Romans. See Rome.
HORATIUS, furnamed Cocks from his lofing an
eye in combat, was nephew to the conful Horatius
Pulviltus, and defeended from one of the three bro¬
thers who fought againft the Curiatii. Porfenna,
laying fiege to Rome, drove the Romans from Janieu-
lum; and purfuedthem to the wooden bridge over the
Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum. Largius,
Herminius, and Horatius Codes, fuftained the (hock
of the enemy on the bridge, and prevented their en¬
tering the city with the Romans; but Largius and
Herminius having pafied the bridge, Horatius Codes
was left alone, and repulfed the enemy till the bridge
was broken under him : he then threw himfelf armed
into the Tyber, fwam acrofs the river, and entered
Rome in triumph.
Horatius (Quintus Flaccus), the moft excellent
of the Latin Poets of the lyric and fatyrical kind, and
the moft judicious critic in the reign of Auguftus, was
the grandfon of a freedman, and was born at Venu-
lium, 64 B. C. He had the beft mafters in Rome,
after which he completed his education at Athens.
Having taken up arms, he embraced the party of Bru¬
tus and Caflius, but left his (hield at the battle of Phi¬
lippi. Some time after, he gave himfelf up entirely
to the ftudy of polite literature and poetry. His ta¬
lents foon made him known to Auguftus and Mecas-
nas, who had a particular efteem for him, and loaded
him with favours. Horace alfo contra&ed a ftridt
friendlhip with Agrippa, Pollio, Virgil, and all the
other great men of his time. He lived without ambi¬
tion, and led a tranquil and agreeable life with his
friends; but was fubjeft to a defluxion in his eyes.
He died at the age of 57. There are ftill extant his
Odes, Epiftles, Satires, and Art of Poetry; of which
there have been a great number of editions. The
beft are thofe of the Louvre, in 1642, folio; of Paris,
1691, quarto; of Cambridge, 1699; and that with
Bentley’s emendations, printed at Cambridge in 1711.
HORD, in geography, is ufed for a company of
wandering people, which have no fettled habitation,
but ftroll about, dwelling in waggons, or under tents,
to be ready to fliift as foon as the herbage, fruit, and
the prefect province, is eaten bare: fuch are feveral
tribes of the Tartars, particularly thofe who inhabit
beyond the Wolga, in the kingdom of Aftracan and
Bulgaria.
A hord confifts of 50 or 60 tents, ranged in a circle,
and leaving an open place in the middle. The inha- Hordeu
bitants in each hord ufually form a military company II
or troop, the eldeft whereof is commonly the cap- Honzon*
tain, and depends on the general or prince of the
whole nation.
HORDEUM, barley, in botany, a genus of the
triandria digynia clafs. The involucrum confifts of fix
leaves, and contains three flowers. There are eight fpe- -
cies; only one of which, viz. the murinum, or wall-
barley-grafs, is a native of Britain. The native place
of the vulgare, or common barley cultivated in our
fields, is not known. For the culture, &c. of common
barley, fee Agriculture, n°ix8,—122.
HORDICALIA, or Hordicidia, in antiquity, a
religious feaft held among the Romans, wherein they I
facrificed cattle big with young. This feaft fell on :
April 15. on which day they facrificed 30 cows with
calf to the goddefs Tellus or the Earth ; part of them
were facrificed in the temple of Jupiter. The calves 1
taken out of their bellies were burnt to alhes at firft by
the pontifices, afterwards by the eldeft of the veftal
virgins.
HOREB, or Oreb, a mountain of Arabia Petraea,
contiguous to and on the fouth fide of mount Sinai;
the feene of many miraculous appearances.
HOREHOUND, Ballota, or Stachys, in botany.
See Marrubium.
HORIZON, or Horison, in geography and aftro-
nomy, a great circle of the fphere, dividing the world
into two parts or hemifpheres; the one upper and
vifible, the other lower and hid. The word is pure
Greek, which literally fignifies “ bounding or
terminating the fightbeing formed of termi-
no, definio, “ I bound, I limit;” whence it is alfo
called7?»/V£>r, “ finifher.”
The horizon is either rational or fenftble.
Rational, true, or agronomical Horizon, which is
alfo called Amply and abfolutely the horizon, is a great
circle, whofe plane pafles thro’ the centre of the earth,
and whofe poles are the zenith and nadir. It divides
the fphere into two equal parts, or hemifpheres.
Senfible, vifible, or apparent Horizon, is a lefler circle
of the fphere, which divides the vifible part of the
fphere from the invifible. Its poles, too, are the ze¬
nith and nadir: and confequently the fenjible horizon is
parallel to the rational; and it is cut at right angles,
and into two equal parts, by the verticals.—The fen-
fible horizon is divided into eajlern and nveflern. The
eajlern or ortive horizon, is that part of the horizon
wherein the heavenly bodies rife. The ’wejlern or oc-
c/’r/aa/horizon, is that wherein the ftars fet. The al¬
titude or elevation of any point of the fphere, is an
arch of a vertical circle intercepted between it and
the fenfible horizon.
By fenfible horizon is alfo frequently meant a circle,
which determines the fegment of the furface of the
earth, over which the eye can reach ; called alfo the
phyfical horizon. In this fenfe we fay, a fpacious hori¬
zon, a narrow fcanty horizon.
HORIZONTAL, fomething that relates to the
horizon, is taken in the horizon, or on a level with
the horizon.—We fay, a horizontal plane, horizontal
line, &c.
Horizontal Dial, is that drawn on a parallel to
to the horizon; having its gnomon, or ftyle, elevated
ac-
H O R [ 37
'sjfBrizontal according to the altitude of the pole of the place it is
4 Horn defigned for. Horizontal dials are, of all others, the
| molt fimple and eafy. The manner of deferibing them,
fee under the article Dial.
Horizontal Line, in perfpeftive, is a right line
drawn through the principal point, parallel to the ho¬
rizon: or, it is the'interfedicn ^f the horizontal and
perfpeftive planes. See Perspective.
Horizontal Plane, is that which is parallel to the
horizon of the place, or nothing inclined thereto.
The bufmefs of levelling, is to find whether two
points be in the horizontal plane; or how much the
deviation is. See Levelling.
Horizontal Plane, in perfpe&ive, is a plane pa¬
rallel to the horizon, palling through the eye, and cut¬
ting the perfpeftive plane at right angles.
Horizontal Projeftion. See Geography, n° 16,
19-
Horizontal Rangst or L,evel Range, of a piece of
ordnance, is the line it deferibes, when direfted paral¬
lel to the horizon or horizontal line. See Gunnery,
paj/im.
Horizontal Mean. See Astronomy, n° 172.
HORMINUM, clary ; a genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There are feveral fpecies; the moll remark¬
able of which is the verbenaceum, or common wild
clary. It grows naturally on Tandy and gravelly ground
in many parts of Britain. It has fometimes been
called oculus Chrifti, from the fuppofed virtues of its
feeds in clearing the fight, which it does by its vifeous
covering; for when any thing happens to fall into the
eye, if one of the feeds is put in at one corner, and
the eyelid kept clofe over it, moving the feed gently
along the eye, whatever happens to be there will Hick
to it, and fo be brought out. The virtues of this are
fuppofed to be the fame as thofe of the garden clary,
but not quite fo powerful.
HORN, in phyfiology, a hard fubftance growing
on the heads of divers animals, particularly the cloven¬
footed quadrupeds; and fervingthem both as weapons
I of offence and defence.
The horn of animals is of the fame nature as their
gelatinous matter; and is only that matter charged with
a lefs quantity of water, and a larger quantity of earth,
and fufficiently condenfed to have a firm and folid con-
fiftence. By digefting horn with water in Papin’s di-
gefter, it may be entirely converted into jelly.
Horn is a perfe&ly animalifed matter, and furnilhes
in diftillation the fame principles as all animal-matters;
•that is, at firft a pure phlegm, with a degree of heat
not exceeding that of boiling water; then a volatile
alkaline fpirit, which becomes more and more pene¬
trating and ftrong; a fetid, light, and thin oil; a con¬
crete volatile fait, which forms ramifications upon the
fides of the receiver; much air; fetid oil, which be¬
comes more and more black and thick; and laftly, it
leaves in the retort a confiderable quantity of almoft
incombuftible coal, from which, after its incineration,
fcarcely any fixed alkali can be obtained.
Animal oil, and particularly that which is drawn firft
in the diftillation of horn, is fufceptible of acquiring
great thinnefs and volatility by repeated diftillations,
and is then called the oil of dippel.
The horns of flags, and of other animals of that
15 ] H O R
kind, are the moft proper to furnifh the animal oil to .Horn,
be rt&ified in the manner of dippel; becaufe they yield
the largeft quantity. Thefe horns alfo differ from the
horns of other animals in this, that they contain a lar¬
ger quantity of the fame kind of earth which is in
bones; hence they feem to poffefs an intermediate na¬
ture betwixt horns and bones.
Hart's-Horn. See HART’s-i&r«.
Harfs-Wok'a calcined to IVbitenefs. The phlcrgifton
of the coal of hart’s-horn, although very difficultly
combuftible, may neverthelefs be burnt with more cafe
than the coal of other horns, and with nearly the fame
facility as bones may. This coal, by being calcined
with a long-continued and ftrong fire, is changed into
a very white earth called barf s-horn calcined tonuhite-
nefs. This earth is employed in medicine as an ab-
forbent. It is given in dyfenteries and labour-pains
which are fuppoled to be caufed by acrid and ill-di-
gefted matters. Hart’s-.horn calcined to whitenefs and
levigated, is the bafis of Sydenham’s white deco&ion,
which is commonly preferibed in thefe difeafes.
Harfs-LioKH preparedpbilofopbically. This name is
given to hart’s-horn deprived by water of almoft all
its gelatinous part, fo that its becomes brittle; and
when its outer part is taken off, it is thus rendered
very white, and is applicable to the fame ufes as that
which is calcined by fire.
Dyeing of Horn—Black is performed by fteeping
brafs in aqua-fortis till it be returned green : with this
the horn is to be walhed once or twice, and then put
into a warmed decodlioh of logwood and water. Green
is begun by boiling it, &c. in alum-water; then with
verdigrife, ammoniac, and white-wine vinegar; keep¬
ing it hot therein till fuffioiently green. Red is be¬
gun by boiling it in alum-water, and finilhed by de-
codtion in a liquor compounded of quick-lime fteeped
in rain-water, drained, and to every pint an ounce of
Brazil-wood added. In this decodtion the bone, &c.
is to be boiled till fufficiently red.
Dr Lewis informs us that horns receive a deep black
ftain from folution of filver. It ought to be diluted
to fuch a degree as not fenfibly to corrode the fubjedl;
and applied two or three times, if neceffary, at confi¬
derable intervals, the matter being expofed as much as
poffibie to the fun, to haften the appearance and deep¬
ening of the colour.
Dyeing or fairing Horn to imtate Tor toife-fell.—
The horn to be dyed mull be firft preffed into proper
plates, feales, or other flat form; and the following mix¬
ture prepared. Take of quick-lime two parts, and of
litharge one part; temper them together to the con-
fiftence of a foft pafte with foap-ley. Put this pafte
over all the parts of the horn, except fuch as are pro¬
per to be left tranfparent, in order to give it a nearer
refemblance of the tortoife-lhell. The horn mull re¬
main in this manner covered with the pafte till it be
thoroughly dry; when, the pafte being brulhed off, the
horn will be found partly opaque and partly tranfpa¬
rent, in the fhann.er of tortoife-lhell ; and when p;it
over a foil, of the kind of latten called ajfulue, will be
fcarcely diftinguilhable from it. It requires fome de¬
gree of fancy and judgment to difpofe of the pafte in
fuch a manner as to form a variety of tranfparent parts,,
of different magnitudes and figures, to look like the
effect of nature: and it will be an improvement to add
femi—
H O R
Horn femi-tranfparent parts; which may be done by mixing
II whiting with fome of the pafte to weaken its opera-
Horneck. t;on jn part;cu]ar places; by which fpots of a reddifh
brown will be produced, which if properly interfper-
fed, efpecially on the edges of the dark parts, will
•greatly increafe both the beauty of the work, and its
fimilitude with the real tortoife-fhell.
Horn is alfo a fort of mufical inftrument of the
wind kind; chiefly ufed in hunting, to animate and
bring together the dogs and the hunters. The term
anciently was, nvitid a horn; all horns being in thofe
times compaffed: but fince ftraight horns are come in
falhion, they fay hlona a horn, and fometimes found a
There are various leffons on a horn ; as the re¬
cheat, double recheat, royal recheat, running or fare¬
well recheat, &c. See Recheat.
O/’C-Horn. See Terra aW Fuego.
HoRN-Z?erfOT, in botany. See Carpinus.
HoRN-i?/m/, is a black or-green indurated bole or
clay, confifting of fcaly particles, which are diftin-
guilhable from thofe of mica, by being lefs Ihining,
thicker, and re&angular. It is generally found amongft
iron ores, and fometimes intermixed with mica, form¬
ing a compaft ftone.
Human Horns. In Dr Charles Leigh’s natural
hiilory of Lancafliire, Chelhire, and the Peak in Der-
byfhire, is the print of a woman with two horns on
her head. When fhe was 28 Years of age an excre-
fcence grew upon her head like a wen, which conti¬
nued 30 years, and then grew into two horns. After
four years fhe caft them, and in their place grew two
others. After four years fhe caft thefe alfo ; and the
horns which were on her head in 1668 (the time when
the account was written) were then loofe. Her pic¬
ture and one of her horns are in Afhmole’s mufeum.
In the univerfity library at Edinburgh is preferved a
horn which was cut from the head of Elizabeth Love,
in the 50th year of her age. It grew three inches above
the ear, and was growing feven years.
H0rn-Fifh,' Gar fjb, or Sea-Needle. See Esox.
HoRN-IPor/f, in fortification, an outwork compofed
of two demi-baftions joined by a curtin. See Forti¬
fication.
HORNBY, a town of Lancafhire in England,
feated on a branch of the river Lune, and beautified
with a handfome parochial chapel. The ruins of a de¬
cayed caftle are ftill to be feen here. W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 54. 6.
HORN-castle, a town of Lincolnfhire in Eng¬
land. It had a caftle, as the name imports; from the
architefture of which, and the Roman coins that are
fometimes dug up here, it is thought to have been a
camp or ftation of the Romans. The town is well
built, and is almoft furrounded with water. W. Long,
o. 2. N. Lat. 31. 20.
HORNDON, a town in Effex, in England. It
ftands near a rivulet, jthat at a fmall diftance from
hence falls into the Thames, which is there called the
Hope. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 51. 20.
HORNECK (Dr Anthony), a learned and pious
divine, was born at Baccharach, in the Lower Pala¬
tinate, in 1641. He ftudied divinity under Dr Span-
heim at Heidelberg; and afterwards coming to Eng¬
land, completed his ftudies at Oxford, and became vi¬
car of Allhallows in that city. In 1665, he removed
H O R
into the family of the duke of Albemarle ; and was
tutor to his grace’s fon, then lord Torrington. The
duke prefented him to the re&ory of Doulton in De-
vonfhire, and procured for him a prebend in Exeter.
He was afterwards chofen preacher of the Savoy. In
1693, he was collated to a prebend in Weftminfter,
and the fame year admitted to a prebend in the ca¬
thedral of Wells. He publifhed, 1. The great law of
confideration. 2. The happy afcetick. 3. Delight
and judgment. 4. The fire of the altar. 5. The ex-
ercife of prayer. 6. The crucified Jefus. 7. Several
fermons, and other works. He died in 1696, and
was interred in Weftminfter abbey, where a monument
is erected tojhis memory.
HORNERS, thofe people whofe bufinefs if is to
prepare various utenfils of the horns of cattle. The
hornets were a very ancient and confiderable fraterni¬
ty in the city of London fome hundred years ago. In
the reign of Edward IT. they complained to parlia¬
ment, that by foreigners buying up the horns in Eng¬
land, they were in danger of being ruined, and this
bufinefs loft to the nation. For this reafon was made
the ftatute 6 Edw. IV. by which the fale of horns to
foreigners, (except fuch as the faid horners refufed),
was prohibited; and the wardens had power granted
them to fearch all the markets in London and 24 miles
round, and to infpeft Sturbridge and Ely fairs, to pre¬
vent fuch pra&ices. and to purchafe horns at ftated
prices. But on plaufible pretences this law was re¬
pealed in the reign of James I. and thereupon the old
evil revived. The horners again applied to parlia¬
ment, and king Edward’s ttatute was renewed (excep¬
ting as to the infpedtion of the fairs,) and ftill remains
in force. The importation of unwrought horns into
this country is alfo prohibited. In 1750, there were
exported to Holland 514,500 lantern-leaves, befides
powder-flalks. There was formerly a duty of 20 kil¬
lings a thoufand, under which in 1682 were exported
76,650 ; but in the reign of George I. this duty was
taken off, and thefe and all other manufa&ures made
of horns may be exported free. The prefent company
of horners were incorporated January 12th 1638; and
confift of a mafter, two wardens, and nine aftiftants,
without livery or hall. They have a warehoufe in
Spitalfields, to which the horns are fent as brought
from town and country markets, and thence regularly
divided, the widows and orphans of deceafed members
having equal fhares.
HORNET, in zoology, a very bold and venomous
infeft of the flying kind. It greatly refembles the
wafp ; only it is twice as large, and the head is of a
longer and flenderer ftiape, and the eyes formed fome-
what in the figure of a half moon. They build under
ground, and in winter hide themfelves in hollow trees.
They feed on flefh, and when very hungry will feize
upon a fmall bird. Mouffet relates, that they have
been feen fingly to purfue and kill a fparrow, and after¬
wards feed on its flefti.—Mr Evelyn informs us, that
they are very pernicious to trees, and will peel them
round to the very timber, as if they had been unbark¬
ed by cattle. They are deftroyed by flopping up their
entrances with tar or goofe-dung, or conveying the
fumes of brimftone into their cells.
HoRNET-i’Vj', in natural hiftory, a very large two¬
winged fly, which has the fhape and colours of the
hor-
[ 37l6 1
Horni
Hort
H O R [ 3717 ] H O R
,aHorning hornet, and is at firft fight fcarce to be diftinguifh-
t"'!l ed from it. The principal colour of the body of this
jJ Horfe. fly J8 yellow ; but it has two long and large black lines
placed tranfverfely upon it, and has a black corcelet
and a yellow head. Thefe lay, at a proper feafon, a
large number of oblong white eggs, which hatch into
large and long worms, whofe chief food is the Worms
and nymphs of the humble bees. The worm of this
fly is continually found in the nelts of thefe bees, where
it never meddles with the wax or honey, but preys on¬
ly upon the young offspring of the creature.
HORNING, in Scots law, a writing iffuing from
the fignet, in his majefty’s name, at the inftance of a
creditor againit his debtor, commanding him to pay
or perform within a certain time.
HORNSEY, a town in Yorkfhire, in England. It
is almoft furrounded by a fmall arm of the fea; and
the church having a high fteeplej is a noted fea-mark.
Not many years ago there was a ftreet here called Horn-
| 1 fey beck, which was wafhed away by the fea, except a
houfe or two. E. Long. o. 6. N. Lat. 54. o.
HOROLOGIUM, a general name for inftruments
to meafure the hours, as a watch, clock, dial, &c.
See Dial and Watch.
HOROSCOPE, in aftrology, is the degree of the
afcendant, or the ftar that rifes above the horizon at a
certain moment, which is obferved in order to predidt
fome future event, as the fuccefs of a defign, the fortune
of a perfon who was at that inftant born, &c.
HOROSCOPY. See Divination, n° 2.
HORROX (Jeremiah), an eminent Englifh aftro-
nomer in the 17th century, was born at Texteth near
Liverpool in Lancafhire in 1619. He died, to the
great lofs of that fcience and of the world, in the
23d year of his age, after he had juft finifhed his Ve¬
nus in foie vifa ; which, with fome other works, were
publifhed by Dr Wallis, in quarto.
HORROR, ttridUy fignifies fuch an excefs of fear
as makes a perfon tremble.—In medicine, it denotes
a fhivering and fhaking of the whole body, coming
by fits. It is common at the beginning of all fevers,
but is particularly remarkable in thofe of the inter¬
mittent kind. See (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HORSE, in zoology. Seethe article EqtJtJS.
Hunting-TAoKsv, a name given to a hoife qualified
to carry a perfon in the chafe. The Ihape of the
horfe defigned for this fervice' ftiould be ftrong, and
well knit together, as the jockeys exprefs it. Irregu¬
lar or unequal (hapes in thefe creatures ard always a
token of weaknefs. The inequalities in fhape, which
fo,or//w. fliew a horfe improper for the chace, are the having a
r^- large head and a fmall neck, a large leg and a fmall
foot, &c. The head of a hunting horfe indeed ftiould
always be large, but the neck ftiould alfo be thick
and ftrong to fupport it. The head ftiould be lean,
the noftrils wide, and the wind-pipe ftrait. In order
tb'his behaving well in the field, he ought to have
great care and indulgence in the liable ; to have as
much reft and quiet as may be; to be kept well fup-
plied with good meat, clean litter, and frelh water by
him ; he ftiould be often drefl'ed, and fuffered to deep
as much as he pleafes. He ftiould be fed in fuch a
manner as that his dung may be rather foft than hard,
and it mull be of a bright and clean colour. All this
Vol. V.
may be eafily managed by the continual obfervance Horfe.
and change of his food as occafion requires. After his ‘
ufual fcowerings, he ftiould have exercile, and malhes of
fweet malt; and bread and beans, or wheat and beans
mixed together, are to be his bell food, and beans and
oats his worft.
There is a general pra&ice among grooms, of gi¬
ving their hunting horfes wheat-ftraw, as foon as they
take them up from the grafs. They fay they do thi*
to take up their bellies ; but there feems to be much
reafon for difapproving fuch a pradlice. The change
is very violent, and the nature of the ftraw fo heating
and drying, that there feems great reafon to fear, that
the aftringent nature of it would be prejudicial more
than at firft is perceived. It is always found, that the
dung is hard after this food, and is voided with pain
and difficulty, whicli is in general very wrong for this
kind of horfes. It is better, therefore, to avoid this
ftraw-feeding; and to depend upon moderate airing,
warm clothing, good old hay, and old corn, than to
have recourfe to any thing of this kind.
It is a rule with all (launch fportfmen, that no horfe
ftiould be nfed in hunting till he is five years old. Some
tvill hunt them at four: but the horfe at this time is
not come up to his true ftrength and courage; and will
not only fail at any tough trials, but will be fubjeft to
drains and accidents of that kind, much more than if
he was kept for another year, when his ftrength would
be more confirmed.
Management of a Horse upon and after a Jour¬
ney. See that his (hoes be not too ftrait, or prefs his
feet, but be exa&ly lhaped; and let him be ftiod fome
days before you begin a journey, that they may be
fettled to his feet.
Obferve that he is furnifhed with a bitt proper for
him, and by no means too heavy, which may incline sportfm,
him to carry low, or to reft upon the hand when he DiR.
grows weary, which horfemen call making ufe of his
fifth leg.
The mouth of the bitt fhould reft upon his bars
about half a finger’s-breadth from his tulhes, fo as not
to make him frumble his lips; the curb fliould reft in
the hollow of his beard a little above the chin ; and if
it gall him, you mull defend the place with a piece cf
buff, or. other foft leather.
Take notice that the faddle do not reft upon his
withers, reins, or back-bone, and that one part of it
do not prefs'his back more than another.
Some riders gall a horfe’s fides below the faddle with
their flirrup-leathers, efpecially if he be lean ; to hin¬
der it, you fhould fix a leather-ftrap between the
points of the fore and hind-bows of the faddle, and
make the flirrup-leather pafs over them.
Begin your journey with fhort marches, efpecially
if your horfe has not been exercifed for a long time :
fuffer him to Hale as often as you find him inclined ;
and not only fo, but invite him to it: but do not ex¬
cite your mares to ftale, becaufe their vigour will be
thereby diminifhed.
It is advifable to ride very foftly, for a quarter or
half an hour before you arrive at the inn, that the
horfe not being too warm, nor out of breath, when
put into the liable, you may unbridle him : but if
your bufinefs obliges you to put on fharply, you muft
21 F then
H O R [37
Horfe. then (the weather being warm) let him be walked in
a man’s hand, that he may cool by degrees ; other-
wife, if it be very cold, let him be covered with cloths,
and walked up and down in fome place free from wind ;
but in cafe you have not the conveniency of a ihelter-
ed walk, ftable him forthwith, and let his whole body
be rubbed and dried with ft raw.
Although fome people will have their horfes legs
rubbed down with ftraw as foon as they are brought
into the ftable, thinking to fupple them by that
means ; yet it is one of the greateft errors that can be
committed, and produces no other effe&s than to draw
down into the legs thofe humours that are always ftir-
red up by the fatigue of the journey : not that the
rubbing of horfes legs is to be difallowed; on the con¬
trary, we highly approve of it, only would not have
it done at their firft arrival, but when they are per-
fe&ly cooled.
Being come to your inn, as foon as your horfe is
partly dried, and ceafes to beat in the flanks, let him
be unbridled, his bitt waftied, cleanfed, aud wiped,
and let him eat his hay at pleafure.
If your horfe be very dry, and you have not given him
water on the road, give him oats wafhed in good
mild ale.
The dull and fartd will fometimes fo dry the tongues
and mouths of horfes, that they lofe their appetites:
in fuch cafe, give them bran well moiftened with wa¬
ter to cool and refre/h their mouths; or wafti their
mouths and tongues with a wet fpunge, to oblige them
to eat.
The foregoing dire&ions are to be obferved after
moderate riding ; but if you have rid exceffively hard,
unfaddle your horfe, and fcrape off the fweat with a
fweating-knife, or fcraper, holding it with both
hands, and going always with the hair ; then rub his
head and ears with a large hair-cloth, wipe him alfo
between the fore-legs and hind-legs ; in the mean
while, his body (hould be rubbed all over with ftraw,
efpecially under his belly and beneath the faddle, till
he is thoroughly dry.
That done, fet on the faddle again, cover him ; and
if you have a warm place, let him be gently led up and
down in it, for a quarter of an hour; but if not, let
him dry where he ftands,
Or you may unfaddle him immediately ; fcrape off
the fweat; let the oftler take a little vinegar in his
mouth, and fquirt it into the horfe’s ; then rub his
head, between the fore and hind-legs, and his whole
body, till he is pretty dry: let him not drink till
thoroughly cool and has eaten a few oats ; for many,
by drinking too foon, have been fpoiled. Set the
faddle in the fun or by a fire, in order to dry the pan-
nels.
When horfes are arrived in an inn, a man ihould,
before they are unbridled, lift up their feet, to fee
whether they want any of their fhoes, or if thofe they
have do not reft upon their fides; afterwards he Ihould
pick and clear them of the earth and gravel, which may
be got betwixt their (hoes and foies.
If you water them abroad, upon their return from
the river, caufe their feet to be flopped with cow-
dung, which will eafe the pain therein; and if it be in
the evening, let the dung continue in their feet all
night, to keep them foft and in good condition: but
8 ] h o R
if your horfe have brittle feet, it will be requifite to HorfeJit
anoint the fore-feet, at the on-fetting of the hoofs, 'A
with butter, oil, or hog’s-greafe, before you water
him in the morning, and in dry weather they (hould be
alfo greafed at noon.
Many horfes, as foon as unbridled, inftead of eat¬
ing, lay themfelves down to reft, by reafon of the |
great pain they have in their feet, fo that a man is apt !
to think them Tick : but if he,looks to their eyes, he 1
will fee they are lively and good; and if he offers them
meat as they are lying, they will eat it very willingly;
yet if he handles their feet, he will find them extreme¬
ly hot, which difcovers their fuffering in that part.
You mull therefore fee if their ftioes do not reft upon I
their foies, which is fomewhat difficult to be certainly j
known, without unflioeing them ; but if you takeoff
their fhoes, then look to the infide of them, and you
may perceive that thofe parts which reft upon the
foies are more fmooth and fhining than the others:
in this cafe you are to pare their feet in thofe parts,
and fix on their fhoes again, anointing the hoofs, and
flopping the foies, with fcalding hot black pitch or j
tar.
After a long day’s journey, at night feel your j
horfe’s back, if he be pinched, galled, or fwelled, (if i
you do not immediately difcover it, perhaps you may
after fupper), there is nothing better than to mb it
with good brandy and the white of an egg. If the
galls are between the legs, ufe the fame remedy ; but
if the oftler rubs him well between the legs, he will fel-
dom be galled in that part.
In order to preferve horfes after travel, take thefe
few ufeful inftru&ions. When you are arrived from a
journey, immediately draw the two heel-nails of the
fore-feet; and, if it be a large fhoe, then four : two
or three days after, you may blood him in the neck,
and feed him for ten or twelve days only with wet
bran, without giving him any oats; but keep him
welllittered.
The reafon why you are to draw the heel-nails, is
becaufe the heels are apt to fwell, and if they are not
thus eafed, the fhoes would prefs and ftraiten them
too much : it is alfo advifable to flop them with cow-
dung for a while ; but do not take the ftioes off, nor
pare the feet, becaufe the humours are drawn down by
that means.
The following bath will be very ferviceable for pre-
ferving your horfe’s legs. Take the dung of a cow
or ox, and make it thin with vinegar, fo as to be of
the confidence of thick broth ; and having added a
handful of fmall fait, rub his fore-legs from the knees,
and the hind-legs from the gambrels, chafing them
well with and againft the hair, that the remedy may
fink in and flick to thofe parts, that they may be all
covered over with it. Thus leave the horfe till morn¬
ing, not wetting his legs, but giving him his water that
evening in a pail : next morning lead him to the ri¬
ver, or wafh his legs in well-water, which is very good,
and will keep them from fwelling,
Thofe perfons, who, to recover their horfes feet,
make a hole in them, which they fill with moiftened
cow-dung, and keep'it in their fore-feet during the
fpace of a month, do very ill; becaufe, though the
continual moifture that iffues from the dung occa-
fions the growing of the hoof, yet it dries and
fhrinks.
H O R
Horfe.
H O R [ 3719 ]
Ilorfe. fhrinks it fo exceffively when out of that place, that
it fplits and breaks like glafs, and the foot imme¬
diately ilraitens. For it is certain, that cow-dung
(contrary to the opinion of many people) fpoils a
horfe’s hoof: it does indeed moiiten the foie; but it drie§
up the hoof, which is of a different nature from it. In
order, therefore, to recover a horfe’s feet, inftead of
cow-dung, fill a hole with blue wet clay, and make
him keep his fore-feet in it for a month.
Mo ft horfes that are fatigued, or over-rid, and
made lean by long journeys, have their flanks altered
without being purfy, efpecialty vigorous horfes that
have worked too violently.
There is no better method to recover them, than to
give each of them in the morning half a pound of ho¬
ney very well mingled with fcalded bran ; and when
they readily eat the half pound, give them the next
time a whole one, and afterwards two pounds, every
day continuing this courfe till your horfes are empty,
and purge kindly with it; but as foon as you perceive
that their purging ceafes, forbear to give them any
more honey..
You may, adroinifter powder of liquorice in the
fcalded bran for a confiderable time; and to cool their
blood, it will not be improper to let them have three
or four glifters.
In cafe the horfe be very lean, it is expedient to
give him fome wet bran, over and above his propor¬
tion of oats; and grafs is alfo extraordinary beneficial;
if he be not purfy.
If it be a mare, put her to a horfe ; and if ihe never
had a foal before, it will enlarge her belly.
Sometimes exceffive feeding may do horfes more
harm than good, by rendering them fubjecft to the
farcy. You (hould therefore be cautious in giving
them too great a quantity at a time, and take a little
blood from them now and then.
When a horfe begins to drink it heartily, it is a cer¬
tain fign that he will recover in a (hort time. As to
the method of giving him water during a journey, ob-
ferve the following rules :
All the while you are upon a journey, let your horfe
drink of the firft good water you come to, after feven
o’clock in the morning if it be in fummer-time, and
after nine or ten in winter.
That is accounted good water, which is neither too
quick and piercing, nor too muddy and {linking.
This is to be done, unlefs you would have him
gallop a long time after drinking ; for if fo, you muft
forbear.
Though it is the cnftom of England to run and
gallop horfes after drinking, which we call 'watering-
courfesy to bring them (as they fay) into wind; yet, fays
M. de Solleyfel, it is the moft pernicious practice that
can be imagined far horfes, by which many are ren¬
dered purfy.
While a horfe is drinking, draw up his head five or
fix times, making him move a little between every
draught; and notwithftanding he be warm, and fweat
very much, yet if he is not quite out of breath, and
you have ftill four or five miles to ride, he will be bet¬
ter after drinking a little, than if he had drank none
at all : it is true, indeed, that if the horfe is very
warm, you {hould, at coming out of the water, redouble
your pace, to make him go at a gentle trot, to warm
the water in his belly.
You ought to let him drink after this manner du¬
ring the whole time of your journey : becaufe, if when
you happen to bait he be hot or fweaty, you muft
not let him drink for a long time, as it would en¬
danger his life; and when his bridle is taken off, his
exceffive thirft will hinder him from eating, fo that he
will not offer to touch his meat for an hour or two,
which perhaps your occafions will not allow you for
a baiting time, and not to have any food will render
him unfit for travel.
If you meet with any ford before you come to your
inn, ride the horfe through it two or three times, but
not up to his belly : this will not only cleanfe his legs;
but the coldnefs of the water will bind up the hu¬
mours, and prevent them from defcending.
If your horfe has been very warm, and you have
not had the conveniency of watering him upon the
road, he will, when unbridled, eat but very little;
therefore he {hould have his oats given him waftied in
ale or beer, or only fome of them, if you intend to feed
him again after he has drank.
Some are of opinion, that horfes are often fpoiled
by giving them oats before their water ; becaufe they
fay, the water makes the oats pafs too foon, and out
of the ftomach undigefted. But M. de Solleyfel af¬
firms, that though it be the common cuftom not to do
it till after, yet it is proper to feed with oats both
before and after, efpecially if the horfe be warm, and
has been hard rid; for they will be a great deal the bet¬
ter for it, and in no danger of becoming fick.
'HoK&K-CheJinut. See AJsculus.
HoRSE-Gztim/j-. See Guards.
Horse-Afzzyc/i?. See Muscle.
HoRSE-!?znfj/fr. See Cochlearia.
Horse-See Shoeing.
Horse-See Hippocrepis.
Animated Horse-i/a/rj-, a term ufed to exprefs s
fort of long and {lender water-worm of a blackifli co¬
lour, and fo much refembling a horfe-hair that it is
generally, by the vulgar, fuppofed to be the hair fallen
from a horfe’s mane into the water as he drinks, and
there animated by fome ftrange power. Dr Lifter has
at large confuted this opinion in the Phiiofophical
Tranfadions. See the article Setaceous Worms.
Breeding c^Horses. When the ftallion is chofen,
and all the mares intended for him are eolle&ed toge- Buffon's
ther, there muft: be another ftone-horfe, to difcover ^at'
which of the mares are in heat; and, at the fame time,
contribute to inflame them. All the mares are to be
brought fucceffively to this ftone-horfe ; which {hould
alfo be enflamed, and fuffered frequently to neigh. As
he is for leaping every one, fuch as are not in heat keep
him off, whilft thofe which are fo fuffer him to ap¬
proach them. But inftead of being allowed to fatisfy
his impulfe, he muft be led away, and the real ftallion
fubftituted in his ftead. This trial is neceffary for af-
certaining the true time of the mare’s heat, efpecially
of thofe which have not yet had a colt; for with re¬
gard to fuch as have recently foaled, the heat ufually
begins nine days after their delivery ; and on that very
day they may be led to the ftallion to be covered; and
nine days after, by the experiment abovementioned,
it may be known whether they are ftill in heat. If
they are, they muft be covered a fecond time; and
21 F 2 thus
Ilorfe.
H O R [ 3720 ] H O R
thus fucceffiveJy every ninth day while their heat con¬
tinues: for when they are impregnated, their heat a-
bates, and in a few days ceafes entirely.
But that every thing may be done eafily and con¬
veniently, and at the fame time with fuccefs and
advantage, great attention, expence and precaution
are requifite. The ftud muft be fixed in a good foil,
and in a fuitable place, proportioned to the number of
mares and ftallions intended to be ufed. This fpot
muft be divided into feveral parts, inclofed with rails
or ditches well fenced ; in the part where the pafture
is the richeft, the mares in fold, an*d thofe with colts
by their fides, are to be kept. Thofe which are not
impregnated, or have not yet been covered, are to be
feparated, and kept with the fillies in another clofei
where the pafture is lefs rich, that they may not grow
too fat, which would obftruft the progrefs of genera¬
tion. Laftly, the young ftone colts, or geldings, are
to be kept in the drieft part of the fields, and where
the ground is moft unequal; that by running over the
uneven furface, they may acquire a-freedom in the mo¬
tion of their legs and (boulders. This clofe, where the
ftone colts are kept, muft be very carefully Tepatated
from the others, left the young horfes break their
bounds, and enervate themfelves with the mares. If
the traft be fo large as to allow of dividing eiich of
thefe clofes into two parts, for putting oxen and horfes
into them alternately, the pafture vidll laft much lon¬
ger than if continually eaten by horfes; the ox impro¬
ving the fertility, whereas the horfe leffens it. In each
of thefe clofes ftiould be a pond; Handing water being
better than running, which often gripes them: and if
there are any trees in the ground, they thould be left
ftanding, their {hade being very agreeable to the horfes
in great heats; but all ftems or flumps fhould be grub¬
bed up, and all holes levelled, to prevent accidents. In
thefe pafturesyour horfes ftiould feed during the fum-
mer; but in the winter the mares flrould be kept in
the ftable and fed with hay. The colts alfo muft be
houfed, and never fuffered to feed abroad in winter,
except in very fine weather. Stallions that ftand in the
ftable ftiould be fed more with ftraw than hay ; and
moderately exercifed till covering time, which gene¬
rally lafts from the beginning of April to the end of
June. But during this feafon they ftiould have no o-
ther exercife, and be plentifully fed, but with the fame
food as ufual. Before the ftallion is brought to the
mare, he ftiould be dreffed, as that will greatly in-
creafe his ardour. The mare muft alfo be curried, and
have no ftioes on her hind feet, fome of them being
ticklifh, and will kick the ftallion. A perfon holds
the mare ’ y the halter, and two others lead the ftallion
by long reins; when he is in a proper fituation, ano¬
ther affiftant carefully directs the yard, pulling afide
the mare’s tail, as a fingle hair might hurt him dan-
geroufly. It fometimes happens that the ftallion does
not complete the work of generation, coming from the
mare without making any injeflion : it ftiould there¬
fore be attentively obferved, whether, in the laft mo¬
ments of the copulation, the dock of the ftallion’s tail
has a vibrating motion ; for fuch a motion always ac¬
companies the emiffion of the feminal lymph. If he
has performed the a&, he muft on no confideration be
fuffered to repeat it; but be led away dire&ly to the
ftable, and there kept two days. For, however able a
good ftallion may be of covering every day during the
three months, it is much better to let him be led to a
mare only every other day: his produce will be greater,
and he himfelf lefs exhaufted. During the firft feven
days, let four different mares be fucccffively brought to
him; and the ninth day let the firft be again brought,
and fo fucceffively while they continue in heat: but as
foon as the heat of any one is over, a frefti mare is to
be put in her place, and covered in her turn every nine
days; and as feveral retain even at the firft, fecond, or
third time, it is computed that a ftallion, by fuch ma¬
nagement, may, during the three months, cover 15 or
18 mares, and beget 10 or 12 colts. Thefe animals
have a'very large quantity of the feminal lymph; fo
that a confiderable portion of it is fhed during the
emiflion. In the mares likewife is an emiffion, or ra¬
ther diftillation of the feminal lymph, during the whole
time they are horfing; eje&ing a vifeid whitifh lymph,
called the heats, which ceafe on conception. This
ichor the Greeks called and pretended
that philtres might be made of it, ,pfre remarkable ef¬
fect of .which was, to render a horfe frantic with luft.
This hippomanes is very different from- that found in
the fecundines of the foal, which Mr Daubenton firft
difeovered, and has fo accurately deferibed-its nature,
origin, and .fituation. The ejection of this liquor is
the moft certain figti of the mare’s heat; but it is alfo
known by the inflation of the lower part of the vulva-,
by her frequent neighings, and attempts to get to the
horfes. After being covered, nothing more is requi-
fite than to lead her away to the field. The firft foal
of a mare is never fo ftrongly formed as the fucceed-
ing; fo that care ftiould be taken to procure for her,
the firft time, a larger ftallion, that the defedt of the
growth may be compenfated by the1 largenefs of the
lize. Particular regard (hould alfd be had to the dif¬
ference or congruity of the faftiion of the ftallion and
the mare, in order to correft the faults of the one by
the perfections of the other: efpecially never to make
any difproportionate copulations, as of a fmall horfe
with a large mare, or a large horfe with a fmail
mare; as the produce of fuch copulation would be
fmall, or badly proportioned. It is by gradations that
we muft endeavour to arrive at natural beauty: for
inftance, to give to a mare a little too clumfy, a well-
made horfe and finely (haped; to a fmall mare, a horfe
a little higher; to a mare which is faulty in her fore¬
hand, a horfe with an elegant head and noble cheft,
&c.
It has been obferved, that horfes fed in dry and light
grounds, produce temperate, fwift, and vigorous foals,
. with mufcular legs and a hard hoof; while the fame
bred in marfhes and ffioift paftures have produced
foals with a large heavy head, a thick carcafs, clumfy
legs, bad hoofs, and broad feet. Thefe differences pro¬
ceed from the air and food, which is eafily underftood;
but what is more difficult to be accounted for, and ftill
more effential than what we have hitherto obferved, is*
to be continually croffing the breed to prevent a dege¬
neracy.
In coupling of horfes, the colour and fize ftiould be
fuited to each other, the fhape contrafted, and the breed
croffed by an oppofition of climates : but borfes and
mares foaled in the fame ftud fhould never be joined.
Thefe are effential articles; but there are others which
{hould
H O R
Horfe. (hould by no means be negle&ed: as that no fhort-
docked mares be fuffered in a fttid, becaufe from their
being unable to keep off the flies, they are much more
tormented by them than others which have a long fweep-
ingtail; and their continual agitations from the flings
of thefe infedls-, occafions a diminution in the quantity
of their milk, and has a great influence on the conflitu-
tion and fize of the colt, which will be vigorous in pro¬
portion as its dam is a good nurfe. Care mull alfo be
taken, that the (lud mares be fuch as have been always
brought up in paflures, and never over-worked. Mares
which have always been brought up in the liable on
dry food, and afterwards turned to grafs, do not breed
at firfl: feme time is required for accultoming them to
this new aliment.
Though the ufnal feafon for the heat of mares be
from the beginning of April to the end of June, yet
it is not-uncommon to find fome among a large num¬
ber, that are in heat before that time: but it is ad-
vifable to let this heat pafs over without giving them
todhe flallion, becaufe they would foal in winter; and
the colts, befides the inclemency of the feafon, would'
have bad milk for their nourifhment. Again, if
the mares are not in heat till after the end of June,
they fhould not be covered that feafon; becaufe the colts
being foaled in fummer, have not time for acquiring
llrength fufficient to repel the injuries of the following
winter.
Many, inflead of bringing the flallion to the mare,
turn him loofe1 into the clofe, where all the mares are
brought together; and there leave him tp choofe fuch
as will Hand to him. This is a very advantageous me¬
thod for the mares: they will always take horfe more
certainly than in the other ; but the flallion, in fix
weeks, will do himfelf, more damage than in feveral
years by moderate exercife, conduced in the manner
we have already mentioned:
When the mares are pregnant, and their belly be¬
gins to fwell, they mufl be fcparated from thofe that
are not, left they hurt them. They ufually go 11 months
and fome days; and foal Handing, whereas moft other
quadrupeds lie down. Thofe that cannot foal without
great difficulty, muft be affifted; the foal muft be placed
H O R
in a proper fituation; and fometimes, if dead, drawn Horfe.
out with cords. The head of the colt ufually prefents
itfelf fir ft, as in all other animals: at its coming out of
the matrix, it breaks the fecundines or integuments
that inclofe it, which is accompanied with a great flux
of the lymph contained in them ; and at the fame time
one or more folid lumps are difcharged, formed by the
fediment of the infpiffated liquor of the allantoides.
This lump, which the ancients called the hippomenes of
the colt, is fo far from being, as they imagined, a mafa
of flefh adhering to the head of the colt, that it is fc-
parated from it by a membrane called amnios. As
foon as the colt is fallen, the mare licks it, but with¬
out touching the hippomenes; which points out ano¬
ther error of the ancients, who affirmed that fhe in-
ftantly devours it.
The general cuftom is, to have a mare covered nine
days after her foaling, that no time may be loft; but
it is certain, that the mare having, by this means, both
her prefent and future foal to nourifh, her ability is
divided, and fhe cannot fupply both fo largely as fhe
might one only. It would therefore be better, in order
to have excellent horfes, to let the mares be covered
only every other year; they would lafl the longer, and
bring foals more certainly: for, in common finds, it is
fo far from being true that all mares which have been
covered bring colts; every year, that it is confidered
as a fortunate circumflance if half or at moft two
thirds of them foal.
Mares, when pregnant, will admit of copulation;
but it is never attended with any fuperfcetation. They
ufually breed till they are 14 or 15 years of age; and
the moft vigorous till they are above 18. Stallions,
when well managed, will engender till the age of 20,
and even beyond ; but it mull be-obferved, that fuch
horfes as are fooneft made ftallions, are alfo the fooneft
incapable of generation: thus the large horfes, which
acquire llrength fooner than the {lender, and are there¬
fore often ufed as ftallions as foon as they are four
years old, are incapable of generation before they are
fixteen.
Gelding of Horses. See Gelding.
Rearing of Horses. See Colt.
[ 3721 1
HORSEMANSHIP;
Or, The Art of Riding, and of Training and Managing Horses.
Sect. I. Thz method of preparing horfes to be
mounted.
Hough all horfes are generally bought at an age
when they have already been backed, they fhould
be begun and prepared for the rider with the fame care,
gentlenefs and caution, as if they had never been handled
or backed, in order to prevent accidents, which might
elfe arife from fkittifhnefs or other caufes : and as it is
proper that they fhould be taught the figure of the
ground they are to go upon when they are at firft
mounted, they fhould be previoufly trotted in a longe
on circles, without any pne upon them.
The manner of doing this is as follows: Put an eafy
tavejfon upon the horfe’s nofe, and make him go for¬
wards round you, {landing quiet and holding the
longe; and let another man, if you find it neceflary, ^r
follow him with a whip. All this muft be done very
gently, and but a little at a time : for more horfes are Dir idiom,
fpoiled by overmuch work, than by any other treat¬
ment whatever ; and that by very contrary effedls ;
for fometimes it drives them into vice, madnefg, and
defpair, and often flrpifies and totally difpirits them.
The firft obedience required in a horfe is going for¬
wards : till he perform this duty freely, never even
think of making him rein back, which would inevi¬
tably make him reftive : as foon as he goes forwards
readily, flop and carefs him. You muft remember in
this, and likewife in every other exercife, to ufe him
to go equally well to the right and left ; and when he
obeys, carefs him and difmifs him immediately. If a
horfe, that is very young, takfes fright and Hands ftill,
lead
3722 H O R S E M
Breaking of lead on another horfe before him, which probably will
horfes- induce him inftantly to follow. Put a fnaffle in his
mouth ; and when he goes freely, faddle him, girting
him at firft very loofe. Let the cord, which you
hold, be long and loofe ; but not fo much fo as to
endanger the horfe’s entangling his legs in it. It muft
be obferved, that fmall circles, in the beginning, would
conftrain the horfe too much, and put him upon de¬
fending himfelf. No bend muft be required at firft :
never fuffer him to gallop falfe; but whenever he at¬
tempts it, flop him without delay, and then fet him
off afrefh. If he gallops of his own accord, and true,
permit him.to continue it; but if he does it not volun¬
tarily, do not demand it of him at firtt. Should he
fly and jump, fliake the cord gently upon his nofe
without jerking it, and he will fall into his trot again.
If he ftands ftill, plunges or rears, let the man who
holds the whip make a noife with it; but never touch
him, till it be abfolutely neceffary to make him go on.
When you change hands, ftop and carefs him, and en¬
tice him by fair means to come up to you : for by pre-
fenting yourfelf, as fome do, on a fudden before hor-
fes, and frightening them to the other fide, you run
a great riflt of giving them a (hynefs. If he keeps his
head too low, fhake the cavejfon to make him raife it:
and in whatever the horfe does, whether he walks,
trots, or gallops, let it be a conftant rule, that the
motion be determined and really fuch as is intended,
without the leaft fhuffling, pacing, or any other irre¬
gular gait.
Sect. II. The method of placing the rider and
rendering him firm on horfeback, •with fome oc-
cafional inftrnSlions for riders and the horfes.
It is necefl'ary that the greateft attention, and the
fame gentlenefs that is ufed in teaching the horfes,
be obferved likewife in teaching the rider, efpecially
at the beginning. Every method and art muft be
pra&ifed to create and preferve, both in man and
horfe, all poffible feeling and fenfibility ; contrary to
theufage of moft riding-mafters, whofeem induftrioufly
to labour at abolifhing thefe principles both in one
and the other. As fo many effential points depend
upon the manner in which a man is at firft placed on
horfeback, it ought to be confidered and attended to
with the ftri&eft care and exaftnefs.
The abfurdity of putting a man, who perhaps has
never before been upon a horfe, on a rough trotting
horfe, on which he is obliged to ftick with all the
force of his arms and legs, is too obvious to need men¬
tioning. This rough work, all at once, is plainly as
detrimental at firft, as it is excellent afterwards in pro¬
per time. No man can be either well or firmly feated
on horfeback, unlefs he be mafter of the balance of
his body, quite unconftrained, with a full poffeffion
of himfelf, and at his eafe : none of which requifites
can he enjoy, if his attention be otherwife engaged ;
as it muft wholely be in a raw, uiifuppled, and un¬
prepared lad, who is put at once upon a rough horfe:
in fuch a diftrefsful ftate, he is forced to keep himfelf
on at any rate, by holding to the bridle (at the ex¬
pence of the fenfibility both of his own hand and the
horfe’s mouth), and by clinging with his legs, in
danger of his life, and to the certain depravation of a
right feeling in the horfe.
A N S H I P. Sed. II
The firft time a man is put on horfeback, it ought Of pla<
to be upon a very gentle one. He never fhould be the rit
made to trot, till he is quite eafy in the walk ; nor 1 IT
allop, till he is able to trot properly. The fame muft
e obferved in regard to horfes : they ftiould never be .
made to trot till they are obedient, and their mouths
are well formed on a walk ; nor be made to gallop,
till the fame be effected on a trot. When he is ar- j
rived at fuch a degree of firmnefs in his feat, the more ! i
he trots, and the more he rides rough horfes, the bet¬
ter. This is not only the belt method, but alfo the
eafieft and the ftiorteft: by it a man is foon made fuffi- •]
ciently an horfeman for a foldier: but by the other
deteftable methods that are commonly ufed, a man,
inftead of improving, contracts all forts of bad habits, 1
and rides worfe and worfe every day; the horfe too
becomes, daily more and more unfit for ufe. In pro¬
ceeding according to the manner propofed, a man is J
rendered firm and eafy upon the horfe, both his own •
and the horfe’s fenfibility is preferved, and each in a
fituation fit to receive and praCtife all leffons effec¬
tually.
Among the various methods that are ufed of pla-
ing people on horfeback, few are dire&ed by reafon. j
Before you let the man mount, teach him to know, j
and always to examine, if the curb be well placed,
(that is, when the horfe has a bit in his mouth, which
at firft he fhould not ; but only a fnaffle, till the rider
is firm in his feat, and the horfe alfo fome what taught):
likewife to know if the nofe-band be properly tight; the 5'
throat-band loofifh ; and the mouth-piece neither too :
high nor too low in the horfe’s mouth, but rightly
put fo as not to wrinkle the fkin nor to hang lax ;
the girts drawn moderately, but not too tight ; and
the crupper and the breaft-plate properly adjufted. :
A very good and careful hand may venture on a bit at
firft, and fucceed with it full as well as by beginning
with a fnaffle alone : on colts, indeed, it is better, in ;
all fchools whatfoever, to avoid any preffure on the
bars juft at firft, which a curb, though ever fo deli¬
cately ufed, muft in fome degree occafion. When
the bridle, <bc. have been well looked to, let the man ;
approach the horfe gently near the fhoulder; then
taking the reins and an handful of the mane in his left :
hand, let him put his foot foftly in the left-ftirrup, by
pulling it towards him, left he touch the horfe with
his toe ; then raifing himfelf up, let him reft a moment .
on it with his body upright, but not ftiff; and after that, j
paffing his right leg clear over the faddle without rub- j
bing againft any thing, let him feat himfelf gently
down. He muft be cautious not to take- the reins too
fhort, foffearof making the horferear, run, or fall back, I
or throw up his head; but let him hold them of an
equal length, neither tight nor flack, and with the little
finger betwixt them. It is fit that horfes ftiould be
accuftomed to ftand ftill to be mounted, and not to ftir 4
till the rider pleafes. All foldiers fhould be inftruc-
ted to mount and difmount equally well on both fides,
which may be of great ufe in times of hurry and
confufion. Then place the man in his faddle, with
his body rather back, and his head held up with eafe,
without ftiffnefs ; feated neither forwards, nor very
backwards; with the bread pulhed out a little, and
the lower part of the body likewife a little forwards;
the thighs and legs turned in without conilraint,
Sea. II. H O R S E M
if placing and the feet in a ftraight line, neither turned in nor
the rider. out> gy. tjjjs pOf,ti0nj the natural weight of the
thighs has a proper and fufficient preffure of itfelf, and
I - the legs are in readinefs to adt when called upon :
they muft hang down eafy and naturally; and be fo
placed, as not to be wriggling about, touching and
tickling the horfe’s fides, but always near them in cafe
they fliould be wanted, as well as the heels.
The body muft-be carefully kept eafy and firm, and
without any rocking when in motion ; which is a
bad habit very eafily contra&ed, efpecially in gallop¬
ing. The left elbow muft be gently leant againft the
body, a little forwards: unlefs it be fo refted, the
hand cannot be Ready, but will always be checking,
and confequently have pernicious effedfs on the horfe’s
mouth. And the hand ought to be of eqnal height
with the elbow; if it were lower, it would conftrain
and confine the motion of the horfe’s fhoulders : but,
as the mouths of horfes are different, the place of the
hand alfo muft occafionally differ : a leaning, low,
heavy fore-hand requires a high hand ; and a horfe
that pokes out his nofe, a low one. The right-hand
arm muft be placed in fymmetry with the left; only
let the right hand be a little forwarder or backwarder,
higher or lower, as ocdafions may require, in order
that both hands may be free : both arms muft be a
little bent at the elbow, to prevent ftiffnefs.
A foldier’s right hand fhould be kept unemployed
in riding ; it carries the fword, which is a fufficient
bufinefs for it.
There remains one farther obfervation, that ought
not to be omitted, about the hand, that it muft be
kept clear of the body ; i. e. about two inches and a
half forwards from it, with the nails turned oppofite
to the belly, and the wrift a little rounded with eafe;
a pofition not lefs graceful than ready for flackening,
tightening, and moving the reins from one fide to the
other, as may be found neceffary.
When the men are well placed, the more rough
trotting they have without ftirrups, the better; but
with a ftridt care always, that their pofition be pre-
ferved very exadlly. In all cafes, great care muft be
taken to hinder their clinging with their legs: in fhort,
no flicking by hands or legs is ever to be allowed of
at any time. If the motion of the horfe be too rough,
flacken it, till the rider grows by degrees more firm.:
and when he is quite firm and eafy on his horfe in
every kind of motion, ftirrups may be given him; but
he muft never leave off trotting often without any.
The ftirrups muft be neither fhort nor long; but of
fuch a length,, that when the rider, being well placed,
puts his feet into them, (about one third of the length
of each foot from the point of it,) the points may be
between two and three inches higher than the heels.
The rider muft not bear upon his ftirrups, but only
let the natural weight of his legs reft on them : For
if he bear upon them, he would be raifed above and
out of hrs faddle; which fhould never be, except in
charging fword in hand, with the body inclined for¬
wards at the very inftant of attacking. Spurs may
be given, as foon as the rider is grown familiar with
ftirrups; or even long before, if his legs are well
placed.
A hand fhould always be firm, but delicate : a
horfe’s mouth fhou'd never be furprifed by any fudden
A N S H I P. 3723
tranfition of it, either from flack to tight, or from InftrufHoni
tight to flack. Every thing in horfemanfhip muft be
effected by degrees, but at the fame time with fpirit anj horfe.
and refolution. That hand which, by giving and -
taking properly, gains its point with the lead force,
is the beft; and the horfe’s mouth, under this fame
hand’s dire&ions, will alfo confequently be the beft,
fuppofing equal advantages in both from nature. This
principle of gentlenefs fhould be obferved upon all occa-
fions in every branch of horfemanfhip. Sometimes the
right hand may be neceffary, upon fome troublefome
horfes, to aflift the left: but the feldomer this is done,
the better; efpecially in a foldier, who has a fword
to carry, and to make ufe of.
The fnaffle muft on all occafions be uppermoft ;
that is to fay, the reins of it muft be above thofe of
the bridle, whether the fnaffie or the bit be ufed fe-
parately, or whether they be both ufed together.
When the rider knows enough, and the horfe is fuffi-
ciently prepared and fettled to begin any work to¬
wards fuppling, one rein muft be fhortened according
to the fide worked to ; but it muft never be fo much,
fhortened, as to make the whole ftrengthreft on that
rein alone: for, not to mention that the work would
be falfe and bad, one fide of the horfe’s mouth would
by that means be always deadened ; whereas, on the
contrary, it fhould always be kept frefh by its own
play, and by the help of the oppofite rein’s adling
delicately in a fomewhat fmaller degree of tenfion ;
the joint effeft of which produces in a horfe’s mouth
the proper, gentle, and eafy degree of appui or bear¬
ing.
A coward and a madman make alike bad riders,
and are both alike difeovered and confounded by the
fuperior fenfe of the creature they are mounted upon,
who is equally fpoilt by both,-though in very different
ways. The coward, by fuffering the animal to have
his own way, not only confirms him in his bad habits,
but creates new ones in him : and the madman, by
falfe and violent motions and correflions, drives the
horfe, through defpair, into every bad and vicious trick
that rage can fuggeft.
It is very requifite in horfemanfhip, that the hand
and legs fliould a<S in correfpondence with each other
in every thing; the latter always fubfervient and af-
fiftant to the former. Upon circles, in walking, trot¬
ting, or galloping, the outward leg is the only one to
be ufed, and that only for a moment at a time, in order
to fet off the horfe true, or put him right if he be falfe;
and as foon as that is done, it muft be taken away
again immediately : but if the horfe be lazy, or other-
wife retains himfelf, both kgs muft be ufed, and preffed
to his fides at the fame time together. The kfs the
legs are ufed in general, the better. Very delicate
good riders, with horfes they have dreffed themfelves,
will fcarcely ever want their help. By the term out¬
ward is underftood the fide which is more remote from
the centre; and by inward is meant the fide next to
the centre. In reining back, the rider fhould be care¬
ful not to ufe his kgs, unkfs the horfe backeth on his
fhoulders ; in which cafe they muft be both applied
gently at the fame time, and correfpond with the hand.
If the horfe refufe to back at all, the rider’s legs muft
be gently approached, till the horfe lifts up a kg, as
if to go forwards; at which time, when that leg is in
3724 H O R S E M
luftniflions the air, the rein of the fame fide with that leg which
is lifted up, will eafily bring that fame leg backwards,
and horfe. an<^ accordingly oblige the horfe to back; but if the
 horfe offers to rear, the legs muft be inftantly removed
away. The inward rein mull be tighter on circles, fo
that the horfe may bend and look inwards; and the out¬
ward one croffed over a little towards it; and both held
in the left hand.
Let the man and horfe begin on very flow motions,
that they may have time to underhand and refledt on
what is taught them; and in proportion as the effects
of the reins are better comprehended, and the manner
of working becomes more familiar, the quicknefs of
motion mufl be inereafed. Every rider mult learn to
feel, without the help of the eye, when a horfe goes
falfe, and remedy the fault accordingly; this is an in¬
telligence, which nothing but practice, application, and
attention, can give, in the beginning on flow motions.
A horfe may not only gallop falfe, but alfo trot and
walk falfe. If a horfe gallops falfe, that is to fay, if
going to the right he leads with the left leg, or if
going to the left he leads with the right; or in cafe
he is difunited, e. if he leads with the oppofite leg
behind to that which he leads with before; flop him
immediately, and put him off again properly. The me¬
thod of effecting this, is by approaching your outward
leg, and putting your hand outwards; ftill keeping
the inward rein the fliorter, and the horfe’s head in¬
wards, if poflible: and if he fliould ftill refift, then
bend and pull his head outwards alfo; but replace
it again, bent properly inwards, the moment he goes
off true. A horfe is faid to be difunited to the right,
when going to the right, and confequently leading with
the right leg before, he leads with the left behind;
and is faid to be difunited to the left, when going to
the left, and confequently leading with the left leg
before, he leads with the right behind. A horfe may
at the fame time be both falfe and difunited; in cor-
re&ing both which faults, the fame method muft be
tifed- He is both falfe and difunited to the right,
when in going to the right he leads with the left leg
before, and the right behind ; notwithftanding that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the left, becaufe the horfe is working to the
right: And he is falfe and difunited to the left, when
in going to the left he leads with the right leg before,
and the left behind; notwithftanding, as above, that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the right, becaufe the horfe is working to
the left.
In teaching men a right feat on horfeback, the
greateft attention muft be given to prevent ftiffnefs,
and fticking by force in any manner upon any occa-
fion: ftiffnefs difgraces every right work; and ftick¬
ing ferves only to throw a man (when difplaced) a
great diftance from his horfe by the fpring he muft go
off with: whereas, by a proper equilibrating pofition
of the body, and by the natural weight only of the
thighs, he cannot but be firm and fecure in his feat.
As the men become more firm, and the horfes more
fupple, it is proper to make the circles lefs; but not too
much fo, for fear of throwing the horfes forwards upon
their fhoulders.
Some horfes, when firft the bit is put into their
mouths, if great care be not taken, will put their heads
A N S H I P. Sea. IE
very low. With fuch horfes, raife your right hand Of ruplig
with the Iridoon in it, and play at the fame time with tlorly
the bit in the left hand, giving and taking.
On circles, the rider muft lean his body inwards; |
unlefs great attention be given to make him do it, he €
will be perpetually lofing his feat outwards. It is
fcarce poflible for him to be difplaced, if he leans his I
body properly inwards.
Sect. III. The method of fuppling horfes with I
men upon them, by the Epaule en dedans, <&c. §
■with and ■without a longe, on circles and on
Jlraight lines.
When a horfe is well prepared and fettled in all I
his motions, and the rider firm, it will be proper then |
to proceed on towards a farther fuppling and teaching
of both.
In fetting out upon this new work, begin by bring- ;|
ing the horfe’s head a little more inwards than before,
pulling the inward rein gently to you by degrees. I
When this is done, try to gain a little on the flioul-
ders, by keeping the inward rein the (horter, as be- I
fore, and the outward one croffed over towards the I
inward one. The intention of thefe operations is
this: The inward rein ferves to bring in the head, and |
procures the bend; whilft the outward one, that is a
little croffed, tends to make that bend perpendicular,
and as it (hould be, that is to fay, to reduce the nofe
and the forehead to be in a perpendicular line with •}
each other: it alfo ferves, if put forwards, as well as
alfo croffed, to put the horfe forwards, if found necef-
fary; which is often requifite, many horfes being apt
in this and other works rather to lofe their ground
backwards than otherwife, when they fliould rather I
advance: if the nofe were drawn in towards the breaft
beyond the perpendicular, it would confine the motion
of the ftioulders, and have other bad effe&s. All other
bends, befides what are above fpecified, are falfe. The
outward rein, being croffed, not in a forward fenfe,
but rather a little backwards, ferves alfo to prevent
the outward ftioulder from getting too forwards, and
makes it approach the inward one; which faiilitates I
the inward leg’s crofling over the outward one, which
is the motion that fo admirably fupples the (boulders.
Care muft be taken, that the inward leg pafs over the I
outward one, without touching it; this inward leg’s
crofling over muft be helped alfo by the inward rein, |
which you muft crofs towards and over the outward
rein every time the outward leg comes to the ground, I
in order to lift and help the inward leg over it: at
any other time, but juft when the outward leg comes J
to the ground, it would be wrong to crofs the inward f
rein, or to attempt to lift up the inward leg by it;
nay, it would be demanding an abfolute impoflibility, I
and lugging about the reins and horfe to no purpofe:
becaufe in this cafe, a very great part of the' horfe’s
weight refting then upon that leg, would render fuch
an attempt not only fruitlefs, but alfo prejudicial to
the fenfibility of the mouth, and probably oblige him
to defend himfelf; and moreover, it would put the
horfe under a needfity of ftraddling before, and alfo of
leading with the wrong leg, without being produflive
of any fuppling motion whatfoever.
When the horfe is thus far familiarly accuftomed to
what you have required of him, then proceed to effeft
by
■ Sea. III. H O R S E M
§ DircfHons by degrees the fame crofiing in his hinder legs. By
|imT'hories ’n t^ie fore-legs more, you will of courfe en-
T Ragc the hinder ones in the fame work: if they refift,
the rider muft bring both reins more inwards; and, if
necelfary, put back alfo, and approach his inward leg
to the horfe; and if the horfe throws out his croup too
far, the rider muft bring both reins outwards, and, if
abfolutely neceflary, he rauft alfo make ufe of his out¬
ward leg, in order to replace the horfe properly: ob-
ferving that the croup fliould always be conliderably
behind the ihoulders, which in all actions muft go firft ;
and, the moment that the horfe'obeys, the rider muft
put his hand and leg again in their tifual pofition.
Nothing is more ungraceful in itfelf, more detrimen¬
tal to a man’s feat, or more dcftruftive of the fenfibi-
lity of a borfe’s- fides, than a continual wriggling un-
fettlednefs in a horfeman’s legs, which prevents the
horfe from ever going a moment together true, fteady,
or determined.
A horfe fliould never be turned, without firft moving
a ftep forwards: and when it is doing, the rider muft
not lift his elbow, and difplace himfelf; a motion only
of the hand from the one fide to the other being fuffi-
cient for that purpofe. It muft alfo be a conftant rule,
nev^ to fuffer a horfe to be flopped, mounted or dif-
mounted, but when he is well placed. The flower the
motions are when a man or horfe is taught any thing,
the better.
At firft, the figures worked upon muft be great,
and afterwards made lefs by degrees, according to the
improvement which the man and horfe make; and the
cadenced pace alfo, which they work in, muft be ac¬
cordingly augmented. The changes from one fide to
the other, muft be in a bold determined trot, and at
firft quite ftraight forwards, without demanding any
fide-mOtion on two- pijles, which is very neceffary to
require afterwards when the horfe is fufnciently
fuppled. By twois meant, when the fore-parts
and-hinder parts do not follow but defcrlbes two dif¬
ferent lines.
• In the beginning, a lenge is ufeful on circles, and
alfo On ftraight lines, to help both the rider and the
horfe; but afterwards; when they are grown more in¬
telligent, they ftiould go alone. At the end of the
leffbn, rein back ; then pin the bcrffe, by a little at a
time, forwards, bj approaching both legs gently to
bis fides, and playing with the bridle*: if he rears, pufli
-him out immediately into a full trot. Shaking the ca-
veffon on the horfe’s nofe, and alfo putting one’s felf
before him and rather near to him, will generally make
him back, though he otherwife refufe to do it: and
moreover a flight ufe and approaching of the rider’s
legs, will fometimes be neceflary in backing, in order
to prevent the horfe from doing it too much upon his
fhonlders; but the preflhre of the legs ought to be very
final], and taken quite away the moment that he puts
himfelf enough upon his haunches. If the horfe does
not'back upon a ftraight line properly, the Hder mtift
■not be permitted to bav? recourfe imm'ediatdy to his
leg; and fd diftort himfelf by it; bitf'fir-ft4ry, if Cmfling
over his hand and reins to which ever fide maybe ive-
ceffary, will riot be afdnC fufficient; which moft fre-
'quently it will; if r.of^ then-employ the leg.1
After a horfe is well prepared and fettled, and goes
freely on in-all hrs feVeVal paces; he Ought to be in'all
Vol. V.
A N S H I P. 3725
his works kept, to a proper degree, upon his haunches, Of head ta
with his hinder legs well placed under him; whereby ^ie wa^'
he will be always pleafant to himfelf and his rider, will   
be light in hand, and ready to execute whatever may
be demanded of him, with facility, vigour, and quick-
nefs.
The common method that is ufed, of forcing a horfe
fidewifc, is a mod glaring abfurdity, and very hurtful
to the animal in its confequences; for inftead of fup-
pling him, it obliges him to ftiffen and defend himfelf,
and often makes a creature, that is naturally benevo¬
lent, reftive, frightened, and vicious.
Forhorfes, who have very long and high fore-hands,
and who poke out their nofes, a running'fnafBe is of
excellent ufe ; but for fuch as bore and keep their
heads low, a common one is preferable ; though any
horfe’s head indeed may be kept up alfo with a run¬
ning one, by the rider’s keeping his hands very high
and forwards: but whenever either is ufed alone with¬
out a bridle upon borfes that carry their heads low
and that bore, it muft be fawed about from one fide to
the other.
This leflbn of the epsul en dedans, (hould be taught
to fuch people as are likely to become ufeful in help¬
ing to teach men and to break horfes; and the more
of fuch that can be found, the better: none others fliould
ever be fuffered upon any occafion to let their horfes
look any way befides the way they are going. But all
horfes whatever, as likewife all men, who are defigned
for the teaching others, muft go thoroughly and per-
fedily through this excellent leflbn, under the dire&ions
of intelligent inftni&ors, and often praftife it too af¬
terwards; and, when that is done, proceed to and be
finiftied by the leflbns of head and tail to the wall.
Sect. IV. Of the head to the wall, and of the
croup to the wall.
This leflon fliould be praftifed immediately after
that of the epaule en dedans, in order to place the horfe
properly the way he goes, &e. The difference1 between
the head to the wall, and the croup to the wall, con-
fifts in this: in the former, the fore-parts are more re¬
mote from the centre, and go over more ground ; in
the latter, the hinder-parts are more remote from the
centre, and confequently go over more ground: in both,
as likewife in all other leflons, the ftioulders muft go
firft. In riding-houfes, the head ta the wall is the ea-
fier lefibn of the two at firft, the line to be worked up¬
on being marked by the w^all, not far from his head.
The motion of the legs to the right, is the fame as
that of the epaule en dedans to theleft, and fo vicxverfa;
but the head is always bent and turned differently: in
the cpaule en dedans, the horfe looks the contrary, way
to that which he goes; in this, he looks the w-ay he is
going.
In the beginning, very little bend muft be required;
too much at once would aftonifh the horfe, and make
him defend himfelf: it is to.be augmented by degrees.
If the horfe ribfolutely refufes to obey, ft is a-ft cm that
either he or his rider has not been fufficiently prepared
by previous leffons. It may happen, that weaknefs or
a hurt in fome ’part of the body, or fometimes temper,
though feldotn, may ;be the caufc of the horfe’s de¬
fending hirrifelfi It is the rider’s bufinefs to find out
21 G from
3726 H O R S E M
the from whence the obftacle arifes; and if he finds it to
^ be from the firft mentioned caufe, the previous leflbns
mult be refumed again for fome time; if from the fe-
cond, proper remedies mult be applied ; and if from
the laft caufe, when all fair means that can be tried
have failed, proper correftions with coolnefs and judg¬
ment mull be ufed.
In pra6tifing this leflbn to the right, bend the horfe
to the right with the right rein ; helping the left leg
over the right (at the time when the right leg is juli
come to the ground), with the left rein crolfed to¬
wards the right, and keeping the right Ihoulder back
with the right rein towards your body, in order to
facilitate the left leg’s crofling over the right; and fo
iikewife vice verfa to the left, each rein helping the
other by their properly mixed effedls. In working to
the right, the rider’s left leg helps the hinder-parts on
to the right, and his right leg Hops them if they get
too forwards; and fo vice verfa to the left: but nei¬
ther ought to be ufed, till the hand being employed
in a proper manner has failed, or finds that a greater
force is neceflary to bring about what is required than
it can effeft alone: for the legs Ihoiild not only be cor-
refponding with, but alfo fubfervient to the hand; and
all unnecelTary aids, as well as all force, ought always
to be avoided as much as poflible.
In the execution of all leflbns, the equilibre of the
rider’s body is of great ufe to the horfe : it ought al¬
ways to go with and accompany every motion of the
animal; when to the right, to the right; and when to
the left, to the left.
Upon all horfes, in every leflbn and a&ion, it mull
be obferved, that there is no horfe but has his own
peculiar appui or degree of bearing, and alfo a fenli-
bility of mouth, as likewife a rate of his own, which
it is abfolutely neceflary for the rider to difcover and
make himfelf acquainted with. A bad rider always
takes off at leaft the delicacy of both, if not abfolutely
deftroys it. The horfe will inform his rider when he
has got his proper bearing in the mouth, by playing
pleafantly and fteadily with his bit, and by the fpray
about his chaps. A delicate and good hand will not
only always preferve a light appui, or bearing, in its
fenfibility; but alfo of a heavy one, whether naturally
fo or acquired, make a light one. The lighter this
appui can be made, the better; provided that the
rider’s hand correfponds with it ; if it does not, the
the more the horfe is properly prepared, fo much the
worfe. Inllances of this inconvenience of the belt of
appuis, when the rider is not equally taught with the
horfe, may be feen every day in fome gentlemen, who
try to get their horfes bitted as they call it, without
being fuitably prepared tbemfeives for riding them:
the confequence of which is, that they ride in danger
of breaking their necks ; till at length, after much
hauling about, and by the joint infenfibility and igno¬
rance of themfelves and their grooms, the poor animals
gradually become mere fenfelefs unfeeling pods; and
thereby grow, what they call, fettled- When the
proper appui is found, and made of courfe as light as
poflible, it mull not be kept duly fixed without any
variation, but be played with; otherwife one equally-
continued tenfion of reins would render both the rider’s
hand and the horfe’s mouth very dull. The flighteft
and frequent giving and taking, is therefore neceflary
A N S H I P. Sed. V;
to keep both perfect. To rntJIn
Whatever pace or degree of quicknefs you work in,llorfes
(be it ever fo fall, or ever fo flow,) it mull be ca- ^ie’
denced ; time is as neceflary for an horfeman as for a IT
mnfician.
This leflbn of the head and of the tail to the wall,
mud be taught every foldier: fcarce any manoeuvre can
be well performed without it. In,doling and opening ||
of files, it is almoll every moment wanted.
Sect. V. The method of making horfes Jland |
Jirey noifety alarmsy fights, &c.
In order to make horfes fland fire, the found of
drums, and all forts of different noifes, you mud ufe |]
them to it by degrees in the dable at feeding-time ; J
and inllead of being frightened at it, they will foot! |
come to like it as a fignal for eating.
With regard to fuch horfes as are afraid of burning i
objects, begin by keeping them dill at a certain di- ?
dance from fome lighted draw: carets,the horfe; and
in proportion as his fright diminilhes, approach gra- |
dually the burning draw very gently, and increafe the I
fizeofit. By this means he will very quickly be brought |j
to be fo familiar with it, as to walk undaunted even i
through it. ; •
As to horfes that are apt to lie down in the water,
if animating them, and attacking them vigoroufly,
fliould fail of the defired effed, then break a llraw-
bottle full of water upon their heads, and let the water
run into their ears, which is a thing they apprehend |
very much.
All troop-horfes mud be taught to fland quiet and
dill when they are Ihot off from, to flop the moment
you prefent, and not to move after firing till they are
required to do it; this leflbn ought efpecially to be
obferved in light troops: in (hort, the horfes mud be
taught to be fo qool and undiflurbed, as to fuifer the
rider to ad upon him with the fame freedom as if he ]
was on foot. Patience, coolnefs, and temper, are the
only means requifite for accompliflting this end. Be- J
gin by walking the horfe gently, then flop and keep
him from dirring for fome time, fo as to accuflom j,
him by degrees not to have the lead idea of moving
without orders: if he does, then back him; and
when you dop him, and he is quite dill, leave the reins ;!
quite loofe.
To ufe a horfe to fire-arms, firfl put a piflol or a
carabine in the manger with his feed ; then ufe him |
to the found of the lock and the pan ; after which,
when you are upon him, (hew the piece to him, pre-
fenting it forwards, fometimes on one fide, fometimea |
on the other: when he is thus far reconciled, proceed
to flalh in the pan ; after which, put a fmall charge
into the piece, and fo continue augmenting it by de- j
grees to the quantity which is commonly ufed: if he
feems uneafy, walk him forward a few Aeps flowly;
and then, flop, back, and carefs him. Horfes are
often alfo difquieted and undeady at the clalh, and
drawing, and returning of fwords; all which they mud
be familiarized to by little and little, by frequency and
gentlenefs.
It is very expedient for all cavalry in general, but
particularly for light cavalry, that their horfes fhould
be very ready and expert in leaping over ditches, hedges,
gates, &c. The leaps, of whatever fort they are, which
the
Sea. VI. H O R S E M
Of reining the horfeS arc brought to in the beginning, ought to
back, &c. be very fmall ot/es; the riders muft keep their bodies
r* _ back, raife their hands a little in order to help the
fore-parts of the horfe up, and be very attentive to
their equilibre. It is bell to begin at a low bar co¬
vered with furze, which pricking the horfe’s legs, if
he does not raife himfelf fufficiently, prevents his con¬
tracting a fluggilh and dangerous habit' of touching, •
as he goes over, which any thing yielding and not
pricking would give him a cullom of doing. Let the
ditches you firft bring horfes to be narrow ; and in
this, as in everything elfe, let the increafe be made by
degrees. Accuftom them to come up to every thing
■which they are to leap over, and to (land coolly at it
for fome time; and then to raife themfelves gently up
in order to form to themfelves an idea of the diftance.
When they leap well Handing, then ufe them to walk
enlly up to the leap, and to go over it without firft
alting at it ; and after that praftice is familiar to
them, repeat the like in a gentle trot, and fo by de¬
grees fafterand falter, till at length it is as familiar to
them to leap flying on a full gallop as any other way:
all which is to be acquired with with great facility by
calm and foft means, without any hurry.
As horfes are naturally apt to be frightened at the
fight and fmell of dead horles, it is advifable to habi¬
tuate them to walk over and leap over carcafes of
dead horfes: and as they are particularly terrified at
this fight, the greater gentlenefs ought confequently to
be ufed.
Horfes fhould alfo be accuftomed to fwim, which
often may be neceflary upon fervice; and if the men
and horfes both are not ufed to it, both may be fre¬
quently liable to perifh in the water. A very fmall
portion of ftrength is fufficient to guide a horfe, any¬
where indeed, but particularly in the water, where they
mull be permitted to have their heads, and be no-ways
conftrained in any Ihape.
The unreafonable rage in Britain of cutting off all
extremities from horfes, is in all cafes a very pernicious
cuftom. It is particularly fo in regard to a troop-horfe’s
tail. It is almoft incredible, how much they fuffer at
the picket for want of it: conftantly fretting, and
fweating, kicking about and laming one another, tor¬
mented, and ftung off their meat, miferable, and help-
lefs; whilft other horfes, with their tails on, brulh off
all flies, are cool and at their eafe, and mend daily;
whilft the docked ones grow every hour more and more
out of condition.
Sect. VI. The method of reining back,—and of
moving forwards immediately after ;—of piaf-
ing,—of pillars, &c.
Never finifh your work by reining back with hor¬
fes that have any difpofition towards retaining them¬
felves ; but always move them forwards, and a little
upon the haunches alfo, after it, before you difmount,
(unlefs they retain themfelves very much indeed, in
which cafe nothing at all muft be demanded from the
haunches). This leffon of reining back, and piafing,
is excellent to conclude with, and puts an horfe well
and properly on the haunches : It may be done, ac¬
cording as horfes are more or lefs fuppled, either go¬
ing forwards, backing, or in the fame place : if it is
done well advancing, or at moft on the fame fpot, it
A N S H I P. 3727
is full fufficient for a foldier’a horfe: For to piafe in Of curing
backing, is rather too much to be expe&ed in the «ftivenefs,
hurry which cannot but attend fuch numbers both oi   
men and horfes as muft be taught together in regi¬
ments. This leffon muft never be attempted at all,
till horfes are very well fuppled, and fomewhat ac¬
cuftomed to be put together ; otherwife it will have
very bad confequences, and create reftivenefs. If they
refufe to back, and (land motionlefs, the rider’s legs
muft be approached with the greateft gentlenefs to the
horfe’s fidts ; at the fame time that the hand is afting
on the reins to folicit the horfe’s backing. This fel-
dom fails of procuring the defined effedl, by raifing
one of the horfe’s fore-legs, which being in the air,
has no weight upon it, and is confequently very eafily
brought backwards by a fmall degree of tenfion in the
reins. When this leffon is well performed, it is very
noble and ufeful, and has a pleafing air; it is an ex¬
cellent one to begin teaching fcholars with.
The leffon is particularly ferviceable in the pillars,
for placing fcholars well at firft. Very few regimental
riding-houfes have pillars, and it is fortunate they
have not : for though, when properly made ufe of
with fkill, they are one of the greateft and beft difeo-
veries in horfemanfhip; they muft be allowed to be
very dangerous and pernicious,, when they are not un¬
der the dire&ion of a very knowing perfon.
Sect. VII. The method of curing rejiivenejfes,
vices, defences, farting, &c.
Whenever a horfe makes refiftance, one ought,
before remedy or corre&ion is thought of, to examine
very minutely all the tackle about him, if any thing
hurts or tickles him, whether he has any natural or
accidental weaknefs, or in ftiort any the lead impedi-
ment in any part. For want of this precaution,
many fatal difafters happen: the poor dumb animal
is frequently accufed falfely of being reftive and viti-
ous; is ufed ill without reafon ; and, being forced into
defpair, is in a manner obliged to aft accordingly, be
his temper and inclination ever fo well difpofed. It
is very feldom the cafe, that a horfe is really and by
nature vitious; but if fuch be found, he will defpife
all careffes, and then chaftifements become neceffary.
Correftion, according as you ufe it, throws a horfe
into more or lefs violent aftion, which, if he be weak,
he cannot fupport: but a vitious ftrong horfe is to be
confidered in a very different light, being able both
to undergo and confequently to profit by all leffons;
and is far preferable to the beft-natured weak one
upon earth. Patience and attention are never failing
means to reclaim fuch a horfe : in whatfoever manner
he defends himfelf, bring him back frequently with
gentlenefs (not however without having given him
proper chaftifement if neceffary) to the leffon which
he feems moft averfe to. Horfes are by degrees
made obedient, through the hope of recompenfe and
the fear of puniftiment: howto mix thefe two motives
judicioufly together, is a very difficult matter; it re¬
quires much thought and praftice; and not only a
good head, but a good heart likewife. The cooleft
and beft-natured rider will always fucceed beft. By
a dexterous ufe of the incitements above mentioned,
you will gradually bring the horfe to temper and obe¬
dience; mere force, and want of fkill and coolnefs,
21 G 2 would
3728 H O R S E M
Of tearing, would only tend to eonSrm him in bad tricks. If he
^anmg, jje Jmpatient or choleric, never ftrike him, unlefs he
  abfolutely refufe to go forwards ; which you muft re-
folutely oblige him to do, anti which will be of itfelf
a corrc&ion, by preventing his having time to medi¬
tate and put in execution any defence by retaining
himfelf. Refiftance in horfes, you muft confider, is
fometimes a mark of ftrength and vigour, and pro¬
ceeds from fpirits, as well as fometimes from vice and
weaknefs. Weaknefs frequently drives horfes into
vitioufnefs, when any thing wherein, ftrength is necef-
faryis demanded from them ; nay, it inevitably muft
great care therefore (hould always be taken to diftin-
guifh from which of thefe two caufes any remedy or
punidiment is thought of. It may fometimes be a
bad fign when horfes do not at all defend themfelves,
and proceed from a fluggifh difpofition, a want of
fpirit and of a proper fenfibility. Whenever one is
fo fortunate as to meet with a horfc of juft the right
fpirit, aftivity, delicacy of feeling, with ftrength and
good-nature, he cannot be cherilhed too much ; for
fuch a one is a rare and ineftimable jewel, and, ifproper-
ly treated, will in a manner do every thing of himfelf.
Horfes are oftener fpoilt by having too much done to
them, and by attempts to drefs them in too great an
hurry, than by any other treatment.
If after a ho?fe has been well fuppled, and there
are no impediments, either natural, or accidental, if
he ftill perftfts to defend himfelf, chaftifements then
become neceftary: 'but whenever this is the cafe,- they
muft not be frequent, but always firm, though always
as little violent as poffible ; for they are both dange¬
rous and very prejudicial when frequently or flightly
played with, and ftill more fo when ufed too vio¬
lently.
It is impoflible, in general, to be too ctrcumfpeft
in leflbns of all kinds, in aids, chaftifements, or ca-
refles. Some have quicker parts, and more cunningj
than others. Many will imperceptibly gain a little
every day on their rider. Various, in (hort, are their
difpofitions and capacities. It is the rider’s bufinefs
to find out their different qualities, and.to make them
fenfible how much he I6ves them, and defires to be
loved by them ; but at the fame time that he does
pot fear them, and will be mafter.
Plunging is a very common defence among reftive
and vitious horfes: if they do it in the fame place, or
backing, they muft, by the rider’s legs and fpurs
firmly applied, be obliged to go forwards, and their
heads kept up high. But if they do it flying for¬
wards, keep them back, and ride them gently and
very flow for a good while together. Of all bad tem¬
pers and qualities in horfes, thofe which are occafioned
by harlh treatment and ignorant riders are the worft.
Rearing is a bad vice, and, in weak horfes efpe-
cially, a very dangerous one. Whilft the horfe is up,
the rider muft yield his hand ; and when the horfe is
defcending, he muft vigoroufly determine him for¬
wards : if this be done at any other time but whilft
the horfe is coming down, it may add a fpring to his
rearing, and make him fall backwards. With a good
hand on them, horfes feldom periift in this vice ; for
they are. themfelves naturally much afraid of falling
backwards. If this method fails, you muft make the
horfe kick up behind, by getting fomebody ou foot
A N S H I P. Sea. VIII.
to ftrike him behind with a whip ; or, if that will not Plain ru0»i
effeft it, by pricking him with a goad. forbad|t.
Starting often proceeds from a defeft in the fight; tl0rfeme1lr
which therefore muft be carefully looked into. What¬
ever the horfe is afraid of, bring him up to it gently > i
if you carefs him every ftep he advances, he will go
quite up to it by degrees, and foon grow familiar with
all forts of objects. Nothing but great, gentlenefs can
correft this fault ; for if you inflict punilhment, the
apprehenfion of chaftifement becomes prevalent, and
caufes more ftarting than the fear of the objeft. If
you let him go by the objed, without bringing him,
up to it, you increafe the fault, and confirm him in
his feaf r the confequence of which is, he takes hi»
rider perhaps a quite contrary way from what he was
going, becomes his mafter, and puts himfelf and the
perfon upon him every moment in great danger.
With fuch horfes as are to a very great degree
fearful of any obje&s, make a quiet horfe, by going
before them, gradually entice them to approach nearen
and nearer to the thing they are afraid of. If the
horfe, thus alarmed, be undifcipled and headftrong,
he will probably run away with his rider ; and if fo,
his head muft be kept up high, and the fnaffle fa wed
backwards and forwards from right to left, taking up
and yielding the reins of it, as alfo.the reins of the
bit : but this latter muft-not. be fawed backwards and
forwards like the fnaffle, but; only taken up and
yielded properly. No man ever yet did, or evfer wilf,
llop a horfe, or gain any one point over him, by main
force, or by pulling a dead weight againft him.
Sect. VIII. Rules for Bad Herfemen.
In the firft place, every horfe fflould be accuftom- Thomfin'n I
ed to ftand ftill when he is mounted. One would i-j
magine this might be readily granted; yet we fee how
much the* contrary is praclifed. When a gentleman
mounts at a livery-ftable, the groom takes the horfe
by the bit, which he bends tight round his under jaw :
the horfe.ftriving to go on, is forced back; advancing
again, he frets, as he is again ftopped fhort, and hurt
by the manner of holding him. The rider, in the
mean time, mounting without the bridle, or at lead
holding it but flightly, is helped to it by the groom,
who being thoroughly employed by the horft’s flut¬
tering, has at the fame time both bridle and ftirrup to
give. This confufion would be prevented, if every
horfe was taught to ftand ftill when he is mounted.
Forbid your groom therefore, when he rides your
horfe to water, to throw himfelf over him from a
horfe-block, and kick him with his hg, even before
he is-fairly upon him. This wrong manner of mount¬
ing, is what chiefly teaches your horfe the vttious ha¬
bit againil which we are here warning. On the o-
ther hand, a conftant pra&ice of mounting in the
proper manner, is all that is neceflary to prevent a
horfe’s going on till the; rider, is quite adjufted in the
faddle. . . - ;
The next thing neceflary therefore is, that the rider
.ftiould mount properly. The common method is to
ftand near the croup, or hinder part of the horfe, with
the bridle held very long in the right hand. By this
manner of holding the bridle before you mount, you
are liable to be kicked; and when you are mounted,
your horfe may go on fome time, or play what gam-
Sea. VIII. H O R S E M
iUin rules bols he pleafes, before the rein is fliort enough in
‘.forbad yOUr band to prevent him. It is common likewife,
j|or emen. £or an awjcwarcl riJer, as foon as his foot is in the
ftirrup, to throw liimfelf with all his force to gain his
feat; which he cannot do, till he hath firft overbalan-.
L ced hinafelf on one fide or the other : he will then
wriggle into it by degrees. The way to mount with
cafe and fafety is, to Hand rather before than behind
the ftirrup. In this pofture take the bridle fliort, and
the mane together in your left hand, helping yourfelf
to the ftirrup with your right, fo that your toe may
not touch the hbrfo in mounting. When your left
foot is in the ft'irrup, move on your right, till you face
the fide of the horfe, looking acrofs over the faddle.
Then with your right hand grafp the hinder part of
the faddle.; and with that and your left, which holds
the mane and bridle, lift yourfelf upright on your left
foot. . Remain thus a mere inftant on your ftirrup,
only fo as to divide the aftion into two motions.
While you are in this pofture, you have a fore hold
I with both hands, and are at liberty, either to get fafe-
ly down, or to throw your leg over and gain your
foat. By this deliberate motion, likewife, you avoid,
what every good horfeman would endeavour to avoid,
putting your horfe into a flutter.
When you difmount, hold the bridle and mane to¬
gether in your left hand, as when you mounted ; put
your right hand on tlie pommel of.the faddle, to raife
yourftlf; throw your leg back over the horfe, grafp
I the hinder part of the faddle with your right hand,
remain a moment on your ftirrup, and in every refpeft
difmount as you mounted ; only what was your firft
motion when you mounted, becomes the laft in dif-
mounting. Remember not to bend your right knee
in difmount fog, left your fpur ftiould rub againft the
horfe.
It may be next recommended to hold your bridle at
a convenient length. Sit fquare, and let not the pur-
chafe of the bridle pull Forw-ard your fhoulder ; but
keep your body even, as it would be if each hand held
a rein. Hold your reins with the whole grafp of your
hand, dividing them with your little finger. Let
your baud be perpendicular ; your thumb will then be
uppermoft, and placed on the bridle. Bend your
wrift a little outward; and when you pull the bridle,
raife your hand toward your breaft, and the lower
part of the palm rather more than the npper. Let the
bridle be at fuch a length in your hand, as, if the
horfe Ihould ftumble, you may be able to raife his
head, and fupport it by the ftrength ■of your arms,
and the weight of your body thrown backward. If
you hold the rein too long, you are fubjedl to fall
backward, as your horfe rifes.
If, knowing your horfe per.fe&ly well, you think a
tight rein uimeceffary, advance your arm a little (but
not your Ihoulder) towards the horfe’s head, and keep
your ufual length of rein. By this means, you have
a check upon your horfe, while you indulge him.
If you ride with a. curb, make it a rule to hook
on the chain yourfelf; the moft quiet horfe may bring
his rider into danger, Ihould the curb hurt him. If,
in fixing the curb, you turn the chain to the right,
the links will unfold themfelves, and then oppofe a
farther turning.. Put on the chain loofe enough to
hang down on the horfe’s under lip, fo that it may not
A N S H I P. 3729
rife and prefs his jaw, till the reins of the bridle are Plain rule&
moderately pulled. . forr ^
If your horfe has been ufed to Hand ftill when he is or emen'
mounted, there will be no occafion for a groom to hold
him : but if he does, fuffer him not to touch the reins,
but that part of the bridle which comes down the
cheek of the horfe. He cannot then interfere with
the management of the reins, which belongs to the
rider only ; and holding a horfe by the curb (which is
ever painful to him) is evidently improper when he is
to (laud ftill.
Another thing to he remembered is, not to ride
witli your arms and elbows as high as your Ihoulders;
nor let them fhake up and down with the motion of
the horfe. The pofture is unbecoming, and the
weight of the arms (and of the body too if the rider
does not fit ftill) afts in continual jerks on the jaw of
the horfe, which muft give him pain, and make him
unquiet, if he has a tender mouth, or any fpirit.
Bad riders wonder why horfes are gentle as foon as
they are mounted by Ikilfulones, tho’ their Ikill feems
unemployed : the reafon is, the horfe goes at his eafer
yet finds all his motions watched ; which he has faga-
city enough to difeover. Such a rider hides his whip,
if he finds his horfe is afraid of it; and keeps his legs
from his fides, if he finds he dreads the fpur.
Avoid the ungraceful cuftom of letting your legs
fhake againft the fides of the horfe: and as you are not
to keep your arms and elbows high, and in motion ;
fo you are not to rivet them to your fides, but let
them fall eafy. One may, at a diftance, diftinguilh
a genteel horfeman from an awkward one: the firft
fits ftill, and appears of a piece with his horfe ; the
latter feems flying off at all points.
It is often faid with emphafis, that fuch a one has
no feat on horfeback ; and it means, not only that he
dbes not ride well, but that he does, not fit on the right
part of the horfe. To have a. good feat, is to fit on.
that part of the horfe, which, as he fprings, is the
centre of motion ; and from which, of courfe, any
weight would be with moft difficulty fhaken. As in
the rifing and falling of a board placed in aquilibrio,
the centre will be always moft at reft ; the true feat
will be found in that part of your faddle, into which
your body would naturally Aide, if you rode without
ftirrups; and is only to be preferved by a proper poife
of the body, though the generality of riders imagine
it is to be done by the grafp of the thighs and knees.
The rider fhould confider himfelf as united to his
horfe in this point; and when (haken from it, endea¬
vour to reltore the balance.
Perhaps the mention of the two extremes of a bad
feat may help to deferibe the true one. The one is,
when the rider fits very far back on the faddle, fo that
his weight preffes the loins of the horfe ; the other,
when his body hangs forward over the pommel of the
faddle. The firft may be feen pra&ifed by grooms,
when they ride with their ftirrups affectedly Ihort; the
latter, by fearful horfemen on the leaft flutter of the
horfe. Every good rider has, even on the hunting
faddle, as deter?/uned a place for his thighs, as can be
determined for him by the bars of a demi peak. In¬
deed there is no difference between the feat of either:
3730 H O R S E M
Plain rules To have a good feat yoiivfelf, your faddle muft fit
Iiarf ba l We^‘ ,^0 a Prec'k 1 u'e m‘ght be difficult: it may
to emen. a d'mElion, to have your faddle prefa as nearly as
poffible on that part which we have defcribed as the
point of union between the man and horfe ; however,
lb as not to obftruft the motion of the horfe’s ffioul-
ders. Place yourfelf in the middle or lowed; part of
it: fit eredl; but with as little conftraint as in your
ordinary fitting. The eafe of aflion marks the gentle¬
man : you may repofe yourfelf, but not lounge. The
fet and ftudied ere&nefs acquired in the riding-houfe,
by thofe whofe deportment is not eafy, appears ungen-
teel and unnatural.
If your horfe flops (hort, or endeavours by rifing
and kicking to unfeat you, bend not your body for¬
ward, as many do in thofe circumftances : that motion
throws the breech backward, and you off your fork or
twill, and out of your feat ; whereas, the advancing
the lower part of your body, and bending back the
upper part and ffioulders, is the method both to keep
your feat, and to recover it when loft. The bending
your body back, and that in a great degree, is the
greateft fecurity in flying leaps; it is a fecurity too,
when your horfe leaps Jianding. The horfe’s rifing
does not try the rider’s feat ; the lafh of his hind legs
is what ought chiefly to be guarded againft, and is
bell done by the body’s being greatly inclined back.
Stiffen not your legs or thighs; and let your body be
pliable in the loins, like the coachman’s on his box.
This loofe manner of fitting will elude every rough
motion of the horfe; whereas the fixture of the knees,
fo commonly laid a ftrefs on, will in great (hocks con¬
duce to the violence of the fall.
Was the cricket-player, when the ball is ftruck
with the greateft velocity, to hold his hand firm and
fixed when he receives it, the hand would be bruifed,
or perhaps the bones fradtured by the refiftance. To
obviate this accident, he therefore gradually yields his
hand to the motion of the ball for a certain diftance;
and thus by a due mixture of oppofition and obe¬
dience, catches it without fuftaining the lead injury.
The cafe is exaftly the fame in riding: the fkilful
horfeman will recover his poife, by giving fome way
to the motion ; and the ignorant horfeman will be flung
out of his feat, by endeavouring to be fixed.
Stretch not out your legs before you ; this will pufh
you againft the back of the faddle : neither gather up
your knees, like a man riding on a pack ; this throws
your thighs upwards: each pradlice unfeats you. Keep
your legs ftraight down ; and fit not on the moft flefhy
part of the thighs, but turn them inwards, fo as to
bring in your knees and toes: and it is more fafe to
ride with the ball of the foot preffing on the ftirrup,
than with the ftirrup as far back as the heel ; for the
preffure of the heel being in that cafe behind the ftir¬
rup, keeps the thighs down.
When you find your thighs thrown upwards, wi¬
den your knees to get them and the upper part of your
fork lower down on the horfe. Grafp the faddle with
the hollow or inner part of your thighs, but not more
than juft to affift the balance of your body : this will
alfo enable you to keep your fpurs from the horfe’s
fides, and to bring your toes in, without that affedled
and ufelefs manner of bringing them in pra&ifed by
many. Sink your heels ftraight down ; for while your
I
A N S H I P. Sed. VIII
heels and thighs keep down, you cannot fall: this Plain rrj
(aided with the bend of the back) gives the fecurity fo''bajjl
of a feat, to thofe who bear themfelves up in theit hoifemT
ftirrnps in a fwift gallop, or in the alternate rifing and
falling in a full trot.
Let your feat determine the length of your ftirrups,
rather than the ftirrups your feat. If more precilion ft
is requifite, let your ftirrups (in the hunting faddle) ft
be of fuch a length, as that, when you ftand in them,
there may be the breadth of four fingers between your
feat and the faddle.
It would greatly affift a learner, if he would prac- i
tife riding in a large circle, as diredted fedl. ii. with¬
out ftirrups; keeping his face.looking on the outward |
part of the circle fo as not to have a full view of the I
horfe’s head, but juft of that ear which is on the out¬
ward part of the circle ; and his fhoulder, which is J
towards the centre of the circle, very forward. By
this means you learn to balance your body, and keep |
a true feat, independent of your ftirrups : you may pro- I
bably likewife efcape a fall, fhould you at any time lofe
them by being accidentally fhaken from your feat.
As the feat in fome meafure depends on the fad¬
dle, it may not be amifs to obferve, that becaufe a I
faddle with a high pommel is thought dangerous, the I
other extreme prevails, and the pommel is fcarce al¬
lowed to be higher than the middle of the faddle.
The faddle fhould lie as near the back-bone as can be,
without hurting the horfe; for the nearer you fit to. I
his back, the better feat you have. If it does fo, it i
is plain the pommel muft rife enough to fecure the wi¬
thers from preffure : therefore, a horfe whofe withers f
are higher than common, requires a higher pommel.
If, to avoid this, you make the faddle of a more
ftraight line, the inconvenience fpoken of follows; you
fit too much above the horfe’s back, nor can the fad-
ble form a proper feat. There fhould be no ridge
from the button at the fide of the pommel, to the back
part of the faddle. That line alfo fhould b©. a little
concave, for your thighs to lie at eafe. In (hort, a
faddle ought to be, as nearly as poffible, as if cut out
of the horfe.
When yon want your horfe to move forward, raife
his head a little, and touch him gently with your whip;
or elfe, prefs the calves of your legs againft his fides.
If he does not move fall enough, prefs them with more
force, and fo till the fpur juft touches him. By this
praftice, he will (if he has any fpirit) move upon the
laft preffure of the leg. Never fpur him by a kick; but
if it be neceffary to fpur him brifkly, keep your heels
clofe to his fides, and flacken their force as he becomes
obedient. .
When your horfe attempts to be vitlous, take each
rein feparate, one in each hand, and advancing your
arms forward, hold him very fhort. In this cafe, it is
common for the rider to pull him hard, with his arms
low. But the horfe by this means having his head low
too, has it more in his power to throw out his heels:
whereas, if his head be raifed very high, and his nofe
thrown out a little, which is confequent, he can neither
rife before nor behind ; becaufe he can give himfelf
neither of thofe motions, without having his head at
liberty. A plank placed in cequilibrio, cannot rife at
one end unlefs it finks at the other.
If your horfe is headftrong, pull not with one con-
ti-
Seft. VIII. H O R S E M
tinued pull, but ftop, and back him often, juft lhaking
the reins, and making little repeated pulls till he obeys.
Horfes are fo accuftomed to bear on the bit when they
go forward, that they are difcouraged if the rider will
not let them do fo.
If a horfe is loofe-necked, he will throw up his
head at a continued pull; in which fituation, the rider,
feeing the front of his face, can have no power over
him. When your horfe does thus, drop your hand
and give the, bridle play„and he will of courfe drop his
head again into its proper place : while it is coming
down, make a fecond gentle pull, and you will find his
mouth. With a little practice, this is done almoft in-
ftantaneoufly ( and this method will ftop, in the di-
ftance of a few yards, a horfe, which will run away
with thofe who pull at him with all their might. Al¬
moft every one muft have obferved, that when a horfe
feels himfelf pulled with the bridle, even when he is
going gently, he often miftakes what was defigned to
itop him, as a dire&ion to bear on the bit and to go
fafter.
Keep your horfe’s head high, that he may raife his
neck and creft ; play a little with the rein, and move
the bit in his mouth, that he may not prefs on it in
one conftant, and continued manner: be not afraid of
raifing his head too high; he will naturally be too
ready to bring it down, and tire your arms with its
weight, on the leaft abatement of his mettle. When
you feel him heavy, ttop him, and make him go back a
few paces: thus you break by degrees his propenfity
to prefs on his bridle.
You ought not to be pleafed (though many are)
with a round neck, and a head drawn in towards his
breaft : let your horfe carry his head bridling in, pro¬
vided he carries it high, and his neck arching upwards;
but if his neck bends downwards, his figure is bad, his
fight is too near his toes, he leans on the bridle, and
you have no command over him. If he goes preffing
but lightly on the bridle, he is the more fure-footed,
and goes pleafanter; as your wrift only may guide him.
If he hangs down his' head, and makes you fupport
the weight of that and his neck with your arms bear¬
ing on his fore-legs, (which is called being on his Jhoul-
ders), he will ftrike his toes againft the ground, and
Humble.
If your horfe is heavy upon the bit, tie him every
day, for an hour or two, with his tail to the man¬
ger, and his head as high as you can make him lift it,
by a rein on each poll of the ftall, tied to each ring of
the fnaffie bit.
Horfe-breakers and grooms have a great propenfity
to bring a horfe’s head down, and feem to have no
feat without a ftrong hold by the bridle. They know
indeed, that the head fliould yield to the reins, and
the neck form an arch ; but do not take the proper
pains to make it an arch upward. A temporary efftft
of attempting to raife a horfe’s head, may perhaps be
making him pulh out his nofe. They will here tell
you, that his head is too high already; whereas it is
not the diftance from his nofe, but from the top of his
head, to the ground, which determines the head to be
high or low. Befides, although the fault is faid to be
in the manner of carrying the head, it Ihould rather
be faid to be in that of the neck ; for if the neck was
raifed, the head would be more in the pofition of one
A N S H I P.
fet on a well formed neck.
The defign therefore of lifting up the head, is to
raife the neck, and thereby bring in the head ; for .
even while the bridle makes the fame line from the
rider’s hand to the bit, the horfe"s nofe may be either
drawn in, or thruft out, according as his neck is raifed
or depreffed. Inftead of what has been here recom¬
mended, we ufually fee colts broke with their heads
caveffoned very low, their necks ftiff, and not in the
leaft fuppled. When the breaking-tackle is left off,
and they are mounted for the road, having more food
and reft, they frequently plunge, and a fecond break¬
ing becomes neceffary. Then, as few gentlemen can
manage their own horfes, they are put into the hands
of grooms, from whom they learn a variety of bad ha¬
bits.
If, on the other hand, your horfe carries his head
(or rather his nofe) too high, he generally makes feme
amends by moving his fhoulders lightly, and going
fafely. Attend to the caufe of this fault. Some horfes
have their necks fet fo low on their fhoulders, that they
bend firft down, then upwards, like a flag’s. Some
have the upper line of their necks, from their ears to
their withers, too fhort. A head of this fort cannot
poffibly bend inwards and form an arch, becaufe the
vertebrae (or neck bones) are too Ihort to admit of
flexure; for in long and fhort necked horfes the num¬
ber of the vertebrae is the fame. In fome, the jaw is
fo thick, that it meets the neck, and the head by this
means has not room to bend. On the other hand, fome
have the under line from the jaw to the breaft, fo fliort,
that the neck cannot rife.
In all thefe cafes you may gain a little by a nice
hand with an eafy bit; but no curb, martingale, or
other forcible method, will teach a horfe to carry his
head or neck in a polture which nature has made un-
eafy to him. By trying to pull in his nofe farther than
he can bear, you will add a bad habit to nature. Yon
could not indeed contrive a more effectual method to
make him continually tofs his nofe up, and throw his
foam over you.
The rule -already given to ride a loofe-necked horfe,
will be a proper one for all light-mouthed horfes: one
caution being added, which is, always to fearch whe¬
ther his faddle or girths may not in fome way pinch
him; and whether the bit may not hurt his lip by be¬
ing too high in his mouth: becaufe, whenever he frets
from either of thefe caufes, his head will not be fteady.
It is a common cuftom to be always pulling at the
bridle, as if to £et off to advantage either the fpirit of
the horfe, or the /kill of the rider. Our horfes there¬
fore are taught to hold their heads low, and pull fo, as
to bear up the rider from the faddle, Handing in his
ftirrups, even in the gentleft gallop: how very impro¬
per is this, we are experimentally convinced, when we
happen to meet with a horfe which gallops otherwife.
We immediately fay, he canters excellently, and find
the eafe and pleafure of his motion. When horfes are
defigned for the race, and fwiftnefs is the only thing
confulered, the method may be a good one.
It is not to be wondered that dealers are always
pulling at their horfes ; that they have the fpur con-
ftantly in their fides, and are at the fame time conti¬
nually checking the rein : by this means they make
them bound, and champ the bit, while their rage has
the-
3731
Plain rules
for bad
horfe men.
3732 H O R S E M
Plain rules the appearance of fpirit. Thefe people ride with their
forbad anr.s fpread, and very low on the ftioulders of their
norfemeii. jiorfcs. tp;s method makes them ftretch their necks,
and gives a better appearance to their fore-hands; it
conceals alfo a thick jaw, which, if the head was up,
would prevents its yielding to the bit; it hides like-
wife the ewe-neck, which would otherwife (hew itfelf.
Indeed, if you have a horfe unfteady to the bit, formed
with a natural heavy head, or one which carries his
nofe obftinately in the air, you mud find his mouth
where you can, and make the belt of him.
Many horfes are taught to Hart by whipping them
for ftarting. How is it poflihle they can know it is
defigned as a punilhmcnt? In the riding-houfe, you
teach your horfe to rife up before, and to fpring and
lafh out his hinder legs, by whipping him when tied
between two:pillars, with his head a little at liberty.
If he underftood this to be a punilhment for doing fo,
he would not by that method learn to do it. He feems
to be in the fame manner taught to fpring and fly
when he is frightened. Mod horfes would go quietly
pad an object they were beginning to fly from, if their
riders, indead of gathering up their bridles, and (hew¬
ing themfelves. fo ready, fhould throw the reins loofe
upon their necks.
When a horfe darts at any thing on one fide, mod
riders turn him out of the road, to make him go up to
what he darts at: if he does not get the better of his
fear, or readily comply, he generally goes pad the ob-
jeft, making with his hinder parts, or croup, a great
circle out of the road; whereas, he fhould learn to keep
ftraight on, without minding objeflson either fide.
If he darts at any thing on the left, hoH his head
-high, and keep it draight in the road, pulling it from
looking at the thing he darts at, and keeping your
right leg hard prefled againd his fide, towards his
flank: he will then go draight along the road. By
this method, and by turning his head a little more,
he may be forced with his croup clofe up to what
frightened him; for as his head is pulled one way, his
croup neceffarily turns the other. Always avoid a
quarrel with your horfe, if you can: if he is apt to
dart, you will find occafions enough to exercife his
obedience, when what he darts at lies diredlly in his
way, and you mujl make him pafs; if he is not fub-
jeft to dart, you (hould not contend with him about a
trifle.
It mud be obferved, however, that this rule in go¬
ing pad an objefit may perhaps be a little irregular in
a managed horfe, which will always obey the leg:
but even fuch a horfe, if he is really afraid, and not
redive, it may not be amifs to make look another
way; unlefs the objea be fometbing you would par¬
ticularly accudom him to the fight of.
The cafe will alfo be different with a horfe whofe
fear is owing to his being not ufed to objeils'; but
fuch a one is not to be rode by any horfeman to whom
thefe rules are dire&ed: the darting here meant arifes
merely from the horfe’s being pamper’d, and fpringing
through livelinefs.
The notion of the neccffity of making a hdrfe go
immediately up to every thing he is afraid of, and not
buffering him to become mafter of his rider, feems to
be in general carried too far. It is an approved and
good method to conquer a horfe’s fear of the found of
ANSI-IIP. ScA. Vltr
a drum, by beating one near to him at the time of Plain
feeding him: this not only familiarizes the noife to
him, but makes it pleafant, as a fore-runner of his nor t'
meat * ; whereas, if he was whipped up to it, he might » See
perhaps dart at it as long as he lived. Might not Y,
this be applied to his ftarting at other things, and
(hew that it would be better to fuffer him (provided
he does not turn back) to go a little from, and avoid
an objecl he has a didike to, and to accuftom him to
it by degrees, convincing him, as it were, that ifwilL
not hurt him; than to punidi him, quarrel with him,
and perhaps fubmit to his will at lad, while you infift
on his overcoming his fear in an inftant? If he fees a
like objeft again, it is probable he will recolleft ins
dread, and arm himfelf to be difobedient.
We are apt to fuppofe, that a horfe fears nothing
fo much as his rider: but may he not, in many cir-
cumftances, be afraid of inftant dedru&ion? of being
crulhed? of being drowned? of falling down a preci¬
pice? Is it a wonder that a horfe {hould be afraid of a
loaded waggon ? may not the hanging load feem to
threaten the falling on him ? There cannot be a rule
more general, than, in fuch a cafe, to drew him there
is room for him to pafs. This is done by turning his
head a very little from the carriage, and prefling your
leg, which is fartheft from it, agaiuft his fide.
A horfe is not to flop without a fign from his rider.
— Is it not then probable, that when he is driven up
to a carriage he darts at, he conceives himfelf obliged
either to attack or run againft it? Can be underftand
the rider’s fpurring him with his face direfted to it, as
a fign for him to pafs it? That a horfe is eafily alarmed
for his face and eyes, (he will even catch back his
head from a hand going to carefs him); that he will
not go with any force, face to face, even to another
horfe, (if in his power to ftop); and that he fees per¬
fectly (ideways,—may be ufeful hints for the treat¬
ment of horfes, with regard to darting.
Though yon ought not to whip a hdrfe for darting,
there can be no good effe& from clapping his neck
with your hand to encourage him. if one took any
notice of his darting,, it (hould be rather with fame
tone of voice which he ufualiy underftood as an ex-
prefiion of diflike to what he is doing; for there is
oppojition mixed with his ftarting, and a horfe will ever
repeat what he finds has foiled his rider.
Notwithftanding the dirc&ion above given, of not
prefling a horfe up to a carriage he ftarts at; yet if
one which you apprehend will frighten him meets
you at a narrow part of the road, when you have
once let him know he is to pafs it, be fure you remain
determined, and prefs him on. Do this more efpe-
eially when part of the carriage has already puffed you :
For if, when he is frightened, he is accuftomed to go
back,, and turn round, he will certainly do St if he
find*, by your band flaokefling, and legs not preffing,
that you are irrefolute ; arid this at the mod dangerous
point of time, when the wheels of the carriage take
him as he turns. Remember not to touch the curb-
rein at this time; it will certainly check him. It is
not known to every one, that the perfon who^ would
lead a horfe by the bridle, (hould not turn his face to
him when he refufes to follow him: if, befides this, he
raifes his arms, (hews his whip, or pulls the bridle
with jerks, be frightens the horfe, inftead of perfua-
ding
' Se£t. VIII. H O R S E M
Plain rules ding him to follow; which a little patience may bring
' for bad about.
jhorfemen. Ride with a fnaffle; and ufe your curb, if you have
one, only occafionally. Choofe your fnaffle full and
thick in the mouth, efpecially at the ends to which
the reins are faftened. Moft of them are made too
final! and-long; they cut the horfe’s mouth, and
bend back over the bars of hi* jaw, working like
pincers.
The management of the curb is too nice a matter
to enter on here, farther than to prefcribe great cau¬
tion in the ufe of it: a turn of the wrift, rather than
the weight of your arm, (hould be applied to it. The
elafticity of a rod, when it hath hooked a fi(h, may
give you forae idea of the proper play of a horfe’s
head on his bridle ; his fpirit and his pliablenefs are
! both marked by it.
A horfe Ihould never be put to do any thing in a
curb, which he is not ready at: you may force him,
or pull his head any way, with a fnaffle; but a curb
• afls only in a ftraight line. It is true, that a horfe
will be turned out of one track into another by a curb,
but it is becaufe he knows it as zjignal. When he is
put to draw a chair, and does not underftand the ne-
ceffity he is then under of taking a larger fweep when
he turns, you frequently fee him rejlive, as it is then
called: but put him on a fnaffle, or buckle the rein to
that part of the bit which does not curb him; and
the horfe fubmits to be pulled about, till he under-
ftands what is defired of him. Thefe direftions
fuppofe your horfe to have fpirit, and a good mouth:
if he has not, you muft take him as he is,' and ride
him with fuch a bit as you find moft eafy to your-
felf.
When you ride a journey, be not fo attentive to
your horfe’s nice carriage of himfelf, as to your en¬
couragement of him, and keeping him in good-humour.
Raife his head; but if he flags, you may indulge him
with bearing a little more upon the bit than you
would fuffer in an airing. If a horfe is lame, tender¬
footed, or tired, he naturally hangs upon his bridle.
On a journey, therefore, his mouth will depend greatly
on his ftrength and the goodnefs of his feet. Be then
very careful about his feet, and let not a farrier fpoil
them. You will be enabled to keep them from
danger, by the diredions given under the article
Shoeing.
Very few, although pradifed in riding, know they
have any power over a horfe, but by the bridle; or
any ufe for the fpur, except to make him go forward.
A little experience will teach them a farther ufe. If
the left fpur touches him (and he is at the fame time
prevented from going forward), he has a fign, which
he will foon underftand, to move fideways to the right.
In the fame manner to the left, if the right fpur is
clofed to him: he afterwards, through fear of the
fpur, obeys a touch of the leg; in the fame manner
as a horfe moves his croup from one fide of the ftall
to the other, when any one ftrikes him with his hand.
In fhort, his croup is guided by the leg, as his head is
by the bridle. He will never difobey the leg, unlefs
he becomes reftive. By this means you will have a
far greater power over him: he will move fideways, if
ou clofe one leg to him; and ftraight forward, if
oth: even when he (lands ftill, your kgs held near
Vol. V.
A N S H I P. 3733
him will keep him on the watch; and with the Plain rules
flighted, unfeen motion of the bridle upwards, he f0);bad
will raife his head, and (hew his forehand to advan- °r etnen~
tage.
On this ufe of the legs of the rider, and guidance
of the croup of the horfe, are founded all the airs (as
the riding-mafters exprefs themfelves) which are
taught in the manage; the paflage, or fide-motion of
troopers to clofe or open their files, and indeed all
their evolutions. But the convenience of fome degree
of this difeipline for common ufe, is the reafon of
mentioning it here. It is ufeful if a horfe is apt to
Humble or ftart. If to the firft, by preffing your legs
to his flank, and keeping up his head, he is made to
go light on his fore-legs, which is aiding and fup-
porting him; and the fame if he does adlually flum-
ble, by helping him at the very inftant to exert him¬
felf, while as yet any part of him remains not irreco¬
verably imprefled with the precipitate motion. Hence
this ufe of the hand and kgs of the rider is called
giving aids to a horfe; for, as to holding up the weight
of a heavy unaftive horfe, by mere pulling, it is a*,
impoffible as to recover him when falling down a pre¬
cipice.
A horfe is fupported and helped by the hands and
legs of his rider, in every a&ion they require of him ;
hence he is faid to perform his airs by the aids from
his rider.
The fame manner is ufeful if a horfe ftarts. For if
when he is beginning to fly to one fide, you kg on
the fide he is flying to, he flops his fpring immedi¬
ately. He goes paft what he darted at, keeping
ftraight on, or as you choofe to direft him; and he will
not fly back from any thing, if you prefs him with
both legs. You keep his haunches under him, going
down a hill; help him on the fide of a bank; more
eafily avoid the wheel of a carriage; and approach
more gracefully and nearer to the fide of a coach, or
horfeman. When a pampered horfe curvets irregu¬
larly, and twifts his body to and fro, turn his head either
to the right or left, or both alternately, (but without
letting him move out of the track), and prefs your leg
to the oppofite fide: your horfe cannot then fpring on
his hind-legs to one fide, becaufe your leg prevents
him; nor to the other, becaufe his head looks that
way, and a horfe does not ftart and fpring to the fide
on which he looks. Here it may not be amifs to ob-
ferve the impropriety of the habit which many riders
have, of letting their legs (hake againft the fides of
the horfe: if a horfe is taught, they are then conti¬
nually prefling him to violent adtion; and if he
is not, they render him infenfible and incapable of
being taught. The fretting of a hot horfe will hence
be exceflive, as it can no otherwife be moderated,
than by the utmoft ftillnefs of the feat, hands, and
kgs of the rider.
Colts at firft are taught to hear a bit, and by de¬
grees to pull at it. If they did not prefs it, they
could not be guided by it. By degrees they find their
necks ftronger than the arms of a man; and that they
are capable of making great oppofition, and often of
foiling their riders. Then is the time to make them
fupple and pliant in every part. The -part which of
all others requires moft this pliancy, is the neck.
Hence the metaphor of JUff-necked for difobedient. A
2i H horfe
3734
Horfham
II
Hortus.
H O R S E M
horfe cannot move his head, but with the mufcles of
his neck: this may be called his helm; it guides his
courfe, changes and directs his motion.
The ufe of this pliancy in the different parts and
limbs of a horfe has been already (hewn in a former
fe&ion. The prefent fe&ion being dire&ed to the
unexperienced horfeman, it may fuffice to add, that
H O R
HORSHAM, a town of Suffex in England, feated
near St Leonard’s foreft, fending two members to
parliament. W. Long. o. 22. N. Lat. 51. 10.
HORSTIUS (James), profefforof medicine in the
univerfity of Helmftadt, in the 16th century. He
joined devotion with the knowledge and pra&ice of
phyfic- He carefully prayed to God to blefs his pre-
fcriptions, and publirtied a form of prayer upon this
fubjeft. He alfo wrote, 1. A treatife on the quali¬
ties of a good phyfician. 2. Another on the qualities
of a good apothecary. 3. A treatife of the plague,
in German. 4. A commentary in libras Hippocratis
de corde, and other works.
Horstius (Gregory), nephew of the former, called
the Mfculapius oj Germany, publifhed feveral books,
which are efleemed.
HORTAGILERS, in the grand fignior’s court,
upholfterers, or tapeftry-hangers. The grand lignior
has conftantly 400 in his retinue when he is in the
camp: thefe go always a day’s journey before him, to
fix upon a proper place for his tent, which they pre¬
pare firft; and afterwards thofe of the officers, accor¬
ding to their rank.
HORTENSIUS (Quintus), a celebrated Roman
orator, the cotemporary of Cicero, pleaded with uni-
verfal applaufe at 19 years of age, and continued the
fame profeffion during 48 years. But being at laft
eclipfed by Cicero, he quitted the bar, and embraced
a military life; became a military tribune, praetor,
and afterwards conful, about 70 B. C. Cicero fpeaks
of him in fuch a manner as makes us regret the lofs
of his orations. Hortenfius bad a wonderful memory,
and delivered his orations without writing down a
fingle word, or forgetting one particular that had been
advanced by his adverfaries. He died very rich, a
little before the civil war, which he had endeavoured
by all poffible means to prevent.
HORTUS SICCUS, a dry garden; an appella¬
tion given to a colle&ion of fpecimens of plants, care¬
fully dried and preferved.
Take a fpecimen of a plant in flower, and with it
one of its bottom-leaves, if it have any; bruife the
ftalk, if too rigid; flit it, if too thick; fpread out the
leaves and flowers on paper ; cover the whole with
more paper, and lay a weight over all. At the end
of 18 hours take out the plants, nowperfeftly flatted;
lay them on a bed of dry common fand ; fift over
them more dry fand, to the depth of two inches, and
thus let them lie about three weeks: the lefs fucculent
dry much fooner, but they take no harm afterwards.
If the floor of a garret be covered in fpring with fand
two inches deep, leaving fpace for walking to the fe¬
veral parts, it will receive the colle&ion of a whole
fummer, the covering of fand being fifted over every
parcel as laid in. They need no farther care, from
the time of laying them, till they are taken up to be
A N S H I P. Sed. VIII.
his idea of fupplenefs need only be, that of an abi¬
lity and readinefs in a horfe to move every limb, on .
a fign given him by the hands or legs of his rider;
as alfo, to bend his body, and move in a fhort com-
pafs, quick and colle&ed within himfelf, fo as inftantly
to be able to perform any other motion.
H O R
ftuck on paper. The cement ufed is a folution of gum- Hofannii
arabic in water. Ij i
Plants may be dried very well without fand, by only H°rpin'a *
putting them frequently into frefh quires of paper, or
a few by only prefling them between the leaves of a
book; but the fand-method preferves the colour belt,
and is done with lead trouble.
HOSANNA, a Hebrew word, fignifying fave
now, or fave, we befeech thee; from the frequent f.
nfe of which, during the feafl of tabernacles, the
whole folemnity got the appellation of Hofanna
Rabbi.
HOSE, from the Saxon Hofa, a flocking. See
Stocking.
HOSEA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
fo called from the prophet of that name, its author,
who was the fon of Beri, and the firft of the lefler pro¬
phets. He lived in the kingdom of Samaria, and deli¬
vered his prophecies under the reign of Jeroboam II.
and his fucceflbrs, kings of Ifrael; and under the reigns j1
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of j
Judah. His principal defign is to publifh the grofs ido¬
latries of the people of Ifrael and Judah, to denounce
the divine vengeance againft them, and to foretel the
captivity in Afiyria.
In the beginning of Hofea’s prophecy, we read
that the Lord directed him to take unto him a wife of
whoredoms, and children of whoredoms; that is, to
marry a woman of a bad life. This was defigned as a
figurative defeription of the idolatry and infidelity of
Samaria and the ten tribes, formerly the Lord’s
fpoufe, but afterwards become adulterous and cor¬
rupt. Many interpreters, (hocked at the irregularity
of this marriage of the prophet, fancy that it only
pafled in vifion ; whilft others think, that the mar¬
riage was real, though figurative of the things it
delcribed, and which were afterwards to be per¬
formed.
HOSPINIAN (Rodolphus), one of the greateft
writers that Switzerland has given birth to. He was
born in 1547, at Altorf near Zurich; obtained the
freedom of Zurich ; and was made provifor of the
abbey fchool. Notwithftanding this employment, he
undertook a noble work of vaft extent, winch was a
Hifory of the Errors of Popery. Though he could
not complete this work according to his plan, he pub-
bliftied fomeconfiderable partsofit: what he publifh-
ed on the Eucharift, and another work called Concor¬
dia Difcors, exceedingly exafperated the Lutherans.
He did not reply to them; but turning his arms againft
the Jefuits, publifhed Hijloria Jefuitica, &c. Thefe
writings gained him preferment; he being appointed :
archdeacon of Caroline church, and then minifter of
the abbey-church. He died in 1626; and there was
an edition of his works publifhed at Geneva 1681, in
feven volumes in folio.
HOSPITAL
H O S [ 3735 ] H O S
Hofphal. HOSPITAL (Michael de 1’), chancellor of France
 in the 16th century, was one of the greateft men of his
age, and had railed himfelf by degrees. He agreed to
an edid much feverer againft the Proteftants than he
could have wilhed, to prevent the introdudion of the
inquifition. It was that of Romorantin. Thefpeeches
he made, in order to infpire a fpirit of toleration, made
him much fufpeded by the Roman Catholics, and ex¬
tremely odious to the court of Rome. The maxims
of ftate, upon which he regulated himfelf, were of
great advantage to France, fince he formed fome dif-
ciples who oppofed, in proper time, the pernicious-at¬
tempts of the leaguers, and rendered them abortive.—
His pacific views being difliked by Catharine de Medi-
cis, who had contributed to his advancement, file ex¬
cluded him from the council of war, and occafioncd
his difgrace. He retired, however, of his own ac¬
cord, in 1568 ; and (pent the reft of his life at his
country-feat at Vignai, where he died in 1573, aged
68. His poems are efteemed. He alfo publiihed
fome excellent fpeeches and memoirs.
HOSPITAL, popularly Spittal, a place or build¬
ing erefted, out of charity, for the reception and fup-
port of the poor, aged, infirm, fick, and otherwife
helplefs. The word is formed of the Latin hofpes,
“ hoft, ftranger.” See Host.
In the ages of the church, the bifhop had the im¬
mediate charge of all the poor, both found and difea-
fed, as alfo of widows, orphans, ftrangers, &c.—
When the churches came to have fixed revenues allot¬
ted them, it was decreed, that at leaft one fourth
part thereof fhould go to the relief of the poor ; and
to provide for them the more commodioufly, divers
houfes of charity were built, which are fince denomi¬
nated hofpitals. They were governed wholly by the
priefts and deacons, under the infpeftion of the bi¬
fhop. In courfeof time, feparate revenues wereaffign-
ed for the hofpitals; and particular perfons, out of
motives of piety and charity, gave lands and money
for ere&ing of hofpitals. When the church-difcipline
b'egan to relax, the priefts, who till then had been
the adminiftrators of hofpitals, converted them into a
fort of benefices, which they held at pleafure, with¬
out giving account thereof to any body; referving
the greateft part of the income to their own ufe ; fo
that the intentions of the founders were fruftrated.—
To remove this abufe, the council of Vienne exprefsly
prohibited the giving any hofpital to fecular priefts in
the way of a benefice; and dire&ed the adminiftra-
tion thereof to be given to fufficient and refponfible
laymen, who fhould take an oath, like that of tutor?,
for the faithful difcharge thereof, and be accountable
to the ordinaries.—This decree was executed and con¬
firmed by the council of Trent.
In Britain, hofpitals are buildings properly endow¬
ed, or otherwife fupportedby charitable contributions,
for the reception and fupport of the poor, aged, infirm,
fick, or helplefs.
A charitable foundation laid thus for the fuftenance
and relief of the poor, is to continue for ever. Any
perfon feized of an eftate in fee, may, by deed inrol-
led in chancery, ereft and found an hofpital, and no¬
minate fuch heads and governors therein as he fhall
think fit ; and this charitable foundation fhall be in¬
corporated, and fubjeil to the infpedlion and guid¬
ance of the heads and vifitors nominated by the foun- Hofpitai
der. Likewife fuch corporations fhall have, take, 11
and purchafe lands, fo as not to exceed 200 L a-year,
provided the fame be not held of the king j and to
make leafes, referving the accuftomed yearly rent *. * See Cor-
HospiTAL-Zetw, a name given to the malignant ^oration.
catarrhal fever, as being frequent in bofpitals. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HOSCHIUS (Sidronius), a jefuit, who was bom
at Marke, in the diocefe of Ypres, in 1596, and died
at Tongres in 1653. He wrote fome elegies and other
poems in Latin, with great purity and elegance.
HOSPITALITY, the pradlice of entertaining
ftrangers. - Dr Robertfon fpeaking of the middle ages, ,
fays, “ Among people whofe manners are fimple, and
who are feldom vifited by ftrangers, hofpitality is a
virtue of the firft rank. This duty of hofpitality was
fo neceffary in that ftate of fociety which took place
during the middle ages, that it was not confidered as
one of thofe virtues which men may pra&ife or not,
according to the temper of their minds and the gene-
rofity of their hearts. Hofpitality was enforced by
ftatutes, and thofe who negledfed the duty were liable
to punifhment. The laws of the Slav! ordained that
the moveables of an inhofpitable perfon fhould be con-
fifcated, and his houfe burnt. They were even fo fo-
licitous for the entertainment of ftrangers, that they
permitted the landlord to fteal for the fupport of his
gueft.”
HOSPITALLERS, an order of religious knight*,
now known by the title of knights of Malta. See
Malta.
HOSPITIUM, a term ufed in old writers either
for an inn or a monaftery, built for the reception of
ftrangers and travellers. See Inn and Monastery.
HOSPODAR, a title borne by the princes of
Walachia and Moldavia, who receive the inveftiture
of their principalities from the grand fignior. He
gives them a veft and ftandard; they are under his
proteftion, and obliged to ferve him, and he even
fometimes depofes them ; but in other refpeils they
are abfolute fovereigns within their own dominions.
HOST, hospes, a term of mutual relation, ap¬
plied both to a perfon who lodges and entertains ano¬
ther, and to the perfon thus lodged, &c.—The word
is formed of the Latin hafpesi which fome will have
thus called, quafi kojlium or of turn petens ; for of turn
was anciently wrote with an afpirate.—Thus the inn¬
keeper fays, he has a good hof, in fpeaking of the
traveller who lodges with him : and the traveller,
again, fays, he has a kind hoft in fpeaking of his
landlord.
It muft be obferved then, that it was the cuftom
among the ancients, when any ftranger afked for lodg¬
ing, for the mafter of the houfe, and the ftranger,
each of them to fet a foot on their own fide of the
threfhold, and fwear they would neither of them do
any harm to the other.—It was this ceremony that
raifed fo much horror againft thofe who violated the
law or right of hofpitality on either fide ; inafmuch
as they were looked on as perjured.
luftead of hofpes, the ancient Latins called it lofts ;
as Cicero himfelf informs us : though in courfe of
time, kofis camt to fignify an enemy; fo much was
the notion of hofpitality altered.
21 H 2
Host,
HOT [3;
Jloft Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to
It the elements ufed in the eucharift, or rather to the
ot- eds. confecrated wafer; which they pretend to offer up
every day, a new hoft or facrifice for the fins of man¬
kind.—They pay adoration to the hoft, upon a falfe
prefumption that the elements are no longer bread
and wine, but tranfubftantiated into the real body and
blood of Chrift. See Transubstantiation.
HOSTAGE, a perfon given up to an enemy as
a fecurity for the performance of the articles of a
treaty.
YioT-Beds, in gardening, beds made with frefh
horfe-dung, or tanner’s bark, and covered with glafies
to defend them from cold winds.
By the fkilful management of hot-beds, we may
imitate the temperature of warmer climates; by which
means, the feeds of plants brought from any of the
countries within the torrid zone, may be made to
flourifti even under the poles.
The hot-beds commonly ufed in kitchen-gardens,
are made with new horfe-dung mixed with the litter
of a ftable, and a few fea-coal-afhes, which laft are
of fervice in continuing the heat of the dung. This
fhould remain fix or feven days in a heap ; and being
then turned over, and the parts mixed well together,
it (hould be again caft into a heap; where it may con¬
tinue five or fix days longer, by which time it will
have acquired a due heat. Thefe hot-beds are made
in the following manner: In feme fiieltered part of
the garden, dig out a trench of a length and width
proportionable to the frames you intend it for; and if
the ground be dry, about a foot or a foot and a half
deep ; but if it be wet, not above fix inches : then
wheel the dung into the opening, obferving to ftir
every part of it with a fork, and to lay it exaftly
even and fmooth on every part of the bed, laying the
bottom part of heap, which is commonly free from
litter, upon the furface of the bed : and if it be de-
figned for a bed to plant out cucumbers to remain
for good, you muft make a hole in the middle of the
place defigned for each light about ten inches over,
and fix deep, which {hould be filled with good frefti
earth, thrufting in a ftick to ftiew the places where
the holes are; then cover the bed all over with the
earth that was taken out of the trench, about four
inches thick, and put on the frame, letting it remain
till the earth be warm, which commonly happens in
three or four days after the bed is made, and then
the plants may be placed in it. But if your hot-bed
be defigned for other plants, there need be no holes
made in the dung ; but after having fmoothed the
furface with a fpade, you {hould cover the dung about
three or four inches thick with good earth, putting
on the frames and glaffes as before. In making thefe
beds, care muft be taken to fettle the dung clofe with
a fork ; and if it be pretty full of long litter, it {hould
be trod down equally on every part. During the firft
week or ten days after the bed is made, you {hould
cover the glaffes but {lightly in the night, and in the
day-time carefully raife them, to let out the {team :
but as the heat abates, the covering {hould be increafed ;
and as the bed grows cold', new hot dung {hould be
added round the fides of it.
The hot-bed made with tanner’s bark, is, however,
much preferable to that deferibed-above, efpecially
36 ] HOT
for all tender exotic plants and fruits, which require Hot-bed It
an even degree of warmth to be continued for feveral i! .
months, which cannot be effedled with horfe-dung. Hotmai< \
The manner of making them is as follows : Dig a
trench about three feet deep, if the ground be dry ;
but if wet, it muft. not be above a foot deep at moft,
and muft be raifed two feet above the ground. The i
length muft be proportioned to the frames intended to !
cover it; but it {hould never be lefs than ten or twelve
feet, and the width not lefs than fix. The trench
{hould be bricked up round the fides to the above-
mentioned height of three feet, and filled in the fpring
with frefh tanner’s bark that has been lately drawn
out of their vats, and has lain in a round heap, for
the moifture to drain out of it, only three or four '
days: as it is put in, gently beat it down equally
with a dung-fork; but it muft not be trodden, which
would prevent its heating, by fettling it too clofe :
then put on the frame, covering it with glaffes ; and
in about ten days or a fortnight, it will begin to heat;
at which time plunge your pots of plants or feed into
it, obferving not to tread down the bark in doing it.
Thefe beds will continue three or four months in a
good temper of heat; and if you ftir up the bark
pretty deep, and mix a load or two of frefti bark with
the old when you find the warmth decline, you will
preferve its heat two or three months longer. Many
lay fome hot horfe-dung in the bottom of the trench
under the bark; but this-ought never to be pra&ifed
unlefs the bed is wanted fooner than the bark would
heat of itfelf, and even then there ought only to be a
fmall quantity of dung at the bottom.
The frames which cover thefe beds, {hould be pro¬
portioned to the feveral plants they are defigned to ;
contain. If they are to cover the ananas orpine-apple^
the back part fhould be three feet high, and the lower
part fifteen inches: if the bed be intended for taller
plants, the frame muft be made of a depth proper*-
tionable to them : but if it be for fowing of feeds,
the frame need not be above fourteen inches high at
the back, and feven in the front; by which means,
the heat will be much greater..
HOTEL, a French term, anciently fignifying a
houfe, or dwelling place.— It is now more commonly
ufed for the palaces, or houfes of the king, princes, and
great lords. In this fenfe they fay, the hotel de Cende,
hotel de Conti, hotel du Louvre, &c.
The grandde 1'hotel, is the firft judge of the
officers of the king’s houfehold. His jurifdiftion is
much like that of lord fteward of the houfchold of the
king of England.
The hotel de id He is what we call a town-houfe, or
town-hall.
Hotel, is likewife ufed for a large inn, alfo for a
large lodging-houfe ready furnifhed.
HOTMAN (Francis), one of the moft learned cL
vilians in the 16th century. He profefled law at
Bourges : but, on account of religion, retired to Ge¬
neva, read leftures on civil law there, and publifhed
books with fuch ftrength againft the perfecutors, that
great promifes were made to him to engage him not
to write any more in that manner; but he did not re¬
gard their offers. He died at Bafil in J590. His
Franco-Gallia is well known, having been done in
Englifh by lord Molefworth. Some perfons think he
was f
HOT [ 3737 ] HOT
Hottentots, was the author of Vindieia contra Tyrannos. All his
" works were printed at Geneva in 1599, in 3 vols
folio.
HOTTENTOTS, a people in the fouthern part
of Africa, whofe country furrounds the empire of Mo-
nomotapa, in form of a horfe-fhoe, extending, accord¬
ing to Magin, from the Negroeft of Cabo as far as the
Cape of Good Hope ; and from thence northward to
the river Magnica, or Rio de St Spirita, including
Mattatan a diftinft kingdom. According to Sanu-
tus, this coaft, beginning at the Mountains of the
Moon under the tropic of Capricorn in 23°,- S. Lat.
extends north beyond the Cape to the coart of Zan-
gnebar ; having the Indian fea on the eaft, the Ethio-
pic on the weft, the fouthern ocean on the fouth;
and on the north the kingdoms of Mattatan, Mono-
1 _ motapa, and the coaft of Zanguebar, or rather the
Mountains of the Moon, which divide it from the reft
of the continent.
The Europeans firft became acquainted with this
country in the year 1493, when Bartholomew Diaz,
a Portuguefe admiral, difeovered the moll foutherly
point of Africa now called the Cape of Good Hope, but
by him Cabo dot totos tormentos, or Cape of all
Plagues, on account of the ftorms he met with in the
neighbourhood ; but John, then king of Portugal, ha¬
ving from the account of Diaz concluded that a paf-
fage to the Eaft Indies was now difeovered,- changed
the name to that of the Cape of Good Hope, which it
Hill retains. In 1497, it was circumnavigated by
Vafco de Gama, who made a voyage to India that
way ; however,, it remained ufelefs to Europeans till
the year 1650, when Van Riebeck a Duch furgeon
firft faw the advantages that would accrue to the Eaft
India company in Holland, from a fettlement at fuch
a convenient diftance both from home and from India.
The colony which he planted has ever fince continued
in the hands of the Dutch, has greatly increafed in
value, and is vifited by all the European Ihips trading
to the Eaft Indies.
The country now poirtlTed by the Dutch is of pret¬
ty conliderable extent, and comprehends that part of
the African coaft on the weft called Terra de Natal.
It is naturally barren and mountainous; but the in-
duftry of the Dutch hath overcome all natural difficul¬
ties, and it now produces not only a fufficiency of all
the neceffaries of life for the inhabitants, but alfo for
the refreftvment of all the Europeans who pafs and re-
pafs that way.
The coaft abounds in capes, bays, and roads. Thir¬
ty leagues to the eaft of the Cape of Good Hope, in
S. Lat. 34. 21. is another Cape which runs out be¬
yond 350, called by the Portuguefe, who firft doubled
it, Cabo dos Agulhas, or the Cape of Needles, on ac¬
count of fome ftrange variations in the magnetical
needle obferved as they came near it. Near this Cape
is a flat ffiore, with plenty of fiftr r it begins in the
weft near afrelh-water river, and, extending 15 leagues
in the main fea, ends in the eaft near Fijh-bay. Cabo
Falfo, fo called by the Portuguefe, who returning from
India miftook it for the Cape of Good Hope, lies to
the eaft ward between thefe two capes, about eight or
nine leagues beyond that of Good Hope. Along the
eoafts, on both fides of the Cape of Good Hope, are
snany fine bays,, where Ihips may ride in the greateft
fafety. Twenty-feven leagues to the northweft is Sal- Hottentots,
donha bay, fo named from a Portuguefe captain fhip-
wrecked on the coaft. The largeft and moft commo¬
dious is. Table or Vafel Bay, on the fouth, and near the
mountain of that name, fix leagues in circumference,
with four-fathom water clofe to the beach, and ftiel-
tered from all but northweft winds, which blow ftraight
up. Oppofite to this bay is RobuEilan, or the Ifland
of Rabbits, in 34. 30. S. Lat. 67 leagues eaft from
the Cape of Good Hope. Peter Both, in 1661, dif¬
eovered a bay, which he named Uleejl, fheltered only
from north winds, in which is a fmall ifland, and on
the weft a rivulet of frefli water extremely convenient
for European mariners. Twenty-five or thirty leagues
farther eaft. Both difeovered Marfhall Bay, after¬
wards named by the Portuguefe Seno Fortnofo. Next
to this is Seno de Lago, from its refemblance to a lake.
There are feveral roads in this bay, and an ifland call¬
ed llha dos Caos. Cabo de S. Francifco, and Cabo
das Serras are marked upon charts between thefe two
bays. Near the latter of thefe capes is Cabode Are-
cito, and the ifland Contento; and fornething more
north-eaft is St Chriftopher’s river, called San Chri-
fovano by the Portuguefe, and by the Hottentots
Nagod. The country beyond this river, was called
by the Portuguefe, who difeovered it on the day of
our Lord’s nativity, Terra de Natal. Between the
Cape of Good Hope and Cabo das Agulhas are the
Sweet, Salt, and Jagulina rivers, which run into the
fea, and Sweet-water river flows from the Table-
mountain.
The moft remarkable mountains in this country are
Table-hill, Lion-hill, Wind-hill, and the Tiger-hills,
The three firft lie near Table-bay, and furround
Table-valley, where the Cape-town Hands. The firft
is the higheft, and extends to the fouth and a little
weft, from the centre of the valley. Kolben deter¬
mined its height to be 1857 feet. Mr Forfter, who
lately vifited this part of the world, informs us, that
“ the extremity of Africa towards the fouth is a mafs
of high mountains, of which the outermoft are crag¬
gy, black, and barren, confifting of a coarfe granite,
which contains no heterogeneous parts, fuch as petri¬
fied (hells, &c. nor any volcanic produ&ions. The
ground gradually rifes on all fides towards the three
mountains which lie round the bottom of the bay,
keeping low and level only near the fea-fide, and grow¬
ing fomewhat marfhy in the Ifthmus between Falfe
and Table Bays, where a fait rivulet falls into the lat¬
ter. The marfhy part has fome verdure, but inter¬
mixed with a great deal of fand. The higher
grounds, which, from the fea-fide, have a parched
and dreary appearance, are, however, covered with
an immehfe variety of plants, among which are a
prodigious number of (hrubs, but fcarce one or two
fpecies that deferve the name of trees. There are al¬
fo a few fmall plantations wherever a little run of wa¬
ter moiftens the ground. The afeent of Table-mount
is very deep and difficult, on account of the number
of loofe ftones which roll away under the feet of the
traveller. About the middle of.the mountain is a bold,,
grand chafm, whofe walls are perpendicular and often,
impending rocks, piled up in ftrata. Small rills of
water ooze out of crevices, or fall from precipices in
drops, giving life to hundreds of plants and low
hot [ 3738 ] HOT
Hottentots, flirubs in the chafm. The fummit of the mountain is
nearly level, very barren, and bare of foil; feveral ca¬
vities, however, are filled with rain water, or contain
a fmall quantity of vegetable earth, from whence a
few odoriferous plants draw their nourifhment. Some
antelopes, howling baboons, folitary vultures, and
toads, are fometimes to be met with on the mountain.
The view from thence is very extenfive and pifturefque.
The bay feems a fmall pond or bafon, and the (hips in
it dwindled to little boats; the town under our feet,
and the regular compartments of its gardens, look like
the work of children.”
Moft accounts of this country that have been pub-
lilhed mention a furprifing phenomenon which is an¬
nually to be feen on the top of Table-hill from Sep¬
tember to March ; namely, a white cloud hovering on
its top, and is reckoned the caufe of thofe terrible
fouth-eaft winds with which the Cape is infelled. This
cloud, called by failors The Devil's table-cloth^ is faid
by fome to appear at firft no bigger than a barley¬
corn ; then increafes to the fize of a walnut, and foon
after covers the whole top of the mount. But, accord¬
ing to Mr Kolben, it is never lefs, even on its firft ap¬
pearance, than the fize of a large ox ; often bigger.
It hangs in feveral fleeces over the Table-hill, and the
Wind or Devil’s-hill; which fleeces, at laft uniting,
form a large cloud that covers the fummits of thefe
two hills. After this has refted for fome time with¬
out change or motion, the wind burfts out fuddenly
from it with the utmoft fury. The fkirts of the cloud
are white, but feem much more compadl than the mat¬
ter of common clouds ; the upper parts are of a leaden
colour. No rain falls from it, but fometimes it dif-
covers a great deal of humidity ; at which times it is
of a darker colour, and the wind iffuingfrom it is broken,
raging by fits of fhort continuance. In its ufual ftate,
the wind keeps up its lirft fury unabated for one, two,
three, or eight days; and fometimes for a whole month
together. The cloud feems all the while undiminifhed,
though little fleeces are from time to time detached
from it, and hurried down the fides of the hills, vanifti-
ing when they reach the bottom, fo that during the
ftorm the cloud feems to be fupplied with new matter.
When the cloud begins to brighten up, thefe fupplies
fail, and the wind proportionably abates. At length,
the cloud growing tranfparent, the wind ceafes. Du¬
ring the continuance of thefe fouth-eaft winds, the
Table-valley is torn by furious whirlwinds. If they
blow warm, they are generally of (hort duration ; and
in this cafe, the cloud foon difappears. This wind
rarely blows till after funfet, and never longer than till
towards midnight, though the cloud remains, but then
it is thin and clear: but when the wind blows cold, it
is a lure fign that it will laft for fome time, an hour
at noon and midnight excepted ; when it feems to
lie ftill to recover itfelf, and then lets loofe its fury
anew.
The Europeans at the Cape confider the year as di¬
vided into two feafons, which they term monfoons. The
wet monfoon or winter, and the dry one or fummer.
The firft begins with our fpring in March; the latter
with September, when our fummer ends. In the fum¬
mer monfoon reign the fouth-eaft winds already men¬
tioned ; which, though they clear and render the air
more healthy, yet make it difficult for ffiips outward
bound to enter Table-bay. In the bad feafon, the HotteniU
Cape is much fubjeft to fogs ; and the north-weft ; F
winds and rain make the inhabitants ftay much at
home. But there are frequent inteimiffions and many ;
clear days till June and July; when it rains almoft con- ] \
tinually, and from thence till fummer. The weather
in winter is cold, raw, and unpleafant; but never
more rigorous than autumn in Germany. Water ne- .:
ver freezes to above the thicknefs of half a crown; and >
as foon as the fun appears, the ice is diflblved. The
Cape is rarely vifited by thunder and lightning, ex¬
cepting a little near the turn of the feafons, which ne¬
ver does any hurt. During the continuance of the ?
fouth-eaft winds which rage in fummer, the Iky is free
of all clouds except that on the Table and Wind Hills j
already mentioned; but during the north-weft winds,
the air is thick, and loaded with heavy clouds big with
rain. If the fouth-eaft winds fhould ceafe for any
length of time, the air becomes fickly by reafon of the
fea-weeds driving afhore and rotting ; hence the Eu¬
ropeans are at fuch times affefted with head-achs and
other diforders : but, on the other hand, the violence
of thofe winds fubje&s them to inflammations of their
eyes, &c.
The natives of this country are called Hottentots, ia
their own language ; a word of which it is vain to in*
quire the meaning, fince the language of this country
can fcarce be learned by any other nation. The Hot¬
tentot language is indeed faid to be a compofition of
the moft ftrange and difagreeable founds, deemed by
many thedifgrace of fpeech, without human found or
articulation, refembling rather the noife of irritated
turkies, the chattering of magpies, hooting of owls, and
depending on extraordinary vibrations, inflexions, and
claffiings of the tongue againft the palate.—If this ac¬
count is true, however, it is obvious, that all the re¬
lations we have concerning the religion, &c. of the
Hottentots derived from themfelves, muft fall to the
ground, as nobody can pretend to underftand a lan¬
guage in itfelf unintelligible. The manners and cu-
ftoms of thofe people, however, are eafily obfervable,
whether they themfelves give the relation or not; and ;
if their language is conformable to them, it is no doubt
of a nature fufficiently wonderful.
The Hottentots, according to the moft authentic
accounts, are, of all human creatures, the moft nafty.
Human urine, the excrements of beafts, entrails,
and garbage, foot, greafe, &c. are their foie de- 1
light, and even ufed as fymbols of honour and dig¬
nity. As foon as a child is born, they rub it all over
with freftt cow-dung ; which when dried they rub off,
and then wafli it with the juice of the Hottentot fig.
When this juice has dried up, they rub the child over
with fheep’s greafe, or melted butter ; and when it has
well foaked, they fprinkle on the powder of Buchu
(the herb Spiraea), which now (ticks all over like a
cruft. When her time has expired, the mother in
like manner purifies herfelf firft with cow-dung, and
then with greafe and buchu; after which (he is rertored
to the embraces of her huffiand, who muft previoufly
undergo a purification of the fame kind-. They are of
an olive colour when born : but the parents take care
to make their children as black as poffible by a daily
unftion with a mixture of greafe and foot; a ceremo¬
ny which is continued during the reft of their lives.
HOT f 3739 ] HOT
Hottentots, and which makes them appear much blacker than they
   really are. As foon as the child is born, the wo¬
men break down the bridge of the nofe with their
thumbs, looking upon a high nofe as a great de¬
formity ; and hence it hath been pretty generally
believed among Europeans, that the Hottentots are
born with flat nofes.
Every male, when arrived at the age of eight or
ten years, according to Hottentot law, ought to be
deprived of the left tefticle ; but in cafes where the
parents are poor, this ceremony is deferred till they
are able to anfwer the expence. The origin of a cu-
ftom fo very extraordinary would no doubt afford en¬
tertainment to the curious; but nothing fatisfaftory
hath been faid upon the fubjedt. Moft authors are of
| opinion, that this is done to make them run the fwif-
ter; and many of the natives themfelves aflign the
fame reafon : but Kolben was informed by fome of
the moft intelligent Hottentots, that it has been a
law among them from time immemorial, “ that no
man fhould be allowed to have carnal knowledge of
a woman, till deprived of his left tefticle.” Should
any marry without this neceffary mutilation, both par¬
ties would lie at the mercy of the rulers, and the wo¬
man perhaps be torn in pieces by her own fex; a-
mong whom it is a prevailing opinion, that a man
with two tcfticles conftantly begets twins. This ex¬
traordinary ceremony is performed in the following
manner. The patient being daubed over with the fat
of a fheep newly killed, lies on his back on the ground
at full length, with his hands and feet tied. His friends
lie upon him, in order to keep him from moving. The
operator then, with a common table or cafe knife, lay¬
ing hold of the left tefticle, makes an orifice in the
fcrotum about an inch and an half long. Thro’ this
orifice he fqueezes out the tefticle in a moment, ties up
the veffels, thrufts in a little ball of the fize of the te-
fticle, compofed of fheep’s fat and feveral herbs pul-
verifed. He then flitches up the wound with a thread
made of a flieep’s finew,. and a needle in the form of-
an awl. The bands of the patient being then un-
loofed, the operator anoints him again with the warm
fat of the (heep, turning him:fometimes on his back
and fometimes on his belly, while the poor boy is
fweating and almoft convulfed with pain. After this,
he piffes all over him, rubbing the precious liquor in¬
to his fltin as well as he can ; and the ceremony be-
I ing thus ended, the patient crawls to a little hut raifed
for the purpofe, and in two or three days becomes as
well as ever.
The next effential ceremony is the receiving the
youth into the fociety of men. This is performed
when they have arrived at the age of 18. Before this
time they are confined to the tuition of their mothers,
whom they conftantly follow, and dare not, before the
performance of the ceremony, converfe even with their
own fathers. The appointed time being arrived, the
inhabitants ^are afiembled, and the men feated in a
circle, and the candidate ordered to fit down without
upon his hams or heels, but in fuch a manner as not
to touch the ground by at lead three inches. The ol-
deft man then rifes, and, having obtained confent for
the youth’s admiflion, fteps up to him and acquaints
him, that he muft thenceforward forfake his mother,
and the company of the women, with every childilh
amufement, and learn to behave as a man, both in his Hottentots.
words and a&ions. The candidate then, being pre- —  
vioufly bedaubed with greafe and foot, fquats down
to receive the fmoking inundation of urine, which
the orator difcharges all over him with great forma¬
lity. The old men then congratulate him on the ho¬
nour done him, and add the following benedi&ions,
“ Good luck attend thee;—Live to be old;—In-
creafe and multiply ;—May thy beard grow foon.”
This ceremony is ufually followed by the young
man’s marriage. All overtures of the matrimonial kind
among the Hottentots, are made by the father or
neareft relation of the man, to the father or neareft re¬
lation of the woman. The father and his fon wait on
the woman’s friends; and the lover is firft employed
in preparing and prefenting the company with tobacco.
They all fmoke, and nothing is faid about the mat¬
ter till their heads become giddy with the fume: then
the father opens the bufinefs to the woman’s father,
and demands her for his fon. The other leaves the
room to confult with his wife; but quickly returns
with a pofitive anfwer ; which is feldom in the nega¬
tive, unlefs in cafe of a prior engagement. If the
young woman does not like the match which her pa¬
rents have agreed to, (he has only one chance to avoid
it; namely, to lie down with her lover on the ground,
and play with him all night at pinching, tickling, and
whipping. If flr? conquers, (he fairly gets rid of him;
but if he fubdues her, which is generally the cafe, flie
muft marry him. After this the young fellow goes to
the habitation of the bride, attended by all his rela¬
tions and friends, male and female, driving before them
one or more oxen, according to their wealth. They
are received with great joy; and the oxen being killed,
they befmear themfelves plentifully with the fat, pow¬
dering themfelves thick all over with buchu, and the
women paint their cheeks, forehead, and chin, with red
chalk. This being done, they perform the wedding
ceremony in the following manner. The men fquat
themfelves in a circle, in the centre of which the bride¬
groom is feated in the fame pofture. At fome little
diftance the women do the fame round the bride. Then
the prieft, or mafter of religious ceremonies, enters the
mens circle, and coming up to the bridegroom piffes a
little on him, who with his long nails (for the Hot¬
tentots never pare their nails) makes furrows in the
greafe and buchu with which he is covered, that the
urine may penetrate the better. He then does the fame
kindnefs to the bride; returning from the one to the
other, till his whole flock is exhauftedj pronouncing
all the time fhort bleffings to the following purpofe:
“ May you live happily together; may you have a fon
before the year’s end; may he be a good huntfmam
and a warrior.”
The Hottentots have an honourable order among
them, confifting of fuch as have fingly encountered and-
flain a lion, tyger, leopard, elephant, rhinoceros, or
elk. The hero, after his return from the exploit to the
village, retires to his own hut, where he has not fat
long, till an old man, deputed by the inhabitants of the
kraal or village, comes to invite him to receive the ho¬
nours due to his merit. The champion rifes and fol¬
lows his conduftor to the middle of the village, where
all the men are affembled and waiting his arrival. He.
there fquats down on a mat prepared for him ; while
all
HOT [ 3740 ] HOT
Hottentots, all the old men fquat in a circle round him. The old
deputy then marches up to him, and piffes upon him
from head to foot, pronouncing certain words. If the
deputy is the hero’s friend, he lays him under a deluge
of water ; for the more plentifully he is befprinkled,
the greater is the honour ; and the urine is rubbed in
by the hero himfelf with the greateft eagernefs. The
deputy then lights a pipe of tobacco, which he circu¬
lates through the company till nothing but afhes re¬
main in the pipe. Thefe the deputy (hakes on the
new knight, who is congratulated on the high honour
he has received and the fervice he has done his coun¬
try. After this he takes three days reft, during which
his wife is forbidden to come near him. On the third
day he kills a (heep, receives his wife again, and re¬
joices with his friends and neighbours; wearing ever
after the bladder of the bead he has killed, faftened to
his hair, as a mark of honour. The Hottentots ex-
prefs greater joy at the deftru&ion of a tyger than of
any other wild beaft.
The drefs of the Hottentots is perfectly agreeable
to the naftinefs of thofe cuftoms already deferibed.
The Ikin of a wild beaft, or (heep, prepared with cow-
dung andgreafe, hangslike a mantle over the (houlders,
high or low, open or clofed, according to the feafon of
the year, or the cuftoms of the tribe. The men, who
have no covering but a compofition of fat, foot, and
dirt, in the moft raging heats, wear cat or lamb-flein
caps in cold and wet feafons. The face and forepart
of the neck are always bare; and, the pudenda excep¬
ted, which are covered with a kind of apron, they go
naked from the hips downwards. Leather (lockings,
and fandals cut out of the raw hides of oxen or ele¬
phants, are ufed occafionally in driving their herds to
pafture, or in palling fands or rocks. A greafy pouch
hangs about their necks, with a knife, pipe, tobacco,
and a fmall piece of wood called fufay burnt at both
ends, as an amulet again ft witchcraft. Three ivory
rings adorn the left arm ; to which, on journeys, is fa¬
ftened a bag with provifions. The kirri and rackhttm
fticks (which they ufe in hunting) are in the right
hand; and another is carried in the left, with the bufhy
tail of a wild cat, fox, or other animal, faftened to it
for a handkerchief. Thehonquers orcaptains, who were
formerly diftinguilhed only by fair (kins of tygers or
wild-cats, now appear at the head of the army, in coun¬
cils, and on every folemn occafion, with brafs crowns,
and brafs-headed canes. Thefe ornaments were pre-
fented by the Dutch to the chiefs and captains of the
nations in alliance with them ; and are now annexed
to defeend with, and are efteemed an unalienable pro¬
perty and diftin&ive badge of their dignity.
Moft writers have affirmed that the Hottentot wo¬
men wear the guts of (heep and other animals by way
of ornament about their legs; but this is a miftake.
The girls from their infancy to about 12 years old,
wear bulrufhes tied in rings about their legs from the
knee down to the ankle. When they pafs that age,
they change the matter of thefe rings, from bulrulhes
to (lips of (beep and calf-(kin, of the thicknefs of the
little finger. They finge off the hair, and then turn
inwards the fide on which it grew. Some grown wo¬
men have above too of thefe rings on the leg, fo nicely
wound about and fitted, that they look like one con¬
tinued fwathe, and by long wearing affume the hard-
nefs of wood. Thefe rings are kept from falling down Hottem
by large wrappers of leather or ruffies about the ankles;
and ferve both as an ornamental diftinftion to the fex,
and for preferving the legs from being fcratched or j
torn in the fields. Like other favages, the Hotten¬
tots are very fond of brafs buttons, bits of looking-
glaffes, &c. and fome wear on their foreheads a fmall
plate of poliftied iron in the ffiape of an half-moon.
The diet of the Hottentots is the flelh and entrails |
of their cattle, and certain wild beads, with roots and
fruits of different kinds. But, excepting at their pub¬
lic feafts, they rarely kill any cattle for their own eat- !
ing, unlefs in cafes of great neceffity. Yet if any of
their cows or (heep die naturally, they make no fcruple
to eat them, and efteem them as wholefome food. If
the men are not contented with the roots, fruits, or ,
milk, which the women take care to provide, they go
out a-hunting, or, ifnear the fea, a-fi(hing. They al¬
ways hunt in large companies. The entrails of cattle,
or of fuch wild beads as they kill for food, are looked
upon as moft exquifite eating, after they have been
boiled in beads blood mingled with milk. Sometimes
they broil them; but in general they eat them half •
raw. In either cafe, they devour their vi&uals in a *
very furious and ravenous manner, without any regard
to decency. They have no fet meals; but eat as their
appetite or humour direfts, either by night or day. In
fair weather, they eat in the open air; in wind or rain,
in their huts. They have traditionary laws as to ab-
ftaining from certain meats. Swines flefti, and fiffi
without feales, are prohibited to both fexes: hares and
rabbits are forbidden to the men, but not to the wo¬
men : the pure blood of beads, and the fleffi of the
mole, ?re forbidden to the women,but not to the men. |
The naftinefs of the Hottentots makes them fwarm
with lice, fome of which are exceedingly big. Thefe
laft they eat, throwing away the unfizeable ones; and
if they are a(ked how they can devour fuch deteftable
vermin, they plead the law of retaliation, and urge
that it is no ffiame to eat thofe who would eat them.
The Europeans at the Cape have a fort of field-lhoes,
cut out of the raw hide of an ox or (lag, with the hairy !
fide outwards. Thefe, when thrown away, the Hot¬
tentots gather and lay up againft a rainy day, when -
their provifions fall (hort, and eat them heartily; firft .
fingeing off the hair, then foaking them in water, and
laftly broiling them on the fire.
Thefe are the cuftoms which chiefly diftinguiffi the
Hottentots from all other people on earth ; but be-
fides thefe, they have others in common with the ge¬
nerality of barbarous nations. If a woman is deliver- j I]
ed of female twins, jhey generally deftroy the word-
favoured ; or if the children are male and female, the
latter periffies, by being expofed on the bough of a ]
tree, or buried alive with the confentof the whole vil¬
lage. Some of thefe deferted infants have been found
by the Europeans, and educated by them; yet it is
faid, that, when arrived at the years of maturity, they
always renounced the European manners, apparel,
and religion, to conform to thofe of their own people.
After a youth is difeharged from the tuition of his
mother in the manner already mentioned, he may in-
fult, and even beat her, whenever he pleafes ; for
which he receives applaufe inftead of reproof. Nay,
it is ufual for them to go and abufe their mothers im¬
mediate- 11
HOT [3
Hottentots, mediately after their being admitted into the order of
| men, to fhew their contempt for the converfation of
females. If the elded fon, or, in default of Tons, the
next male relation, determines to get rid of his father,
mother, or other relation, who are confidered as fu-
perannuated, and incapable of any ufeful domedic
| performance, the village is convoked, and informed
of the condition and requed of the heir. Confent is
never refufed; and a day is immediately appointed for
the removal of the fuperannuated man or woman.
There is now no didinSion of perfons; the wealthied
man, or the captain of the village, mud fubmit as well
as the meaned, and is compelled to furrender his whole
edate to the claimant. The whole village accompany
him to a lonely hut, where he is left with a fmall
quantity of provifions fet within his reach, where he
foon perilhes, or is devoured by wild beads. Adul¬
tery among the Hottentots is always puniftied with
death : but they allow divorce, if the hufband can (hew
fufficient caufe for it; and of the fufficiency of which
the red of the village are the judges. In this cafe, the
men may marry again, but the woman is not allowed
to do fo while her hulband lives. If a widow marries,
Ihe cuts off a joint of her finger, beginning with the
little one, for every hufband after the fird.
In other refpe&s, the Hottentots are the mod lazy
people in the world : they edeem thinking a labour,
and avoid both as capital plagues ; paffing three parts
in four of their lives in the mod fhameful dupidity and
idlenefs. Occafionally, however, they are furprifing-
ly a&ive. In fwiftnefs, they are faid to furpafs the
fleeted horfej and are famed for their dexterity in dif-
charging their arrows, javelins, &c. Though unac¬
quainted with agriculture and the qualities of tobacco
before the arrival of the Europeans, they excel, and
are confulted by mod of thofe refident in their coun¬
try, concerning the management of lands and the
choice of tobacco. Their mutual affedion, liberality,
and benevolence, extend to each other in the mod
friendly manner; and, naturally compafSonating di-
flrefs, they are extremely hofpitable to drangers of every
nation. They are of good fenfe and integrity in the
execution of judice, and in chadity excel almod all
other nations in the world.
Befides the methods of fighting with bows and ar¬
rows, darts, Sic. common to all barbarous nations, the
Hottentots have a kind of oxen trained to war. Thefe
they call Bakkeleyers, or fighting oxen ; and the Hull
of the Hottentot generals is chiefly difplayed by choo-
fing the mod proper time and place for driving in the
beads among the enemy. Thefe animals damp, kick,
and gore, with incredible fury; and, if well followed
by the men, fpeedily rout the enemy. A battle de¬
cides the war ; for an Hottentot army once routed
never rallies again. The conquerors triumph and pur-
fue the enemy with adonifhing fhouts and exclama¬
tions. All prifoners are killed; and both armies
bury their dead, which are never infulted or plun¬
dered. Deferters and fpies are immediately put to
death.
The Hottentots are very fhy of entering upon any
difcourfe concerning their religion; whence it hath
been doubted whether they have any at all. Kolben,
however, afiiires us, that they believe in a God, the
author of all things. This fupreme power they call
741 1 HO T
the God of gods ; and fay, “ he is a good man, who SoHentots
does nobody any hurt, and from whom none need be  
apprehenfive of any, and that he lives far beyond the
moon.” But it does not appear, that they have any
inftitution of worfhip dire&ly regarding this fuprerne
deity. They excufe themfelves when prefled on this
head, by a tradition, that their firft parents fo grie-
voufly offended this great God, that he curfed them
and their pofterity with hardnefs of heart; fo that
they know little about him, and have lefs inclination
to ferve him. They adore the moon, by aflembling
at night in the_fields, killing cattle, and offering milk
and flefh. This they do conftantly at the full and
change. They welcome her; and then invoke her
for favourable weather, to grant them fodder for their
cattle, &c. They alfo regard as a good deity an
infed of the beetle kind, peculiar to thefe coun¬
tries. It is about the fize of a child’s little fin¬
ger, the back green, the belly fpeckled red and
white, with two wings and two horns. Wherever
they meet this animal, they pay it the higheft honour
and veneration. If it vifits a village, they aflemble
about it in troops as if a divinity had appeared among
them ; they kill a fheep or two as a thank-offering,
and efteem it as an omen of the greateft happinefs and
prosperity. They believe its appearance expiates all
their guilt. If the infed lights upon a Hottentot, the
perfon is looked upon as a faint, and ever after treated
with uncommon refped. The village kills the fatteft
ox for a thank-offering; and the caul powdered with
buchu, and twilled like a rope, is put collar-wife about
the faint’s neck, and there muft remain till it rots off.
A fort of veneration is alfo paid to deceafed faints or
heroes. They believe in an evil deity, whom they repre-
fent as a little, malicious, ill-natured being, a great
enemy to Hottentots, and the author of all the mif-
chiefs which befal them in this world, beyond which
he hath no power. They therefore worfhip and offer
facrifices to him, in order to foften and bring him in¬
to better temper. Some of them even pretend, that
they have fecn him in the fhape of a deformed, hairy,
frightful monfler, dreffed in white, with a head and
feet like thofe of a horfe. All fudden pain, crofs ac¬
cidents, and ficknefs, are by the Hottentots afcribed
to witchcraft; fo that charms and amulets are in high
efleem among them. They feem to have no notion of
a future Hate, either good or bad, after death, much
lefs of a refurre&ion ; yet that they believe the im¬
mortality of the foul, feems evident from the following
particulars. 1. They offer prayers and praifes to the
good Hottentots deceafed. 2. They are apprehen¬
five of the return of departed fpirits to moled them ;
for which reafon they remove their village on the death
of any of its inhabitants. 3. They believe it is in the
power of wizards and witches to lay thefe fpirits. But
they feem to think thefe departed fouls remain in or
about thofe places where the body was inhabited by
them ; for of a heaven or hell, rewards or punifhments,
they have not the lead notion.
This appears to be the whole that can be colle&ed
concerning the Hottentot religion, and to which they
are invincibly attached. If you attempt to reafon
with them, they hear you fullenly, or quit you abrupt¬
ly. They avoid, if poffible, any religious fubjed.
Some of them have pretended a belief of Chriflia-
21 I nity>
HOT
Jlottentots. nity : but when the motive was removed, they alway
returned to their former idolatry ; and, in fpite of
all the endeavours of the Dutch mlffionaries at the
Cape, they have never been able to make a fingle
convert.
Of the cape-town and country adjacent peopled by
the Dutch, Mr Fofter gives the following account:
“ The town is neat and well built; looks white at a
diftance, and feems to rife out of a defart furrounded
by broken mafles of black and dreary mountains.
The ftorehoufes of the Dutch Eaft-India company
are all fituated neareft the water, and the private
buildings lie beyond them in a gentle afcent. The
fort which commands the road, is on the eaft fide of
the town, but feems not to be of great ftrength ; be-
fides which, there are feveral batteries on both fides.
The ftreets in the town are broad, and regular ; all
the principal ones are planted with oaks; and fome
have in their middle a canal of running water, which,
on account of its fmall quantity, they are obliged to
hufband by fluices, fo that parts of it are fometimes
entirely drained, and occafion no very pleafant fmell.
The national charafter of the Dutch ftrongly mani-
fefts itfelf in this particular ; their fettlements being
always fupplied with canals, though reafon and com¬
mon fenfe evidently prove their noxious influence on
the health of the inhabitants, efpecially at Batavia.
“ The houfes are built of brick, and many of them
are white-wafhed on the outfide. The rooms are in
eneral lofty and fpacious, and very airy, which the
ot climate requires. There is but one church in the
whole town ; and that is extremely plain, and feems to
be rather too fmall for the congregation. That fpirit
of toleration, which has been fo beneficial to the Dutch
government at home, is not to be met with in their
colonies. It is but very lately that they have fuffered
even the Lutherans to build churches at Batavia, and
at this place; and at the prefent time, a clergyman
of that perfualion is not tolerated at the Cape, but
the inhabitants are obliged to content themfelves with
the chaplains of Danilh and Swedilh Eaft-India-men,
who give them a fermon, and adminifter the facrament
once or twice a-year, and are very handfomely re¬
warded. The government and the inhabitants do not
give themfelves the trouble to attend to a circumftance
of fo little confequence in their eyes as the religion of
their flaves, who in general feem to have none at all.
A few of them follow the Mahommedan rite; and
weekly meet in a private houfe belonging to a free
Mahommedan, in order to read or rather chaunt fe¬
veral prayers and chapters of the Khoran. As they
Lave no prieft among them, they cannot partake of any
other adis of worlhip (a).
“ The flaves belonging to the company, who amount
to feveral hundreds, are lodged and boarded in a fpa¬
cious houfe eredted for that purpofe, where they are
Jikewife kept at work. Another great building ferves
as an hofpital for the failors belonging to the Dutch
Eaft-India ftiips, which touch here, and commonly
have prodigious numbers of tick on board, on their
HOT
voyage from Europe towards India. The vaft num- Hottent pi:
ber of men, fometimes fix, feven, or eight hundred, !*"
which thefe Ihips carry out to fupply the military in
India, the fmall room to which they are confined, and
the fhort allowance of water and fait provifion they ?
receive, on a long voyage through the torrid zone, ge- j
nerally make confiderable havock among them : it is >
therefore no uncommon circumftance at the Cape, that |
a fhip on her paffage thither from Europe, lofes eigh¬
ty ora hundred men, and fends between two and three
hundred others dangeroufly ill to the hofpital. A fatt
no lefs deplorable than certain, is, that the fmall ex- 1
pence and facility with which the ziel-verkeepers a£tu-
ally carry on their infamous trade of fupplying the !
India company with recruits, makes them lefs atten¬
tive to the prefervation of health among thefe poor
people. Nothing is more common, in this and other
Dutch colonies, than to meet with foldiers in the com- i
pany’s fervice, who, upon inquiry, acknowledge they ;
have been kidnapped in Holland. There is an apo¬
thecary’s fhop belonging to the hofpital, where the ;
moft neceflary remedies are prepared, but no expen- /
five drugs are to be found in it ; and the method of
adminiftering to all the patients indiferiminately out j
of two or three huge bottles, full of different prepara¬
tions, fuffices to convince us, that the frelh air of the j
land, and the frefh provifions here, contribute much'
more to the recovery of the fick, than the (kill of their j
phyficians. Patients who are able to walk, are or- I
dered to go up and down the ftreets every fair morn- ;
ing; and all kinds of greens, pot-herbs, faliads, and ,
antifeorbutics, are raifed for their ufe, in an adjacent
garden belonging to the company. Travellers have j
fometimes praifed and fometimes depreciated this gar¬
den, according to the different points of view in which
it has been confidered. It is true, a few regular walks
of indifferent oaks, encompaffed with elm and myrtle i
hedges, are not objedts engaging enough to thofe who
are ufed to admire the perfedtion of gardening in Eng¬
land, or who contemplate in Holland and France cy-
prefs, box, and yew-trees cut out into vafes, ftatues, j
and pyramids, or charmilles turned into pieces of ar-
chitedfure! But confidering that the trees were planted
in the beginning of this century, more for ufe than
ornament; that they (belter the kitchen-herbs for j -
the hofpital, againft the deftrudlive violence of ftorms;
and that they form the only ftiady and airy walks,
comfortable to voyagers and fick perfons in this hot
climate; I cannot wonder that fome (hould extol as
“ a delightful fpot what others contemptuoufly * Byron.;
call “ a friar’s garden\Bougaiii
“ The governor depends immediately upon the |
Eaft-India company, and has the rank of an edele
beer, the title given to the members of the fupreme
council of Batavia. He prefides here over a council,
confiding of a fecond or deputy-governor, the fifcalr \
the major (who commands the fort), the fecretary,
the treafurer, the comptroller of provifions, the compt¬
roller of liquors, and the book-keeper; each of which
has a branch of the company’s commerce affigned to
(a) We would not be underftood to throw an odium on the Dutch in particular, when it is well known that the
negroes, who wear the chains of the Englilh and French, are equally negledted: it was only intended to awaken a
fellow-feeling towards an unhappy race of men, among the colonifts of all nations; and to remind them, whilft
they enjoy, or ft rive to enjoy, the ineftimablebleffing of liberty, to exert themfelves in a<Ss of humanity and kind.-
nefs towards thofe from whom they with-hold it, perhaps, witl^out remorfe*
[ 3742 ]
HOT [ 3043 1 HOT
tfottentots. his care. This council has the whole management of
7 the civil and military departments; but the deputy-
governor prefides over another, named the court of
jufice, which tries all offences and crimes, and confifts
of fome of the members of the former; but no two
relations can fit and vote in the fame council, to pre¬
vent the influence of parties.
“ The income of the governor is very confiderable ;
for, befides a fixed appointment, and the ufe of houfes,
gardens, proper furniture, and every thing that be¬
longs to his table, he receives about 10 dollars for
every leagre of wine which the company buy of the
farmer, in order to be exported to Batavia. The
company allows the fum of 40 dollars for each leagre,
of which the farmer receives but 24: what remains is
fhared between the governor, and fecond or deputy; the
former taking two-thirds, which fometimes are faid to
amount to 4000 dollars per annum. The deputy-
governor has the dire&ion of the company’s whole
commerce here, and figns all orders to the different
departments under him, as well as the governor to
others. He and the fifcal have the rank of upper
kooptnan. The fifcal is at the head of the police, and
fees the penal laws put in execution: his income con-
fifls of fines, and of the duties laid on certain articles
of commerce; but if he be flridt in exa&ing them, he
is univerfally deterted. The found policy of the Dutch
has likewife found it neceffary to place the fifcal as a
check, to overawe the other officers of the company,
that they may not counteraft the interefts of their
mailers, or infringe the laws of the mother-country.
He is, to that end, commonly well verfed in juridical
affairs, and depends folely upon the mother-country.
The major (at prefent Mr Von Prehn, who received
us with great politenefs) has the rank of koopman or
merchant: this circumftance furprifes a ftranger, who,
in all other European dates, is ufed to fee military
honours confer didindtion and precedence ; and ap¬
pears dill more Angular to one who knows the con-
trad in this particular between Holland and Ruffia,
where the idea of military rank is annexed to every
place, even that of a profeffor at the univerfity. The
number of regular foldiers at this colony amounts to
about 700; of which 400 form the garrifon of the fort,
near the Cape-town. The inhabitants capable of
bearing arms form a militia of 4000 men; of whom a
confiderable part may be affembled in a few hours, by
means of fignals made from alarm-places in different
parts of the country. We may from hence make
fome edimate of the number of white people in this
colony, which is at prefent fo extenlive, that the di-
dant fettlements are above a month’s journey from the
Cape; but thefe remote parts lie fometimes more than a
day’sjourney from each other, are furrounded by various
nations of Hottentots, and too frequently feel the want
of prote&ion from their own government at that di¬
dance. The flaves in this colony are at leaft in the
proportion of five or more to one white perfon. The
principal inhabitants at the Cape have fometimes from
20 to 30 flaves, which are in general treated with great
lenity, and fometimes become great favourites with
their maders, who give them very good cloathing,
but oblige them to wear neither dices nor dockings,
* Each acre of 666 fquare Rhynland roods, the rood
flnglifli, is about 116 to no.
referving thefe articles to themfelves. 1 ne flaves are
chiefly brought from Madagafcar, and a little vtfl'el
annually goes from the Cape thither on that trade;
there are, however, befides them, a number of Malays
and Bengalefe, and fome negroes. The colonilis
themfelves are for the greated part Germans, with fome
families of Dutch, and fome of French Protedants.
The charafterof the inhabitants of the town is mixed.
The are indudrious, but fond of good living, hofpi-
table, and focial ; though accudomed to hire their
apartments to drangers, for the time they touch at
this fettlement, and ufed to be complimented with
rich prefents of duffs, &c. by the officers of merchant
(hips. They have no great opportunities of acquiring
knowledge, there being no public fchoois of note at
the Cape ; their young men are therefore commonly
fent to Holland for improvement, and their female
education is too much negle6led. A kind of diflike
to reading, and the want of public amufements, make
their converfation unintereding, and too frequently
turn it upon fcandal, which is commonly carried to a
degree of inveteracy peculiar to little towns. The
French, Englifli, Portuguefe, and Malay languages,
are very commonly fpoken, and many of the ladies
have acquired them. This circumdance, together
with the accomplifhments of finging, dancing, and
playing a tune on the lute, frequently united in an
agreeable perfon, make amends for the want of refined
manners and delicacy of fentiment. There are, how¬
ever, among the principal inhabitants, perfons of both
fexes, whofe whole deportment, extenfive reading, and
well-cultivated underdanding would be admired and
didinguifhed even in Europe. Their circumdances
are in general eafy, and often very affluent, on account
of the cheap rate at which the neceffaries of life are
to be procured: but they feldom amafs fuch prodi¬
gious riches here as at Batavia ; and I was told the
greated private fortune at the Cape did not exceeed
100,000 dollars, or about 22,500!. derling.
“ The farmers in the country are very plain hofpi-
table people ; but thofe who dwell in the remoteft
fettlements feldom come to town, and are faid to be
very ignorant; this may eafily be conceived, becaufe
they have no better company than Hottentots, their
dwellings being often feveral days journey afunder,
which mud in a great meafure preclude all intercourfe.
The vine is cultivated in plantations within the com-
pafs of a few days journey from the town ; which
were edablifhed by the fird colonids, and of which
the ground was given in perpetual property to them
and their heirs. The company at prefent never part
with the property of the ground, but let the furface
to the farmer for an annualrent, which, though ex¬
tremely moderate, being only 25 dollars for 60 acres *,
yet does not give fufficient encouragement to plant
vineyards. The diflant fettlements, therefore, chiefly
raife corn and rear cattle ; nay, many of the fettlers
entirely follow the latter branch of rudic employment,
and fome have very numerous flocks. We were told
there were two farmers who had each 15,000 flieep,
and oxen in proportion; and feveral who poflefled 6000
or 8000 fheep, of which they drive great droves to
town every year: but lions and buffaloes, and the fa-
21 I 2 tigue
of 1 a feet. The proportion of the Rhynland foot to the
HOT [ 3744 ] H O T
Hottentots, tigue of the journey, deftroy numbers of their cattle
before they can bring them fo far. They commonly
take their families with them in large waggons co¬
vered with linen or leather, fpread over hoops, and
drawn by 8, lo, and fometimes 12 pair of oxen. They
bring butter, mutton-tallow, the fleih and Ikins of fea-
cows (hippopotamus), together with lion and rhino¬
ceros’ Ikins, to fell. They have feveral flaves, and
commonly engage in their fervice feveral Hottentots
of the poorer fort, and (as we were told) of the tribe
called Bofchemans, or Bujhmen, who have no cattle of
their own, but commonly fubfiit by hunting, or by
committing depredations on their neighbours. The
opulent farmers fet up a young beginner by intruding
to his care a flock of 400 or 500 fheep, which he leads
to a diftant fpot, where he finds plenty of good grafs
and water ; the one-half of all the lambs which are
yeaned fall to his fhare, by which means he foon be¬
comes as rich as his benefaftor.
“ Though the Dutch company feem evidently to
difeourage all new fettlers, by granting no lands in
private property; yet the produ&s of the country
have of late years fufficed not only to fupply the ifles
of France and Bourbon with corn, but likewife to
furnilh the mother-country with feveral (hip-loads.
Thefe exports would certainly be made at an eafier
rate than at prefent, if the fettlements did not extend
fo far into the country, from whence the products
muft be brought to the Table-bay by land-carriage,
on roads which are almoft impaflable. The interme¬
diate fpaces of uncultivated land between the different
fettlements are very extenfive, and contain many fpots
fit for agriculture; but one of the chief reafons why
the colonifts are fo much divided and fcattered through¬
out the country, is to be met with in another regula¬
tion of the company, which forbids every new fettler
to eftabliffi himfelf within a mile of another. It is
evident, that if this fettlement were in the hands of
the commonwealth, it would have attained to a great
population, and a degree of opulence and fplendor, of
which it has not the leaft hopes at prefent: but a pri¬
vate company of Eaft-India merchants find their ac¬
count much better in keeping all the landed property
to themfelves, and tying down the colonift, left he
fhould become too great and powerful.
“ The wines made at the Cape are of the greateft
variety pofiible. The beft, which is made at M.
Vander Spy’s plantation of Conftantia, is fpoken of
in Europe, more by report than from real knowledge ;
30 leagres (b) at the utmoft are annually railed of this
kind, and each leagre fells for about 501. on the fpot.
The vines from which it is made were originally
brought from Shiraz in Perfia. Several other forts
grow in the neighbourhood of that plantation, which
produce a fweet rich wine, that generally pafles for
genuine Conftantia in Europe. French plants of bur¬
gundy, mufeade, and frontignan, have likewife been
tried, and have fucceeded extremely well, fometimes
producing wines fuperior to thofe of the original foil.
An excellent dry wine, which has a flight agreeable
tartnefs, is commonly drank in the principal families,
and is made of Madeira vines tranfplanted to the Cape.
Several low forts, not entirely difagreeable, are raifed
in great plenty, and fold at a very cheap rate; fo that Hottinj iij
the failors of the Eaft-India ihips commonly indulge j! 1 fi
themfelves very plentifully in them whenever they come ou 1W
affiore.
“ The produ&s of the country fupply with provi-
fions the (hips of all nations which touch at the Cape. j
Corn, flour, bifeuit, faked beef, brandy, and wine, are j ;
to be had in abundance, and at moderate prices; and
their frefti greens, fine fruits (c), good mutton and
beef, are excellent reftoratives to feamen who have
made a long voyage.”
HOTTINGER (John Henry), born at Zurich in
Switzerland in 1620, profefied the Oriental langua¬
ges at Leyden, and was efteemed by all his learned i
colleagues. He was drowned, with part of his family,
in the river Lemit, in the year 1667. He wrote a
prodigious number of works; the principal of which
are, 1. Exercitationes yhiti- Moriniar.zr de Pentateucho
Samaritano, quarto, in which he defends the Heb¬
rew text againft father Morin. 2. Hijioria Orientalisy
quarto. 3. Bibliothecarius quadripartitus. 4. The- j
faurus Philologicus Sacra Scripturx, quarto. 5. Hi- ;
Jioria Ecclejiajiica. 6. Promptuarium, Jive Bibliotheca
Orientalis, 4.10. 7. DiJJ'ertationes niifcellanex. See.
HOTTONIA, water-violet; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs |
of plants.—There is but one fpecies, viz. thepaluftris,
with a naked ftalk. It grows naturally in the ftand- -j
ing waters in many parts of England. The leaves,
which are for the moft part immerfed in water, are
finely winged and flat like moft of the fea-plants; j
and at the bottom have long fibrous roots, vyhich ftrike
into the mud: the flower-ftalks rife or five fix inches
above the water, and toward the top have two
or three whorls of purple flowers, terminated by
a fmall clufter of the fame. Thefe flowers have
the appearance of thofe of the ftock-gilliflower,
fo make a pretty appearance on the furface of the
water.—It may be propagated in deep flanding wa¬
ters, by procuring its feeds when they are ripe, from
the places of their natural growth; which fliould be
immediately dropped into the water in thofe places
where they are defigned to grow, and the fpring
following they will appear; and if they are not dif-
turbed, they will foon propagate themfelves in great
plenty.—Cows eat this plant; fwine refufe it.
HOVEDEN (Roger de), born of an illuftrious
family, became chaplain to king Henry II. and left
behind him two books of Englijb Annals, carried on
from the year 732, where Bede ended, to the 4th of
king John, 1201. Sir H. Saville and Mr Selden
reckon him among the moft confiderable hiftorians
who flourifhed in the nth and 12th centuries.
HOULIERES (Antoniette de), a French lady,
whofe poetry is highly efteemed in France. Her
works and thofe of her daughter have been colledled
and printed together in two volumes. Moft of the
Idyls, particularly thofe on fheep and birds, furpafs
every thing of the kind in the French language : the
thoughts and expreffions are noble; and the ftyle
pure, flowing, and chafte. Mademoifelle des Hou-
lieres carried the poetic prize in the French academy
againft Fontenelle. Both of thefe ladies were mem-
(b) A leagre contains about 108 gallons, or a pipe.
(c) Their grapes and oranges are fome of the belt in the world.
Houfe.
Hjnnd,
Hours.
4 
H O U [ 3745 ] H O U
bers of the academy of Ricovatri; the mother was
alfo a member of the academy of Arles.—Thofe who
defire to be more particularly acquainted with the
hiltory of Madam des Houlieres may coofult her life
prefixed to her works in the Paris edition of 1747,
2 vols i2mo.
HOULSWORTHY, a large town of Devonfhire,
feated between two branches of the river Tamer, ha-
ving a good market for corn and provifions. W.
Long. 4. 42. N. Lat. 50. 50.
HOUND. See Canis, Uloov-Houndy and Gre-
Hound.
HOUR, in chronology, an aliquot part of a natu¬
ral day, ufually a 24th, but fometimes a 12th. The
origin of the word hora, or comes, according to
fome authors, from a furname of the fun, the father
of hours, whom the Egyptians call Horus. Others
derive it from the Greek op<?£<v, to terminate, dijlin-
gui/h, See. Others from the word upo», urine; hold¬
ing, that Trifmegiftus was the firft that fettled the
divilion of hours, which he did from obfervation of
an animal confecrated to Scrapis, named cynocephalus',
which makes water 12 times a-day, and as often in
the night, at equal intervals.
An hour, with us, is a meafure or quantity of time,
equal to a 24th part of the natural day, or nydhe-
meron ; or the duration of the 24th part of the earth’s
diurnal rotation. Fifteen degrees of the equator an-
fwer to an hour; though not precifely, but near e-
nough for common ufe. It is divided into 60 mi¬
nutes ; the minute into 60 feconds, &c.
The divifion of the day into hours is very ancient:
as is fhewn by Kircher, Oedip. JEgypt. Tom. II. P. II.
claff. VII. c. 8.: though the paffages he quotes from
Scripture do not prove it. —The moft ancient hour is
that of the 12th part of the day. Herodotus, lib. ii.
obferves, that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians,
among other things, the method of dividing the day
into twelve parts.—The aftronomers of Cathaya, &c.
bifhop Beveridge obferves, ftill retain this divifion.
They call the hour, chag; and to each chag give a
peculiar name, taken from fome animal: The firft is
called zetb, “ moufe;” the fecond, chiu, “ bullock;”
the third, zem, “ leopard the fourth, mau, “ hare;”
the fifth, chiu,f< crocodile, &c.”
The divifion of the day into 24 hours, was not
known to the Romans before the firft Punic war.—
Till that time they only regulated their days by the
rifing and fetting of the fun. They divided the 12
hours of their day into four, viz. prime, which com¬
menced at fix o’clock ; third, at nine ; fixth, at twelve,
and none, at three. They alfo divided the night into
four watches, each containing three hours.
HOURS, Hor/e, in the ancient mythology, were
certain goddeffes, the daughters of Jupiter and The¬
mis ; at firft only three in number, Eunomina, Dice,
and Irene ; to which were afterwards added two more,
Carpo and Thallote.—Homer makes them the door¬
keepers of heaven. Ovid allots them the employment
of harneffing the horfes of the fun :
Jungere equos Titan velocibus impsrat Horis.
Hours, Hone, in the Romifti church, are certain
prayers performed at ftated times of the day ; as mat-
tins, vefpers, lauds, &c.—The lefler hours, are prime.
tierce, Jixth, and none. They are called hours, or ca¬
nonical hours, as being to be rehearfed at certain hours
preferibed by the canons of that church, in comme¬
moration of the myfteriesaccomplifhed at thofe hours.
Thefe hours were anciently alfo called courfe, curfus ;
F. Mabillon has a differtation on them, entitled, Ds
Curfu Gallicano.
The firft conftitution enjoining the obfervation of the
canonical is of the ninth century, being found in a
capitular of Heito bifhopof Bafil directed to his curates,
importing that the priefts {hall never be abfent at the
canonical hours either by day or night.
HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with con-
veniencies for dwelling in. See Architecture.
House is alfo ufed for one of the eftates of the
kingdom affembled in parliament. Thus we fay, the
houfe of lords, the houfe of commons, &c. See
Peers, Commons, &c.
House is alfo ufed for a noble family ; or a race of
illuftrious perfons iffued from the fame ftock. In this
fenfe we fay, the houfe or family of the Stuarts, the
Bourbons, the houfe of Hanover, of Auftria, of Lor-
rain, of Savoy, &c.
Cheap, eafy, and expeditious Method of confrufting
Houses, ’which have been found to be very ufeful kofpitals
for the recovery of the fick, and therefore 7nay probably make
very nuholefme places of reftdence for the healthy.—The
firft thing to be done is to choofe a dry and airy fitua-
tion, on a gravelly or chalky foil if poffible; upon this
lay down the plan of your building, making one end
of it face that quarter from whence the pureft and
healthieft winds may be expefted to blow, of a
breadth that can be conveniently roofed. Then, if
boarding does not come fo cheap, drive flakes, at
about fix feet diftance from each other, into the ground,
fo as to Hand about fix feet above it; and, interlacing
them with wattles, coat the wattles on the fide next
the weather, with frefh ftraw ; and make the roof in
the fame manner, but thicker, or of thatch in the
ufual way, with a hole at the very top of it, to open
occafionally. Let the end of the building facing the
wholefomeft quarter lie open fome feet back, fo as to
form a porch, where the convalefcents may take the
air without danger of any injury from the weather.
A large chimney and kitchen grate may be erefted at
the other end. If the foil happens to be chalky or
gravelly, you may hollow it four or five feet deep,
within a foot or eighteen inches of the walls; but let
the fteps into this hollow lie far enough within the
porch, that no water may get into it, and, if of chalk,
the fteps may not growflippery in wet weather. From
time to time open the vent-hole at the roof; by means
of which all the unwolefome infedtious air, as being
warmer, and eonfequently lighter, than that which is
pure and wholefome, will be driven out by the rufti-'
ing in of the frefti air: a purpofe, which the little o-
penings, that may be left in the fides and roofs of
fuch rude and hafty buildings, will, even of themfelves,
anfwer fo well, as fufficiently to compenfate any cold
they may let in, even in the coldeft months. Let
the floor likewife be feraped three or four inches
deep every five or fix days, and what comes off re¬
moved to fome diftance. Halls of this kind, 50 feet
long and 2.0 broad, coft but a trifle to build; yet,
with
H O U [ 3746 ] H O U
^QUfc- with thefe precautions (even without the addition of
clean ftraw for every new patient to lie on, inclofed
in clean walhed facks fit for the purpefe, which come
infinitely cheaper than the bare cleaning of flock or
even feather beds, fnppofing it poflible to clean fuch
beds), proved of infinitely more advantage in the re¬
covery of fick foldiers, than the low-roofed rooms of
the farm-honfes of. the Ifle of Wight, or even the
better accommodations of Carifbrooke caftle in the
fame ifland, in which there periflied four times the
number of fick that there did in thefe temporary re¬
ceptacles; which were firft thought of by do&or
Procklelby, on occafion of fome terrible infedtions
from confined animal-effluvia.
Is it not furprifing, that we have not availed our-
felves more of the above difcovery in natural hiftory,
being, perhaps, the moll important the moderns can
boafl: of, in the moft ufeful fcience, viz. the fuperior
lightnefs of unwholefome and infedtious air ! The up¬
per falhes in moft houfes, even of thofe who pretend
to fome knowledge in thefe matters, are generally
immoveable, by means of which no part of the foul
air above the level of the lowed rail of the other fafti’s
greateft rife, can efcape by the window; and, if it
efcapes by the doors, it is generally for want of a
vent in the higheft part of the roof, merely to accu¬
mulate in the upper ftory of the houfe, and add to the
infedtion, which the great quantities of old furnitnre
ufually ftored up there are of themfelves but too apt
to create, when care is not frequently taken to open
the windows of it. Thus, the chief benefit to be ex¬
pected from lofty rooms is in a great meafure loft.
Whereas, were the upper fafhes contrived to come
down, all the air might be eafily changed, and that
almoft infenfibly, by letting them down an inch or
two. Nay, the upper fafti might be often let entire¬
ly down with lefs danger or inconvenience from cold,
than the lower thrown up the tenth part of an inch,
though the doing of the former would be attended
with infinitely more advantage to the health of the
inhabitants than the latter. It is, perhaps, on this
principle, that we are to account for the good health
enjoyed by the poor who live crowded in damp cellars,
and often with great numbers of rabbits, poultry, and
even fwine about them. Thefe cellars are open tor the
ftreet, with doors reaching from the floor to the very
ceiling, but never fo dole at bottom or at top as to
prevent a free circulation of air ; in confequence of
which, that all-vivifying fluid, as fall as it is fpoiled
by pafling through the lungs of the inhabitants and
their ftock, or is infefted by their infenfible perfpira-
tion, excrements, &c. is driven out and replaced by
the frefh air.
House, in aftrology, denotes the twelfth part of the
heavens.
The divifion of the heavens into houfes, is founded
upon the pretended influence of the liars, when meet¬
ing in them> on all fublunary bodies. Thefe influences
are fuppofed to be good or bad ; and to each of thefe
houfes particular virtues are afligned, on which aftro-
logers prepare and form a judgment of their horofcopes.
The horizon and meridian are two circles of the cele-
ftial houfes, which divide the heavens into four equal
parts, each containing three houfes; fix of which are
above the horizon, and fix below it; and fix of thefe
are called eajlern, and fix wejlern houfes. HoufejS
A fcheme or figure of the heavens is compofed of Hou<eh°i P1
12 triangles, alfo called houfes, in which is marked the \ r
liars, figns, and planets, fo included in each of thefe
circles. Every planet has likewife two particular houfes,
in which it is pretended that they exert their influence
in the ftrongeft manner; but the fun and moon have
only one, the houfe of the former being Leo, and that
of the latter Cancer.
The houfes in aftrology have alfo names given them
according to. their qualities. The firft is the houfe of
life: this is the afcendant, which extends five degrees
above the horizon, and the reft below it. The fecond
is the houfe of riches: the third, the houfe of brothers:
the fourth, in the lowed part of the heavens, is the
houfe of relations, and the angle of the earth: the fifth, ]
the houfe of children: the fixth, the houfe of health :
the feventh, the houfe of marriage, and the angle of
the weft: the eighth, the houfe of death: the ninth,
the houfe of piety: the tenth, the houfe of offices:
the eleventh, the houfe of friends : .and the twelfth,
the houfe of enemies.
Count/y-Hovse, is the villa of the ancient Ro¬
mans, the quinta of the Spaniards and Portuguefe, the
cloferie and cajfme of the French, and the vigna of the
Italians.
It ought always to have wood and water near it;
thefe being the principal beauties of a rural feat. The
trees make a far better defence than hills, as they yield j 1
a cooling and healthy air, ihade during the heat of i |
fummer, and very much break the feverities of the win- j
ter feafon.
It ftiould not be fituated too low, on account of the
moiflure of the air; and, on the other hand, thofe built
on places expofed to the winds are expenfive to keep i
in repair. In houfes not above two ttories high, and j i
upon a good foundation, the length of two bricks, or <
18 inches, for the heading courfe, will be fufficient for
the ground-work of any common ftrudture; and fix or
feven courfes above the earth, to a water-table, where 1
the thicknefs of the walls are abated, or taken in, on
either fide the thicknefs of a brick, viz. two inches and
a quarter. But for large and high houfes of three,
four, or five ftories, with garrets, their walls ought to
be three heading courfes of bricks, or 28 inches at
leaft, from the foundation to the firft water-table; and
at every a ftory a water-table, or taking in, on the in-
fide, for the fummers, girders, and joifts to reft upon,
laid into the middle, or one quarter of the wall at leaft,
for the better bond. But as for the partition-wall, a
brick and half will be fufficiently thick ; and for the
upper ftories, a brick length or nine inch brick will
fuffice.
House-Breaking, or Robbing, is the breaking into
and robbing a houfe in the day-time ; the feme crime
being termed burglary, when done by night: both
are felony, without benefit of clergy.
HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family confidered
colle&ively, including the miftrefs, children, and fer-
vants. But the houfehold of a fovereign prince in¬
cludes only the officers and domeftics belonging to his
palace.
The principal officers of his majefty’s houfehold are,
the lord fteward, lord chamberlain of the houfehold,
the groom of the Hole, the mafter of the great ward¬
robe,
H O U [ 3747 ] HOW
iHoufdiold. robe, and tbe mafter of the horfe.
The civil government of the king’s houfe is under
the care of the lord fteward of the king’s houfehold;
who, as he is the chief officer, all his commands are
obferved and obeyed. His authority extends over all
the other officers and fervants, except thofe of his ma-
jefty’s chapel, chamber, and {table, and he is the judge
of all crimes committed either within the court or the
verge.
Under him are the treafurer of the houfehold, the
comptroller, cofferer, the mafter of the houfehold, the
clerks of the green-cloth, and the officers and fervants
> belonging to the accounting-houfe, the marftialfea, the
verge, the king’s kitchen, the houfehold kitchen, the
acatery, bake-houfe, pantry, buttery, cellar, paftry,
See. Next to the lord fteward is the lord chamberlain
of the houfehold, who has under him the vice-cham¬
berlain, the treafurer, and comptroller of the chamber;
48 gentlemen of the privy chamber, 12 of whom wait
quarterly, and two of them lie every night in the privy-
chamber ; the gentleman uffier, the grooms of the great.
chamber,^ the pages of the prefence-chamber; the
mace-bearers, cup- bearers, carvers, muficians, &c. See
Zanf Chamberlain of the Houfehold.
The groom of the ftole has under him the 11 other
lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed¬
chamber, and by turns lie there a-nights on a pallet-
Ijed ; and alfo the grooms of the bed-chamber, the
pages of the bed-chamber and back-ftairs, &c. See
Groom of the Stole.
The mafter or keeper of the great wardrobe has un¬
der him, a deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes,
bruffier, &c. and a number of tradefmen and artificers,
who are all fworn fervants to the king.
The mafter of the horfe has under his command the
equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers,
fadlers, and all the other officers and tradefmen em¬
ployed in his majefty’s ftables.
Next to the civil lift of the king’s court, is the mi¬
litary, confifting of the band of gentlemen penfion-
ers, the yeomen of the guard, and the troops of the
houfehold; of which the two firft guard the king a-
bove {fairs.
When the king dines in public, he is waited upon
at table by his majefty’s cup-bearers, carvers, and
- gentlemen fewers ; the muficians playing all the time.
The dinner is brought up by the yeomen of the guard,
and the gentlemen fewers fet the difties in order. The
carvers cut for the king, and the cup-bearers fervehim
the drink with one knee on the ground, after he has
firft tafted it in the cover.
House and Window Vuty^ a branch of the king’s
extraordinary revenue *.—-As early as the conqueft
ee f‘ mention is made in domefday book of fumage or fu-
" * age, vulgarly called fmoke-farthbigs; which were paid
y euftom to the king for every chimney in the houfe.
And we read that Edward the Black prince (foon af¬
ter his fucceffes in France) in imitation of the Engliffi
cuftom, impofed a tax of a fibrin upon every hearth in
his French dominions. But the firft parliamentary
eftablifhment of it in England was by ftatute 13 & 14
Car. II. c. 10. whereby an hereditary revenue of 2 s.
for every hearth, in all houfes paying to church and
poor, was granted to the king for ever. And, by fub-
fequent ftatutes, for the more regular allefiment of this
tax, the conftableand two other fubftantial inhabitants Houfiiig,.
of the parilh, to be appointed yearly, (or the furveyor !Ioward’
appointed by the crown, together with fuch conftable
or other public officer) were, once in every year, em¬
powered to view the infide of every houfe in the pa-
rilh. But, upon the revolution, by flat 1. W. &. M.
c. 10. hearth-money was declared to be “ not on¬
ly a great oppreffion to the poorer fort, but a badge
of flavery upon the whole people, expofing every man’s
houfe to be entered into and fearched at pleafure, by
perfbns unknown to him; and therefore, to eredt a lad¬
ing monument of their majefties goodnefs, in every
houfe in the kingdom the duty of hearth-money was
taken away and abolifhed.” This monument of good¬
nefs remains among us to this day: but the profpeft
of it was fomewhat darkened, when in fix years after¬
wards, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 18. a tax was laid up¬
on all houfes (except cottages) of 2s. now advanced to
3/. per houfe, and a tax alfo upon all windows, if they
exceeded nine, in fuch houfe. Which rates have been
from time to time varied, being now extended to all
windows exceeding fix; and power is given to furvey-
ors, appointed by the crown, to fnfpeft the outfide of
houfes, and alfo tq pafs through any houfe, two days
in the year, into any court or yard to infpeft the win¬
dows there.
HOUSING, or House-Z/w, in the fea-language,
a fmall line, formed of three fine ftrands, or twifts of
hemp, fmaller than rope-yarn. It is chiefly ufed to
feize blocks into their ftrops, to bind the corners of
the fails, or to fallen the bottom of a fail to its bolt- *
rope, &c. See Y>o\.-v-Rope.
HOWARD (Henry), earl of Surry, a foldierand
a poet, the fon and grandfon of two lord treafurers,
dukes of Norfolk, was born probably about the year
1520, and educated in Windfor caftle, with young Fitz-
roy, earl of Richmond, natural fon to king H. VIII.
Wood fays, from tradition, that he was fome time a
ftudent at cardinal college, Oxford. In his youth he
became enamoured of the Fair Geraldine, whom his
fonnets have immortalized. In 1532, Howard with
his companion Richmond was at Paris, where they
continued fome time. The latter died in 1536; after
which our young hero made a tour to Italy, and at
Florence, like a true enamorato, publilhed a challenge
againft all comers, whether Chriftians, Jews, Saracens,
Turks, or cannibals, in defence of the beauty of his
fair Geraldine ; and was vi&orious in the tournament
inftituted by the grand duke on the occafion. The
duke, we are told, was fo charmed with his gallant ex¬
ploits, that he would gladly have retained him at hia
court; but he rejedled the invitation, being determined
to maintain the fuperlative beauty of his Geraldine, in
all the principal cities in Italy. This romantic refolu-
tion was however fruftrated by the command of his fo-
vereign, Henry VIII. to return to England.
In 1540, he fignalized himfelf in 3 tournament at
Weftminfter, againft Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas
Seymour, and others. In 1542, he marched, under
the command of his father, againft the Scots ; and in
the fame year was confined in Windfor caftle for eat¬
ing flefir in Lent, contrary to the king’s proclamation.
In 1544, on the expedition to Boulogne in France, he
was appointed field-marlhal of the Englilh army ; and
after the taking of that town, in 1546, made captain-
general.
HOW [ 5748 ] HOW
Howard, general of the king’s forces in France. He was at this
“ time knight of the garter. In the fame year, attempt¬
ing to intercept a convoy, he was defeated by the
French, and foon after fuperfeded in his command by
the earl of Hertford.
Surry', after his return to England, confcious of his
former fervices, and peevifh under his difgrace, could
not help refle&ing on the king and council. This was
his iirll ftep towards deftrudlion. He had married
Frances, the daughter of John earl of Oxford; and,
after her death, is faid to have made love to the prin-
cefs Mary. For this the Seymours, rivals of the Nor¬
folk family, and now in favour with the king, accufed
him of afpiring to the crown ; adding, that he already
prefumed to quarter part of the royal arms with his
own : but, whatever might be the pretence, the caufe
of his ruin was the jealoufy and power of his enemies.
In flrort, the deftruction of the Howards being deter¬
mined, Surry, and his father the duke of Norfolk,
were committed to the tower, in December 1546;
and on the tjth of January following, Surry was tried
at Guild-hall by a common jury, and beheaded on
Tower-hill on the 19th day of the fame month, nine
days before the death of the king, who thus, that the
meafure of his crimes might be full, finifhed his life
with the murder of his beft fubjedf. The accufations
brought againft this amiable and innocent young no¬
bleman on his trial, were fo extremely ridiculous, that
one is aftonilhed how it was poffible, even in the moft
defpotic reign, to find a judge and jury fo pufillani-
moufly villanous as to carry on the farce of juftice on
the occafion. We boaft of our excellent conftitution,
and our trial by juries ; but this example may teach
us, that our conftitution and our juries are not incom¬
patible with defpotic monarchy. He was firft inter¬
red in the church of All-hallows, Barkin, near Tower-
hill; and afterwards, in the reign of king James I. re¬
moved to Farmingham in Suffolk, by his fon Henry
earl of Northampton.
As to the charadter of this unfortunate earl, all our
poets have fung his praife. Mr Walpole begins his
anecdotes of Surry with thefe words:—“ We now
emerge from the twilight of learning to an almoft claf-
fic author, that ornament of a boifterous, yet not un-
poliftied court, the earl of Surrey, celebrated by Dray¬
ton, Dryden, Fenton, Pope, illuftrated by his own
mufe, and lamented for his unhappy death: a man (as
Sir Walter Raleigh fays), no lefs valiant than learned,
and of excellent hopes.” Leland calls him the con-
fcript enrolled heir of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the elder,
in his learning and other excellent qualities; and the
author of The Art of Englijh Poetry fays, that the earl
of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, may be juftly call¬
ed the reformers of our poetry and Jiyle. His poems
were publifhed in 1557, izmo; and in 1565, 1574,
1585, 1587, 8vo. Several of the fonnets are by Sir
Thomas Wyatt and others.
Howard (Charles), an able ftatefman and experi¬
enced fearoan, was the fon of lord William Howard,
baron of Effingham, and born in 1536. He ferved
under his father, who was lord high admiral of Eng¬
land, till the acceffion of queen Elizabeth. In January
i573,hefucceededhis father in his title and eftate: after
which he fucceffively became chamberlain of the houfe-
hold, and knight of the garter; and, in 1585, was
made lord high admiral, at that critical jun£lure when Howar y
the Spaniards were fending their armada, in their opi- ^Mj ^
nion, to the aflured conqueft of this kingdom. When °W1
he received intelligence of the approach of the Spanifti
fleet, and faw the prodigious confequence it was to get !
out the few (hips that were ready at Plymouth, he not :
only gave orders in every thing himfelf, but wrought ;
alfo with his own hands, and the firft night left the
port with fix fhips. The next morning, though he
had only 30 fail, and thofe the fmalleft of the fleet, he
attacked the Spanifli navy ; but firft difpatched his
brother-in-law, Sir Edward Hobby, to the queen, to
defire her to make the proper difpofition of her land-
forces for the fecurity of the coaft, and to haften as
many fhips as poffible to his affiftance. His valour was
confpicuoufly difplayed in his repeated attacks of a fu-
perior enemy. The coolnefs of his temper was no lefs
confpicuous ; and it was owing to his magnanimity !
and prudence that the viftory was fo great. The queen
expreffed her fenfe of his merit in the moft honourable
terms; and granted him a penfion for life. In 1596,
he commanded in chief at fea, as Eflex did by land,
the forces fent againft Spain, when his prudence and '
moderation were among the principal caufes of the fuc-
cefs the Englifh met with in that great and glorious
enterprize; fo that, upon his return the next year, he
was advanced to the dignity of earl of Nottingham.
The next eminent fervice in which his Lordlhip was
engaged was in x J99, when the Spaniards feemed to
meditate a new invafion. Her majefty, who always 1
placed her fafety in being too quick for her enemies,
drew together, in a fortnight’s time, fuch a fleet, and
fuch an army, as took away all appearance of fuccefs
from her foreign and domeftic enemies ; and Ihe gave
the earl the foie and fupreme command of both the
fleet and army, with the title of lord lieutenant general
of all England, an office unknown in fucceeding times.
When age and infirmity had unfitted him for a&ion,
he refigned his office, and fpent the remaining part of
his life in eafe and retirement, till the time of his de-
ceafe, which happened in 1624, in the 87th year of his i
age.
HOWE (John), a learned Englilh nonconformift
divine born in 1630. He became minifter of Great j
Torrington in Devonffiire, and was appointed houfe- ;
hold chaplain to Cromwell; but feems to have been
free from the fanaticifm then in fafhion, as he offended
Cromwell greatly by preaching againft the notion of i
particular faith which the minifters of his court were
great advocates for. When Oliver died, he continued
chaplain to Richard ; and when Richard was depofed,
he returned to Torrington, where he continued till
the aft of uniformity took place and fet him afide.
He afterwards fettled at Utrecht, until the declaration
for liberty of confcience was publiffiedby king JamesII.
under ftielter of which he returned to London, where
he died in 1705. He publifhed a great number of fer-
mons and religious works, which have been reprinted
together in one volume folio.
ilovsn-Ifand, a fmall ifland of the South Sea, dif-
covered by Captain Wallis, called by the inhabitants
of the Society-Ifland Mopeha ; lies in S. Lat. 16. 46.
and W. Long. 154. 8.
HOWEL (James), a voluminous writer of the 17th
century, fupported himfelf many years by writing and
tranflating
H U A [ 3749 ] HUD
Howitz tranflating of books. Though he had been a zealous
|i_ loyalift, he afterwards flattered Cromwell; yet on the
iHuahine. re(toratjon he was made hiftoriographer to the king,
being the firft in England who enjoyed that title. He
died in 1666.
HOWITZ, a kind of mortar, mounted upon a field-
carriage like a gun. The difference betweena mortar and
a howitz is, that the trunnions of the firft are at the end,
and at the middle in the laft. The invention of howitzes
is of much later date than mortars, for they really had
their origin from them. The conftru&ions of howitzes
are as various and uncertain as thofe of mortars, excep¬
ting the chambers, which are all cylindric. They are
diflinguiflied by the diameter of the bore; for inftance,
a ten inch howitz is that the diameter of which is jo
inches; and fo of the fmaller ones.
HOY, a fmall veffel, chiefly ufed In coafting, or car-
rying goods to or from a (hip, in a road or bay, where
the ordinary lighters cannot be managed with fafety
or convenience.
It would be very difficult to deferibe, precifely, the
marks of diftinftion between this vefiel and fome others of
the fame fize, which are alfo rigged in the fame manner;
becaufe what is called a hoy\x\ one place, would affume
the name of a floop or fmack in another; and even the
people who navigate thefe veffels, have, upon exami¬
nation, very vague ideas of the marks by which they
are diftinguifhed from thofe abovementioned. In Hol¬
land, the hoy has two mafts ; in England, it has but
one, where the main-fail is fometimes extended by a
boom, and fometimes without it. Upon the whole, it
may be defined a fmall veffel, ufually rigged as a floop,
and employed for carrying paffengers and luggage from
one place to another, particularly on the fea-coaft.
Hov, an ifland of Scotland, and one of the Orcades.
It is about 10 miles long; and that part called JVaes
is fruitful and pretty populous, and is a good place for
fifhing.
HOYE, a town of Germany, in Weftphalia, and
capital of a county of the fame name. It is feated on
the river Wefer, and is fubjeA to the eledftor of Ha¬
nover. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 53. 5.
HUAHINE, one of the Socwi'i-IJlands, in the
South Sea, fituated in S. Lat. 16. 43. W. Lon. 150.
52. and is about feven or eight leagues in compafs. Its
furface is hilly and uneven, and it has a fafe and con¬
venient harbour. It was firft difeovered by Captain
Cook in 1769. It is divided by a deep inlet into two
peninfulas conne&ed by an ifthmus, which is entirely
overflowed at high water. From the appearance of its
hills it may be concluded, that the country has at fome
period or other been the feat of a volcano. The fummitof
one of them had much the appearance of a crater, and
a blackilh fpongy earth was ften upon one of its fides,
.which Teemed to be lava ; and the rocks and clay every
where had a burnt appearance. The ifland is plenti¬
fully fupplied with water by many rivulets which de-
feend from the mountains and broken rocks. The in¬
habitants are nearly as fair as Europeans; and their
conduct is bolder than that of the inhabitants of the
other Society Iflands. They are a flout large-made
people, fome of the tailed being fix feet three inches
in height; they are extremely indolent, and feem to
have as little curiofity. as fear. The dogs, however, in
fpite of theiribupidity, are in great favour with all their
Vol. V.
women, “ who could not have carefied them (fays Huber
Mr Forfter) with a more ridiculous affedtion if they II
had been European ladies of fafliion.” HerewasTeen oa'
a middle-aged woman, whofe breafts were full of milk,
offering them to a little puppy who had been trained
up to fuck them. The fight difgufted thofe who faw
it fo much, that they could not forbear exprelfing their
diflike to it; but the woman fmiled, and told them that
file allowed young pigs to do the fame. It appeared
afterwards that this woman had loft her child. Some
of the gentlemen were prefent at a dramatic entertain¬
ment on this ifland: the piece reprefented a girl Tun¬
ing away from her parents; and feemed to be levelled
at a female paffenger who had come in Captain Cook’s
fhip from O’Tabeitee, and who happened to be prefent
at the reprefentation. It made fuch an imprelfion on the
girl, that the gentlemen could fcarce prevail upon her
to fee the piece out, or to refrain from tears while it
was acting. It concluded with the reception flic was
fuppofed to meet with from her friends, which was
made out not to be a very agreeable one.—Thefe peo¬
ple introduce extempore pieces upon occafion; and it
is moft probable that this was meant as a fatire upon
the girl abovementioned, and to difeourage others from
adting in the fame manner.
HUBER (Ulric), one of the greateft civilians in
the 17th century, was born at Dockum in 1636. He
became profeffor of law at Franeker; and wrote, 1. A
treatife De jure civitatis. 2. Jurifpudentia Frijica.
3. Specimen pbilofophite civilis- 4. Injlitutiones hi-
Jitrix civilis; and feveral other works which are e-
fteemed. He died in 1694.
HUBERT (St), a town of the Netherlands, on
the confines of Liege, with a very fine abbey, where
they bring thofe that are bit by mad animals to be
cured. E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 34. 32.
HUBNER (John), a learned geographer of Ger¬
many, taught geography at Leipfic and Hamburgh
with extraordinary reputation; and died at Hamburgh
in 1732, aged 63. His principal work is A Geogra¬
phical treatife, printed at Bafil in 1746, in 6 vols I2m».
HUDSON (Jeffery). See Dwarf.
Hudson (Henry), an eminent Englifh navigator;
who, about the beginning of the laft century, under¬
took to find out a paffage by the north-eaft or north-
weft to Japan and China. For this purpofe he was
four times fitted out : he returned three times unfuc-
cefsful ; but in the laft voyage, in 1610, being per-
fuaded that the great bay to which his name has been
fince given, muft lead to the paffage he fought, he
wintered there, to profecute his difeovery in the
fpring. But their diftreffes during the winter produ¬
cing a mutiny among his men, when the fpving arri¬
ved, they turned him, with his fon and feven fick
men, adrift in his own ftiallop, and proceeded home
with the fhip. As Hudfon and his unhappy compa¬
nions were never heard of afterward, it is to be fuppofed
they all perifhed.
Hudson (John), a very learned Englifh critic,
born in 1662. He diftinguiflied himfelf by feveral
valuable editions of Greek and Latin authors; and,
in 1701, was eleifted head keeper of the Bodleian li¬
brary at Oxford. In 1712, he was appointed prin¬
cipal of St Mary’s Hall, through the intereft of the
famous Dr Ilatcliffe : and it is faid that the univerfity
21 K " of
HUD [ 3750 ] HUD
Hudfon's- of Oxford is indebted for the mofl; ample benefa&ions
of that pbyfician to Dr Hudfon’s folicitations. He
died in lyig* while he was preparing for publication
a catalogue of the Bodleian library, which he had
canfed to be fairly tranfcribed in fix folio volumes.
Hudson’s Bay, a large bay of North America, ly¬
ing between 51 and 69 degrees of latitude, difcovered
in 16to by Henry Hudfon. This intrepid mariner,
in fearching after a north-weft paffage to the South-
feas, difcovered three (freights, through which he ho¬
ped to find out a new way to Afia by America. He
failed boldly into the middle of the new gulph, and
was preparing to explore all its parts, when his trea¬
cherous crew put him into the long-boat, with feven
others, and left him, without either arms or provi-
fions, expofed to all the dangers both of fea and land.
The barbarians, who refufed him the neceffaries of
life, could not, however, rob him of the honour of
the difcovery ; and the bay, which he firft found out,
will ever be called by his name.
Rayna!. The miferies of the civil war which followed foon
after, had, however, made the Englifh forget this di-
ftant country, which had nothing to attract them. A
fucceffion of more quiet times had not yet induced
them to attend to it; when Grofeillers and Radiffon,
two French Canadians, having met with fome difcon-
tent at home, informed the Englilh, who were enga¬
ged in repairing the mifchiefs of difcord by trade, of
the profits arifing from furs, and of their claim to the
country that furnifhed them. Thofe who propofed
this undertaking (hewed fo much ability, that they
were intruded with the execution of it; and the firft
eftabliftiment they formed fucceeded fo well, that it
furpaffed their own hopes as well as their promifes.
This fuccefs alarmed the French; who were afraid,
and with reafon, that moft of the fine furs which they
got from the northern parts of Canada would be car¬
ried to Hudfon’s bay. Their alarms were confirmed
by the unanimous teftimony of their Coureurs de Bois,
who, fince 1656, had been four times as far as the
borders of the ftreight. It would have been an eli¬
gible thing to have gone by the fame road to attack
the new colony ; but the diftance being thought too
confiderable, notwithftanding the convenience of the
rivers, it was at length determined that the expedition
fliould be made by fea. The fate of it was trufted to
Grofeillers and Radifibn, who had been eafily prevail¬
ed upon to renew their attachment to their country.
Thefe two bold and turbulent men failed from Que¬
bec in 1682, in two veflels ill equipped ; and on their
arrival, finding themfelves not ftrong enough to attack
the enemy, they were contented with ereding a fort
in the neighbourhood of that they defigned to have
taken. From this time there began a rivaHhip be¬
tween the two companies, one fettled at Canada, the
other in England, for the exclufive trade of the bay,
which was conftantly kept up by the difputes it occa-
fioned; till at laft, after each of their fettlements had
been frequently taken and recovered, all hoftilities
were terminated by the treaty of Utrecht, by which
the whole was ceded to Great-Britain.
Hudfon’s Bay, properly fpeaking, is only a mart
for trade. The feverity of the climate having de-
ftroyed all the corn fown there at different times, has
fruftrated every hope of agriculture, and confequently
of population. Throughout the whole of this exten- Hudfon’l
five coaft, there are not more than ninety or a hundred Ba>'-
foldiers, or fa&ors, who live in four bad forts, of 
which York-fort is the principal. Their bufinefs is to
receive the furs brought by the neighbouring favages
in exchange for merchandife, of which they have been j
taught the value and ufe.
Though thefe (kins are much more valuable than
thofe which are found in countries not fo far north, yet
they are cheaper. The favages give to beaver-(kins for
a gun, two for a pound of powder, one for four pounds
of lead, one for a hatchet, one for fix knives, two for
a pound of glafs-beads, fix for a cloth-coat, five for a
petticoat, and one for a pound of fnuff. Combs,
looking-glaffes, kettles, and brandy, fell in propor¬
tion. As the beaver is the common meafure of ex¬
change, by another regulation as fraudulent as the firft, A
two otters (kins and three martins are required inftead
of one beaver. Befides this opprtfiion, which is au-
thorifed, there is another which is at lead tolerated,
by which the favages arc conftantly defrauded in the
quality, quantity, and meafure of what is given them,
and by which they lofe about one third of the value.
From this regulated fyftem of impofition, it is eafy
to guefs that the commerce of Hudfon’s bay is a mo¬
nopoly. The capital of the company that is in pof-
felfion of it was originally no more than 10,565/.
and has been fucceflively increafed to 104,146 /. This
capital brings them in an annual return of forty or
fifty thoufand (kins of beavers or other animals, upon
which they make fo exorbitant a profit, that it excites
the jealoufy and clamours of the nation. Two thirds
of thefe beautiful furs are either confumed in kind in
the three kingdoms, or made ufe of in the national
manufa&ures. The reft are carried into Germany,
where the nature of the climate makes them a valuable
commodity.
This bay is about ten degrees in breadth : the en¬
trance is fix leagues broad; but is only to be attempted-
from the beginning of July to the end of September,
and is even then rather dangerous. This danger ari-
fes from mountains of ice, fome of which are faid to be 1
from 15 to 18 hundred feet thick, and which, having
been produced by winters of five or fix years duration
in littlegulphs conftantly filled with fnow, are forced out !
of them by north-weft winds, or by fome other extra¬
ordinary caufe. The beft way of avoiding them is
to keep as near as pofiible to the northern coaft, which
mull neceffarily be lefs obftrudled and moft free, by
the natural dire&ions of both winds and currents.
The north-weft wind, which blows almoft conftantly
in winter, and very often in fummer, frequently raifes
violent dorms within the bay itfelf, which is rendered
dill more dangerous by the number of (hoals that are
found there. Happily, however, fmall groups of
ifiands are met with at different diftances, which are
of afufficient height to afford a (helter from the ftorm.
Befide thefe fmall archipelagoes, there are in many
places large piles of bare rock. Except the alga
marina, the bay produces as few vegetables as the
other northern feas.
Throughout all the countries furrounding this bay,
the fun never rifes nor fets without forming a great
cone of light: this phenomenon is fucceeded by the
Aurora Borealis,, which tinges the hemifphere with,
coloured
HUD [ 3751 ] HUE
; bodfon’i- coloured rays of fuch a brilliancy, that the fplendour
■ R‘J!er of them is not effaced even by that of the full moon.
J hL. Notwithftanding this, there is feldom a bright iky.
1 In fpring and autumn, the air is always filled with
thick, fogs, and in winter with an infinite number of
fmall icicles. Though the heats in fummer are pretty
confiderable for fix weeks or two months, there is fel¬
dom any thunder or lightning.
One of the effe&s of the extreme cold or fnow that
1 prevails in this climate, is that of turning thofe ani¬
mals white in winter which are naturally brown or
grey. Nature has beftowed upon them all, foft, long,
and thick furs, the hair of which falls off as the wea¬
ther grows milder. In moft of thefe quadrupeds, the
feet, the tail, the ears, and, generally fpeaking, all
.thofe parts in which the circulation is flower becaufe
j,; they are the moft remote from the heart, are extreme¬
ly fhort. Wherever they happen to be fomething
longer, they are proportionably well covered. Under
this gloomy iky, all liquors become folid by freezing,
and break the veffels they are in. Even fpirit of wine
lofes its fluidity. It is not uncommon to fee frag¬
ments of large rocks loofened and detached from the
great mafs by the force of the froft. All thefe phe¬
nomena, common enough during the whole winter,
are much more terrible at the new and full moon, which
in thefe regions has an influence upon the weather, the
caufes of which are not known.
In this frozen zone, iron, lead, copper, marble, and
a fubftance refembling fea-coal, have been difcovered.
In other refpe&s, the foil is extremely barren. Except
the coafts, which are for the moft part marfhy, and
produce a little grafs and fome foft wood, the reft of
the country affords nothing but very high mofs, and a
few weak fhrubs very thinly fcattered.
For an account of the inhabitants, fee Greenland.
Hudson’s-.K«w, a large river of North America,
which rifeson the eaft of Lake Ontario, and running
by Albany, and on the back of the fouth part of
New-England through part of New-York, falls into
the bay of the fea beyond the weft end of Long-Ifland,
and below the town of New-York.
HUE and Cry, in law, the purfuit of a perfon
who has committed felony on the high way.—Of this
cuftom, which is of Britifti origin, the following de-
du&ion is given by Mr Whitaker. “ When it was
requifite for the Britons to call out their warriors into
the field, they ufed a method that was particularly mark¬
ed by its expeditioufnefs and decifivenefs, and remains
partially among us to this moment. They railed a
cry, which was immediately caught up by others, and
in an inftant tranfmitted from mouth to mouth thro’
all the region. And, as the notice pafled along, the
warriors fnatched their arms, and hurried away to the
rendezvous. We have a remarkable defcription of
the fa& in Ctefar, and there fee the alarm propagated
in 16 or 17 hours through 160 miles in a line. And
the fame pra&ice has been retained by the Highlan¬
ders to our own time. When the lord of a clan re¬
ceived intelligence of an enemy’s approach, he im¬
mediately killed a goat with his own fword, dipped
the end of a half-burnt flick in the blood, and then
gave it and the notice of the rendezvous to be carried
to the next hamlet. The former fymbolically threat¬
ened fire and fword to all his followers that did not
inftantly repair to the latter. The notice was dif- Husfc*
patched from hamlet to hamlet with the utmoft expe- II
dition. And in three or four hours the whole clan Huet'
was in arms, and afiembled at the place appointed.
This was within thefe few years the ordinary mode by
which the chieftains aflembled their followers for war.
The firft perfon that received the notice, fet out with
it at full fpeed, delivered it to the next that he met,
who inftantly fet out on the fame fpeed, and handed
it to a third. And, in the late rebellion of 1745, it
was fent by an unknown hand through the region of
Braidalbin ; and, flying as expeditioufly as the Gal-
lick fignal in Csefar, traverfed a trad of 32 miles in
three hours. This quick method of giving a diffufive
alarm is even preferved among ourfelves to the prefcnt
day ; but is applied, as it feerns from Caefat’s account
above to have been equally applied among the Cel-
tx, to the better purpofes of civil polity. The Aw
tefium and clamour of our laws, and the hue and cry
of our own times, is a well-known and powerful pro-
cefs for fpreading the notice and continuing the pur¬
fuit of any fugitive felons. The cry, like the clamour
of the Gauls or the fummons of the Highlanders, is
taken from town to town and from county to county;
and a chain of communication is fpeedily carried from
one end of the kingdom to the other.
HUESCA, an ancient and confiderable town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon, with a biftiop’s
fee and an univerfity. It is feated on the Iffuela in
a foil producing excellent wine, in W. Long. o. 13.
N. Lat. 40. 2.
HUESCAR, or Guescar,3 town of Spain in the
kingdom of Granada, feated on a plain in W. Long.
1. 45. N. Lat. 37. 32.
HUESNE, or Huena, a fmall illand in the Bal¬
tic Sea, in the Sound, where was the famous obfer-
vatory of Tycho Brahe. E, Long. 13. 5. N. Lat.
55- 54-
HUET (Peter Daniel), a very learned French wri¬
ter, born at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of Fe¬
bruary 1630. He difcovered, from his infancy, a
great inclination to the ftudy of polite literature and
the fciences, and at firft applied himfelf to the law ;
but Des Cartes’s principles, and Bochart’s facred geo¬
graphy, made him change his ftudies for thofe of phi*
lofophy, mathematics, the languages, and antiqui¬
ties. His admiration for Bochart made him defirous
of knowing him. He contradled a very ftrift friend-
ftiip with him, and accompanied that learned man to
Sweden. Here Chriftina would have engaged him in
her fervice ; but he, fenfible of her inconftant temper,
returned to France. All he brought with him was a
copy of a MS. of Origen, which he tranfcribed at
Stockholm. He rtfufed feveral offers from Chriftina
after (he abdicated and went to Rome, and from Gu-
ftavus her fucceffor. In 1670, Mr Boffuet being ap¬
pointed by the king preceptor to the dauphin, his
majefty chofe Mr Huet for his colleague, with the
title of fub-preceptor to the prince. It was he that
formed the plan of the commentaries in ufum Del-
phini, and directed the execution. His fentiments of
piety determined him to enter into holy orders, which
he did at the age of 46. Soon after this,he was pre-
fented by the king to the abbey of Aunay ; and in
1685 was nominated to the bilhopric of Soiflbns, which
21 K 2 he
Hughes
Huguenots.
HUG [ 3752 ] HUM
he exchanged for the fee of Avranches. After go¬
verning that diocefe ten years, he refigned, and was
made abbot of Fontenay near Caen. His love to his
native place determined him to fix there. But law-
fuits coming upon him, he retired to Paris, and lodged
among the Jefuits in the Maifon Profejfe, whom he
had made heirs to his library. A fevere diftemper
weakened his body extremely, but not the vivacity of
his genius: he wrote his own life in a very elegant
ftyle ; and died in 1721, aged 91. He was a man of
very agreeable converfatioti; and of great probity, as
well as immenfe erudition.—The following are the
titles of his principal works. 1. De Claris interpfe-
tibus, et de optima genere interpretandi. 2. An edi¬
tion ofOrigen’s commentaries on the holy Scriptures,
in Greek and Latin. 3. A treatife on the origin
of the Romans. 4. Demonjlraiio evangelica, folio.
-5. Shteejliones Ain et an a de concordia rationis et fidei.
6. Of the fituation of the terreftrial paradife, in
French. 7. A hiftory of the commerce and naviga¬
tion of the ancients, which has been tranflated into
Englifh. 8. Commentarius de rebus ed e&m perti-
nejitibus. 9. Huetiana. 10. Latin and Greek ver-
fes, &c.
HUGHES (John), an ingenious and polite wri¬
ter, was born in 1677. In the earlieft parts of his
youth he cultivated the fifter-arts, poetry, drawing,
and mufic, in each of which he by turns made a con-
fiderable progrefs; but followed thofe and his other
ftudies only as agreeable amufements, under frequent
confinement on account of his ill ftate of health. The
lord Chancellor Cowper made him fecretary for the
commiffions of the peace without his knowledge, and
diftinguilhed him with Angular marks of his efteem.
He continued in the fame employment under the earl
of Macclesfield, and held it to the day of his death ;
which happened in 1719, the very night in which his
tragedy, intitled TheJiege of Dajnafcus, was firft ac¬
ted. He was then 42. He tranflated Fontenelle’s
dialogues of the dead, Vertot’s revolutions of Portu¬
gal, and the letters of Abelard and Eloifa. He gave
a very accurate edition of Spencer’s works, with his
life, a gloffary, and remarks; and wrote feveral papers
in the Tatler, Speftator, and Guardian. Mr Dun-
combe, who married his filler, colledfed his poems
and effays in 2 vols i2mo, in J735.
HUGHLY, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Bengal, feated on the mod wefterly branch of the ri¬
ver Ganges. It is of large extent, reaching about
two miles along the river-fide, and drives a great trade
in all the commodities of that country ; affording rich
cargoes for 50 or 60 fiu'ps annually, befides what is
brought on carriages to the neighbouring towns.
Saltpetre is brought hither from Patnia in vellels above
50 yards long and five broad. The inhabitants are
chiefly Indians; but there are alfo Portuguefe, Eng-
1-ifh, and other Europeans. E. Long. 87. yy. N.
Lat. 2 2-. 6.
HUGO Capet, chief of the third race of the kings
of France, being count of Paris and Orleans: he was
raifed to the throne for his military valour and public
virtues in 987. See France, n° 27.
HUGUENOTS, a name given by way of con¬
tempt to the Calvinifts of France.
The name had its rife in the year iy6o; but au¬
thors are not agreed as to its origin. The mo ft plau-
fible opinion, however, is that of Pafquier, who ob-
ferves, that at Tours, the place where they were firft
thus denominated, the people had a notion, that an
apparition or hobgoblin, called king Hugon, (trolled
about the ftreets in the night-time ; from whence, as
thofe of the reformed religion met chiefly in the night
to pray, &c. they called them Huguenots, that is, the
difciples of king Hugon.
HULK, on old (hip of war, fitted with an appa¬
ratus, to fix or take out the mails of his majefly’s
(hips, as occafion requires. See Plate CLXI. fig. 7.
The mail of this veffel is extremely high, and with¬
al properly (Lengthened by Jhrouds andflays, in order
to fecure what are called the Jkeers, which ferve, as
the arm of a crane, to hoift out or in the mafts of any
(hip lying alongfide. The (heers are compofed of fe¬
deral long mafts, whofe heels reft upon the fide of the
hulk, and having their heads declining outward from
the perpendicular, fo as to hang over the veffel whofe
mafts are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles, which
extend from the head of the mail to the (heer-heads,
are intended to pull in the latter towards the maft-
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a maft after it is raifed out of any (hip,
which is performed by ftrong tackles depending from
the (heer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles is pro¬
duced by two capfterns, fixed on the deck for this
purpofe.
Hulk, is alfo a name bellowed on any old veffel
laid by as unfit for further fervice. It is probably de¬
rived from the oxxaJff, or veffels of burden, of the an¬
cient Grecians.
HULL, in the fea-language, is the main body of
a (hip, without either malls, yards, fails, or rigging-.
Thus, to flrike a hull in a dorm, is to take in her
fails, and to lalh the helm on the lee-fide of the (hip ;
and to hull, or lie a-hull, is faid of a (hip whofe fails
are thus taken in, and helm lafticd a-lee,
Hull, in geography. See Kingston upon Hull.
HUMAN, in general, is an appellation given to
whatever relates to mankind : thus we fay, the human
foul, human body, human laws, &c.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, where¬
by he is diftinguiflied from all other beings.
Humanities, in the plural, fignify grammar,
rhetoric, and poetry, known by the name of liter.e
humaniores ; for teaching of which, there are profef-
fors in the univerfities of Scotland, called humanifls.
HUMBER, a river formed by the Trent, the Oufe,
and feveral other dreams united. It divides Yorkfhire
from Lincolnftiire, and falls into the German Sea at
Holdernefs.
HUME (David, efq ;), a late celebrated philofo-
pher and hiftorian, was born in the fouth part of Scot¬
land on the 26th of April O. S. in the year 1711.
Being the younger fon of a country gentleman of good
family, but no great fortune, his patrimony was of
confequence mfufficient to fopport him. For this
reafon he was deftined for the bar, and paffed tlW
his academical courfes in the univerfity of Edinburgh;
but being more inclined to ftudies of a different na¬
ture, he never put on the gown, nor even took the in-
troduftory Heps neceffary for that purpofe. The wri¬
tings of Locke and Berkeley had diredled the attention
Hum
HUM [ 3753 ] HUM
of the generality of learned men towards metapbyfics;
and Mr Hume having early applied himfelf to ftudies
of this kind, publifhed in 1739 the two firft volumes
of his Treatifii&f human nature, and the third the fol¬
lowing year. He had the mortification, however, to
find his book generally decried ; and to perceive, that
the tafte for fyftematic writing was now on the de¬
cline. He therefore divided this treatife into fe-
parate Efiays and Differtations, which he afterwards
publiihed at different times with alterations and im¬
provements.
In 1742, Mr Hume publifhed two fmall volumes,
confiding of Effays moral, political, and literary.
Thefe were better received than his former publica¬
tion ; but contributed little to his reputation as an au¬
thor, and ft ill lefs to his profit ; and his fmall patrimo¬
ny being now almoft fpent, he accepted an invitation
from the marquis of Anandale to come and live with
him m England. With this nobleman he ftaid a twelve-
month, during which time his fmall fortune was confide-
rably increafed. He then received an invitation from
General St Clair, to attend him as a fecretary to his
expedition, which was at firft meant againft Canada,
but afterwards ended in an excurfion againft the coaft
of France. In 1747, he received an invitation from
the general to attend him in the fame ftation in his mi¬
litary embaffy to the courts of Vienna and Turin. He
then wore the uniform of an officer; and was introdu¬
ced at thefe courts as aid-de-camp to the general, along
with Sir Harry Erfkine and captain Grant, afterwards
general Grant. In 1749, he returned to Scotland, and
lived two years with his brother at his country-houfe ;
where he compofed the fecond part of his efiays, call¬
ed PoliticalDifcourfes. And now the general approba¬
tion of his performances was indicated by a more ex-
tenfive fale than formerly, and likewife by the nume¬
rous anfwers publifhed by different perfons in order to
counteraft their fuppofed pernicious tendency. In
1752, were publifhed at Edinburgh his Political Dif¬
courfes, the only work of his which was well re¬
ceived on its firft appearance; and the fame year,
at London, his Inquiry concerning the Principles of
Morals, which in his own opinion was incomparably
the beft of all his performances. This- year alfo he
was appointed librarian to the faculty of Advocates at
Edinburgh ; the principal advantage refulting from
which employment was, that he had by that means the
command of a large library. He then formed the
plan of writing the Hiftory of England : but deeming
the whole to be too-extenfive, he confined his hillory
to that of Britain under the houfe of Stuart. The
book was almoft univerfally decried on its firft appear¬
ance, and foon after feemed to fink in oblivion. Dr
Herring, primate of England, and Dr Stone, primate
of Ireland, were the only literati-of the author’s ac¬
quaintance who approved of the work, and fent him
meffages not to be difcouraged.
Notwithftanding the approbation of thefe eminent-
men, however,, Mr Hume’s fpirits were fo much funk
by his bad fuccefs, that he had fome thoughts of re¬
tiring to France,, changing his name, and bidding
adieu to his own country for ever ; but his defigm
was rendered impradticable by the breaking out of
the war of 1755 between France and Britain. He
then publifhed his Natural Hiftory of Religionto
which an anfwer was publifhed, foon after its ap¬
pearance, in the name of Dr Hurd, biflrop of Litch- '
field and Coventry; of which, however, he hath
fince difclaimed being the foie author. In 1756,
the fecond volume of the Hiftory of the Stuarts was
publifhed, two years after the appearance of the firfl.
This was better received, and helped to retrieve the
charafler .of the former volume. Three years after,
his Hiftory of the Houfe of Tudor made its appear¬
ance ; which was almoft as ill received as the Hiftory
of the Stuarts had been, the reign of Elizabeth being
particularly obnoxious. The author, however, had
now learned to defpife popular clamours ; and conti¬
nued to finifhat his leifure the more early part of the
Englifh hiftory, which was publifhed in 1761, and was
received with tolerable fuccefs.
Mr Hum* being now turned of fifty, and having
obtained by the fale of his books a competent and inde¬
pendent fortune, retired into his native country of
Scotland, determined never more to fet his foot out of
it. From this refolution, however, he was diverted
by the earl of Hertford ; whom he attended as fecre¬
tary on his embaffy to Paris in 1763. In 1765, the
earl being appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, Mr
Hume was intruded with the foie management of the
bufinefs of the (late till the arrival of the duke of
Richmond towards the latter end of the year. In
1767, he returned to Edinburgh with a much larger in¬
come, procured to him by the earl of Hertford, than he
formerly had; and now formed the fame defign he had
formerly entertained, namely, of burying himfelf in
his philofophical retreat. In this, however, he was
again difappointed, by receiving an invitation from ge¬
neral Conway to be under fecretary; and this invita*T
tion he was prevented from declining, both by the
chara&er of the perfon, and his connections with lord'
Hertford. In 1769, he returned to Edinburgh, pof-
fefied of L. 1-000 a-year, healthy, and though fome-
what ftricken in years, yet having a profpeCt of long
enjoying hiseafe, and of feeing the increafe of his re¬
putation. Of his laft illntfs and character, he him-
felf gives the following account. “ In fpring 1775,
I was (truck with a diforder in my bowels; which at.
firft gave me no alarm, but has fince, as I apprehend
it, become mortal and incurable. I now reckon upon
a fpeedy. diffolution. I have fuffered very little pain
from my diforder ; and what is more (trange, have,,
notwithftanding the great decline of my perfon, never
fuffered a moment’s abatement of my fpirits; info-
much, that were I to name the period of my life
which I (hould moft choofe to pafs over again, I might
be tempted to point to this latter period. I poffefa
the fame ardour as-ever in ftudy, and the fame gaiety,
in company. Lconfider, befides, that a man of fixty-
five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities;
and though I fee many fymptoms of my literary repu¬
tation’s breaking out at laft with; additional luftre, I
knew that I could have, but few years to enjoy it. It
is difficult to be more detached from life than I am at
prefent.
“ To conclude,hiftbrically, with my own character.
I am, or rather was, (for that is the ftyle I muft now
ufe in fpeaking of myfelf, which emboldens me. the
more to fpeak my fentiments) ; I was, I fay, a man
of mild difpofitions, of command of temper, of an
open,..
H O R
t 3754 ]
H O R
Ilutneras open, focial, and cheerful humour, capable of attach- but probably Is not indigenous. The (talk is weak Hundrti
ment, but little fufceptible of enmity, and of great
Hiunurus. mo(]erat{on jn an my paffions. Even my love of li¬
terary fame, my ruling paflion, never foured my tem¬
per, notwithftanding my frequent difappointments.
My company was not unacceptable to the young and
carelefs, as well as to the iludious and literary ; and
as I took a particular pleafure in the company of mo-
deft women, I had no reafon to be difpleafed with the
reception I met with from them. In a word, though
mod men any wife eminent have found reafon to com¬
plain of calumny, I never was touched, or even attack¬
ed, by her baleful tooth: and though I wantonly ex-
pofed myfelf to the rage of both civil and religious fac¬
tions, they feemed to be difarmedin my behalf of their
wonted fury. My friends never had occafion to vindi¬
cate any one circumftance of my charafter and con-
du6t: not but that the zealots, we may well fuppofe,
would have been glad to invent and propagate any
ftory to my difadvantage, but they could never find
any which they thought would wear the face of pro¬
bability. I cannot fay there is no vanity in making
this funeral oration of myfelf, but I hope it is not a
roifplaced one; and this is a matter of faft which is
eafily cleared and afcertained.’'
His fears concerning the incurablenefs of his difor-
der proved too true. He died on the 25th of Au-
guft 1776 ; and was buried in the Calton church-yard,
Edinburgh, where a monument is ereded to his me¬
mory.
HUMERUS, in anatomy. See AnATOMY, n°48.
Luxation of the Humerus. See Surgery.
and climbing ; it creeps up the fupport in a fpiral, '
afcending always from the right hand to the left. The
{talk and the leaves are rough to the touch : the up¬
per leaves are heart-(haped, the lower ones divided in¬
to three lobes ferrated on the edges, and grow in pairs
on long footftalks. The male flowers grow on a di-
ftind plant on branched peduncles; the females on
peduncles in pairs of the form of a Jirobilus or cone,
compofed of large imbricated calyces containing each
one or two feeds. For the culture and ufes of hops, fee
the article Hop.
HUNDRED, hundredum, or Centuria, a part
or divifion of a county ; which was anciently fo called
from its containing an hundred families, or from its
furnifhing an hundred able men for the king’s wars.
After king Alfred’s dividing this kingdom into coun¬
ties, and giving the government of each county to a
fheriff, thefe counties were divided into hundreds, of
which the conftable was the chief officer. The grants
of hundreds were at firft made by the king to parti¬
cular perfons : but they are not now held by grant or
prefeription, their jurifdiftion being devolved to the
county-court; a few of them only excepted, that have
been by privilege annexed to the crown, or granted to
fome great fubje&s, and ftill remain in the nature of
a franchife.
Hundred-CW/. This is only a larger Court-
Baron, being held for all the inhabitants of a parti¬
cular hundred inftead of a manor. The free fuitors
are here alfo the judges, and the fteward the regiftrar,
as in the cafe of a court-baron. It is likewife no
HUMIDITY, that quality in bodies whereby they court of record; refembling the former in all points,
are capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very except that in point of territory it is of a greater ju-
much from fluidity; and feems to be merely a relative rifdidtion. This is faid by Sir Edward Coke to have
thing, depending on the congruity of the component been derived out of the county-court for the cafe of the
particles of the liquor to the pores of fuch particular people, that they might have juftice done them at their
bodies as it is capable of adhering to, penetrating a own doors, without any charge or lofs of time: but
little into, or wetting. Thus, for inftance, quickfil- its inftitution was probably co-eval with that of hun-
ver is not a moift thing with regard to our hands or dreds themfelves, which were formerly obferved to
clothes; but may be called fo in reference to gold, tin, have been introduced tho’ not invented by Alfred,
or lead, to whofe furfaces it will perfectly adhere, and being derived from the polity of the ancient Germans,
render them foft and moift. The centeni, we may remember, were the principal in-
HUMILITY. See Morals, n° 118. habitants of a diftrid compofed of different villages,
HUMMING-bird. See Trochilus. originally in number an £«»*//•<?</, but afterwards only
HUMOUR, in a general fenfe, denotes much the called by that name ; and who probably gave the fame
fame with liquid or fluid. See Fluid. denomination to the diftrift out of which they were
Humour. See Wit.
HUMPHREY (Dr Laurence), a very learned
Engliffi divine in the 16th century, who, during the
chofen. Csefar fpeaks pofitively of the judicial power
exercifed in their hundred-courts and courts-baron,
Principes regionum, atque pagorum," (which we
perfecution under queen Mary, retired with other Pro- may fairly conftrue, the lords of hundreds and manors)
teftant refugees to Zurich. He returned on the ac- <! interfuos jus die tint, controverfiafque minuunt.” And
ceffion of queen Elizabeth; and was made prefident of Tacitus, who had examined their conftitution ftill
Magdalene college, Oxford, dean of Gloucefter, and more attentively, informs us not only of the authority
then dean of Winchefter. He was a great and gene- of the lords, but that of the centeni, the hundredors,
ral fcholar, an able linguift, and a deep divine ; and or jury ; who were taken out of the common freehold-
publiflied, i. De religionis confervatione et reforma- ers, and had themfelves a ftiare in the determination.
tione, deque primatu regum. 2. De rat'tone interpre- “ Eliguntur in conciliis et principes, qui jura per pagoi
tandi auttores. 3. Optimates; five de nobilitate, ejufque vicofque reddunt: centenifngulis, ex plebe comites, con-
origine. 4. Sermons, and other works. He died fdium ftmul et aufloritas, adfunt.,> This hundred-
in 1590. court was denominated hareda in the Gothic conftitu-
HUMULUS, the hop ; a genus of the pentandria tion. But this court, as caufes are equally liable to
order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants. There removal from hence, as from the common court-ba-
is only one fpecies, viz. the lupulus, which is fome- ron, and by the fame writs, and may alfo be reviewed
times found wild in hedges near houfes and gardens, by writ of falfe judgment, is therefore fallen into equal
difufe
HUN [ 3755 ] HUN
fungary. difufe with regard to the trial of aftions.
' HUNGARY, a kingdom of Europe, thegreateft
part of which was anciently called Pannonia. It had
the name of Hungary from the Hunns, a Scythian or
Tartar nation, who fubdued it in the ninth century.
It lies between the 18th and zzd degrees of eaft long,
and betwixt the 45th and 49th degrees of north lat.
being bounded to the north by the Carpathian moun¬
tains, which feparate it from Poland ; to the fouih
by Servia, and the river Drave, which feparates it
from Sclavonia ; to the weft by Moravia, Auftria,
and Stiria ; and to the eaft by Walachia and Tran-
fylvania. It is about 240 miles in length, and 235
in breadth ; and is divided into the Upper and Lower
Hungary, the former being that part which lies to-
| wards the eaft, and the latter that which lies towards
the weft.
The northern parts of the kingdom are mountain¬
ous and barren, but healthy ; the fouthern, on the
Contrary, are level, and exceeding fruitful, but not
very healthy. The country along the Danube, from
Prefburg to Belgrade, for upwards of 200 miles, is
one continued plain, and no foil can be more fertile}
but the air, by reafon of the many fwamps and mo-
rafles, is not fo wholefome as on the higher and
drier grounds. . Here are mines of gold, filver, cop-
f)er, iron, lead, quickfilver, cinnabar, antimony, yel-
ow orpiment, fulphur, vitriol, marcafite, fait native
and fa&itious, faltpetre, magnets, afbeftos or ftone-
flax, marble of feveral colours, alabafter, with dia¬
monds, and all forts of precious ftones. Corn is in
fuch plenty, that it is fold for one fixth of its price
in England. Their grapes are large and lufcious ;
and their wines preferred to any in Europe They
have vaft numbers of cattle and horfes, the latter
moftly moufe-coloured, with buffaloes, deer, wild¬
fowl, game, and fifh, and many fpecies of wild
beafts, particulary chamois goats, bears, and lynxes.
Of vegetables, befides vines, and the common forts,
here are tobacco, faffron, buck-wheat, millet, me¬
lons, and chefnuts. Here alfo are excellent warm
baths, and fprings of various kinds and qualities.
The chief mountains of Hungary are the Crapack
or Carpathian, which is the general name for all
thofe that feparate this kingdom from Poland,
Moravia, Silefia, and fome part of Auftria. The
fides of moft of them are covered with wood, and
their tops with fnow. The chief rivers are the
Danube, the Drave, the Save, the Wag or Waag,
the Gran, the Temes, the Raab, and Theifs, all well
flocked with fifh. There are feveral lakes among the
Carpathian mountains, and fome alfo in the lowlands-
The inhabitants are a mixture of the defcendants of
the ancient Huns, Sclavonians, Camani, Germans,
Walachians, Greeks, Jews, Turks, and a wandering
people called Zigduns, faid to be of uncertain origin*
but probably the fame as thofe we call gypfies. The
Hungarians are faid to be of a fanguine choleric tem¬
per, and fomewhat fierce, cruel, proud, and revenge¬
ful. They have been always reputed good foldiers,
being much more inclined to arms, martial exercifes,
and hunting, than to arts, learning, trade, or agri¬
culture. The nobility affedl great pomp and magni-
fi.cence, and are much addifted. to feafting and carou-
fing. The men in general are ftrong and well pro¬
portioned. They {have their beards, but leave whif-
kers on the upper-lip ; wearing fur caps on their
heads, a clofe-bodied coat girt with a fafh, with a
ftiort cloak or mantle over all, fo contrived as to be
buckled under the arm, and leave the right hand at
liberty. Their horfe are called hujfars, and their foot
heydukes. The former wear a broad-fword, or fcy-
metar, and carry a hatchet or battle-ax. Their hor¬
fes are fleet, but not near fo large as the German hor¬
fes, and therefore they ftand up on their ftrort ftir-
rups when they ftrike. The heydukes ufually wear
feathers in their caps, according to the number of
the enemies they pretend to have killed. Both horfe
and foot are an excellent militia, very good at a pur-
fuit, or ravaging and plundering a country, but not
equal to regular troops in a pitched battle. The wo¬
men, when they go abroad, wear fhort cloaks and a
veil.
There are four languages fpoken in this country,
viz. the Hungarian, which, like the people, is of Scy¬
thian origin, and has little or no affinity with any
European tongue; the German, Sclavonian, Walla-
chian, and Latin. The laft is fpoken, not only by the
better fort, but alfo by the common people, though
very corruptly. The people called Zigduns have alfo
a particular jargon.—Chriftianity was planted in Hun¬
gary in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the fix-
teenth the reformation made a great progrefs in it;
but at prefent, though the Roman-catholics hardly
make a fourth part of the inhabitants, their religion
is predominant, the Proteftants enjoying only a bare
toleration. Befides feveral fedts of Proteftants, here
are alfo great numbers of the Greek church and Jews ;
the laft: pay double taxes of all kinds. Befides Jefuits
colleges and other convents, there are feveral uni-
verfities for the Roman-catholics. The Lutherans
alfo and Calvinifts have their gymnafiums and fchools,.
but under divers reftridtions.
As to the traffic of this country, it is almoft wholly
in the hands of the Greeks and Jews.. The exports
confift chiefly of wine, horfes, cattle, metals, mine¬
rals, faffron, wool, and leather. Hungary, in par¬
ticular, furnifhes Auftria, and other countries welt of
it, with vaft droves of cattle, as well as variety of
excellent wines, of which thofe of Tockay are rec¬
koned the belt. The principal manufactures are thofe
of copper, brafs, iron, and other hard wares. Great
quantities of brafs and iron are exported, wrought and
unwrought..
Hungary at firft, like moft other countries, was
divided into many little principalities and ftates, w hich
at length were united under one head, who had the
title of duke. The laft of thefe dukes was Geyfa : who,
becoming a profelyte to Chriftianity, was baptized ;
after which he refigned the government to his fon
Stephen, who took the title of king, anno 1000. But
as the throne was filled by eledlion, though generally
out of the fame family, the difpofal of the crown was
difputed between the Turkilh and German emperors
for near 200 years: but after the year 1527, when
Ferdinand archduke of Auftria was advanced to the
throne, the Auftrians found means to influence the
dedions in fuch a manner, as to keep the crown in.
their.
Hungary,
HUN [ 3756 ] HUN
gjry, their Family till 1687, when it was fettled heredita-
'ger‘ rily on their heirs male; and oow, in confequence of
an aft made by the diet at Freiburg in 1723, in cafe
of the failure of heirs-male, it is to defcend to females.
The Hates of the kingdom confift of the prelates, the
barons, the gentry, and the royal towns. To the
firft clafs belong two archbilhops, about a dozen bi-
fhops, near as many abbots and provofts, with the
Pauline and Prxmonftratenfian Jefuits. To the fe-
cond, the ftadtholder or palatine, who reprefents the
king ; the court-judge ; the ban or viceroy of Dalma¬
tia* Croatia, and Sclavonia; the Stadtholder of Tran-
filvania; the great treafurer, the great cup-bearer, the
fteward of the houlhold, the matter of the horfe, the
lord chamberlain, the captain of the yeomen of the
guards, and the grand-marthal of the courts, who are
llyled the great barons, together with the inferior bans
or counts and barons. To the third clafs belong the
gentry, fome of whom have noble manors, and others
only the privileges of nobles. To the fourth clafs be¬
long the royal free cities, which are not fubjeft to the
counts, but hold immediately of the king. The gen¬
try alfo, who hold of the archbilhops and bifhops,
have the fame privileges as the Hungarian nobility.
The common people are valfals to the lords, on whofe
lands they live, whether thefe lands belong to the
crown, the clergy, nobility, or gentry.
The ordinary revenue of this kingdom is faid to ex¬
ceed a million Sterling, arifing from the mines, duties
on cattle, royal demefnes, falt-works, contributions,
cuftoms, &c. The fortifications and garrifons con-
llantly maintained on the frontiers, againft the Turks,
are a great expence to the government. Hungary
can eafily bring into the field 100,000 men, regulars
and militia ; for there are 50,000 in aftual pay, and
the provinces furnilh the other 50,000 when they are
wanted.
Hu n g ar y - Water, a diftilled water prepared from
the tops or flowers of rofemary; fo denominated from
a queen of Hungary, for whofe ufe it was firft made.
See Pharmacy, n° 573.
HUNGER, an uneafy fenfation occafioned by long
abftinence from food wlien the body is in a healthy
Hate.—Many fpeculations and conjeftures have been
formed concerning the caufe of this fenfation, but none
of them in any degree fatisfaftory. The moft ingenious
and plaufible is that of Dr Haller, viz. that as the
liver is not then fuftained by the ftomach and inteftines,
it defcends by its own weight, and, principally by
means of its middle ligament, pulls the diaphragm
along with it. It is in that place, therefore, that we
have this uneafy fenfation, and not at the fuperior ori¬
fice of the ttomach as is generally thought.—But if
this was the cafe, an empty ftomach ftiould always be
accompanied with hunger, which does not hold in
faft : becaufe, in certain difeafes, people will often
fall a long time without any fenfation of hunger; and
on the contrary, there are cafes where fcarce any de¬
gree of repletion of the ftomach and inteftines can ex-
tinguifti the defire of food. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
When animals die for want of food, their death is
not direftly the confequence of hunger, /. e. it does
not proceed from a deficiency of juices, but from a bad
quality of them. The blood, being deprived of its
ufual fupplies of frefh chyle, contrafts a putrefeent
difpofition; from whence arifes a fever of the putrid
kind, and of a nature fimilar to the jail or hofpital
fever.
Prefervatives againjl Hunger and Thirjl. There |;
were fome compofnions in vogue among the ancients, 1
for averting the direful effefts of hunger and thirft;
and were held by them to be extremely necefiary in
time of fcarcity, long voyages, and warlike expedi¬
tions. Pliny fays, that a fmall portion of fome things
allays the hunger and thirft, and preferves ftrength :
fuch as butter, cheefe made of mare’s milk, and li¬
quorice. The American Indians ufe a compofition of
the juice of tobacco, with calcined ftiells of fnails,
cockles, oyfters, &c. which they make into pills, and
dry in the fliade. Whenever they go upon a long
journey, and are likely to be deftitute of provifions by
the way, they put one of thefe pills between the lower
lip and the teeth, and by fwaliowing what they fuck
from it, feel neither hunger, thirft, nor fatigue, for
four or five days together.
The following compofition is an extraft from a ma-
nufeript fcholium on a book of Heron in the Vatican
library ; and one much to the fame effeft, with fome
others, may be feen in Philo’s fifth book of Military
Affairs. It was reputed an exceeding nutritive medi¬
cament, and alfo very effeftual for banifliing thirft.
Both the befiegers of cities, and the befieged, fed up¬
on it, in time of extremity, and called it the Epime~
nidian Coinpojition, from the fea-onion, which was an
ingredient in its compofition. The procefs is thus :
The fea-onion being boiled, walhed with water, and
afterwards dried, it was cut into very thin flices, to
which a fifth part of fefame was added, and a fifteenth
of poppy ; all which being mixed and worked up into
a mafs with honey, the whole was divided into por¬
tions about the bignefs of a walnut, whereof two in
the day, taken morning and evening, were fufficient to
prevent hunger and thirft.
There was another way of preparing it, by taking
a pint of fefame, the fame quantity of oil, and two
quarts of unlhelled fweet almonds ; when the fefame
was dried, and the almonds ground and fifted, the fea-
onions were to be peeled and fliced, the roots and
leaves being cut off: then, pounding them in a mor¬
tar till reduced to a pap, an equal part of honey was
to be added, and both worked up with the oil: after¬
wards all the ingredients were to be put into a pot on
the fire, and ftirred with a wooden ladle till thoroughly
mixed. When the mafs acquired a folid confiftence,
it was taken off the fire, and formed into lozenges; of
which two only, as above, were very fufficient for a
day’s fubfiftence.
Avicenna relates, that a perfon, fetting out upon a
journey, drank one pound of oil of violets, mixed with
melted beef-fuet; and afterwards continued falling for
ten days together, without the leaft hunger. He fays,
that the oil of almonds and beef-fuet will effeft the
fame by their vifeidity. Hence it was that this cele¬
brated phyfician, who knew things more by unque-
ftionable experiments than by idle fpeculations and
conjeftures, preferibed the following compofition,
which in time of famine, by fea or land, might be ex¬
tremely ferviceable :
“ Take of fweet almonds, unlhelled, one pound; the
like
HUN [ 3757 ] HUN
i Hun;is. ]Jkc quantity of melted beef-fuet; of oil of violets, two
ounces ; a fufScient quantity of mucilage ; and of the
roots of marfh-mallows, one ounce: let all together be
brayed in a mortar, and made into boluffes about the
bignefs of a common nut. They muft be kept fo as
to prevent their melting by the heat of the fun.”—See
alfo the article Qtxrtu-Arabic.
HUNNS, a fierce and favage nation, who formerly
inhabited that part of Sarmatia bordering on the
Paulus Maeotis and theTanais, the ancient boundary
between Europe and Alia. Their country, as de-
feribed by Procopius, lay north of mount Caucafus,
which, extending from the Euxine to the Cafpian
Seas, parts Afiatic Sarmatia from Colchis, Iberia, and
Albania ; lying on the ifthmus between the two feas
I - abovementioned. Here they refided, unknown to
other nations, and themfelves ignorant of other coun¬
tries, till the year 376. At this time, an hind pur-
fued by the hunters, or, according to fome authors,
an ox flung by a gad fly, having paffed the rsarflt,
was followed by fome Huns to the other fide, where
they difcovered a country much more agreeable than
their own. On their return, having acquainted their
countrymen with what they had feen, the whole na¬
tion palled the marlh, and, falling upon the Alans who
dwelt on the banks of theTanais, almoflexterminated
them. They next fell upon the Oftrogoths, whom
they drove out of their country, and forced to retire
to the plains between the Boryfthenes and the Tanais,
row known by the name of Podolia. Then attacking
the Vifigoths, they obliged them to (belter themfelves
in the moft mountainous parts of their country; till at
laft, the Gothic nations finding it impofiible to with-
ftand fuch an inundation of barbarians, obtained leave
from the emperor Valens to fettle in Thrace*-
The Huns thus became mailers of all the country
between the Tanais and Danube in 376, where they
continued quietly till the year 388, when great num¬
bers of them were taken into the pay of Theodofius, I.
but, in the mean time, a party of them, called the
Ncphthalite or White Huns, who had continued in Afia,
over-ran all Mefopotamia, and even laid fiege to Edefla,
where they were repulfed with great (laughter by the
Romans. The European Huns frequently palled the
Danube, committing the greatell ravages in the weftern
empire; fometimes they fell upon the eaftern provinces,
where they put all to fire and fword. They were
often defeated and repulfed by the Romans, but the
empire was now too weak to fubdue or confine them
from making excurfions ; fo that they continued to
make daily encroachments, and became every day
more formidable than before. In 441, the Huns,
under Attila, threatened the weftern empire with total
deftruftion. This monarch, having made himfelf
mailer of all the northern countries from the confines
of Perfia to the banks of the Rhine, invaded Maefia,
Thrace, and Illyricum; where he made fuch progrefs,
that the -emperor, not thinking himfelf fafe in Conftan-
tinople, withdrew into Afia. Attila then broke into
Gaul; where he took and deftroyed feveral cities,
maflacring tlie inhabitants with the greatell cruelty.
At lad he was driven out with great (laughter by
Aetius the Roman general and Theodoric king of
the Goths, and could never afterwards make any great
progrefs. About the year 452 or 453 Attila died,
Vox.. V.
and his kingdom was immediately fplit into a number Hunns.
of fmall ones by his numerous children, who waged
perpetual war with eafh other. The Huns then ceafed
to be formidable, and became daily lefs able to cope
with the other barbarous nations whom Attila had
kept in fubjedlion. Still, however, their dominion
was confiderable; and in the time of Charles the Great
they were mailers of Tranfylvania, Walachia, Servia,
Carniola, Carinthia, and the greater part of Auftria,
together with Bofnia, Sclavonia, and that part of
Plungary which lies beyond the Danube. In the year
776, while Charles was in Saxony, two princes of the
Huns, Caganus and Jugunus, fent ambafladors to him,
defiring his friendlhip and alliance. Charles received
them with extraordinary marks of friendlhip, and
readily complied with their requeft. However, they
entered, not long after, into an alliance with Taflila
duke of Bavaria, who had revolted from Charles, and
raifed great difturbances in Germany. Charles- dif-
fembled his refentment till he had entirely reduced
Bavaria, when he refolved to revenge himfelf on the
Hunns forthofe fuccours they had underhand given to
his enemy. Accordingly, he ordered levies to be
made throughout his dominions: and having by that
means aflembled a very numerous army, he divided it
into two bodies, one of which he commanded himfelf,
and the other he committed to the care of his gene¬
rals. The two armies entered the country of the
Hunns at different places, ravaged their country far
and near, burnt their villages, and took all their ftrong
holds. This he continued for eight years, till the
people were almoft totally extirpated ; nor did the
Hunns ever afterwards recover themfelves, or appear
as a diftindl nation.
There were two different nations that went by the
name of Hunns ; the Nephthalite or White Hunns, and
the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns. The former in¬
habited a rich country, bordering to the north on
Perfia, and at a great diftance from the Sarmatian or
Scythian Hunns, with whom they had no intercourfe,
nor the lead refemblance either in their perfons or
manners. They were a powerful nation, and often
ferved againll the Romans in the Perfian armies; but,
in the reign of the emperor Zeno, being provoked by
Perozes king of Perfia laying claim to part of their
country, they defeated the Perfians in two pitched
battles, flew their king, over-ran all Perfia, and held
it in fubje&ion for the fpace of two years, obliging
Cabades, the fon and fucceffor of Perozes, to pay them
a yearly tribute. Thefe Hunns, called by the writers
of thofe times the nuhite Hunns, did not wander, like
the others, from place to place; but, contented with
their own country, which fupplied them with all ne-
ceffaries, they lived under a regular government, fub-
je£l to one prince, and feldom made inroads, unlefs
provoked, either into the Perfian or Roman territories.
They lived according to their own laws, and dealt up¬
rightly with one another, as well as with the neigh¬
bouring people. Each of their great men ufed to
choofe 20 or more companions to enjoy with him his
wealth, and partake of all his diverfions; but, upon
his deceafe, they were all buried with him in the fame
grave. This cuftom favours of barbarity; but, in
every other refpe£l, the Nephthalite were a far more
civilized nation than the Scythian Hunns, who, break-
21 L ing
HUN [ 3758 ] HUN
Hunns jng jnto the empire, filled moft of the provinces of Eu-
II. rope with blood and flaughter.
Hunting. jatter were> according to Atnmianus Marcel-
linus, a favage people, exceeding in cruelty the moll
barbarous nations. They began to praftife their
cruelty, fays Jornandes, upon their own children the
very firft day they come into the world, cutting and
mangling the cheeks of their males, to prevent the
growth of hair, which they muft have looked upon,
contrary to the fentiments of other nations, as unbe¬
coming and unmanly. They had, perhaps, in this
pradlice another view, which Jornandes feems to infi-
miate elfewhere, viz. to ftrike terror into the enemy
with their countenances, thus deformed and covered
with fears. They had no other food but roots and
raw meat, being quite unacquainted with the ufe of
fire, and no houfes at all, not even huts ; but lived
conftantly expofed to the air in the woods, and on the
mountains, where, from their infancy, they were inured
to hunger, third, and all manner of hardfhips : nay,
they had fuch an averfion to houfes, which they called
the fepulcbres of the living, that, when they went into
other countries, they could hardly be prevailed upon
to come within the walls of any houfe, not thinking
themfelves fafe when fhut up and covered. They ufed
even to eat and fleep on horfeback, fcarce ever dif-
mounting; which, in all likelihood, induced Zofimus
to write, that the Hunns could not walk. They co¬
vered their nakednefs with goats fkins, or the fkins of
a fort of mice fewed together. Day and night were
indifferent to them, as to buying, felling, eating, and
drinking. They had no law, nor any kind of reli¬
gion; but complied with their inclinations, whatever
they prompted them to, without the lead redraint, or
didinftion between good and evil. In war, they be¬
gan the battle with great fury, and an hideous noife:
but, if they met with a vigorous oppofition, their
fury began to abate after the fird onfet; and, when
once put in diforder, they never rallied, but fled in
the utmoA confufion. They were quite unacquainted
with the art of befieging towns; and authors obferve,
that they never attacked the enemy’s camp. They
were a faithlefs nation, and thought themfelves no
longer bound by the mod folemn treaties, than they
found their advantage in obferving them. Hence we
often find them, upon the lead profpeft of ob¬
taining more advantageous conditions, breaking into
the Roman empire, in defiance of the mod folemn
oaths and engagements. Several corps of Huns,
after their coming into Europe, ferved in the Roman
armies againd the Goths and other barbarous na¬
tions ; nay, they were ready, for hire, to fight againd
each other, being blind to every other regard and con-
fideration.
HUNGERFORD, a town of Berkfhire, in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Kennet, in a low and watery
foil, and noted for the bed trouts and craw-fifh in all
England. W. Long. 1. 35. N. Lat. 26.
HUNNINGUEN, a town of Germany, in Alface,
and in Suntgaw, fubjeft to the French ; feated on the
Rhine, and fortified by Vauban. E. Long. xi. 40.
N. Lat. 47. 42.
HUNTING, the exercife or diverfion of purfuing
four-footed beads of game. See the article Game.
Four-footed beads are hunted in the fields, woods.
and thickets, and that both with guns and gre- Hun
hounds.
Birds, on the contrary, are either fliot in the air,
or taken with nets and other devices, which exercife
is called fowling; or they are purfued and taken by
birds of prey, which is called hawking. See the ar¬
ticles Fowling, Hawking, Falconry, Shooting,
Catching,, and Decoy.
The purfuing of four-footed beads, as badgers, deer,
does, roebucks, foxes, hares, &c. properly termed
hunting, is a noble exercife, ferving not only to re¬
create the mind, but to drengthen the limbs, whet
the domach, and cheer the fpirits. However, all
forts of weather are not proper for hunting; high
winds and rain being great obdacles to it. In the
fpring feafon, this diverfion fhould be taken in the
night-time with nets; in the fummer, the morning is
the mod proper time for it; and in the winter, it
fhould only be followed from nine in the morning till
two in the afternoon. The general rule is, that you
place yourfelf under the wind, where you defign to
wait for game.
F. de Launay, profeffor of the French laws, has an
exprefs treatife of hunting.—From thofe words of
God to Adam, Gen. i. 26, and 28. and to Noah,
Gen. ix. 2, 3. hunting was confidered as a right de¬
volved or made over to man ; and the following ages
appear to have been of the fame fentiment. Accord¬
ingly we find, that among the more civilized nations,
as the Perfians, Greeks, and Romans, it made one of
their genteeler diverfions ; and as to the wilder and
more barbarous, it ferved them with food and necef-
faries.—The Roman jurifprudence, which was formed
on the manners of the fird ages, made a law of it,
and edablifhed it as a maxim, that as the natural right
of things which have no mader belongs to the fird
pofleflbr, wild beads, birds, and fifhes, are the pro¬
perty of whomfoever can take them fird.
But the northern nations of barbarians who over-ran
the Roman empire, bringing with them a dronger
tade for the diverfion, and the people being now pof-
fefled of other and more eafy means of fubfidence
from the lands and poffeflions of thofe they had van-
quifhed, their chiefs and leaders began to appropriate
the right of hunting, and, indead of a natural right,
to make it a royal one.—Thus it continues to this day;
the right of hunting, among us, belonging only to the
king, and thofe who derive it from him.
The hunting ufed by the ancients, was much like
that now pradtifed for the rein-deer; which is feldom
hunted at force, or with hounds ; but only drawn with
a blood-hound, and forcfialled with nets and engines.
Thus did they with all beads; whence a dog is never
coifimended by them for opening, before he has difeo-
vered where the bead lies. Hence, they were not in
any manner curious as to the mufic of their hounds, or
the compofition of their kennel or pack, either for
deepnefs, loudnefs, or fweetnefs- of cry, which is a
principal point in the' hunting of our days.—Their
huntfmen, indeed, were accudomed to fliout and make
a great noife, as Virgil obferves in the third of his
Georgies : Ingentem clamore premes ad retia cervum.
But that confufion was only to bring the deer to the
nets laid for him.
The Sicilian way of hunting had fomething in it
very
HUN [ 3759 ] HUN
Jlaoting very extraordinary.—The nobles or gentry being in-
j—— formed which way a herd of deer pafled, gave notice
to one another, and appointed a meeting ; every one
bringing with him a crofs-bow or long bow, and a
bundle of ftaves ihod with iron, the heads bored, with
a cord paffing through them all: thus provided, they
came to the herd, and, calling themfelves about in a
large ring, furrounded the deer.—Then, each taking
his Hand, unbound his faggot, fet up his (take, and
tied the end of the cord to that of his next neighbour,
at the diltance of ten foot from one another.—Then
taking feathers, died in crimfon, and faftened on a
I thread, they tied them to the cord ; fo that with the
leall breath of wind, they would whirl round.—
Which done, the perfons who kept the Hands with¬
drew, and hid themfelves in the next covert. Then
the chief ranger entering within the line with hounds
to draw after the herd, roufed the game with their cry;
which flying towards the line, were turned off, and,
ftill gazing on the (baking and (hining feathers, wan-
Idered about as if kept in with a real wall or pale. The
ranger dill purfued, and calling every perfon byname,
as he pafled by their (land, commanded him to (hoot
the firft, third, or fixth, as he pleafed ; and if any of
them miffed, or Angled out another than that affigned
him, it was counted a grievous difgrace. By fuch
means, as they paffed by the feveral ftations, the
whole herd was killed by the feveral hands. Pier.
I Hieroglyphic, lib. vii. cap. 6.
The gentlemen and mafters of the fport have invent¬
ed a new fet of terms which may be called the hunting
language. The principal are thofe which follow:
i. For beads as they are in company.—They fay, a
herd of harts, and all manner of deer. A bey of roes.
A founder of fwine. A rout of wolves. A richefs of
martens. A or/?#/£> of bucks, foxes, or hares.
A couple of rabbits or coneys.
2. For their lodging,—A hart is faid to harbour.
A buck lodges. A roe beds. A hare feats or forms.
A coney fits. A fox kennels. A marten trees. An
otter 'watches. A badger earths. A boar couches.—
Hence, to exprefs their diflodging, they fay, Unhar¬
bour the hart. Roufe the buck. Start the hare. Bolt
the coney. Unkennel the fox. Tree the martetC Vent
the otter. Dig the badger. Rear the boar.
3. For their noife at rutting time.—A hart helleth.
A buck growns or troats. A roe bellows. A hare
beats or taps. An otter whines. A boar freams. A
fox barks. A badger Jhrieks. A wolf howls. A goat
rattles.
4. For their copulation.—A hart or buck goes to
rut. A roe goes to tourn. A boar goes to brim.
A hare or coney goes to buck. A fox goes to clickit-
ting. A wolf goes to match or make. An otter hunt-
eth for his kind.
5. For the footing and treading.— Of a hart, we
fay the flot. Of a buck, and all fallow-deer, the view.
Of all deer, if on the grafs and fcarce vifible, the
foiling. Of a fox, the print; and of other the like ver¬
min, the footing. Of an otter, the marks. Of a boar,
the track. The hare, when in open field, is faid to
fore ; when (he winds about to deceive the hounds, (he
doubles ; when (he beats on the hard highway, and her
footing comes to be perceived, (lie pricketh; in fnovv,
it is called the trace of the hare.
6. The tail of a hart, buck, or other deer, is call- Hunting.
ed the fingle. That of a boar, the wreath. Of a   
fox, the bruflo or drag; and the tip at the end, the
chape. Of a wolf, the Jlern. Of a hare and coney,
the feut.
7. The ordure or excrement of a hart and all deer,
is called fewmets or fewmifhing. Of a hare, crotiles
ox crotifing. Of a boar, leJJ'es. Of a fox, iXut billiting;
and of other the like vermin, the fuants. Of an ot¬
ter, the fpraints.
8. As to the attire of deer, or parts thereof, thofe
of a dag, if perfedt, are the bur, the pearls, the little
blobs on it, the beam, the gutters, the antler, they«r-
antler, royal, fur-royal, and all at top the croches. Of
the buck, the bur, beam, brow-antler, black-antler,
advancer, palm, and fpellers. If the croches grow in
the form of a'man’s hand, it is called a palmed head.
Heads bearing not above three or four, and the croches
placed aloft, all of one height, are called crowned
heads. Heads having double croches, are called fork¬
ed heads, becaufe the croches are planted on the top of
the beam like forks.
9. They fay, a litter of cubs, a nefl of rabbits, a
fquirrel’s dray.
to. The terms ufed in refpeft of the dogs, &c. are
as follow.—OFgre-hounds, two make a brace; of
hounds, a couple. Of gre-hounds, three make a leafh;
of hounds, a couple and half.—They fay, let flip a
gre-hound ; and, cafl off a hound. The dring where¬
in a gre-hound is led, is called a leafh ; and that of a
hound, a lyome. The gre-hound has his collar, and
the hound his couples. We fay a kennel of hounds, and
a pack of beagles.
Hunting, as pra&ifed among us, is chiefly per¬
formed with dogs ; of which we have various kinds,
accommodated to the various kinds of game, as hounds,
gre-hounds, blood-hounds, terriers, &c. See Canis,
Hound, &c.
In the kennels or packs they generally rank them
under the heads of enterers, drivers, flyers, tyers. See.
On fome occafions, nets, fpears, and indruments for
digging the ground, are alfo required: nor is the
hunting-horn to be omitted.
The ufual chafes among us, are the hart, buck, roe,
hare, fox, badger, and otter.—'We (hall here give
fomethingof what relates to each thereof: firft premi-
fing an explanation of fome general terms and phrafes,
more immediately ufed in the progrefs of the fport it-
felf; what belongs to the feveral forts of game in par¬
ticular, being referved for the refpe&ive articles.
When the hounds then, being cad off, and finding
the feent of fome game, begin to open and cry ; they
are faid to challenge. When they are too bufy ere
the feent be good, they are faid to babble. When too
bufy where the feent is good, to bawl. When they
run it endwife orderly, holding in together merrily,
and making it good, they are faid to be in full cry.
When they run along without opening at all, it is call¬
ed running mute.
When fpaniels open in the dring, or a gre-hound in
the courfe, they are faid to lapfe.
When beagles bark and cry at their prey, they are
faid X.o yearn.
When the dogs hit the feent the contrary way, they
are faid to draw amifs.
21 L 2 When
Hunting.
HUN
When they take frefti (cent, and quit the former
chafe for a new one, it is called hunting change.
When they hunt the game by the heel or track, they
are faid to hunt counter.
When the chafe goes off* and returns again, tra-
verfing the fame ground, it is called hunting the foil.
When the dogs run at a whole herd of deer, inttead
of a iingle one, it is called running riot.
Dogs fet in readinefs where the game is expe&ed to
come by, and caft off after the other hounds are pafs-
ed, are called a relay. If they be caft off ere the other
dogs be come up, it is called a vauntlay.
When, finding where the chafe has been, they make
a proffer to enter, but return, it is called a llemijh.
A leffon on the horn to encourage the hounds, is
named a call, or a recheat. That blown at the death
of a deer, is called the mart. The part belonging to
the dogs of any chafe they have killed, is the reward.
They fay, take off a deer’s fltin ; ftrip or cafe a hare,
fox, and all forts of vermin ; which is done by begin¬
ning at the fnout, and turning the fltin over the ears
down to the tail.
Hunting is pra&ifed in a different manner, and
with different apparatus, according to the nature of
the beafts which are hunted, a defcription of whom
may be found under their refpe&ive articles, infra.
With regard to the feafons, that for hart and buck¬
hunting begins a fortnight after midfummer, and lafts
till Holy-rood day ; that for the hind and doe, begins
on Holy-rood day, and lafts till Candlemas; that for
fox-hunting begins at Chriftroas, and holds till Lady-
day; that for roe-hunting begins at Michaelmas, and
ends at Chriftmas ; hare-hunting commences at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till the end of February ; and where
the wolf and boar are hunted, the feafon for each be¬
gins at Chriftmas, the firft ending at Lady-day, and the
latter at the Purification.
When the fportfmen have provided themfelves with
nets, fpears, and a hunting-horn to Call the dogs to¬
gether, and likewife with inftruments for digging the
ground, the following direftions will be of ufe to them
in the purfuit of each fort of game.
Badger-HvKTixG. In doing this, you muft feek
the earths and burrows where he lies, and in a clear
moonfliine night go and flop all the burrows, except
one or two, and therein place fome facks, faftened
with drawing firings, which may fhut him in as foon
as he ftraineth the bag. Some ufe no more than to
fet a hoop in the mouth of the fack, and fo put it into
the hole; and as foon as the badger is in the fack and
ftraineth it, the fack flippeth off the hoop and follows
him into the earth, fo he lies tumbling therein till he
is taken. Thefe facks or bags being thus fet, caft off
the hounds, beating about all the woods, coppices,
hedges, and tufts, round about, for the compafs of a
mile or two; and what badgers are abroad, being a-
larmcd by the hounds, will foon betake themfelves to
their burrows : and, obferve that he who is placed to
watch the facks, muft Hand clofe and upon a clear
wind ; otherwife the badger will difcover him, and will
immediately fly fome other way into his burrow. But
if the hounds can encounter him before he can take
his fan&uary, he will then ftand at a bay like a boar,
and make good fport, grievoufly biting and clawing
the dogs, for the manner of their fighting is lying on
HUN
their backs, ufing both teeth and nails; and by blow- Huntin
ing up their {bins defend themfelves againftall bites of
the dogs, and blows of the men upon their nofes as
aforefaid. And for the better prefervation of your
dogs, it is good to put broad collars about their necks
made of greys fkins.
When the badger perceives the terriers to begin to
yearn him in his burrow, he will flop the hole betwixt
him and the terriers, and if they ftill continue baying,
he will remove his couch into another chamber or part
of the burrow, and fo from one to another, barrica¬
ding the way before them, as they retreat, until they
can go no further. If you intend to dig the badger
out of his burrow, you muft be provided with the
fame tools as for digging out a fox ; and befides, you
ffould have a pail of water to refrefh the terriers, when
they come out of the earth to take breath and cool
themfelves. It will alfo be neceffary to put collars of
bells about the necks of your terriers, which making
a noife may caufe the badger to bolt out. The tools
ufed for digging out of the badger, being troublefome
to be carried on mens backs, may be brought in a
cart. In digging, you muft confider the fituation of
the ground, by which you may judge where the chief
angles are; for elfe, inftead of advancing the work,
you will hinder it. In this order you may befiege
them in their holds, or caftles ; and may break their
platforms, parapets, cafemates, and work to them
with mines and countermines until you have overcome
them.
Having taken a live and lufty badger, if you would
make fport, carry him home in a fack and turn him out
in your court-yard, or fome other inclofed place, and
there let him be hunted and worried to death by your
hounds.
There are the following profits and advantages which
accrue by killing this animal. Their flefti, blood,' and
greafe, though they are not good food, yet are very
ufeful for phyficians and apothecaries for oils, oint¬
ments, falves, and powders for fliortnefs of breath, the
cough of the lungs, for the ftone, fprained finews,
colt-aches, &c. and the fltin being well dreffed, is very
warm and good for old people who are troubled with
paralytic diftempers.
■Skc^-Hunting. Here the fame hounds and me¬
thods are ufed as in running the flag ; and, indeed,
he that can hunt a hart or flag well, will not hunt a
buck ill.
In order to facilitate the chace, the game-keeper
commonly felefls a fat buck out of the herd, which he
flioots in order to maim him, and then he is run down
by the hounds.
As to the method of hunting the buck. The.com¬
pany generally go out very early for the benefit of
the morning. Sometimes they have a deer ready
lodged; if not, the coverts are drawn till one is roufed :
or fometimes in a park a deer is pitched upon, and for¬
ced from the herd, then more hounds are laid on to
run the chace. If you come to be at a fault, the old
ftaunch hounds are only to be relied upon till you re¬
cover him again : if he be funk, and the bounds thruft
him up, it is called an imprime, and the company all
found a recheat; when he is run down, every one
ftrives to get in to prevent his being torn by the
hounds, fallow-deer feldom or never Handing at bay.
[ 3?6o ]
HUN [ 3761 ] HUN
ii^nting. He that firft gets in, cries hoo-up, to give notice
that he is down and blows a death. When the com¬
pany are all come in, they paunch him, and inward
the hounds; and generally the chief perfon of quality
amongft them takVs fay, that is, cuts his belly open,
to fee how fat he is. When this is done, every one
has a chop at his neck; and the head being cut off,
is {hewed to the hounds, to encourage them Jo run
only at male deer, which they fee by the horns, and
to teach them to bite only at the head : then the com¬
pany all (landing in a ring, one blows a Angle death ;
which being done, all blow a double recheat, and fo
conclude the chace with a general halloo of hoo-up,
and depart the field to their feveral homes, or to the
place of meeting; and the huntfman, or fome other,
ihath the deer call crofs the buttocks of his horfe, and
fo carries him home.
jFhx-HuNTiNG makes a very pleafant exercife, and
is either above or below ground.
x. Aboveground. To hunt a fox with hounds,
you muft draw about groves, thickets, and bufhes near
villages. When you find one, it will be necefiary to
flop up his earth the night before you defign to hunt,
and that abont midnight; at which time he is gone out
to prey : this may be done by laying two white flicks
acrofs in his way, which he will imagine to be fome
gin or trap laid for him ; or elfe they may be (lopped
up with black thorns and earth mixed together.
At firft, only cad off your fure finders ; and as the
drag mends, add more as you dare trud them. The
hound fird cad off (hould be old and daunch ; and when
*you hear fuch a hound call on merrily, you may
call off fome others to him ; and when they run it
on the full cry, cad off the red : thus you (hall com¬
plete your padime. The words of comfort are the
fame which are ufed in other chaces. The hounds
fhould',be left to kill the fox themfelves, and to worry
and tear him as much as they pleafe: fome hounds
will eat him with eagernefs.
When he is dead, hang him at the end of a pike-
ftaff, and halloo in all your hounds to bay him: but
reward them with nothing belonging to the fox ; for it
it not good, neither will the hounds in common eat it.
2. Under ground. In cafe a fox does fo far e-
fcape as to earth, countrymen mud be got together
with (hovels, fpades, mattocks, pickaxes, &c. to dig
him out, if they think the earth not too great. They
make their earths as near as they can in ground that
is hard to dig, as in clay, dony ground, or amongd
the roots of trees; and their earths have commonly but
one hole, and that is draight a long way in before you
come at their couch. Sometimes craftily they take
poffefiion of a badger’s old burrow, which hath a va¬
riety of chambers, holes, and angles.
Now to facilitate this way of hunting the fox, the
huntfman mull be provided with one or two terriers to
put into the earth after him, that is, to fix him into
an angle ; for the earth often confids of many angles:
the ufe of the terrier is to know where he lies ; for as
foon as he finds him, he continues baying or barking,
fo that which way the noife is heard that way dig to
him. Your terriers mud be garnilhed with bells hung
in collars, to make the fox bolt the fooner; befides,
the collars will be fome fmall defence to the terriers.
The indruments to dig withal are thefe : a (harp- Hunting,
pointed fpade, which ferves to begin the trench where “
the ground is harded and broader tools will not fo well
enter ; the round hollowed fpade, which is ufeful to
dig among roots, having very (harp edges ; the broad
flat fpade to dig withal, when the trench has been pret¬
ty well opened, and the groun,d fofter ; mattocks and
pickaxes to dig in hard ground, where a fpade will do
but little fervice ; the coal-rake to cleanfe the hole,,
and to keep it from dopping up; clamps, wherewith
you may take either fox or badger out alive to make
fport with afterwards. And it would be very conve¬
nient to have a pail of water to refredi your terriers
with, after they are come out of the earth to take
breath.
/for*-Hun ting. As, of all ehaces, the hare makes
the greated padime, fo it gives no little pleafure to
fee the craft of this fmall animal for her felf-preferva-
tion. If it be rainy, the hare ufually takes to the
high-ways; and if (he come to the fide of a young
grove, or fpring, (he feldom enters, but fquats down
till the hounds have over-fhot her ; and then (he will
return the very way (lie came, for fear of the wet and
dew that hangs on the boughs. In this cafe, the huntf¬
man ought to day an hundred paces before he comes
to the wood-fide, by which means he will perceive whe¬
ther (he return as aforefaid ; which if (he do, he mud
halloo in his hounds, and call them back ; and that
prefently, that the hounds may not think it the coun¬
ter (he came fird.
The next thing that is to be obferved, is the place
where the hare fits, and upon what wind (he makes
her form, either upon the north or fouth wind ; (he
will not willingly run into the wind, but run upon a-
fide,. or down the wind; but if (he form in the water,
it is a fign (he is foul and meafled: if you hunt fuch
a one, have a fpecial regard all the day to the brook-
fides; for there, and nearplafhes, (he will make all her
croffings, doublings, &c.
Some hares have been fo crafty,, that as foon as
they have heard the found of a horn, they would in-
ftantly dart out of their form, though it was at the
didance of a quarter of a mile, and go and fwim in fome
pool, and red upon fome rufh-bed in the midd of it;
and would not dir from thence till they have heard
the found of the horn again, and then have darted
out again, fwimming to land, and have dood up be¬
fore the hounds four hours before they could kill
them, fwimming and ufing all fubtilties and erodings
in the water. Nay, fuch is the natural craft and fub-
tilty of a hare, that fometimes, after (he has been
hunted, three hours, (he will dart a fre(h hare, and
fquat in the fame form. Others having been hunted
a confiderable time, will creep under the door of a
(heep-cot, and hide themfelves among the (heep ; or,
when they have been hard hunted, will run in among
a dock of flieep, and will by no means be gotten out
from among them, till the hounds are coupled up,
and the dieep driven into their pens. Some of them
(and that feems fomewhat drange,) will take the
ground like a coney, and that is called going to the
vault. Some hares will go up one fide of the hedge,
and come down the other, the thicknefs of the hedge
being the only didance between the courfes. A hare
thafe
Hunting.
HUN [ 3762 ] HUN
that has been forely hunted, has got upon a qulckfet
hedge, and ran a good way upon the top thereof, and
then leapt off upon the ground. And they will fre¬
quently betake themfelves to furz-bufhes, and will
leap from one to the other, whereby the hounds are
frequently in default.
Having found where a hare hath relieved in fome
pafture or corn-field, you muft then confider the fea-
fon of the year, and what weather it is: for if it be in
the fpring-time or fummer, a hare will not then fet in
bufhes, becaufe they are frequently infefted with pif-
mires, fnakes, and adders; but will fet in corn-fields,
and open places. In the winter-time, they fet near
towns and villages, in tufts of thorns and brambles,
efpecially when the wind is northerly or foutherly.
According to the feafon and nature of the place where
the hare is accuftomed to fit, there beat with your
hounds, and Hart her; which is much better fport
than trayling of her from her relief to her form.
After the hare has been ftarted and is on foot, then
flep in where yon faw her pafs, and halloo in your
hounds, until they have all undertaken it and go on
with it in full cry : then recheat to them with your
horn, following fair and foftly at firft, making not too
much noife either with horn or voice ; for at the firfl,
hounds are apt to overfhoot the chace through too
much heat. But when they have run the fpace of an
hour, and you fee the hounds are well in with it, and
flick well upon it, then you may come in nearer with
the hounds, becaufe by that time their heat will be
cooled, and they will hunt more foberly. But above
all things, mark the firft doubling, which muft be
your dire&ion for the whole day; for all the doublings
that fhe (hall make afterwards will be like the former;
and according to the policies that you fhall feeher ufe,
and the place where you hunt, you muft make your
compaffes great or little, long or fhort, to help the de¬
faults, always feeking the moifteft and moft commo¬
dious places for the hounds to fcent in.
To conclude: Thofe who delight in hunting the
hare, muft rife early, left they be deprived of the
fcent of her foot-fteps.
Hart or Stag Hunting. Gefner, fpeaking of hart¬
hunting, obferves, that this wild, deceitful, and fub-
tile beaft frequently deceives its hunter, by windings
and turnings. Wherefore, the prudent hunter muft
train his dogs with words of art, that he may be
able to fet them on and take them off again at plea-
fure.
Firft of all, he fhould encompafs the beaft in her
own layer, and fo unharbour her in the view of the
dogs, that fo they may never lofe her flot or footing.
Neither muft he fet upon every one, either of the herd
or thofe that wander folitary alone, or a little one;
but partly by fight, and partly by their footing and
fumets, make a judgment of the game, and alfo ob-
ferve the largenefs of his layer.
The huntfman, having made thefe difcoveries in
order to the chace, takes off the couplings of the dogs ;
and fome on horfeback, others on foot, follow the
cry, with the ^greateft art, obfervation, and fpeed ;
remembering and intercepting him in his fubtile turn¬
ings and headings ; with all agility leaping hedges,
gates, pales, ditches ; neither fearing thorns, down
hills, nor woods, but mounting frefh horfe, if the firft
tire. Follow the largeft head of the whole herd, which Huni 11H
muft be fingled out of the chace ; which the dogs 1
perceiving, muft follow; not following any other.
The dogs are animated to the fport by the winding
of horns, and the voices of the huntfmen. But fome-
times the crafty beaft fends forth his little fqntre to b
be facrificed to the dogs and hunters, inftead of him-
felf, lying clofe the mean time. In this cafe, die
huntfman muft found a retreat, break off the dogs,
and take them in, that is, leam them again, until they
be brought to the fairer game; which rifeth with j
fear, yet ftill ftriveth by flight, until he be wearied , j
and breathlefs. The nobles call the beaft a ’wife hart,
who, to avoid all his enemies, runneth into the greateft
herds, and fo brings a cloud of error on the dogs, to I ’
obftrudl their farther purfuit; fometimes alfo bearing
fome of the herd into his footings, that fo he may the j
more eafily efcape, by amufing the dogs. After¬
wards he betakes himfelf to his heels again, ftill run- j |
ning with the wind, not only for the fake of refrelh-
ment, but alfo becaufe by that means he can the more
eafily hear the voice of his purfuers whether they be j
far from him or near to him. But at laft being a-
gain difeovered by the hunters and fagacious fcent of
the dogs, he flies into the herds of cattle, as cows,
(beep, &c. leaping on a cow or ox, laying the fore¬
parts of his body thereon, that fo touching the earth
only with his hinder feet, he may leave a very fmall
or no fcent at all behind for the hounds to difeern.
But their ufual manner is, when they fee themfelves
hard befet and every way intercepted, to make force 1
at their enemy with their horns, who firft comes upon
him, unlefs they be prevented by fpear or fword. ;
When the beaft is flain, the huntfman with his horn
windeth the fall of the beaft ; and then the whole com¬
pany comes up, blowing their horns in triumph for j
fuch a conqudl; among whom, the fldlfulleft opens
the beaft, and rewards the hounds with what properly
belongs to them, for their future encouragement; for \
which purpofe the huntfmen dip bread in the fkin and
blood of the beaft, to give to the hounds.
It is very dangerous to go in to a hart at bay; of
which there are two forts, one on land and the other
in water. Now if the hart be in a deep water, where
you cannot well come at him, then couple up your
dogs ; for fhould they continue long in the water, it
would endanger their furbating or foundering. In
this cafe, get a boat, and fwim to him, with dagger
drawn, or elfe with rope that has a noofe, and throw
it over his horns •. for if the water be fo deep that the
hart fwims, there is no danger in approaching him ;
otherwife you muft be very cautious.
As to the land-bay, if a hart be burnifhed, then
you muft confider the place; for if it be in a plain
and open place, where there is no wood nor covert,
it is dangerous and difficult to come in to him ; but
if he be on a hedge-fide, or in a thicket, then, while
the hart is flaring on the hounds, you may come
foftly and covertly behind him, and cut his throat.
If you mifs your aim, and the hart turn head upon
you, then take refuge at fome tree ; and when the
hart is at bay, couple up your hounds ; and when yon
fee the hart turn head to fly, gallop in roundly to
him, and kill him with your fword.
Direftions at the Death of a Hart or Buck. The
firft
HUN [ 37
wting. fii-ft ceremony, when the huntfman comes, in to the
J death of a deer, is to cry “ ware haunch,” that the
j hounds may not break in to the deer; which being
done, the next is the cutting his throat, and there
blooding the youngeft hounds, that they may the
better love a deer, and learn to leap at his throat:
then the mort having been blown, and all the com¬
pany come in, the beft perfon who hath not taken
fay before, is to take up the knife that the keeper or
huntfman is to lay acrofs the belly of the deer, feme
holding by the fore-legs, and the keeper or huntfman
drawing down the pizzle, the perfon who takes fay,
is to draw the edge of the knife leifurely along the
middle of the belly, beginning near the brifket, and
drawing a little upon it, enough in the length and
depth to difeover bbw fat the deer is; then he that
is to break up the d§er, firft flits the fkin from the
cutting of the throat downwards, making the arber,
that fo the ordure may not break forth, and then he
paunches him, rewarding the hounds with it.
In the next place, he is to prefent the fame perfon
•who took fay, with a drawn hanger, to cut off the
head of the deer. Which being done, and the hounds
rewarded, the concluding ceremony is, if it be a flag,
to blow a triple mort ; and if a buck, a double one;
and then all who have horns, blow a recheat in con¬
cert, and immediately a general whoop, whoop.
OWer-fluNTJNG is performed with dogs, and alfo
with a fort of inllruments called otter-fpears; with
which when they find themfelves wounded, they make
toland, and fight with the dogs, and that moll furioufly,
as if they were fenfible that cold water would annoy
their green w’ounds.
There is indeed craft to be ufed in hunting them ;
but they may be catched in fnares under water, and
by river-fides : but great care mull be taken, for they
bite forely and venomoufly ; and if they happen to
remain long in the fnare, they will not fail to get
themfelves free by their teeth.
In hunting them, one man muft be on one fide of
the river, and another on the other, both beating the
banks with dogs ; and the beaft not being able to
endure the water long, you will foon difeover if there
be an otter or not in that quarter ; for he muft come
| out to make his fpraints, and in the night fometimes
to feed on grafs and herbs.
If any of the hounds finds out an otter, then view
the foft grounds and moift places, to find out which
way he bent bis head : if you cannot difeover this by
the marks, you may partly perceive it by the fpraints;
and then follow tiie hounds, and lodge him as a hart
or deer. But if you do not find him quickly, you
may imagine he is gone to couch fomewhere farther
off from the river ; for fometimes they will go to feed
a confiderable way from the place of their reft, choof-
ing rather to go up the river than down it. The per-
fons that go a-hunting otters, muft carry their fpears,
to watch his vents, that being the chief advantage ;
and if they perceive him fwimming under water, they
muft endeavour to ftrike him with their fpears, and
if they mifs, muft purfue him with the hounds, which,
if they be good and perfectly entered, will go chant¬
ing and trailing along by the river fide, and will beat
every root of a tree, and ofier-bed, and tuft of bul-
ynfhes; nay, they will fometitnes take water, and
63 1 HUN
bait the beaft, like a fpaniel, by which means he will Hunting,
hardly efcape.  
Roe-buck Hunting is performed divers ways, and
very eafily in the woods.
When chafed, they ufually run againft the wiVf,
becaufe the coolnefs of the air refrefhes them in their
courfe ; therefore the huntfmen place their dogs with
the wind : they ufually, when hunted, firft take a
large ring, and afterwards hunt the hounds. They
are alfo often taken by counterfeiting their voice,
which a fkilful huntfman knows how to do by means
of a leaf in his mouth. When they are hunted, they
turn much and often, and come back upon the dogs
dire&ly ; and when they can no longer endure, they
take foil, as the hart does, and will hang by a bough
in fuch a manner, that nothing of them fhall appear
above the water but their fnout, and they will fuffer
the dogs to come juft upon them before they will
ftir.
The venifon of a roe-buck is never out of feafon,
being never fat, and therefore they are hunted at any
time ; only that fome favour ought to be Ihown the
doe while (he is big with fawn, and afterwards till
her fawn is able to (hift for himfelf; but fome roe-
does have been killed with five fawns in their bellies.
He is not called, by the (kilful in the art of hunt-
ingi a great roe-buck, but a fair roe-buck ; the herd
of them is called a bevy: and if he hath not bevy-
greafe upon his tail, when he is broken up, he is
more fit to be dog’s meat than man’s meat. The
hounds muft be rewarded with the bowels, the blood,,
and feet flit afunder, and boiled all together; this is
more properly called a dofe than a reward.
Hun tin g-IVIatch. The firft thing that is to be
confidered by one who defigns to match his horfe for
his own advantage, and his horfe’s credit, is not to flat¬
ter himfelf with the opinion of his horfe, by fancying
that he is a fwift, when he is but a flow galloper;
and that he is a whole-running-horfe (that is, that
he will run four miles without a fob at the height of
his fpeed) when he is not able to run two or three.
Very probably fome gentlemen are led into this error,
by their being miftaken in the fpeed of their hounds,
who, for want of trying them againft other dogs that
have been really fleet, have fuppofed their own to be
fo, when, in reality, they are but of a middling fpeed:
and becaufe their horfe, when trained, was able to
follow them all day, and upon any hour, to command
them upon deep as well as light earths, have there¬
fore made a falfe conclufion, that their horfe is as
fwift as the beft ; but, upon trial againft a horfe that
has been rightly trained after hounds that were truly
fleet, have bought their experience perhaps full dear.
Therefore it is advifable for all lovers of hunting to
procure two or three couple of tried hounds, and
once or twice a-week to follow after them at rain-feent;
and when he is able to top them on all forts of earth,
and to endure heats and colds ftoutly, then he may
better rely on his fpeed and toughnefs.
That horfe which is able to perform a hare-chafe
of five or fix miles brilldy and courageoufly, till his
body be as it were bathed in fweat ; and then, after
the hare has been killed, in a nipping frofty morn¬
ing, can endure to (land till the fweat be frozen on
his back, fo that he can endure to be pierced with the
coldi
H anting.
HUN [ 3764 ] HUN
cold as well as the heat; and then, even In that extre- latt ends, and the lall train Is to be ended at the ftart- Hunt til
mity of cold, to ride another chafe as brllkly and
with as much courage as he did the former; that
horfe which can thus endure heats and colds, is moft
valued by fportfmen. Therefore, In order to make a
judgment of the goodnefs of a horfe, obferve him af¬
ter the death of the firft hare, if the chace has been
any thing brilk : if, when he is cold, he Ihrinks up his
body, and draws his legs up together, it is an infal¬
lible fign of want of vigour and courage : the like may
be done by the flackening of his girths after the firft
chace, and from the dulnefs of his teeth, and the dul-
nefs of his countenance, all which are true tokens of
faintnefs and being tired ; and fuch a horfe is not to
be relied on, in cafe of a wager.
Here it will not be improper to take notice of the
way of making matches in former times, and the mo¬
dern way of deciding wagers. The old way of trial
was, by running fo many train-fcents after hounds,
as was agreed upon between the parties concerned,
and a bell-courfe, this being found not fo uncertain,
but more durable than hare-hunting ; and the advan¬
tage confifted in having the trains led on earth moft
fuitable to the qualifications of the horfes. But now
others chufe to hunt the hare till fuch an hour, and
then to run this wild-goofe chace; a method of ra¬
cing that takes its name from the manner of the flight
of wild-geefe, which is generally one after another;
fo the two horfes1, after running of twelvefcore yards,
had liberty, which horfe foever could get the leading,
to ride what ground he pleafed, the hindmoft horfe
being bound to follow him, within a certain diftance
agreed on by articles, or elfe to be whipped up by
the triers or judges which rode by; and whichever
Jiorfe could diftance the other, won the match.
But this chace, in itfelf very inhuman, was foonfound
to be a very deftruftive to good horfes, efpecially when
two good horfes were matched ; for neither being able
to diftance the other, till both were ready to fink under
their riders through weaknefs, oftentimes the match
was fain to be drawn and left undecided, though
both the horfes were quite fpoiled.
This brought up the cuftom of train-fcents, which
afterwards was changed to three heats and a ftraight
courfe ; and that the lovers of horfes might be encou¬
raged to keep good ones, plates have been ere&ed in
maity places in England. The fewer of thefe before
you come to the courfe, if your horfe be fiery and
mettled, the better ; and the fhorter the diftance, the
better. Alfo, above all things, be fure to make your
bargain to have the leading of the firft train; and then
make choice of fuch grounds where your horfe may
beft fhow his fpeed, and the fleeteft dogs you can
procure: give your hounds as much law before you
as your triers will allow, and then, making a loofe,
try to win the match with a wind ; but if you fail in
this attempt, then bear your horfe, and fave him for
the courfe ; but if your horfe bellow, but well-wind¬
ed, and a true fpurred nag, then the more train-fcents
you run before you come to the ftraight courfe, the
better. But here you ought to obferve to gain the
leading of the firft train ; which in this cafe you muft
lead upon fuch deep earths, that it may not end near
any light ground : for this is the rule received among
horfemeni that the next train is to begin where the
ing place of the courfe ; therefore remember to end ds
your laft on deep earths, as well as the firft. II
HUNTINGDON, the county-town of Hunting- ‘ Hui ^
donfliire in England, feated upon an eafy afcent, on
the north fide of the river Oufe. It was made a free
borough by king John, confifting of a mayor, 12 al- ' j
dermen, burgefles, &c. by whom the two members of
parliament are chofen. It had anciently 15 parifhes, i|
and has now but two; in one.of which, called St'John's, 11
Oliver Cromwell was born, in 1599. Here was for¬
merly a caftle, built by William the Conqueror, which i |
afterwards belonged to David, a prince of Scotland, if
with the title of earl; but Henry VIII. gave it to
George Haftings, with the earldom annexed, in whofe j
family it ftill continues. It ftandd in the great north
road; and has a bridge built of free-ftone over the ]
Oufe, which is made navigable for fmall veflels as high ;
as Bedford. It is the place where the affizes are kept,
and where the county-jail ftands. It has a good market¬
place, and feveral convenient inns, befides a grammar-
fchool; and is very populous. W. Long. o. 15. N. jj
Lat. 52. 23.
Huntingdonshire, a county of England, bounded l|
on the fouth by Bedfordfhire; on the weft by Nor-
thamptonlhire, as aifo on the north ; and by Cam-
bridgefliire on the eaft. It is a good corn country;
and abounds in paftures, efpecially on the eaftern fide,
which is fenny. The reft is diverfified by rifing hills ;
and ftiady groves, and the river Oufe waters the fouth- i
ern part.
The air of this county is in moft. parts pleafant and
wholefome, except among the fens and meres, though ;
they are not fo bad as the hundreds of Kent and Effex.
The foil is fruitful, and produces great crops of corn,
and the hilly parts afford a fit pafture for fheep. They l
have great numbers of cattle; and plenty of water-fowl,
fifli, and turf for firing; which laft is of great fervice
to the inhabitants, there being but little wood, though
the whole county was a foreft in the time of Henry II.
The only river befides the Oufe is the Nen, which runs |
through Whittlefey Mere.
HU-QUANG, a province of the kingdom of China, ;
in Afia, which has a great river called Tang, and Tfe- \
chiang, which runs crofs it from eaft to weft. It is i
divided into the north and fouth parts, the former of
which contains eight cities of the firft rank, and 60 of :
the fecond and third; and the latter, feven of the firft i
rank, and five of the fecond and third. It is a flat,
open country, watered every-where with brooks, lakes,
and rivers, in which there are great numbers of fifti.
Here are plenty of wild-fowls; the fields nourifh cattle
without number, and the foil produces corn, and va- 1
rious kinds of fruits. There is gold found in the
fands of the rivers; and in the mines they have iron,
tin, &c. In fhort, there is fuch a variety of all forts
of commodities, that it is called the magazine of the
empire.
HURA, the sand-box-tree; a genus of the mo-
nadelphia order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the crepitans,
a native of the Weft-Indies. It rifes with a foft lig¬
neous ftem to the height of 24 feet, dividing into
many branches, which abound with a milky juice,
and have fears on their bark where the leaves have
fallen
H U R [37
lurdles fallen off. The male-flowers come out from between
1 l| the leaves upon foot-ftalks three inches long; and are
Hfurricane. formecj jnt0 a c]0fe fpjjjc or column, lying over each
other like the fcales of fi(h. The female-flowers are
fituated at a diftance from them; and have a long
funnel-fhaped tube fpreading at the top, where it is
cut into 12 reflexed parts. After the flower, the
germen fwells, and becomes a round comprefled ligne¬
ous capfule, having 12 deep furrows, each being a
diftindt cell, containing one large round comprefled
feed. When the pods are ripe, they burft with vio¬
lence, and throw out their feeds to a confiderable di¬
ftance. It is propagated by feeds, raifed on a hot¬
bed ; and the plants muft be conftantly kept in a
ftove. The kernels are faid to be purgative, and fome-
times emetic.
HURDLES, in fortification, are made of twigs of
willows or ofiers interwoven clofe together, fuftained
by long ftakes. They are made in the figure of a
long fquare, the length being five or fix feet, and the
breadth three and an half. The clofer they are wattled
together, the better. They ferve to render the bat¬
teries firm, or to confolidate the pafiage over muddy
ditches; or to cover traverfes and lodgements for the
defence of the workmen againft fire-works or ftones
thrown againft them.
The Romans had a kind of military execution for
mutineers, called putting to death under the hurdle.
The manner of it was this: The criminal was laid at
his length in a (hallow water, under an hurdle, upon
which was heaped ftones, and fo preffed down till he
was drowned.
Hurdles, in hufbandry, certain frames made ei¬
ther of.fplit timber, or of hazle-rods wattled toge¬
ther, to ferve for gates in inclofures, or to makeflteep-
folds, &c.
HURDS, or Hords, of flax or hemp; the coarfer
parts feparated in the dreflings from the tear, or fine
fluff. See Flax.
HURL-boke, in a horfe, a bone near the middle
of the buttock, very apt to go out of its fockets with
a hurt or (train.
HURON, a vaft lake of North-America, fituated
between 84° and 89° W. Long, and between 430 and
46° of N. Lat. from whence the country contiguous
to it is called the country of the Hurons, whofe language
is fpoken over a great extent in the fouthern parts of
America.
HURRICANE, a general name for any violent
ftorm of wind; but which is commonly applied to thofe
ftorms which happen in the warmer climates, and
which greatly exceed the moll violent ftorms known
in this country. The following defcription of them is
given in Account of the European fettlenients in Ame¬
rica e “ It is in the rainy feafon, principally in the
month of Augnft, more rarely in July and Septem¬
ber, that they are affaulted by hurricanes, the moft
terrible calamity to which they are fubjedl from the
climate. This deftroys, at one ftroke, the labour of
many years, and fruftrates the moft exalted hopes of
the planter; and often juft at the moment when he
thinks himfelf out of the reach of fortune. It is a
fudden and violent ftorm of wind, rain, thunder, and
lightning; attended with a furious fwelling of the fea,
and fometimes with an earthquake ; in fltort, with every
Vol. V.
65 ] HUS
circumftance which the elements can affemble that is Hurricane
is terrible and deftrudlive. II
“ Firft, they fee, as a prelude to the enfuing ha- Hllfband‘
vock, whole fields of fugar-canes whirled into the air,
and fcattered over the face of the country. The
ftrongeft trees of the foreft are torn up by the roots,
and driven about like ftubble. Their wind-mills are
fwept away in a moment. Their works, their fix¬
tures, the ponderous copper-boilers and dills, of fe-
veral hundred weight, are wrenched from the ground,
and battered to pieces. Their houfes are no protec¬
tion : the roofs are torn off at one blaft, whilft the
rain, which in an hour rifes five feet, rufhes in upon
them with an irrefiftible violence.
“ There are figns, which the Indians of thefe ifland*
taught our planters, by which they can prognofticate
the approach of a hurricane. It comes on either in
the quarters, or at the full or change of the moon. If
it will come on at the full moon, you being at the
change, obferve thefe figns. That day you will fee
the (ley very turbulent. You will obferve the fun
more red than at other times. You will perceive a
dead calm, and the hills clear of all thofe clouds and
mills which ufually hover about them. In the clefts
of the earth, and in the wells, you will hear a hollow
rumbling found, like the ruftiing of a great wind. At
night the liars feem much larger than ufual, and fur-
rounded with a fort of burs. The north-weft (ley has
a black and menacing look; and the fea emits a
ftrong fmell, and rifes into vaft waves, often with¬
out any wind. The wind itfelf now forfakes its
ufual fteady eafterly dream, and drifts about to the
weft ; from whence it fometimes blows, with inter-
mifiions, violently and irregularly, for about two
hours at a time. You have the fame figns at the
full of the moon. The moon itfelf is furrounded
with a great bur, and fometimes the fun has the fame
appearance.”
Hurricanes produce a moft dangerous agitation in
the fea, where the waves break and daftr againft each
other with aftonilhing fury. During their continu¬
ance, the veffels which were anchored in the roads
frequently cut their cables and put to fea, where they
drive at the mercy of the winds and waves, after ha¬
ving ft ruck their yards and top-malls. Thefe deftruc-
tive phasnomena are now thought to arife from elec¬
tricity, though the manner in which it a£ls in this
cafe is by no means known. It feems probable, in¬
deed, that not only hurricanes, but even the moft
gentle gales of wind, are produced by the aftion of
the ele&nc fluid; for which fee the articles Wind,
Whirlwind, &c.
HURST, Hyrst, or Herst, are derived from
the Saxon hyrji, i. e. a wood, or grove of trees. There
are many places in Kent, Suffex, and Hamplhire,
which begin and end with this fyllable; and the rea-
fon may be, becaufe the great wood called Andrefwald
extended through thofe countries.
Hurst-a fortrefs of Hamplhire in England,
not far from Limington. It is feated on the extreme
point of a neck of land which (hoots into the fea, to¬
wards the ifle of Wight, from which it is dillant two
miles.
HUSBAND, a man joined or contra&ed with a
woman in marriage. See Marriage.
2i M HUSBANDRY,
Hufbandry
II
Hufiites.
HUS [ 3766 ] HUT
HUSBANDRY, the bufinefs or employment of a
farmer, or perfon who cultivates land. See Agri¬
culture.
HUSK, the fame with what botanifts call the calix
or cup of a flower. See Calix.
HUSO, in ichthyology. See Accipenser.
HUSS (John), a celebrated divine and martyr,
born at Huffenitz in Bohemia, in 1376. He was li¬
berally educated in the univerfity of Prague, and in
in 1400 was made minifterof the church of Bethlehem
in that city. He adopted the opinions of Wickliffe,
and preached with great zeal againfl: the errors of the
church of Rome ; for which he was fentenced to the
flake by the council of Conftance, in 1415. He was
burned with much, formality, after having been de¬
graded ; and his allies were thrown into the Rhine.
His writings, which are numerous and learned,
were collefted into a body, on the invention of
Printing.
HUSSARS, are the national cavalry of Hungary
and Croatia. Their regimentals confift in a rough
furred cap, adorned with a cock’s feather, (the officers
either an eagle’s, ora heron’s;) a doublet, with a pair
of breeches to which the ftockings are faftened, and
yellow or red boots: befides, they occafionally wear a
fhort upper waiftcoat edged with furs, and five rows
of round metal-buttons; and in bad weather, a cloak.
Their arms are a fabre, carbine, and piftols. They
are irregular troops: hence, before beginning an at¬
tack, they lay themfelves fo flat on the necks of their
horfes, that it is hardly poffible to difcern their force;
but, being come within piftol-fhot of the enemy, they
raife themfelves with fuch furprifing quicknefs, and
begin the fight with fuch vivacity on every fide, that,
unlefs the enemy is accuftomed to their method of
engaging, it is very difficult for troops to preferve
their order. When a retreat is neceflary, their horfes
have fo much fire, and are fo indefatigable, their equi¬
page fo light, and themfelves fuch excellent horfemen,
that no other cavalry can pretend to follow them.
They leap over ditches, and fwim over rivers, with
furprifing facility. They never encamp, and confe-
quently are not bnrthened with any camp-equipage,
faving a kettle and a hatchet to every fix men. They
always lie in the woods, out-houfes, or villages, in the
front of the army. The emperor, queen of Hungary,
and king of Prufiia, have the greateft number of troops
under this name in their fervice.
HUSSITES, the followers of John Hufs, who was
burnt for herefy. See Huss.
It is evident in what the pretended herefy of John
Hufs and Jerome of Prague confifted, from the anfwer
they made to the council, when they were admoniffied
to conform to the fentiments of the church. “ They
were lovers (they faid) of the holy gofpel, and fincere
difciples of Jefus Chrift: that the church of Rome,
and all other churches in the world, were widely de¬
parted from the apoftolical tradition ; that the clergy
ran after riches and pleafures, lorded it over the peo¬
ple, affe&ed the higheft feats at entertainments, bred
borfes and dogs ; and the revenues of the church,
which belonged to the poor members of Chrift, were
confumed in vanity and wantonnefs : and that the
priefls were ignorant of the commands of God, or, if
they did know them, paid but little regard to them.”
Undifmayed by the fate of their leader, the Huflites Huffiu Tn
not only ftuck to his doiflrines, but, choofing John Zifca IN j|
for their chief in Bohemia, they maintained a war for Hutch^ p
a long time againft the emperor Sigifmund with great j
fuccefs; and Procopius Holy, another of their leaders,
conduced them with equal courage. The Huflites
fpread over all Bohemia and Hungary, and even Silefia ‘
and Poland; and there are fome remains of them ftill
fubfifting in all thefe parts. The followers of Hufs
were alfo called Calixtins, Taberites, and Bohemian
Brethren.
HUSTINGS (from the Saxon word Hujiinge, i. e.
conciliutn, or curia), a court held in Guild-hall before
the lord-mayor and aldermen of London, and reckoned \
the fupreme court of the city. Here deeds may be j
inrolled, outlawries fued out, and replevins and writs I
of error determined. In this court alfo is the ele&ion
of aldermen, of the four members of parliament for ;
the city, &c. This court is very ancient, as appears
by the laws of Edward the Confeflbr. Some other j
cities have likewife had a court bearing the fame name,
as Winchefter, York, &c.
HUSUM, a town of Denmark, in the duchy of j
Slefwick, and capital of a bailiwick of the fame name, 1
with a ftrong citadel, and a very handfome church. It
is feated. near the river Ow, on the German Sea; and
is fubjeft to the dukes of Holftein-Gottorp. E. Long.
9. 5. N. Lat. 54. 55.
HUTCHESON (Dr Francis), a very elegant *
writer and excellent philofopher, was the fon of a
diflenting minifter in the north of Ireland, and was
born on the 8th of Auguft 1694. He early difco- i (j
vered a fuperior capacity; and having gone through a
fchool-education, began his courfe of philofophy at an
academy, whence he removed to the univerfity of
Glafgow, where he applied himfelf to all the parts of
literature, in which his progrefs was fuitable to his
uncommon abilities.
He then returned to Ireland; and entering into the
miniftry, was juft about to be fettled in a fmall con¬
gregation of diflenters in the north of Ireland, when
fome gentlemen about Dublin, who knew his great j|
abilities and virtues, invited him to take up a private
academy there. He complied with the invitation, and
met with much fuccefs. He had been fixed but a
fhort time in Dublin, when his Angular merits and
accomplilbments made him generally known ; and his
acquaintance was fought by men of all ranks, who
had any tafte for literature, or any regard for learned
men. The late lord vifcount Molefworth is faid to
have taken great pleafure in his converfation, and to
have aflifted him with his critieifms and obfervations
upon his “ Inquiry into the ideas of beauty and vir¬
tue,” before it came abroad. He received the fame
favour from Dr Synge, lord bilhop of Elphin, with
whom he alfo lived in great friendfhip. The firft edi¬
tion of this performance came abroad without the au¬
thor’s name, but the merit of it would not fuffer him
to be long concealed. Such was the reputation of the
work, and the ideas it had raifed of the author, that
lord Granville, who was then lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, fent his private fecretary to inquire at the book-
feller’s for the author; and when he could not learn
his name, he left a letter to be conveyed to him : in
confequence of which he foori became acquainted with
HUT [ 3767 ] HUY
ifiitchefon, his excellency, and was treated by him, all the time
1 pitchinfon he continued in his government, with diftinguilhing
I marks of familiarity and efteem.
From this time his acquaintance began to be ftill
more courted by men of diftin&ion either for ftation
or literature in Ireland. Archbilhop King, the au¬
thor of the celebrated book De origuie malt, held him
in great efteem ; and the friendlhip of that prelate was
of great ufe to him in fcreening him from two feveral
attempts made to profecute him, for daring to take
upon him the education of youth, without having
qualified himfelf byfubfcribingthe ecclefiaftical canons,
and obtaining a licence from the bilhop. He had
alfo a large ftiare in the efteem of the primate Bolter,
- v who through his influence made a donation to the
univerfity of Glafgow of a yearly fund for an exhibi¬
tioner to be bred to any of the learned profeffions.
A few years after his “ Inquiry into the ideas of
Beauty and Virtue,” his “ Treatife on the Pafiions”
was publifhed : both thefe works have been often re¬
printed ; and always admired, both for the fentiment
and language, even by thofe who have not aflented to
the philofophy of them, nor allowed it to have any
foundation in nature. About this time he wrote
fome philofophical papers, accounting forlaughter, in
a different way from Hobbes, and more honourable
to human nature : which papers were publiihed in the
col left ion called Hibernicus’s Letters.
After he had taught in a private academy at Dub¬
lin for feven or eight years with great reputation and
fuccefs, he was called, in the year 1729, to Scotland,
to be a profeffor of philofophy in the univerfity of
Glafgow. Several young gentlemen came along with
him from the academy, and his high reputation drew
many more thither both from England and Ireland.
Here he fpent the remainder of his life in a manner
highly honourable to himfelf, and ornamental to the
univerfity of which he was a member. His whole
time was divided between his ftudies and the duties of
his office; except what he allotted to friendfliip and
fociety. A firm conftitution and a pretty uniform
ftate of good health, except fome few flight attacks
of the gout, feemed to promife a longer life ; yet he
did not exceed the 53d year of his age. He was mar¬
ried, foon after his fettlement in Dublin, to Mrs Mary
Wilfon a gentleman’s daughter in the county of Lang¬
ford ; by whom he left behind him one fon, Francis
Hutchefon, doftor of medicine. By this gentleman
was publiftied, from the original manufcript of his fa¬
ther, “ A Syftem of Moral Philofophy, in three
books, by Francis Hutchefon, LL. D. at Glafgow,
1755,” in two volumes, 410.
HUTCHINSON (John), a philofophical writer,
whofe notions have made no inconfiderabie noife in
the world, was born in 1674. ferved the duke of
Somerfet in the capacity of iteward ; and in the courfe
of his travels from place to place employed himfelf in
collefting foffils : we are told, that the large and noble
colleftion bequeathed by Dr Woodward to the uni¬
verfity of Cambridge, was aftually made by him, and
even unfairly obtained from him. When he left the
duke’s fervice to indulge his ftudies with more free¬
dom, the duke, then mafter of the horfe to George I.
made him his riding furveyor, a kind of finecure place
of 2001. a-year with a good houfe in the Meufe. In
1724 he publifhed the firft part of Mofes's Principia, Huy
in which he ridiculed Dr Woodward’s Natural Hiftory I!,
of the Earth, and exploded the doftrine of gravita- yacint '
tion eftablifhed in Newton’s Principia : in 1727, he
publifhed the fecond part of Mofes's Principia, con¬
taining the principles of the Scripture philofophy.
From this time to his death, he publifhed a volume
every year or two, which, with the MSS. he left be¬
hind, were publifhed in 1748, in 12 vols. 8vo. On
the Monday before his death, Dr Mead urged him
to be bled ; faying pleafantly, “ I will foon fend you
to Mofes," meaning to his ftudies: but Mr Hutchin-
fon taking it in the literal fenfe, anfwered in a mut¬
tering tone, “ I believe, doftor, you willand was
fo difpleafed, that he difmiffed him for another phy-
fician ; but died a few days after, Auguft 28th 1737.
Singular as his notions are, they are not without fome
defenders, who have obtained the appellation of Hat-
chinfonians.
HUY, a town of the Netherlands in the bifhopric
of Liege, and capital of Condfafs. It is advanta-
geoufly feated on the river Maefe, over which there is
a bridge. E. Long. 10. 22. N. Lat. 52. 31.
HUYGENS (Chriftian), one of the greateft ma¬
thematicians and aftronomersof the 17th century, was
the fon of Conftantine Huygens, lord of Zuylichem,
who had ferved three fucceffive princes of Orange in
the quality of fecretary ; and was born at the Hague,
in 1629. He difcovered from his infancy an extraor¬
dinary fondnefs for the mathematics ; in a little time
made a great progrefs in them ; and perfefted himfelf
in thofe ftudies under the famous profeffor Schooten,
at Leyden. In 1649, he went to Holftein and Den¬
mark, in the retinue of Henry count of Naffau ; and
was extremely defirous of going to Sweden, in order
to fee Des Cartes, but the count’s ftiort ftay in Den¬
mark would not permit him. He travelled into France
and England; was, in 1663, made a member of the
Royal Society; and, upon his return into France, M.
Colbert, being informed of his merit, fettled a confi-
derable penfion upon him to engage him to fix at Pa¬
ris ; to which Mr Huygens confented, and (laid there
from the year 1666 to 1681, where he was admitted
a member of the Academy of Sciences. He loved a
quiet and ftudious manner of life, and frequently re¬
tired into the country to avoid interruption, but did
not contraft that morofenefs which is fo frequently the
effeft of folitude and retirement. He was the firft who
difcovered Saturn’s ring, and a third fatellite belong¬
ing to that planet, which had hitherto efcaped the eyes
of aftronomers. He difcovered the means of render¬
ing clocks exaft, by applying the pendulum, and ren¬
dering all its vibrations equal by the cycloid. He
brought telefcopes to perfeftion, made many other
ufeful difcoveries, and died at the Hague in 1695. He
was the author of feveral excellent works. The prin¬
cipal of thefe are contained in two colleftions; the fiift
of which was printed at Leyden in 1682, in quarto,
under the title of Opera varia; and the fecond at Am-
fterdam in 1728, in two volumes quarto, in titled (J/f-
ra reliqua.
HYACINTH, in natural hiftory, a genus of pel¬
lucid gems, whofe colour is red with an admixture of
yellow.
The hyacinth, though lefs ftriking to the eye than
21 M 2 any
H Y A [ 3768 ] H Y B
Hyacinth, any other red gems, is not without its beauty in the
'Hyacinthn? fpecimens. It is found of various fizes, from that
of a pin’s head to the third of an inch in diameter.
Like common cryftal, it is fometimes found colum¬
nar, and fometimes in a peeble-form ; and is always
hardeft and brighteft in the larger maffes.
Its colour is a dull or deadiih red, with an admix¬
ture of yellow in it; and this mixed colour is found
in all the variety of tints that a prevalence of the red
or of the yellow in different degrees is capable of
giving it.
Our jewellers allow all thofe gems to be hyacinths
or jacinths, that are of a due hardnefs with this mixed
colour; and as they are of very different beauty and
value in their feveral degrees and mixture of colours,
they divide them into four kinds ; three of which they
call hyacinths, but the fourth, very improperly, a ru-
hy. 1. When the Hone is in its moft perfeft Hate, and
of a pure and bright flame-colour, neither the red nor
the yellow prevailing, in this date they call it hyacin-
tha la belle. 2. When it has an over-proportion of
the red, and that of a dufkier colour than the fine high
red in the former; and the yellow that appears in a
faint degree in it is not a fine, bright, and clear, but
a dufky brownifh yellow; then they call it the faffron
hyacinth. 3. Such ftones as are of adeadwhitifh yel¬
low, with a very fmall proportion of red in them, they
call amber-hyacinths. And, 4. When the done is of
a fine deep red, blended with a dufky and very deep
yellow, they call it a rubacelle. But though the over¬
proportion of a drong red in this gem has made
people refer it to the clafs of rubies, its evident mix¬
ture of yellow fhews that it truly belongs to the hya¬
cinths.
The hyacinth la belle is found both in the Ead; and
Weft Indies. The oriental are the harder, but the
American are often equal to them in colour. The
rubacelle is found only in the Eaft Indies, and is ge¬
nerally brought over among the rubies; but it is of
little value : the other varieties are found in Silefiaand
Bohemia.
HYACINTHUS, hyacinth ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. There are fix fpecies ; of which the moft re¬
markable is the orientalis, or eaftern hyacinth. Of
this there are a great number of varieties, amounting
to fome hundreds, each of which differs from the reft
in fome refpeft or other. This plant hath a large,
pnrplifli, bulbous root, fending up feveral narrow e-
redf leaves eight or ten inches long ; the flower-ftalk
is upright, robuft, and fucculent, from to to 15
inches in height ; adorned upward with many large
funnel or bell-fhaped flowers, fwelling at the bafe, and
cut half way into fix parts ; colle&ed into a large pyra¬
midal fpike of different colours in the varieties ; flower¬
ing in April or May.
Thefe plants are cultivated with the greateft fuccefs
in Holland, from whence great numbers are annually
imported into Britain. Each variety is by the florifts
diftinguifhed either#by the name of the place where
firft raifed, or the perfon who raifed them, or the
names of illuftrious perfonages, as of kings, generals,
poets, and celebrated ancient hiftorians, gods, god-
deffes, &c. They are fold by all the feed-dealers.
The prices are from threepence per root to five or ten
pounds or more ; and fome varieties are in fuch high
efteem among the florifts, that 20 or 30/. will be given
for a Angle bulb. They are hardy, and will profper
any where, though the fine kinds require a little fhel-
ter during the winter. They may be propagated ei¬
ther by feeds or off-fets from the roots.
The properties of a good oriental hyacinth are, a
ftem perfe&ly upright, of moderate length, and fo
ftrong and well-proportioned that it will fuftain the
weight of the florets without bending: the florets
fhould be large, fwelling below, expanded above, and
numerous, 10 or 15 at leaft, but are often 20 or 30
in number ; and fhould be placed equally round the
ftem, the pedicles on which they grow longer below
than above, diminifhing gradually in length upward
in fuch a manner as to reprefent a pyramid, and each
pedicle fufficiently ftrong to fupport the florets with¬
out drooping. The curious in thefe plants are care¬
ful never to plant the fine forts two years together in
the fame bed of earth ; for by planting them every
year in a frefh bed, the beauty of the flowers ip greatly
improved.
HYADES, in aftronomy, are feven ftars in the
bull’s head, famous among the poets for the bringing
of rain. Whence their name fr0m the Greek,
vfiv, «« to rain.” The principal of them is in the left
eye, by the Arabs called aldebaran.
The poets feign them the daughters of Atlas and.
Pleone. Their brother Hyas being torn to pieces by
a lionefs, they wept his death with fuch vehemence;
that the gods, in compaffion to them, tranflated them
into heaven, and placed them in the bull’s forehead,
where they continue to weep; this conftellation being
fuppofed to prefage rain. Others reprefent the Hyades
as Bachus’s nurfes ; and the fame with the Dodonides,
who fearing the refentmect of Juno, and flying from
the cruelty of king Lycurgus, were tranflated by Ju»
piter into heaven.
HYBERNACULUM, in botany, winter-quar¬
ters ; defined by Linnaeus to be part of the plant
which defends the embryo herb from injuries du¬
ring the feverities of the winter. See Bulbus and
Gemma.
HYBLA (anc. geog.) or Megara, which laft name
it took from the Megareans, who led thither a co¬
lony ; called alfo Hybla Parva, and Galeotis. In Stra¬
bo’s time Megara was extindt, but the name Hybla re¬
mained on account of its excellent honey named from
it. It was fituated on the eaft coaft of Sicily between
Syracufe and the Leontines. Galeotte, and Megarenfcs;
the names of the people, who were of a prophetic ipi-
rit, being the defendants of Galeus the fon of Apol¬
lo. HybUus the epithet.—The Hyblai colles, fmall e-
minences at the fprings of the Alabus near this place,
were famous for their variety of flowers, efpecially
thyme; the honey gathered from which was by the
ancients reckoned the beft in the world, excepting that
of Hymettus in Attica. By the moderns it was call¬
ed Mel Pajji, for the fame reafon, namely, on account
of its excellent honey, and extraordinary fertility, till
it was overwhelmed by the lava of ^Etna ; and having
then become totally barren, its name was changed to
Mai Pajfi. In a fecond eruption, by a fliower of aflies
from the mountain, it foon reaflumed its ancient beau¬
ty and fertility}- and for many years was called Bel
H Y D f 3769 ] H Y D
<Hyi>!a Patfi : and laft of all, in the year i6@g, it was again
|| f! laid under an ocean of fire, and reduced to the moft
IjHydc. wretched fterility; fince which time it is again known
by the appellation of Mai Pajft. However, the lava
in its courfe over this beautiful country has left feveral
little iflands or hillocks, juft fufficient to fhew what it
formerly was. Thefe make a Angular appearance in
all the bloom of the moft luxuriant vegetation, fur-
rounded and rendered almoft inacceflible by large fields
of black and rugged lava.
Major, (anc. geog.) was fituated in the
tra6t lying between mount ^Etna and the river Syme-
thus. In Paufanias’s time defolate.
YivaLK-Minor, of Henta, (anc. geog.) an inland
town of Sicily, fituated between the rivers Oanus and
Herminius; now Ragusa.
HYBRIDA planta, a monftrous production of
twd different fpecies of plants, analogous to a mule
among animals-. The feeds of hybrid plants will not
propagate.
HYAENA, in zoology. See Canis.
HYJENIUS lapis, in natural hiftory, the name of
a ftone faid to be found in the eyes of the Hyasna.
Pliny tells us, that thofe creatures were in old times
hunted and deftroyed for the fake of thefe ftones, and
that it was fuppofed they gave a man the gift of pro¬
phecy by being put under his tongue.
HYDATIDES, in medicine, little tranfparent
veficles or bladders full of water, fometimes found
folitary, and fometimes in clufters upon the liver, and
various other parts, efpecially in hydropical cafes.
HYDATOSCOPIA, called alfo hydromancy, a
kind of divination or method of foretelling future
events by water.
HYDE (Edward), carl of Clarendon,and lord high
■ehancellor of England, was defcended from an ancient
family inChefhire, and born at Dinton near Hindon,-
in Wiltihire, in 1608. He was entered of Magdalen-
hall Oxford, where, in 1625, he took the degree of
A. B. and afterward ftudied the law in the Middle-
Temple. In the parliament which begun at Weft-
minfter April 10. 1640, he ftrved for Wotton-Baffet
in Wiltlhire. But that parliament being foon after
diffolved, he was chofen for Saltafti in Cornwall in the
long parliament. His abilities were much taken no¬
tice of, and he was employed in feveral committees to
examine into divers grievances ; but at laft being dif-
fatisfied with the proceedings in the parliament, here-
tired to the king, and was made chancellor of the ex¬
chequer, a privy-counfellor, and knight. Upon the
declining of the king’s caufe, he went to France,
where, after the death of king Charles I. he was fworn
of the privy-council to Charles II. In 1649, he and
the lord Cottington were fent ambaffadors extraordi¬
nary into Spain, and in 1657 he was conftituted lord
high chancellor of England. The year before the re-
ttoration, the duke of York falling in Jove with Mrs
Anne Hyde, the lord chancellor’s eldeft daughter, re-
folved to marry her, which he performed ; but care¬
fully concealed it, both from the king and chancellor.
Upon the reftoration, he was chofen chancellor of the
univerfity of Oxford ; and foon after created baron of
Hindon, in Wiltfhire, vifcount Cornbury in Oxford-
Ihire, and earl of Clarendon in Wiltfhire ; and, on the
death of Henry lord Falklandj was made lord lieute*
nant of Oxfordfhire. He took care neither to load Hyde,
the king’s prerogative, nor encroach upon the liber-
ties of the people; and therefore would not fet afide
the petition of right, nor endeavour to raife the ftar-
chamber or high-commifiion courts again : nor did he
attempt to repeal the bill for triennial parliaments; and
when he might have obtained two millions for a hand¬
ing revenue, he afked but one million two hundred
thoufand pounds per annum, which he thought would,
ftillput the king upon the neceffity of having recourfe
to his parliament. In this juft condudl he is faid
to have been influenced by the following incident,
which happened fome years before. When he firft
began to grow eminent in the law, he went down to
vifit his father in Wiltfhire; who, one day as they
were walking in the fields together, obferved to him,
that men of his profeffion were apt to ftretch the pre¬
rogative too far, and to injure liberty ; but charged
him, if ever he came tp any eminence in his profefiion,
never to facrifice the laws and liberty of his country to
his own intereft or the will of his prince : he repeat¬
ed his advice twice ; and immediately falling into a fit
of an apoplexy, died in a few hours r and this circum-
ftance had a lafting influence upon him. In .1662, he
oppofed ajiropofal for the king’s marriage with the
infanta of Portugal, and the fale of Dunkirk : how¬
ever, the following year, articles of high treafon were
exhibited againft him by the earl of Briftol; but they
were reje&ed by the houfe of lords. In 1664, he op¬
pofed the war with Holland. In Auguft 1667, he
was removed from his poft of lord chancellor} and in
November following impeached of high treafon and
other crimes and mifdemeanors by the houfe of com¬
mons: upon which he retired into France, when a
bill was paffed for banifhing him from the king’s do¬
minions. See Britain, n°2ii, 217. Herefidedat
Rouen in Normandy; and dying there in 1674, his
body was brought to England and interred in Weft-
minfter-abbey. He wrote, 1. A hiftory of the re¬
bellion, 3 vols folio, and 6 vols o&avo ; a fecond part
of which was lately bequeathed to the public by his
lordihip’s defcendant the late lord Hyde and Cornbury.
2. A letter to the duke of York, and another to the
duchefs of York, upon occafion of their embracing the
Romifti religion. 3. An anfwer to Hobbes’s Levia¬
than. 4. A hiftory of the rebellion and civil wars in
Ireland, o£lavo ; and fome other works.
The reverend Mr Granger, in his Biographical Hi¬
ftory of England, obferves, that “ the virtue of the
earl of Clarendon was of too ftubborn a nature for the
age of Charles 11. Could he have been content, (fays
he,) to have enflaved millions, he might have been
more a monarch than an unprincely king. But he
did not only look upon himfelf as the guardian of the
laws and liberties of his country, but had alfo a pride
in his nature that was above vice ; and ehofe rather to
be a vi&im himfelf, than to facrifice his integrity. He
had only one part to adf, which was that of an honeft
man. His enemies allowed themfelves a much greater
latitude ; they loaded him with calumnies, blamed him
even for their own errors and mifcondudt, and helped
to ruin him by fuch buffooneries as he defpifed. He
was a much greater, perhaps a much happier, man,,
alone and in exile, than Charles the Second upon his
throne.”
A«dl
Hyde.
H Y D [ 3770 ] H Y D
And the following chara&er of this nobleman is gi¬
ven by Mr Walpole. “ Sir Edward Hyde, (fays he),
who oppofed an arbitrary court, and embraced the par¬
ty of an affli&ed one, muft be allowed to have adted
confcientioufly. A better proof was his behaviour on
the reftoration, when the torrent of an infatuated na¬
tion intreatcd the king and his minifter to be abfolute.
Had Clarendon fought nothing but power, his power
had never ceafed. A corrupted court and a blinded
populace were lefs the eaufes of the chancellor’s fall,
than an ungrateful king, who could not pardon his
lord (hip’s having refufed to accept for him the flavery
of his country. Like Juftice herfelf, he held the ba¬
lance between the neceffary power of the fupreme ma-
giftrate, and the interefts of the people. This never-
dying obligation his cotemporaries were taught to
overlook and clamour againft, till they removed the
only man who, if he could, would have corrected his
maflier’s evil government. Almoft every virtue of a
minifter made his charadter venerable. As an hifto-
rian, he feems more exceptionable. His majeftyand elo¬
quence, his power of painting charadters, his know¬
ledge of his fubjedt, rank him in the firft clafs of wri¬
ters ; yet he has both great and little faults. Of the
latter, his dories of ghofts and omens are not to be de¬
fended. His capital fault is his whole work being a
laboured juftification of king Charles. If he relates
faults, fome palliating epithet always Aides in, and he
has the art of breaking hisdarkeft (hades with gleams
of light that take off all impreffion of horror. One
may pronounce on my lord Clarendon, in his double
capacity of ftatefman and hiftorian, that he adted for
liberty, but wrote for prerogative.”
Hyde (Dr Thomas), profeffor of Arabic at Ox¬
ford, and one of the moft learned writers of the 17th
century, was born in 1636 ; and ftudied firlt at Cam¬
bridge, and afterwards at Oxford. Before he was 18
years of age, he was fent from Cambridge to London to
afiift Mr Brian Walton in the great work of the Poly¬
glot Bible ; and about that period undertook to tran-
feribe the Perfian Pentateuch out of the Hebrew cha¬
radters, which archbifhop Uiher, who well knew the
difficulty of the undertaking, pronounced to be an im-
poffible tafk to a native Perfian. After he had happi¬
ly fucceeded in this, he affifted in corredting feveral
parts of Mr Walton’s work, for which he was perfedt-
ly qualified. He was made archdeacon of Gloucefter,
canon of Chrift-church, head keeper of the Bodleian
library, and profeffor both of Hebrew and Arabic, in
the univerfity of Oxford. He was interpreter and fe-
cretary of the Oriental languages, during the reigns of
Charles II. James II. and William III. ; and was
pcrfedtly qualified to fill this poll, as he could converfe
in the languages which he underftood. There never
was an Englilhman in his fituation of life who made fo
great a progrefs; but his mind was fo engroffed by his
beloved (Indies, that he is faid to have been but ill
qualified to appear te any advantage in common con-
verfation. Of all his learned works, (the very cata¬
logue of which, as obferved by Anth. Wood, is a
curiofity), his Religio Veterum P erf arum is the moft
celebrated. Dr Gregory Sharpe, the late learned
and ingenious mafter of the temple, has cplle&ed
feveral of his pieces formerly printed, and republiih-
ed them, with fome additional differtations, and his
life prefixed, in two elegant volumes quarto. This Hydn
great man died on the 18th of February, 1702. A- i
mong his other works are, 1. A Latin tranfiation of Hy^ro
Ulug Beig’s obfervations on the longitude and latitude L 3 U
of the fixed ftars ; and, 2. A cataloge of the printed
books in the Bodleian library.
HYDNUM, in botany; a genus of fungi, belong¬
ing to the cryptogamia clafs of plants. It is of the
horizontal kind, echinated or befet with (harp-pointed
fibres on its under part. One of the fpecies, named
the imbricatum, is a native of Britain, and is found
in woods. It hath a convex hat, tiled, (landing on
a fmooth pillar, of a pale flefh-colour, with white
prickles. It is eaten in Italy, and is faid to be of a
very delicate tafte.
HYDRA, in fabulous hiftory, a ferpent in the
Marffi of Lerna, in Peloponnefus, reprefented by the
poets with many heads, one of which being cut off,
another immediately fuceeded in its place, unlefs the
wound was inftantly cauterized. Hercules attacked
this monfter ; and having caufed lolaus to hew down
wood for flaming brands, as he cut off the heads he
applied the brands to the wounds, by which means he
deftroyed the Hydra.
Hydra, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206:
HYDRAGOGUES, among phyficians, remedies
which evacuate a large quantity of water in dropfies.
The word is formed of vJap water, and aynv to draw
or lead; but the application of the term proceeds up¬
on a miftaken fuppofition, that every purgative had
fome particular humour which it would evacuate, and
which could not be evacuated by any other. It is
now, however, difeovered, that all ftrong purgatives
will prove hydragogues, if given in large quantity, or
In weak conftitutions. The principal medicines re¬
commended as hydragogues, are the juice of elder,
the root of iris, foldanella, mechoacan, jalap, &c.
HYDRANGEA, in botany ; a genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the arborefeens, a na¬
tive of North America, from whence it hath lately
been brought to Europe, and is preferved in gardens,
more for the fake of variety than beauty. It rifes a-
bout three feet high; and hath many foft pithy (talks,
garniflied with two oblong heart-(haped leaves placed
oppofite. The flowers are produced at the top of the
(talks in a corymbus. They are white, compofed of
five petals with ten (lamina furrounding the (tyle. It
is eafily propagated by parting the roots ; the bed
time for which is the end of October. The plants
thrive bed in a aioift foil, and require ^o be flickered
from fevere frofts.
HYDRAULICS, the fcience of the motion of
fluids, and the conftrudtion of all kinds of inftruments
and machines relating thereto. See Hydrostatics,
chap. iv.
HYDRENTEROCELE, in furgery, a fpecies of
hernia, wherein the inteftines defeend into the fero-
tnm, together with a quantity of water.
HYDROCELE, in furgery, denotes any hernia
arifing from water; but is particularly ufed for fuch a
one of the ferotum, which fometimes grows to the
fize of one’s head, without pain, but exceeding trou-
blefome to the patient. See Surgery.
HYDROCEPHALUS, a preternatural diftenfion
of
*11 Y D [ 3771 ] H Y D
I [ydracha- of the head to an uncommon fize by a ftagnation and
j rjs extravafation of the lymph ; which, when colle&ed in
. the infide of the cranium, is then termed internal; as
y.rorr>i' that colledted on the outfide is termed'externa/. See
(the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYDROCHARIS,,the little water-lily; a
genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dicecia
clafs of plants. There is only one fpecies, a native
of Britain, growing in flow ftreams and wet ditches.
It hath kidney-fliaped leaves, thick, fmooth, and of a
brpwnifh green colour, with white bloflbms. There
is a variety with double flowers of a very fweet fmell.
HYDROCOTYLE, water-navelwort ; a ge¬
nus of the digynia order, belonging to the petandria
clafs of plants. There are feveral fpecies, none of
T which are ever cultivated in gardens. One of them, a
native of Britain, growing in marfhy grounds, is fup-
pofed by the farmers to occafion the rot in fheep. The
leaves have central leaf-ftalks, with about five flowers
in a rundle ; the petals are of a reddifh white.
HYDROGRAPHY, the art of meafuring and de-
fcribing the fea, rivers, canals, lakes, &c.—With re¬
gard to the fea, it gives an account of its tides, coun¬
ter-tides, foundings, bays, gulphs, creeks, &c. ; as
alfo of the rocks, fltelves, fands, /hallows, promonto¬
ries, harbours ; the diftance and bearing of one port
from another; with every thing that is remarkable,
whether out at fea or on the coaft.
HYDROMANCY, a method of divination by wa¬
ter, pra&ifed by the ancients. See Divination, n° 7.
HYDROMEL, honey diluted in nearly an equal
weight of water. When this liquor has not ferment¬
ed, it is called fmiple hydmmel; and when it has un¬
dergone the fpirituous fermentation, it is called the w-
mui hydromel, or mead. :
Honey, like all faccharine fubftances, vegetable or
animal, is fufceptible of fermentation in general, and
particularly of the fpirituous fermentation. To in¬
duce this fermentation, nothing is neceflary but to di¬
lute it fufficiently in water, and to leave this liquor
expofed to a convenient degree of heat. To make
good vinous hydromel or mead, the whiteft, pureft,
and beft-tafted honey mull be chofen ; and this muft
be put into a kettle with more than its weight of wa¬
ter : a part of this liquor mull be evaporated by boil¬
ing, and the liquor fcummed, till its confiftence is
fuch that a frefh egg fliall be fupported upon its fur-
face without finking more than half its thicknefs into
the liquor; then the liquor is to be ftrained and pour¬
ed through a funnel into a barrel: this barrel, which
ought to be nearly full, mull be expofed to a heat as
equable as is poflible, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care that the
bung-hole be {lightly covered, but not clofed. The
phenomena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear
in this liquor, and will fubfill during two or three
months, according to the degree of heat; after which
they will diminilh and ceafe. During this fermenta¬
tion, the barrel mull be filled up occafionally with
more of the fame kind of liquor of honey, fome of
which ought to be kept apart on purpofe to replace
the liquor which flows out of the barrel in froth.
When the fermentation ceafes, and the liquor has be¬
come very vinous, the barrel is then to be put in a
cellar and well clofed. A year afterwards the mead
will be fit to be put into bottles. Hydrometer
The vinous hydromel or mead is an agreeable kind It
of wine: neverthelefs it retains long a tafte of honey.
which is unpleafing to fome perfons ; but this tafte it
is faid to lofe entirely by being kept a very long time.
The fpirituous fermentation of honey, as alfo that
of fugar, and of the moft of vinous liquors, when it
is very faccharine, is generally more difficultly effedled,
requires more heat, and continues longer than that of
ordinary wines made from the juice of grapes; and
thefe vinous liquors always preferve a faccharine tafte,
which thews that a part only of them is become fpiri-
tuous.
HYDROMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
ravity, denfity, velocity, force, &c. of water and other
uids. See Hydrostatics, n° 13.
HYDROMPHALUS, in medicine and furgery, a
tumour in the navel, arifing from a colledlion of water.
HYDROPHANiE, in natural hiftory: A genus
of femi-pellucid gems, compofed of cryftal and earth ;
the latter ingredient being in large proportion, and
mixed imperfedlly, as in the chalcedony ; and giving
a general cloudinefs or miftinefs to the ftone; but of
fuch an imperfedl and irregular admixture, as not to be
capable of a polifh like the chalcedony; and appear¬
ing of a dufky and foul furface till thrown into water,
in which they become lucid and in fome degree tranf-
parent, either in part or totally ; alfo changing their
colour, which returns to them on their being taken
out of the water. To this genus belongs the oculus
beli of authors, or whitilh grey hydrophanes variega¬
ted with yellow, and with a black central nucleus; and
the oculus mundi, or lapis mutabilis, which is likewife
a whrtifli grey .kind without veins.
HYDROPHOBIA, an averfion or dread of water :
a terrible fymptom of the rabies canina; and which has
likewife been found to take in violent inflammations of
the ftomach and in hyfteric fits. See (the Index fub¬
joined to) Medicine.
HYDROPHYLACIA, a word ufed by Kircher
and fome others who have written in the fame fyftem,
to exprefs thofe great refervoirs of water which he pla¬
ces in the Alps and other mountains for the fupplyof
rivers which run through the feveral lower countries.
This lie makes to be one of the great ufes of moun¬
tains in the ceconomy of the univerfe.
HYDROPHYLLUM, water-leaf; agenusof
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There is only one fpecies, viz. the
Virginianum, or water-leaf of Morinus. It grows na¬
turally in Canada and many other parts of America
on moift fpongy ground. The root is compofed of
many ftrong flelhy fibres, from which arife many leaves
with footftalks five or fix inches long, jagged into
three, five, or feven lobes, almoft to the midrib, indent¬
ed on their edges. The flowers are produced in loofe
clufters hanging downward, are bell-fhaped, and of a
dirty white colour. It may be propagated by parting
the roots; which ought to be done in autumn, that the
plants may be well rooted before fpring, otherwife they
will require a great deal of water.
HYDROPS, in medicine, the fame with Dropsy.
HYDROSCOPE, an inftrument anciently ufed for
the meafuring of time.
The hydrofeope was a kind of water-clock, confift-
IlyJrofta-
tics.
»
Fluid de-
Jine4»
H Y D [ 3772 ] H Y D
ing of a cylindrical tube, conical at bottom: the cy- contiguous, as it trickled out at the vertex of the Hydrofl U
Under was graduated, or marked out with divifions, cone, pointed out the hour. See Hydrostatics, dcs.j 5:
to which the top of the water becoming fucceflively n° 41,42.
HYDROS
T A T I C S;
A SCIENCE which treats of the weight, motion,
and equilibria of liquid bodies. Under this head,
not only accounts of the nature and properties of fluids
in general are introduced, and the laws by which they
adt 5 but alfo the art of weighing folid bodies in fluids,
in order to difcover their fpecific gravities.
Sect. I. 0/Fluids in general.
Sir Ifaac Newton’s definition of a fluid is. That it is
a body yielding to any force impreffed, and which
hath its parts very eafily moved one among another.
See Fluidity.
This definition fuppofes the motion fpoken of pro¬
duced by a partial preffure; for in the cafe of an in-
compreffible fluid, it is demonllrated by Dr Keil, that
under a total or an equal preflure, it would be impof-
lible that the yielding body Ihould move.
The original and conftituent parts of fluids are by
the moderns conceived to be particles fmall, fmooth,
hard, and fpherical : according to which opinion,
every particle is of itfelf a folid, ora fixed body; and,
when confidered fingly, is no fluid, but becomes fo
only by being joined with other particles of the fame
kind. From this definition, it hath been concluded
by fome philofophers, that fame fubllances, fuch as
mercury, are effentially fluid, on account of the par¬
ticular configuration of their particles; but later dif-
coveries have evinced the fallacy of this opinion, and
that fluidity is truly to be reckoned an effed of heat.
See Fluidity.
That fluids have vacuities, will appear upon mixing
fait with water, a certain quantity whereof will be
difiblved, and thereby imbibed, without enlarging the
dimenfions. A fluid’s becoming more buoyant, is a
certain proof that its fpecific gravity is increafed, and
of confequence that many of its vacuities are thereby
filled: after which it may ftill receive a certain quan¬
tity of other diffoluble bodies, the particles whereof
are adapted to the vacancies remaining, without adding
any thing to its bulk, though the abfolute weight of
the whole fluid be thereby increafed.
This might be demonttrated, by weighing a phial
of rain-water critically, with a nice balancer pour
this water into a cup, and add fait to it; refund of
the clear liquor what will again fill the phial; an in-
creafe of weight will be found under the fame dimen¬
fions, from a repletion, as has been faid, of the vacuities
of the frefh water with faline particles.
And as fluids have vacuities, or are not perfe&ly
denfe; it is alfo probable, that they are compounded
of fmall fpheres of different diameters, whofe inter-
ftices may be fuccefiively filled with apt materials
for that purpofe: and the fmaller thefe interftices
are, the greater will the gravity of the fluid al¬
ways be.
For inftance, fuppofe a barrel be filled with bullets
in the moft compaft manner, a great many fmall-lhot
may afterwards be placed in the interfaces of thofe
balls; the vacuities of the {hot may then be replenifiied |
with a certain quantity of fea-fand; the interftices of
the grains of the fand may again be filled with water;
and thus may the weight of the barrel be greatly
augmented, without increafing the general bulk.— 1 ‘
Now this being true with regard to folids, is appli-
cable alfo to fluids. For inftance, river-water will peities. •
diffolve a certain quantity of fait; after which it will <
receive a certain quantity of fugar; and after that, a |
certain quantity of alum, and perhaps other dilfoluble
bodies, and not increafe its firft dimenfions.
The more perfedl a fluid is, the more eafily will it
yield to all impreffions, and the more eafily will the
parts unite and coalefce when feparated. A perftd
fluid is that whofe parts are put into motion by the \
leajlforce imaginable: an imperfed one is that whofe
parts yield to a fmall force, not the leajl. It is pro¬
bable, that in nature there is no perfed fluid, the ele¬
ment of fire perhaps excepted; fince we fee that the
mutual attradioq of the parts of all the fluids, fubjed
to our experiments, renders them cohefive in fome de¬
gree; and the more they cling together, the lefs per¬
fed their fluidity is. If, for inftance, a glafs be filled
with water above the brim, it will vifibly rife tb a
convex furface, which, was it a perfed fluid, free from
either tenacity or cohefion, would be irapoffible.'
Mercury, the moft perfed fluid we know, is not
exempt from this attradion ; for, fliould the bottom
of a flat glafs, having a gentle riling toward the mid¬
dle, be covered thin with quickfilver, a little motion of
the machine will caufe the fluid foon to feparate from
the middle, and lie round it like a ring, having edges
of a confiderable thicknefs.
But if a like quantity thereof be poured into a gol¬
den cup, it will, on the contrary, appear higher con- I
fiderably on the fides than in the middle. Which may
proceed in part, perhaps, from the gold’s being of
great denfity, and therefore capable of exerting there¬
on a greater degree of attradion than other metals.
Probably too it may happen from its having pores of
an apter difpofition and magnitude to receive the mi¬
nute mercurial particles, than thofe of iron and fome
other metals; and therefore the attradion of cohefion
in this experiment may obtain alfo: and every one
knows how eafily thefe two bodies incorporate, and
make a perfed amalgama. But the reafon commonly
given for the two phseuomena is, that mercury, in the
firft cafe, attrads itfelf more than it does glafs; and,
in the laft cafe, mercury attradls gold more than it
does itfelf.
Sir Ifaac Newton held all matter to be originally
homogeneous; and that from the different modifica¬
tions and texture of it alone, all bodies receive their
various ftrudure, compolition, and form. In his defi¬
nition of a fluid, he feems to imply, that he thought
fluids to be compofed of primary folids; and, in the
beginning erf his Principia, he fpdaks of fand and pow¬
ders as of imperfed fluids.
Borelli
: Sed. II. HYDROS
• i Pfdiure Borrelli has demonftrated, that the conftituent parts
||of fluids. 0f are not fluldj but Confident bodies ; and that
I ^ the dements of all bodies are perfe&ly firm and hard.
Florentine The incompreffibility of water, proved by the F!o-
Ix&ment.rentine experiment, is a fufficient evidence aifo, that
each primary particle or fpherule thereof is a perfedt
and impenetrable folid. Mr Locke too, in his EJfcty
on Human Underjianding, admits this to be fo.
This famous experiment was fird attempted by the
great lord Verulam, who inclofed a quantity of water
in lead, and found that it inclined rather to make its
way through the pores of the metal, than be reduced
into lefs compafs by any force that could be applied.
The academics of Florence made this experiment af¬
terwards more accurately with a globe of filver, as
being a metal lefs yielding and duftile than gold.
This being filled with water, and well clofed, they
found, by hammering gently thereon, that the fpheri-
city of the. globe was altered to a lefs capacious fi¬
gure (as might geometrically be proved); but a part
of the water always like dew came through its {ides
before this could be obtained. This has been attempted
by Sir Ifaac Newton, and fo many competent judges,
on gold and feveral other metals fince, with equal iuc-
cefs, that we do not hold any fluid in its natural ftate,
except the air, to be either compreffible or elaltic.—
In feme experiments by Mr Canton, it bath been ob-
ferved, that water is more or lefs compreffed accord¬
ing to the different conftitution of the atmofphere ;
whence it hath been concluded that the Florentine
experiment was erroneous: but it will not follow, that
water can be compreffed by any artificial force, be-
caufe nature hath a method of comprefling it; any
more than that folid metal can be comprefled artifi¬
cially, though we know that very flight degrees of
heat and cold will expand or contrail its dimenfions.
See Water.
4 Sect. II. Of the Gravity and Prejfure of Fluids.
Fluids prefs All bodies, both fluid and folid, prefs downwards
as much ^ j^y tjje forcc 0f gravity : but fluids have this wonder-
downward. property, that their preffure upwards and fidewife
is equal to their preflure downwards ; and this is al¬
ways in proportion to their perpendicular height, with¬
out any regard to their quantity: for, as each par¬
ticle is quite free to move, it will move towards that
part or fide on which the preffiire is lead. And hence,
no particle or quantity of a fluid can be at reft, till it
is every way equally prefled.
Plate To fhew by experiment that fluids prefs upward as
CL1I. we]] as downward, let A B be a long upright tube
l* filled with water near to its top; and CD a fmall tube
open at both ends, and immerfed into the water in the
large one: if the immerfion be quick, you will fee
the water rife in the fmall tube to the fame height
that it ftands in the great one, or until the furfaces
of the water in both are on the fame level: which
fhews that the water is prefled upward into the fmall
tube by the weight of what is in the great one; other-
wife it could never rife therein, contrary to its natural
gravity; unlefs the diameter of the bore were fo fmall,
that the the atttradlion of the tube would raife the
water; which will never happen, if the tube be as
wide as that in a common barometer. And, as the
water rifes no higher in the fmall tube than till its
Vol. V.
T A T I C S. 3773
furface be on a level with the furface of the water in Preflure
the great one, this {hews that the preffure is not in of fluids-_,
proportion to the quantity of water in the great tube,
but in proportion to its perpendicular height therein :
for there is much more water in the great tube all
around the fmall one, than what is raifed to the fame
height in the fmall one as it Hands in the great.
Take out the fmall tube, and let the water run out
of it; then it will be filled with air. Stop its upper
end with the cork C, and it will be full of air all be¬
low the cork : this done, plunge it again to the bot¬
tom of the water in the great tube, and you will fee
the water rife up in it to the height E. Which Ihewg
that the air is a body, otherwife it could not hinder
the water from riiing up to the fame height as it
did before, namely, to A ; and in fo doing, it drove
the air out at the top ; but now the air is confined
by the cork C: And it alfo {hews that the air is a com-
preflible body ; for if it were not fo, a drop of water
could not enter into the tube.
The preflure of fluids being equal in all direflions,
it follows, that the fides of a veflel are as much preffed
by a fluid in it, all around in any given ring of points,
as the fluid below that ring is prefled by the weight
of all that ftands above it. Hence the preffure upon
every point in the fides, immediately above the bottom, •
is equal to the preffure upon every point of the bottom.
—To {hew this by experiment, let a hole be made at e Fig. 3;
in the fide of the tube AB clofe by the bottom ; and
another hole of the fame fize in the bottom at C;
then pour your water into the tube, keeping it full as
long as you choofe the holes ftiould run, and have two
bafons ready to receive the water that runs through
the two holes, until you think there is an enough in
each bafon ; and you will find by meafuring the quan¬
tities, that they are equal. Which fhews that the wa¬
ter run with equal fpeed through both holes ; which
it could not have done, if it had not been equally
preffed through them both. For, if a hole of the
fame fize be made in the fide of the tube, as abouty)
and if all three are permitted to run together, you
will find that the quantity run through the hole at f
is much lefs than what has run in the fame time thro*
either of the holes C or <?.
In the fame figure, let the tube be re-curved from
the bottom at C into the ftiape DE, and the hole at
C be ftopt with a cork. Then, pour water into the
tube to any height, as A^, and it will fpout up in a
jet EFG, nearly as high as it is kept in the tube AB,
by continuing to pour in as much there as runs thro*
the hole E; which will be the cafe whilft the furface
Kg keeps at the fame height. And if a little ball of
cork G be laid upon the top of the jet, it will be fup-
ported thereby, and dance upon it. The reafon why
the jet rifes not quite fo high as the furface of the
water Kg, is owing to the refiftance it meets with in
the open air : for, if a tube either great or fmall, was
ferewed upon the pipe at E, the water would rife in
it until the furfaces of the water in both tubes were
on the fame level; as will be fliewn by the next expe¬
riment.
Any quantity of a fluid, how fmall foever, may be s
made to balance and fupport any quantity, bow great The hydro¬
foe ver. This is defervedly termed the hydrnfatical^IC para*
paradox: which we ftiall firft {hew by an experiment,
21 N and
3732
• Preffure
of fluids.
Plate
QLII.
fig. 4.
HYDROS
and then account for it upon the principle above men¬
tioned, namely, that theprejfure of fluids is direttly as
their perpendicular height, ’without any regard to their
quantity.
Let a fmall glafs tube DCG, open at both ends,
and bonded at B, be joined to the end of a great «ne
AI at cd, where the great one is alfo open ; fo that
thefe tubes in their openings may freely communicate
with each other. Then pour water through a fmall
necked funnel into the fmall tube at H; this water
will run through the joining of the' tubes at cd, and
rife up into the great tube; and if you continue pour¬
ing until the furface of the water comes to any part, as
A, in the great tube, and then leave off, you will fee
that the furface of the water in the fmall tube will be
juft as high at D; fo that the perpendicular altitude
of the water will be the fame in both tubes, however
fmall the one be in proportion to the other. This
fliews, that the fmall column DCG balances and fup-
ports the great column Acd; which it could not do
if their preffures were not equal againft one another in
the recurved bottom at B.—If the fmall tube be
made longer, and inclined in the fituation GEF, the
furface of the water in it will ftand at F, on the fame
level with the furface A in the great tube: that is,
the water will have the fame perpendicular height in
both tubes, although the column in the fmall tube is
longer than that in the great one; the former being
oblique, and the latter perpendicular.
Since then the preffure of fluids is diredlly as their
perpendicular heights, without any regard to their
quantities, it appears, that whatever the figure or fize
of veffels be, if they are of equal heights, and if the
areas of their bottoms are equal, the preffures of equal
heights of water are equal upon the bottoms of thefe
veffels ; even though the one fliould hold a thoufand
or ten thoufand times as much water as would fill the
Fig. Si 6- other. To confirm this part of the hydroftatical pa¬
radox by an experiment, let two veffels be prepared
of equal heights, but very unequal contents, fuch as
AB fig. 5. and AB in fig. 6. Let each veffel be open
at both ends, and their bottoms D d, Dr/ be of equal
widths. Let a brafs bottom CC be exa&ly fitted to
each veffel, not to go into it, but for it to ftand upon ;
and let a piece of wet leather be put between each
veffel and its brafs bottom, for the fake of clofenefs.
Join each' bottom to its veffel by a hinge D, fo that
it may open like the lid of a box ; and let each bot¬
tom be kept up to its veffel by equal weights E and E
hung to lines which go over the pulleys F and F
(whofe blocks are fixed to the fides of the veffels at f)
and the lines tied to hooks at d and d, fixed in brafs
bottoms oppofite to the hinges D and D. Things
being thus prepared and fitted, hold the veffel AB
(fig. 6.) upright in your hands over a bafon on a
table, and caufe water to be poured into the veffel
flowly, till the preffure of the water bears down its
bottom at the fide d, and raifes the weight E; and
then part of the water will run out at d. Mark the
height at which the furface H of the water flood in
the veflel, when the bottom began to give way at d;
and then, holding up-the other veffel AB (fig. 5.) in
the fame manner, caufe water to be poured into it at
H ; and you will fee, that when the water rifes to A
in this veffcl, juft as high as it did in the former, its
T A T I C S. Sed. IL
bottom will alfo give way at d, and it will lofe part of PrefTiirJi
the water. ' ' of
The natural reafon of this furprifing phenomenon
is, that fince all parts of a fluid at equal depths be¬
low the furface are equally preffed in all manner of
diredlions, the water immediately below the fixed
part By (fig. 5.) will be preffed as much upward a-
gainft its lower furface within the veffel, by the a£lion
of the column Ag, as it would be by a column of
the fame height, and of any diameter whatever; (as
was evident by the experiment with the tube, fig. 4.)
and therefore, fince a£lion and readlion are equal and
contrary to each other, the water immediately below
the furface Bf will be preffed as much downward by
it, as if it was immediately touched and prefl'ed by a
column of the height ^ A, and of the diameter By:
and therefore, the water in the cavity BD df will be
preffed as much downward upon its bottom CC, as
the bottom of the other veffel (fig. 6.) is preffed by
all the water above it.
To illuftrate this a little farther, let a hole be made Fi s
at yin the fixed top By and let a tube Gbe put into 0
it; then, if water be poured into the tube A, it will
(after filling the cavity B ?/) rife up into the tube G,
until it comes to a level with that in the tube A ;
which is manifeftly owing to the preffure of the water
in the tube A, upon that in the cavity of the veffel
below it. Confequently, that part of the top By in
which t^ie hole is now made, would, if corked up, be
preffed upward with a force equal to the whole weight of
all the water which is fupported in the tube G: and the
fame thing would hold at ^ if a hole were made there.
And fo, if the whole cover or top By were full of holes,
and had tubes as high as the middle one Ag put into
them, Ihe water in each tube would rife to the fame
height as it is kept in the tube A, by pouring more
into it, to make up the deficiency that it fuftains by
fupplying the others, until they are all full; and then
the water in the tube A would fupport equal heights
of water in all the reft of the tubes. Or, if all the
tubes except A, or any other one, were taken away,
and a large tube equal in diameter to the whole top
By were placed upon it and cemented to it, and
then if water were poured into the tube that was left
in either of the holes, it would afcend through all the
reft of the holes, until it filled the large tube to the
fame height that it Hands in the fmall one, after a fuf-
ficient quantity had been poured into it: which (hews,
that the top B f was preffed upward by the water
under it, and before any hole was made in it, with a
force equal that wherewith it is now preffed downward
by the weight of all the water above it in the great
tube. And therefore, the reaftion of the fixed top
By muft be as great, in preffing the water dawn-
ward upon the bottom CC, as the whole preffure of
the water in the great tube would have been, if the
top had been taken away, and the water in that tube
left to prefs dire&ly upon the water in the cavity BDi//I ^
Perhaps the beft machine in the world for demon- The hydre
ftrating the upward preffure of fluids, is the hydro- ftatic bel-
flatic bellows, which confifts of two thick oval boards lows, fig.:
AB, EF, each about 16 inches broad, and 1-8 inches
long: the fides are of leather, joined very clofe
to the top and bottom by ftrong nails. CD
is a pipe ferewed into a piece of brafs on the top-
board
. Sea. II.
HYDROS
Prcffure board at C. Let fome water be poured into the pipe
'of at D, which will run into the bellows, and feparate
the boards a little. Then lay three weights, each
weighing 100 pounds, upon the upper board ; and
pour more water into the pipe, which will run into
the bellows, and raife up the board with all the weights
upon it; and if the pipe be kept full, until the weights
are raifed as high as the leather which covers the
bellows will allow them, the water will remain in the
pipe, and fupport all the weights, even though it
fhould weigh no more than a quarter of a pound, and
they 300 pounds : nor will all their force be able to
caufe them to defcend and force the water out at the
top of the pipe.
The reafon of this will be made evident, by confi-
dering what has been already faid of the refult of the
preffure of fluids of equal heights without any regard
to their quantity. For, if a hole be made in the up¬
per board, and a tube be put into it, the water will
rife in. the tube to the fame height that it does in the
pipe ; and would rife as high (by fupplyirig the pipe)
in as many tubes as the board could contain holes.
Now, fuppofe only one hole to be made in any part
of the board, of an equal diameter with the bore of
the pipe, and that the pipe holds juft a quarter of
a pound of water; if a perfons claps his finger upon
the hole, and the pipe be filled with water, he will find
his finger to be prefled upward with a force equal to a
quarter of a pound. And as the fame preffure is equal
upon all equal parts of the board, each part, whofe
area is equal to thearea-of the hole, will be prefled up¬
ward with a force equal to that of a quarter of a
pound : the fum of all which preflures againft the un¬
der fide of an oval board 16 inches broad, and 18 inches
long, will amount to 300 pounds; and therefore fo
much weight will be raifed up and fupported by a quar¬
ter of a pound of water in the pipe,
low a man Hence, if a man ftapds upon the upper board, and
iay raife blows into the bellows through the pipe, he will raife
liimfelf up-himfelf upward upon the board: and the fmaller the
ShbyhiSbore of the pipe is, the eafier he will be able to raife
himfelf. And then, by clapping his finger upon the
top of the pipe, he can fupport himfelf as long as he
pleafes ; provided the bellows be air-tight, fo as not
tolofe what is blown into it.
Upon this principle of the upward prelfure of fluids,
a piece of lead may be made to fwim in water, by im-
merfing it to a proper depth, and keeping the water
from getting above it. Let CD be a glafs tube, open
at both ends; and EFG a flat piece of lead, exaftly
fitted to the lower end of the tube, not to go within
it, but for it to ftand upon ; with a wet leather be¬
tween the lead and the tube, to make clofe work. Let
this leaden bottom be half an inch thick, and held
clofe to the tube by pulling the packthread IHL up¬
ward at L with one hand, whilft the tube, is held in
the other by the upper end C. In this fituation, let
the tube be immerfed in water in the glafs veflel AB,
to the depth of fix inches below the furface of the wa¬
ter at K ; and then, the leaden bottom EFG will be
plunged to the depth of fomewhat more than eleven
times'its own thicknefs: holding the tube at that
depth, you may let go the thread at L ; and the lead
will not fall from the tube, but will be kept to it by
the upward preflure of the water below it occafioned
by the height of the water at K above the level of the
lead
llnay be
made to
Fig. 8.
T A T I C S. 7372
lead. For as lead is 11.33 times as heavy as its bulk of Specific
water, and is in this experiment immerfed to a depth gravity-
fomewhat more than 11.33 times its thicknefs, and no
water getting into the tube between it and the lead, the
column of water Y,abcQ below the lead is prefled up¬
ward againft it by the water KDEGL all around the
tube ; which water being a little more than 11.33 times
as high as the lead is thick, is fufficient to balance and
fupport the lead at the depth KE. If a little water
be poured into the tube upon the lead, it will increafe
the weight upon the column of water under the lead,
and caufe the lead to fall from the tube to the bottom
of the glafs veflel, where it will lie in the fituation b d.
Or, if the tube be raifed a little in the water, the lead
will fall by its own weight, which will then be too
great for the preffure of the watfr around the tube up¬
on the column of water below it. But the following
method of making an extremely heavy body float upon
water is more elegant. Take a long glafs tube, open
at both ends; flopping the lower end with a finger,
pour in fome quickfilver at the other end, fo as to take
up abont half an inch in the tube below. Immerfe
this tube, with the finger ftill at the bottom, in a deep
glafs veflel filled with water; and when the lower end
of the tube is about feven inches below the furface, take
away the finger from it, and then you will fee the
quickfilver not fink into the veflel, but remain fufpend-
ed upon the tube, and floating, if'we may fo exprefs it,
upon the water in the glafs-veffel. 9
In the fame manner as an heavy body was made to How light
fwim on water, by taking away the upward preflure; wood may
fo may a light body, like wood, be made to remain J1.* ,0
funk at the bottom, by depriving it of all preflure ij0tt0rn
from below: for if two equal pieces of wood be planed, water,
furface to furface, fo that no water can get between
them, and then one of them (c</) be cemented to the
infide of the veflel’s bottom; then the other being
placed upon this, and, while the veflel is filling, being
kept down by a flick ; when the flick is removed and
the veffel full, the upper piece of wood will not rife
from the lower one, but continue funk under water,
though it is a&ually much lighter than water ; for as
there is no refiftance to its under furface to drive it up¬
ward, while its upper furface is ftrongly prefled down,
it mu ft neceflarily remain at the bottom.
Sect. III. Of the Specific Gravity of Bodies.
When an unfpongy or foiidbody finks in a veflel of of fyecific
water, it removes a body of water equal to its own bulk, gravity,
out of the place to which it defeends. If, forinftance, a
copper ball is let drop into a glafs of water, we well
know, that if it finks, it will take up as mudi room as a
globe of water equal to itfelf in fize took up before.
Let us fuppofe, that this watery globe removed by
the ball were frozen into a folid fubliance, and weigh¬
ed in a fcale againft the copper ball: now the.copper
ball being more in weight than the globe, it is evi¬
dent that it will fink its own fcale, and drive up the
oppofite, as all heavier bodies do when weighed againfl:
lighter ; if, on the contrary, the copper ball be lighter
than the water globe, the ball will rife. Again, then,
let us fuppofe the copper ball going to be immerfed in
water; and that, in order to defcend, it mull difplacea
globe of water equal to itfelf in bulk. If the copper
ball be heavier than the globe, its preflure will over¬
come the other’s refillance, and it will fink to thebot-
21 N 2 globe
3776 H
Specific tom ; but if the watery globe be heavier, its preffure
gravities. UpWar£]s will be greater than that of the ball down¬
ward, and the ball will rife or fwim. In a word, in
proportion as the ball is heavier than the fimilar bulk
of water, it will defcend with greater force ; in propor¬
tion as it is lighter, it will be railed more to the furface.
From all this we may deduce one general rule,
which will meafure the force with which any folid
body tends to fwim or fink in water; namely. Every
body immerfed in ’water, lofei juji as much of its ’weight
as equals the ’■weight of an equal bulk of ’water. Thus,
for inftance, if the body be two ounces, and an equal
bulk of water be one ounce, the body when plunged
will fink towards the bottom of the water with a
weight of one ounce. If, on the contrary, the folid
body be but one ounce, and the weight of an equal bulk
of water be two ounces ; the folid, when plunged, will
remove but one ounce, that is, half as much water as
is equal to its own bulk: fo that, confequently, it can¬
not defcend ; for to do that, it muft remove a quanti¬
ty of water equal to its own bulk. Again, if the fo¬
lid be too ounces, and the equal bulk of water two
ounces, the folid, wherever it is plunged, will nei¬
ther rife nor fink, but remain fufpended at any depth.
Thus we fee the reafon why fome bodies fwim in
water, and others fink. Bodies of large bulk and little
weight, like cork or feathers, muft neceflarily fwim, be-
caufe an equal bulk of water is heavier than they ; bo¬
dies of little bulk but great weight, like lead or gold,
muft fink, becaufe they are heavier than an equal bulk
of water. The bulk and the weight of any body con-
fidered together, is called its fpecific gravity; and the
proportion of both in any body is eafily found by
YDROSTATICS.
Se£t. Iirtt
known to be a bafer metal. For inftance, if we are Specific;
offered a braft counter for a guinea, and we fufpeft it; Srav
fuppofe, to clear our fufpicions, we weigh it in the'
ufual manner againft a real guinea in the oppofite fcale,
and it is of the exa& weight, yet ftill we fufpeft it;
What is to be done ? To melt or deftroy the figure
of the coin would be inconvenient and improper: a
much better and more accurate m ,thod remains. We
have only to weigh a real guinea in water, and we ihall
thus find that it lofes but a nineteenth part of its
weight in the balance: We then weigh the brafs counter
in water, and we aftually find it lofes an eighth part of
its weight by being weighed in this manner. This at
once demonftrates, that the coin is made of a bafe me¬
tal, and not gold ; for as gold is the heavieft of all
metals, it will lofe lefs of its weight by being weigh¬
ed in water than any other.
This method Archimedes firft made ufe of to dete£l
a fraud with regard to the crown of Hicro king of Sy-
racufe. Hiero had employed a goldfmith to make him
a crown, and furnilbed him with a certain weight of
gold for that purpofe; the crown was made, the
weight was the fame as before, but ftill the king fuf-
pefted that there was an adulteration in the metal.
Archimedes was applied to ; who, as the ftory goes*
was for fome time unable to deleft the impofition. It
happened, however, one day as the philofopher was
ftepping into a bath, that he took notice the water
rofe in the bath in proportion to the part of his body
immerfed. From this accident he received a hint ;
wherewith he was fo tranfported, that he jumped out
of the bath, and ran naked about the ftreets of Syra-
cufe, crying in a wild manner, I have found it! I have
ter. A body of little bulk and great weight, readily found it!—In confequence of this fpeculation, he made
finks in water, and it is faid to have fpecific gravity; a two maffes of the juft weight of the crown ; one of
body of great bulk and little weight, lofes almoft all its
weight in water, and therefore is faid to have but little
fpecific gravity. A woolpack has aftually greater real
gravity, or weighs more in air, than a cannon ball; but
for all that, a cannon ball may have more fpecific gra¬
vity, and weigh more than the woolpack, in water.
Denfty is a general term that means the fame thing ;
fpecific gravity is only a relative term, ufed when fo!*is
are weighed in fluids, or fluids in fluids.
As every folid finks more readily in water, in pro¬
portion as its fpecific gravity is great, or as it con¬
tains greater weight under a fmaller bulk, it will fol¬
low, that the fame body may very often have different
fpecific gravities, and that it will fink at one time and
fwim at another. Thus a man, when he happens to
fall alive into the water, finks to the bottom ; for the
fpecific gravity of his body is then greater than that
of water: but if, by being drowned, he lies at the
bottom for fome days, his body fwellsby putrefaftion,
which difunites its parts ; thus its fpecific gravity be¬
comes lefs than that of water, and he floats npon the
furface.
jjowYo <Uf- Several more important ufes are the refult of our
cover adul-being able exaftly to determine the fpecific gravities
terations in of bodies. We can, by weighing metals in. water,
metals. difeover their adulterations or mixtures with greater
exaftnefs than by any other means whatfoever. By
this means, the counterfeit coin, which maybe offer¬
ed us as gold, will be very eafily diftinguilhed, and
gold, the other of lilver. Thefe he fcverally let down
carefully into a veffel of water, wherein the rife of the
fluid might eafily be determined by meafure. Being
of different fpecific gravities, they were confequently
of different magnitudes, and on immerfiofi took up the
room of different quantities of water ; by comparing
whereof with their abfolute gravities in the air, he be¬
came fully mafter of the relation, in point of weight,
each of thefe metals had to water, and confequently to
each other. He then ferved the crown in like man¬
ner; and by comparing his obfervations, he at length
detefted the cheat, and fairly affigned the quantities of
gold and filver contained in the crown refpeftively.
Upon this difference in the weight of bodies in open Thchvdrc*
air and water, the hydrcftatic balance has been form- ftatic ba-
ed ; which differs very little from a common balance, lance,
but that it hath an hook at the bottom of one fcale,
on which the weight we want to try may be hung by
an horfe-hair, and thus fufpended in w'ater, without
wetting the fcale from whence it hangs. Firft, the
weight of the body we want to try is balanced againft
the parcel or weight in open air ; then the body is
fufpended by the hook and horfe-hairat the bottom of
the fcale in water, which we well know will make it
lighter, and deftroy the balance. We then can know
how much lighter it will be, by the quantity of the
weights we take from the fcale to make it equipoife ;
and of confequence we thus precifejy can find out its
fpecific gravity compared to water (a). This is the moft
exaft
(a) This is the common hydroftatic balance. The reader will fee an improved apparatus atBalance,
in the order of the alphabet.
III.
exa<9: and infallible method of knowing the genuine-
nefs of metals, and the different mixtures with which
they may be adulterated, and it will anfvter for all
fucb bodies as can be weighed in water. As for thofe
things that cannot be thus weighed, fuch as qutck-
filver, fmall fparks of diamond, and fuch like, as they
cannot be fufpended by an horfe-hair, they muft be
put into a glafs-bucket, the weight of which is already
known : this, with the quickfilver, muft be balanced by
weights in the oppofite fcale, as before, then irnmcr*
fed, and the quantity of weights to be taken from the
oppofite fcale will ftiew the fpecific gravity of the buc¬
ket and the quickfilver together : the fpecific gravity
of the bucket is already known ; and of confequence
the fpecific gravity of the quickfilver, or any other fi-
milar fubftanee, will be what remains.
As we can thus difcover the fpecific gravity of dif¬
ferent folids by plunging them in the fame fluid, fo we
can difcover the fpecific gravity of different fluids, by
plunging the fame folid body into them ; for in pro¬
portion as the fluid is light, fo much will it diminifti
the weight of the body weighed in it. Thus we may
know that fpirit of wine has lefs fpecific gravity than
water, becaufe a folid that will fwim in water will fink
in fpirit; on the contrary, we may know that fpirit of
nitre has greater fpecific gravity than water, becaufe
a folid that will fink in water will fwim upon the fpirit
of nitre. Upon this principle is made that fimple in-
ftrument called an hydrometer, which ferves to meafure
the lightnefs or weight of different fluids. For that
liquors weigh very differently from each other is found
by experience. Suppofe we take a glafs-veffel which
is divided into two parts, communicating with each
other by a fmall opening of a line and an half diame¬
ter. Let the lower part be filled up to the divifion
with red wine, then let the upper part be filled with
water. As the red-wine is lighter than water, we
{hall fee it in a fliort time rifing like a fmall thread up
through the water, and diffufing itfelf upon the fur-
face, till at length we fhall find the. wine and water have
changed their places ; the water will be feen in the
lower half, and the wine in the upper half, of the vef-
fel. Or take a fmall bottle AB, the neck of which
muft be very narrow, the mouth not more than of
an inch wide; and have a glafs-vcffel CD, whofe
height exceeds that of the bottle about two inches.
With a fmall funnel fill the bottle quite full of red-
wine, and place it in the vtffel CD, which is to be
full of water. The wine will prefently come out of
the bottle, and rife in form of a fmall column to the
furface of the water; and at the fame time the wa¬
ter, entering the bottle, will fupply the place of the
wine ; for water being fpecifically heavier than wine,
muft hold the loweft place, while the other naturally
rifes to the top. A fimilar effedt will be produced if
the bottle be filled with water, and the veffel with
wine: for the bottle being placed in the veffel in an
inverted pofition, the water will dcfcend to the bot¬
tom of the veffel, and the wine will mount into the
bottle.
In the fame manner we may pour four different li¬
quors, of. different weights, into any glafs-veffel, and
they (hall all ftand feparate and unmixed with each
other. Thus, if we take mercury, oil of tartar, fpi¬
rit qf wine, and fpirit of turpentine, {hake them toge¬
ther in a glafs, and then let them fettle a few minutes,
3777
each {hall ftand in its proper place, mercury at the Specific
bottom, oil of tartar next, fpirit of wine, and then gravltie,•
fpirit of turpentine above all. Thus we fee liquors
are of very different denfities ; and this difference it is
that the hydrometer is adapted to compare. In ge¬
neral, all vinous fpirits are lighter than water ; and the
lefs they contain of water, the lighter they are. The
hydrometer, therefore, will inform us how far they
are genuine, by {hewing us their lightnefs ; for in
pure fpirit of wine it finks lefs than in that which is
mixed with a fmall quantity of water.
The hydrometer (hould be made of copper: for ivory pjate
imbibes fpirituous liquors, and thereby alters their gra-CLIV.
vity; and glafs requires an attention that is incompatible fig. r--
with expedition. The moft fimple hydrometer coh-
fifts of a copper ball B b, to which is foldered a brafs
wire AB, one quarter of an inch thick. The upper
part of this wire being filed flat, is marked proof, at
m, fig. 2. becaufe it finks exatftly to that mark in
proof-fpirits. There are two other marks at A and B,
fig. i. to {hew whether the liquor be one-tenth above
or below proof, according as the hydrometer finks to
A, or emerges to B, when a brafs weight, as C or K,
is fcrewed to its bottom e. There are other weights
to fcrew on, which (hew the fpecific gravity of differ¬
ent fluids, quite down to common water.
The round part of the wire above the ball may be
marked fo as to reprcfent river-water when it finks to
RW, fig. 2. the weight which anfwers to that water
being then fcrewed on ; and when put into fpring-
water, mineral-water, fea-water, and water of fait
fprings, it will gradually rife to the marks SP, MI,
SE, SA. On the contrary, when it is put into Bri-
ftol water, rain-water, port-wine, and mountain-wine,
it will fucceffiveiy fink to the marks br, ra, po, mo.
Inftruments of this kind are fometimes called eireo'
vieters.
There is another fort of hydrometer that is calcu¬
lated to afcertain the fpecific gravity of fluids to the
greateft precifion poffible, and which confifts of a
large hollow ball B, fig. 3. with a fmaller ball b fcrew¬
ed on to its bottom, partly filled with mercury or fmall
fhot, in order to render it but little fpecifically lighter
than water. The larger ball has alfo a {hort neck at
C, into which is fcrewed the graduated brafs-wire AC,
which, by a fmall weight at A, caufes the body of
the inftrument to defcend in the fluid, with part of
the ftem.
When this inftrument is fwimming in the liquor
contained in the jar ILMK, the part of the fluid dif-
placed by it will be equal in bulk to the part of the
inftrnment under water, and equal in weight to the
whole inftrnment. Now, fuppofe the weight of the
whole to be four thoufand grains, it is then evident
we can by this mean compare the different dimenfions
of four thoufand grains of feveral forts of fluids. For
if the weight at A be fuch as will caufe the ball to fink,
in rain-water till its furface come to the middle point
of the ftem 20; and after that, if it be immerfed in
common fpring-water, and the furface be obferved to
ftand at one-tenth of an inch below the middle point
20; it is apparent, that the fame weight of each water
differs only in bulk by the magnitude of one-tenth of
an inch in the ftem.
Now, fuppofe the ftem to be ten inches long, and to,
weigh a hundred grains, then every tenth of an inch
will
HYDROSTATICS.
3778
Specific
gravities.
HYDROSTATICS. Sed. Ilf
will weigh one grain : and as the item is of brafs,
which is about eight times heavier than water, the
Came bulk of water will be equal to one-eighth of a
grain, and confequently to the one-eighth of one four-
thoufandth part, that is, one thirty-two thoufandth
part of the whole bulk. This inftrument is capable
of ftill greater precifion, by making the Item or neck
confxft of a flat thin flip of brafs, inftead of one that
is cylindrical: for by this means we increafe the fur-
face, which is the molt requifite circumftance, and di-
xninifh the folidity, which neceffarily renders the in-
ftrument ftill more accurate.
To adapt this inftrument to all purpofes, there
flrould be two ftems, to fcrew on and off, in a fmall
hole at a. One ftem fhonld be a fmooth thin flip of
brafs, or rather fled, like a watch-fpring fet ftraight,
fimilar to that we have juft now mentioned ; on one
fide of which is to be the feveral marks or divifions to
which it will fink in different forts of water, as rain,
river, fpring, fea, and falt-fpring waters, &c.; and
on the other fide you may mark the divifions to which
it finks in various lighter fluids, as hot Bath water,
Briftol water, Lincomb water, Cheltenham water,
port-wine, mountain, madeira, and other forts of wines.
But here the weight at A on the top muft be a little
lefs than before when it was ufed for heavier waters.
But in trying the ftrength of the fpirituous liquors,
a common cylindric ftem will do beft, becaufe of its
ftrength and fteadinefs : and this ought to be fo con¬
trived, that, when immerfed in what is called proof-
fpirit, the furface of the fpirit may be upon the middle
point 20 ; which is eafily done by duly adjufting the
fmall weight A on the top, and making the ftem of
fuch a length, that, when immerfed in water, it may
juft cover the ball and rife to a ; but, when immerfed
in pure fpirit, it may rife to the top A. Then, by di¬
viding the upper and lower parts a zo and A 20, into
ten equal parts each, when the inftrument is immerfed
into any fort of fpirituous liquor, it will immediately
fhow how much it is above or below proof.
Proof-fpirit confifts of half water and half pure fpi¬
rit, that is, fuch as, when poured on gun-powder, and
fet on fire, will burn all away ; and permits the pow¬
der to take fire and flafti, as in open air. But if
the fpirit be not fo highly reftified, there will remain
fome water, which will make the powder wet, and un¬
fit to take fire. Proof-fpirit of any kind weighs feven
pounds twelve ounces per gallon.
The common method of {baking the fpirits in a
phial, andraifing a head of bubbles, to judge by their
manner of rifing or breaking whether the fpirit be
proof, or near it, is very fallacious. There is no way
fo certain, and at the fame time fo eafy and expedi¬
tious, as this by the hydrometer.
Yet, after all, we are not entirely to depend, and
with geometrical certainty rely, upon either the hy¬
drometer or the hydroftatic balance; for there are
fome natural inconveniencies that difturb the exaftnefs
with which they difcover the fpeeific gravities of dif¬
ferent bodies. Thus, if the weather be hotter at one
time than another, all fluids will fwell, and confe¬
quently they will be lighter than when the weather is
cold : the air itfelf is at one time heavier than at ano¬
ther, and will buoy up bodies weighed in it; they
will therefore appear lighter, and will of confequence
feem heavier in water. In fhort, there are many cau- Sped ja
fes that would prevent us from making tables of the gravitj
fpecific gravities of bodies, if rigorous exaftnefs were
only expe&ed ; for the individuals of every kind of
fubftance differ from each other, gold from gold, and
water from water. In fuch tables, therefore, all that
is expefted is to come as near the exa& weight as we
can ; and from an infpedtion into feveral, we may make
an average near the truth. Thus, Mufchenbroek’a
table makes the fpecific gravity of rain-water to be
nearly eighteen times and an half lefs than that of a
guinea ; whereas our Englifli tables make it to be but
feventeen times and an half, nearly, lefs than the fame.
But though there may be fome minute variation in all
our tables, yet they in general may ferve to conduit us
with fufficient accuracy.
In conftru&ing tables of fpecific gravities with ac¬
curacy, the gravity of water muft be reprefented by
unity or 1.000, where three ciphers are added, to
give room for exprefling the ratios of other gravities
in decimal parts, as in the following table.
A TABLE of the Specific Gravities of feveral
folid and fluid bodies.
A cubic inch of
Very-fine gold
Standard gold
Guinea gold
Moidore gold
Quickfilver - -
Lead
Fine filver
Standard Silver
Copper
Plate-brafs
Steel -
Iron -
Block-tin
Spelter -
Lead ore - -
Glafs of antimony
German antimony
Copper ore
Diamond - -
Clear glafs
Lapis lazuli -
Welch afbeftos
White marble
Black ditto
Rock cryttal
Green glafs
Cornelian ftone
Flint
Hard paving-ftone
Live fulphur
Nitre
Alabafter -
Dry ivory
Brimftone
Alum -
Ebony -
Troy weight
oz. pw. gr.
. oz.drams, weight.
3 .
6-4-4
ty.iS
19.84
11.6
4 13
4 4
7
9 17-55
6 23.23
3-36
7.04
9.60
2 20.
o 15.20
17 5.68
2.86
7.76
2 15 16.89
2 2 4.8c
2 1 11.83
1 15 20. ~
1 13 5-J8
1 12 5.27
1 10 17.57
1 8 13.4
1 8 12.65
14
1 7
1 7
1 6 19.63
1 5 22.87
r 1 2.40
1 o 1.08
o 19 18.74
o 19 6.09
o 18 23.76
o 17 21.92
Avoirdu.lCompa
1 rative
11 18.8;
5.80
ro 14.90
[o 4.76
9 I4-7
8 1.45
6 9.08
6 6.66
6 154
5 i>89
4 10.09
4 8.70
4 6-77
4 3-79
4 1.42
3 I4-96
3 0.89
2 5.04
2 4-43
1 15.48
1 13.16
1 12.27
1 10.97
1 9.06
1 9.02
t 8.6
1 8.26
« 7-73
1 7-53
1 6.77
t 2.52
1 1.59
» 1 35
1 0.89
1 0.66
0 15.72
19.637
18.888
17-793
17.140
14.019
11.325
11.087
io-535
8.843
8.000
7.85:
7.645
7-32
7.065
6.800
5.280
4.000
3-775
3.400
3-15°
3-054
2.913
2.70'
2.704
2.658
2.620
2.568
2.542
2.460
2.000
1.900
1.875
1.825
j.8oc
L714
Table I
fpecific 9
vities. I
The
: >e&. IV.
ivities.
HYDROS
The Table concluded.
Compa¬
rative
A cubic inch of
Human blood
Amber -
Cow’s milk
Sea-water
Pump-water
Spring-water
Diftilled water
Red wine
Oil of amber
Proof fpirits
Dry oak -
Olive oil
Pure fpirits
Spirit of turpent.
Oil of turpentine
Dry crabtree
Saflafras wood
Cork -
oz. dr.
O II 2.89
o 10 20.79
o 10 20.79
o 10 20.79
o 10 13.30
o 10 12.94
o 10 11.42
o 10 11.42
o 10 7.63
o 9 19.73
o 9 18.00
o 9 15.17
o 9 3.27
o 9 2.76
o 8 8.53
o 8 1.69
o 5 2.04
o 2 12.77
Avoird.
weight.
9.76
9-5 4
9-54
9.54
9.26
9.25
9.20
9.20
9.06
8.62
8.56
8.45
8.02
7-99
7-33
7.08
4.46
1.054
1.020
1.030
1.030
1.000
0.999
0-993
0.993
0.978
o.931
0.925
0.913
0.866
0.864
0.772
0.765
0.482
0.240
qua 11-
of adul-
ion in
Take away the decimal point from the numbers in
the right-hand column, or (which is the fame) mul¬
tiply them by xooo, and they will fhew how many
ounces avoirduporfe are contained in a cubic foot of
each body.
The ufe of the table of fpecific gravities will beft
appear by an example. Suppofe a body to be com¬
pounded of gold and filver, and it is required to find
the quantity of each metal in the compound.
Firft find the fpecific gravity of the compound, by
weighing it in air and in water; and dividing its aerial
weight by what it lofes thereof in water, the quotient
will (hew its fpecific gravity, or how many times it is
heavier than its bulk of water. Then, fubtraft the
fpecific gravity of filver (found in the table) from that
of the compound, and the fpecific gravity of the com¬
pound from that of gold ; the firft remainder (hews
the bulk of gold, and the latter the bulk of filver, in
the whole compound : and if thefe remainders be mul¬
tiplied by the refpecfive fpecific gravities, the produ&s
will fliew the proportion of weights of each metal in
the body. Example :
Suppofe the fpecific gravity of the compounded
body be 13 ; that of ftandard filver (by the table) is
10.5, and that of gold 19.63 : therefore 10.5 from 13,
remains 2.5, the proportional bulk of the gold; and
13 from 19.63, remains 6.63, the proportional bulk
of filver in the compound. Then, the firft remainder
2.5, multiplied by 19.63, the fpecific gravity of gold,
produces 49.075 for the proportional weight of gold ;
and the laft remainder 6.63 multiplied by 10.5, the
fpecific gravity of filver, produces 69.615 for the pro¬
portional weight of filver in the whole body. So that
for every 49.07 ounces or pounds of gold, there are
69.6 pounds or ounces of filver in the body.
Hence it is eafy to know whether any fufpefted me¬
tal be genuine, or allayed, or counterfeit; by finding
how much it is heavier than its bulk of water, and
comparing the fame with the table : if they agree, the
metal is good; if they differ, it is allayed or coun¬
terfeited.
T A T I C S. 3779
A cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or other proof Hydraulic*,
fpirits, weighs 235.7 grains; therefore, if a true inch ^
cube of any metal weighs 235.7 grains lefs in fpirits jj0wto try
than in air, it (hews the fpirits are proof. If it lofes fpirituous 7
lefs of its aerial weight in fpirits, they are above proof; liquors,
if it lofes more, they are under; For, the better the
fpirits are, they are the lighter; and the worfe, the
heavier.
Sect. IV. Hydraulics.
Hydraulics is that part of hydroftatics, which
teaches to eftimate the fwiftnefs or the force of fluids
in motion.
It has been al ways thought an inquiry of great cu-
rioftty, and ftill greader advantage, to know the caufes
by which water fpouts from veffels to different heights
and diftances. We have obferved, for inftance, an
open veffel of liquor upon its (land, pierced at the bot¬
tom : the liquor, when the opening is firft made,
fpouts out with great force; but as it continues to run,
becomes lefs violent, and the liquor flows more feebly.
A knowledge of hydraulics will inftrudl us in the caufe
of this diminution of its ftrength ; it will (hew precife-
ly how far thd liquor will fpout from any veffel, and
how faft or in what quantities it will flow. Upon
the principles of this fcience, many machines worked
by water are entirely conftru&ed ; feveral different en¬
gines ufed. in the mechanic at ts, various kinds of mills,
pumps, and fountains, are the refult of this theory, ju-
dicioufly applied.
And what is thus demonftratedof the bottom of the Thevelo-
veffel, is equally true at every other depth whatfoever. city of
Let us then reduce this into a theorem : The velocity (pouting
rwith ’which ’water fpouts out at a hole in the fide or water*
bottom of a veffel, is as the fquare root of the depth
or dijlance of the hole belc’w the furface of the ’water.
For, in order to. make double the quantity of a fluid
run through one hole as through another of the fame
fixe, it will require four times the preffure of the other,
and therefore muft be foar times the depth of the other
below the furface of the water : and for the fame rea-
fon, three times the quantity running in an equal time
through the fame fort of hole, muft run with three
times the velocity ; which will require nine times the
preffure, and confequently- muft be nine times as deep
below the furface of the fluid-: and fo on.—To prove
this by an experiment! Let two pipes, as C and^, of fig, f
equal fizcd bores, be fixed into the fide of the veffcl
AB; the pipe^ being four times as deep below the
furface of the water at £ in the veffel as the pipeC is:
and vvhilft thefe pipes run, let water be conftantly
poured into the veffel, to keep the furface (till at the
fame height. Then, if a cup that holds a pint-be fo
placed as to receive the water that fpouts from the pipe
C, and at the fame moment a cup that holds a quart be
fo placed as to receive the water that fpouts from the
pipe gi both cups will be filled at the fame time by
their refpedive pipes. l3
The horizontal diftance to which a fluid will fpout The hori-
from a horizontal pipe in any part of the fide of an zontal di¬
upright veffel below the furface of the fluid, is equal to ftaI?ce to
twice the length of a perpendicular to the fide of the
veffel, drawn from the mouth of the pipe to a femi- fpout from
circle defcribed upon the altitude of the fluid: and pipes,
therefore, the fluid will fpout to the greateft diftance
poffible
7j8o
Hydraulics.
Plate
CLII.
fig. 9.
HYDROSTAT
conveyed
over hills
and val>
leys.
The fy-
poffible from a pipe whofe mouth is at the centre of
the femicircle ; becaufe a perpendicular to its diame¬
ter (fuppol'ed parallel to the fide of the vefiel) drawn
from that point, is the longed that can polfibly be
drawn from any part of the diameter to the circumfe¬
rence of the femicircle. Thus, if the veflel AB be
full of water, the horizontal pipe D be in the middle
of its fide, and the femicircle We deb be deferibed up¬
on D as a centre, with the radius or femidiameter
D ^ N, or D fb, the perpendicular D d to the diame¬
ter N D £ is the longed that can be drawn from any
part of the diameter to the circumference N
And if the veffel be kept full, the jet G will fpout
from the pipe D, to the horizontal didance N M,
which is double the length of the perpendicular D d.
If two other pipes, as C and E, be fixed into the fide
of the veffel at equal didances above and below the
pipe D, the perpendiculars C c and E e, from thefe
pipes to the femicircle, will be equal; and the jets F
and H fpouting from them will each go to the horizon¬
tal didance NK ; which is double the length of either
of the equal perpendiculars C c or D </.
Fluids by their preffure may be conveyed over hills and
valleys in bended pipes, to any height not greater than
the level of the fprings from whence they flow. This
is what the ancients were ignorant of; and therefore
they ufually built Aqueducts (vad rows of arches one
above another, between two hills, at a vad expence of
money, time, and labour,) in order to convey water
over them, crofs the valley, in a common channel. This
is now done to equal advantage, and at much lefs ex¬
pence, by a range of pipes laid down one hill and up
the other. An indance whereof may be given by a
bent tube or crane; into one of the equal legs whereof
if water be poured, it will rife to the fame level exactly
in the other. The reafon is obvious: In the leg A,
(fig. 14.) there are, fuppofe, two oasces of water en¬
deavouring by the power of gravity to defeend with
the force of 2 5 thefe will thrud forward, buoy up, and
fupport an equal quantity of a like fluid in B; and the
bottom of the machine C, againd which both fides
equally bear, will of confequence fudain a double
preffure, or that of four ounces; and in the prefent
cafe will pretty well reprefent the prop or fixed
point of a balance-beam ; as the equal fluid-columns
AC, and BC, may be admitted to denote equal
weights, fufpended on the balance-arms, counterpoi-
fing each other. So that the rife of fluids to their
fird level, thus confidered, is a cafe truly datical;
and all their other motions proceed only from weight
added.
A fyphon, generally ufed for decanting liquors, is a
bended pipe, whofe legs are of unequal lengths; and
the fhorted leg mud always be put into the liquor in¬
tended to be decanted, that the perpendicular altitude
of the column of liquor in the other leg may be
longer than the column in the immerfed leg, efpecially
above the furface of the water. For, if both columns
were equally high in that refpeft, the atmofphere,
which preffes as much upward as downward, and
therefore a£ts as much upward againd the column in
the leg that hangs without the veffel, as it adl down¬
ward upon the furface of the liquor in the veffel,
would hinder the running of the liquor through the
fyphon, even though it were brought over the bended
i c s. Sea. r
part by fuftion. So that there is nothing left to caufe HyOra
the motion of the liquor, but the fuperior weight of the
column, in the longer leg, on account of its having the
greater perpendicular height.
Let D be a cup filled with water to C; and ABC Fig-
a fyphon, whofe fhorter leg BCF is immerfed in the
water from C to F. If the end of the other leg were
no lower than the line AC, which is level with the
furface of the water, the fyphon would not run, even
though the air Ihould be drawn out of it at the mouth
A. For although the fuftion would draw fome water
at firfl, yet the water would flop at the moment the
fuftion ceafed; becaufe the air would a£t as much up¬
ward againd the water at A, as it afted downward for
it by preffmg on the furface at C. But if the leg AB
comes down to G, and the air be drawn out at G by
fu&ion, the water will immediately follow, and conti¬
nue to run until the furfaCe of the water in the cup
comes down to F; becaufe, till then, the perpendicular
height of the column BAG will be greater than that
of the column CB; and, confequently, its weight will
be greater, until the furface comes down to F; and
then the fyphon will flop, though the leg CF Ihould
reach to the bottom of the cup. For which reafon,
the leg that hangs without the cup is always made
long enough to reach below the level of its bottom;
as from to E: and then, when the fyphon is emp¬
tied of air by fuftion at E, the water immediately fol¬
lows, and by its continuity brings away the whole
from the cup; jud as pulling' one end of a thread will
make the whole clue follow.
If the perpendicular height of a fyphon, from the
furface of the water to its bended top at B, be more
than 33 feet, it will draw no water, even though the
other leg were much longer, and the fyphon quite
emptied of air, becaufe the weight of a column of
water 33 feet high, is equal to the weight of as thick
a column of air, reaching from the furface of the earth '
to the top of the atmofphere: fo that there will then
be an equilibrium ; and confequently, though there
would be weight enough of air upon the furface C to
make the water afeend in the leg CB almod to the
height B, if the fyphon were emptied of air, yet the
weight would not be fufficient to force the water over
the bend ; and therefore, it could never be brought
into the leg BAG.
Mercury may be drawn through a fyphon in the
fame manner as water; but then the utmofl height of
the fyphon mud always be lefs than 30 inches, as
mercury is near 14 times heavier than water. That
fluids are forced through the fyphon by the preffure
of the atmofphere, is proved experimentally by the
air-pump; for, if a fyphon immerfed in a veffel of
water be placed when running in the receiver,
and the air extrafted, the running will immediately
ceafe. If the fyphon is very fmall, however, this is
not always the cafe; and the running of capillary fy-
phons in vacuo is a circumdance very difficult to be
explained. See Barometer, n° 10—13. and Sy¬
phon.
There is a fort of fyphon that will draw off water
without having the air previoufly extra&ed from it:
this confids of a capillary tube, about 1 10th of an
inch bore, and afts by the attraftion of cohefion: for
the water being attrafted by the leg immerfed, is
flowly
I Scd. IV. HYDROS
Hydraulics, flowly drawn up'to the top of the fyphon, and from
j   thence gradually defeends by its own gravity. From
. the fame caufe it is, that if one end of a piece of the
lift of cloth be put into the water of a veffel, and the
i other end hang over its fide, the water will be fucked
up by the end of the lift in the veffel, which in this
cafs ads as a bundle of very fine capillary tubes, and
a drop from the other end. This experiment with a
capillary tube will fucceed in vacuo.
Upon the principle of the fyphon depend the expe¬
riments of Tantalus's cup, n° 3-8; the Fountain at com¬
mand, n° 39; and the inverted drinking-glafs, n° 5 2. As
tothelaftof thefe, it maybe here obferved, that if the
1 paper was put dry on fuch a veffel empty, it would
fink ia the air, and fall away even by its own gravity;
and if put on wet, it were to be doubted whether a
very fmall weight added thereto would not feparate it
from the glafs, fo inconfiderable would the tenacity of
the water be in this cafe. The paper therefore can¬
not be fuppofed to fupport the incumbent weight of
water; and the true caufe thereof muft be this: The
bottom and fides of the inverted glafs-veffel being
rigid, keep off the preffure of the air from the fluid
above, whereas it hath liberty of accefs and freely
a&s thereon below: and that it does fo, will in part
appear to an obferver by the concavity of the paper
underneath. Could the air’s preffure in this cafe be
any-how admitted through the foot of the veffel in¬
verted, without doubt the whole column would defeend
together. And the like would happen fhould the
paper be removed; but for a different reafon, viz. the
large column of water in the mug, being compofed of
many collateral ones, which, being difpofed as in a
; bundle, reft on the paper wherewith the veffel is co¬
vered, as on a common bafe; and thefe being all
equally denfe, and equally fluid, are all retained, and
continued of the fame length, by the general and uni¬
form preffure of the air againft the paper below; and
fo long as this continues, none of them getting the
leaft advantage over the reft, they are all fuftained in a
body compaft together. But when the paper is re¬
moved, it being fcarce poffible to hold the veffel fo
exadily level, but that fome one or other of thefe
fmaller fluid columns will become longer, confequently
heavier, than thofe adjacent, and, over-balancing the
reft, will defeend, and give the lighter fluid, the air,
leave to rife into its place, even to the top of the
glafs; the general preffure whereof being there ad¬
mitted, will foon caufe the reft of them to move, and
the whole quantity will then defeend, feemingly to¬
gether.
Again, fhould a veffel be but part filled with water,
the fame effedf will follow to a certain degree. For
inftance, fuppofe we fill a long glafs half with water,
cover it with paper, and turn it down as before. Six
inches fuppofe of water, endeavouring to defeend, will
by its weight rarefy the air in the glafs above it, per¬
haps a 60th part or more. The denfer air without
will then overpoife the air rarefied within; and there¬
fore a certain quantity of water, equal to the diffe¬
rence of the two preffures, will in this cafe be thereby
buoyed up and fupported. But the air within the
glafs being dilated as aforefaid, the water fufpended
muft be expefted to hang fomething below the
mouth of it; though not enough, perhaps, to over-
T A T I C S. 3781
come the tenacity of the water, and make it all de- Hydraulic?.
feend. -1
Upon the principle of the fyphon alfowe mayeafily Intermit-
account for intermitting or reciprocating fprings. Let dug fpdngs
A A be part of a hill, within which there is a cavity CLi*f
BB; and from this cavity a vein or channel running fig. 1(
in the direction of BCDE. The rain that falls upon
the fide of the hill will fink and ftrain through the
fmall pores and crannies G, G, G, Gs and fill the
cavity K with water. When the water rifes to the
level HHC, the vein BCDE will be filled to C, and
the water will run through CDF as through a fy¬
phon; which running will continbe until the cavity
be emptied, and then it will flop until the cavity be
filled again.
We have feen that fluids led in pipes, will always
rife to the level of the refervoir whence they are fup-
plied; the rifing column being puftied forward, and
raifed by another equally heavy, at the fame time en¬
deavouring to defeend. A like effeft might be ex- Tets2^>eau
pefted from jets of water thus impelled, did not fric- ^
tion againft the fides of the machines, and the refin¬
ance of the air, both lateral and perpendicular, gene¬
rally prove an abatement, and prevent its rifing fo high
as the head.
Where jets are executed in the beft manner, and
the fri&ion fpoken of is as much as pofiible removed,
the impediment of the air only, through which they
needs mutt beat in their rife, will caufe them, accor¬
ding to experiment, to fall (hort of the height of the
refervoirs, in the following proportions, viz.
Jet.
Feet.
Reservoir.
Feet. Inches.
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
too
5
10
'5
21
27
5.3
39
45
5i
58
r>5
72
79
86
93
101
109
1 !7
125
*33
4
9
4
1
o
1
4
9
4
1
o
1
4
9
4
1
o
1
4
Whence in general it may be obferved:
That as often as a five-foot jet (to be taken in thefe
matters as a ftandard,)
Shall be contained in the height of any jet propofed;
By fo many inches multiplied into themfelves, or
fquared,
The furface of the water in the refervatory which
fupplies it, ought to exceed that jet in height.
Thus, to obtain a jet of 30 feet, which contains five
21 O feet
3782
Hydraulics
HYDROS
• feet fix times, the rcfervoir ought to be 36 inches, or
a yard higher; and a jet of 60 feet may be had from
a head higher by four times that difference, 144 inches,
or four yards. So that jets done in the beji manner
fallfhort ofthe heights of their refervatories, in a kind of
fubduplicate ratio of the heights to which they rife.
This great difproportion in the rife of jets muff in
general be owing to the refiftance of the air they are
made to move through; which has been (hewn to be
in proportion to the fquares of their celerities refpec-
tively : nor can the acceleration of the falling water in
the pipe, or the retardment of the riling ftream by the
a&ion of gravity, be concerned at all in it; fince thefe
are probably adequate, and counterbalance each other
every where in the fame level.
The air’s refiftance being thus' confiderable, it will
always be found neceffnry to increafe the bore of the
adjutage or fpouting-pipe with the height of the refer-
vatory: for if it be too fmall, the rifing ftream will
want fufficient weight and power to divide the air;
which being denfeft near the earth, a fmall ftream of
water, endeavouring to mount to a great height, will
be daftied againft it with fo great violence, as to fall
away in a mifti and be wholly loft. And it may be
obferved, that the weightier any body is, the greater
force it will have when in motion : fince an ounce-ball
fired from a mufquet, will go much farther, and do
greater execution, thaa will an equal weight of fhot;
and thefe again may be projefted farther than fo much
lead rafped into powder and fired off. A charge of
water fired from a piftol would fcarce wet a paper at
the diftance of fix feet. Aecordinglyi ftiould a calk
of water be any where pierced with holes of two, four,
fix, eight, and twelve lines over, all in the fame level,
the larger bore will always be found to throw the wa¬
ter fartheft.
It may be of ufe here to add Mr Marriotei’s propor¬
tions of the bores of the adjutages and pipes of eon-
duft, who was very converfant in thefe things, and
hath written very well on this fubjeft.
N. B. The French divide their inch into 12 equal
parts, which they call lines.
Heights of Diameters of fit Diameter of the Pipes
Refervoirs. \ Adjutages. of Conduit.
Feet. Lines. Lines.
5 3> 4> 5> or 6
10 4, 5, or 6  
15 5, or 6
25
3°
40
50
60
80
100
6, or half an inch
Ditto   
Ditto 
7, or 8  
25 Inches.
2-7, or 2|-
30, or 2I
33. or
36, or 3
5>» or 41:
65, or yi
72, or 6
84, or 7
96, or 8
12, 14, or 15
Hence it may be remarked, that there is a certain
and fit proportion to be obferved between the adjutage
whereby the jet is delivered, and the pipe conducing
it from the head. In genera},. A bout five times the dia¬
meter of the adjutage for jets under half an inch, and
fix or feven times for all abovei willfize the pipes of'con¬
duit pretty well: not but it will always be an error on
the right fide, to have them rather larger than iaftiid-
T A T I C S. Sea. V.
nefs they ought to be, that the jet may always be freely Hydrant
fupplied with water, and in due time. £ngint:<
For a like reafon, if there be occafion for a cock to
be placed in any part of the pipe of condud, particu¬
lar care muft be taken that it fnOuld be there bigger
in proportion, that the water-way may not be pinched;
but that the cavity be l.eft at leaft equal to the bore of
the reft of the pipe.
The bore of an adjutage cannot be too fmooth or
true. Thofe that are cylindrical are beft; thofe that
are bored conical worft, becaufe of the reflexions of
the water from the inclined fides of the machine, which
in the hurry of the iffuing ftream will in them unavoid¬
ably be made.
When fluids are defigned to be raifed higher than
the fprings from whence they flow, forcing engines
muft be ufed ; of which, and other hydraulic machines,
we come now to give a particular account.
Sect. V. Hydraulic Engines. ^
The pump is at once the moft common and moil Of pump!
ufeful of all the hydraulic inftruments. It was firft
invented by Ctefebes, a mathematician of Alexandria,
120 B. C. When the air’s preffure came afterwards
to be known, it was much improved, and it is now
•brought to a great degree of perfeXion.
Of this machine there are limply three kinds, viz.
the fucking, the forcing, and the lifting-pump. By
the two laft, water may be raifed to any height, with
an adequate apparatus and fufficient power: by the
former it may, by the general preffure of the atmo-
fphere on the furface of the well-water, be raifed no
more than 33 feet, as was before hinted, though in
praXice it is feldom applied to the raifing it much
above 28 ; becaufe from the variations obferved on the
barometer, it is apprehended that the am may, on cer¬
tain occafions, be fomething lighter than 33 feet of
water; and whenever that ftiall happen, for want of
the due counterpoife, this pump may fail in its per¬
formance. _ 14.
The common fucking-pump, with which we draw The com-
water out of wells, is an engine both pneumatic and mc-n pumj*
hydraulic. It confifts of a pipe open at both ends, in
which is a moveable pifton, bucket, or fucker, as big
as the bore of the pipe in that part wherein it works;
and is leathered round, fo as to lit the bore exaXiy;
and may be moved up and down, without fuffering any
air to come between it and the pipe or pump-barrel.
We {hall explain the conitruXion of this and the
forcing-pump by piXures of glafs models, in which
both the aXion of the piftons and motion of the valves
are feen.
Hold the model DCBL upright in the veffel of wa- Plate |
ter K, the water being deep enough to rife at leaft as-CLI tl.
high as from A to L The valve a on the moveable ng' >
bucket G, and ithe valve b on the fixed box H, (which
box quite fills the bore of the pipe Or barrel at H ) will
each lie clofe, by its own weight, upon the hole in the
bucket and box, until the engine begins to work. I he
valves are made of brafs, and covered underneath with
leather for clofing the holes the more exaXiy: and the
bucket G is-raifed and depreffed alternately by the
handle E and rod D d, the bucket being fuppofed at
B before, the working begins.
Take hold of the. handle E, and thereby draw up
Jhe
V. HYDROS
: the bucket from B to C, which will make room for
the air in the pump all the way helow the bucket to
dilate .itfelf, by which its fpringis weakened, and then
its force is not equivalent to the weight or preifure of
the outward air upon the water in the veffel K : and
therefore, at the firft ilroke, the outward air will prefs
up the water through the notched foot A, into the
lower pipe, about as far as e: this will condenfe the
rarefied air in the pipe between e and C to the fame
ftate it was in before; and then, as its-fpring within
the pipe is equal to the force or preffure of the out¬
ward air, the water will rife no higher by the firfl:
ftrokeand the valve b, which was raifed a little by
the dilation of the air in the pipe, will fall, and (top
the hole in the box H ; and-the furface of the water
will (land at e. Then deprefs thepiflon or bucket from
C to B and as the air in the part B cannot get back
again through the valve b, it will (as the bucket de-
fcends) raife the valverr, and fo make its way through
the upper part of the barrel d into the open air. But
upon raifing the bucket G a fecond time, the air be¬
tween it and the water in the lower pipe at a will be
again left at liberty to fill a larger fpace ; and fo its
{bring being again weakened, the preffure of the out¬
ward air on the water in the veflel K will, force more
water up into the lower pipe from e to /7; ‘and when
the bucket is at its greateft height C, the lowfer valve
b will fall, and flop the hole in the box: H as before.
At the next ftroke of the bucket or pifton,1 the water
will rife through the box H towards'B ; and, then the
valve b, which was raifed by it, will fall when the
bucket G is at its greateft height.- Upon deprefling
the bucket again, the water cannot be pufhed back
through the valve b, which keeps clofe upon the hole
whilft the pifton defcends. And upon railing the pifton
again,' the outward preffure of the air will' force the
water Up'through H, where it will raife the valve, and
follow the' bucket to C. Upon the next deprefiion of
the bucket G, it will go down into the water in the
barrel B; and as the water cannot be driven back
through the now clofe valve b, it will raife the valve a
as the bucket defcends, and will be lifted up by the
bucket when it is next raifed. And now, the whole
fpace below the bucket being full, the water above it
cannot fink when it is next deprefled ; but upon its de-
preflion, the valve a will rife to let the bucket go
down ; and when it is quite down, the valve a will fall
by its weight, and flop the hole in the bucket. When
the bucket is next raifed, all the water above it will
be lifted up, and begin to run off by the pipe F. And
thus/ by raifing and depreffing the bucket alterrtately,
there is ftill more water raifed by it; which getting
above the pipe !F, into the wide top I,' will fupply the
pipe/ and make it run with a continued ftream.
So, at every time the bucket is raifed, the valve b
rifes,and the valve a falls ; and at every time the buc¬
ket is depreffed, the valve b falls, and a rifes.
As it is the preffure of the air or atmofphere which
caufes the water to rife and follow the pifton or buc¬
ket G as it is drawn up ; and fince a column of water
33 feet high is of equal weight with as thick a column
of the atmofphere from the earth to the very top of
the air ; therefore, the perpendicular height of the pi¬
fton or bucket from the furface of the water in the well
T A T I C S. 37
muft always be lefs than 33 feet; otherwife the water Hym
will never get above the.bucket. But, when the height
is lefs, the preffure of the atmofphere will be greater
than .the vffeight of the water in the pump, and will
therefore raife it above the Bucket: and when the wa¬
ter has once got above the bucket, it may be lifted
thereby to any height, if the rod I) be made long
enough, and a fufficient degree of ftrength be em¬
ployed to raife it with the weight of the water above
the bucket.
The force required to work a pump, will be as the
height to which the water is raifed, and as the fquare
of the diameter of the pump-bore in that part where
the pifton works. So that, if two pumps be of equal
heights, and one of them be twice as wide in the bore
as the other, the wideft will raife four times as much
water as the narroweft; and will therefore require four
times as much ftrengih to work it.
) The widenefs or nbrrownefs of the pump, in any
qther part befides that in which the pifton works, does
riot make the pump either. more or lefs difficult to
work, except what difference may arife from the fric¬
tion of the water in the bore ; which is always greater
in a narrow bore than in a wide one, becaufe of the
greater velocity of the water. -
The pump-rod is'never raifed dire&Iy by fuch a
handle as E at the top, but by means of a lever, who(e
longer arm (at the end of which the power is applied)
generally exceeds the length of the fhorter arm five or
fix times ; and, by that means, it gives five or fix
times as much advantage to the power. . Upon thefe
principles, it will be eafy to find the dimenfions of a
pump that fhall work with a given force, and draw wa¬
ter from any: given depth. But, as thefe calculations
have been generally negletfted by pump-makers (either
for want; of flcill or ihduftry) the following table was
calculated by the late ingenious Mr Booth for their be¬
nefit. In this calculation, he fupppfed the handle of
the pump to be a lever increafing the power five times;
and had often found that a man can work a pump four
inches diameter and 30 feet high, and difcharge 27I.
gallons of water (Englifh wine-meafure.) in a minute.
Now, if it be required to find the diameter of a pump
that {hall raife water with the fame cafe from any
other height above the furface of the •well; look for
that height in the firft column, and over-againft it in
the fecond you have the diameter or width of the
pump, and in the third you find the quantity of wa¬
ter which a man of ordinary ftrength can difcharge in
a minute.
21 O 2 Height
3284
Hydraulic
Engines.
HYDROS
Height of the
pump above
the furface of
the ’well.
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
too
Diameter of the
bore where tke
bucket works,
Water difcharged
a minute, Englifh
wine-meafure.
5 .66
4 -90
•38
.00 •
.70
3 -46
3 -27
3 -1°
2 .95
2 .84
2 .72
2 -62
2 -53
2 *45
2 .38
2 .31
2 .25
2 -19
54
40
S2
27
23
16
H
13
The forcing The forcing-pu?np raifes water through the box H
P?at<f' ’n t^ie ^ame manner as the fucking-pump does, when
CLT1I. the plunger or piffonj^ is lifted up by the rod D d.
fig. 4. But this plunger has no hole thro’ it, to let the water
in the barrel B C get above it, when it is depreffed to
B, and the valve b (which rofe by the afcent of the
water through the box H when the plunger ^ was
drawn up) falls down and flops the hole in H, the
moment that the plunger is raifed to its greatefl
height. Therefore, as the water between the plunger
g and box H can neither get through the plunger up¬
on its defcent, nor back again into the lower part of
the pump L e, but has a free paffage by the cavity
around H into the pipe MM, which opens into the
air-vefiel KK at P ; the water is forced through the
pipe MM by the defcent of the plunger, and driven
into the air-veffel; and in running up through the
pipe at P, it opens the valve a; which fhuts at the
moment the plunger begins to be 'raifed, becaufe the
aftion of the water againll the under fide of the valve
then ceafes.
The water, being thus forced into the air-veflel KK
by repeated ftrokes of the plunger, gets above the
lower end of the pipe GHI, and then begins to con-
denfe the air in the veflel KK. For, as the pipe GH
is fixed air-tight into the veffel below F, and the air
has no way to get out of the veflel but through the
mouth of the pipe at I, and cannot get out when the
mouth I is covered with water, and is more and more
condenfed as the water rifes upon the pipe, the air
then begins to acl forcibly by its fpring againfl the
furface of the water at H : and this aftion drives the
water up through the pipe IHGF, from whence it
fpouts in a jet S to a great height; and is fupplied by
alternately railing and depreffing of the plunger
T A T I C S. Sea. Vj
which conflantly forces the water that it raifes thro’ HydrauliM
the valve H, along the pipe MM, into the air-veffel Ensh
KK.  
The higher that the furface of the water H is raifed
in the air-veffel, the lefs fpace will the air be conden¬
fed into which before filled that veil'd ; and therefore
the force of its fpring will be fo much the ftronger up¬
on the water, and will drive it with the greater force
through the pipe at F: and as the fpring of the air
continues whilll the plunger £ is rifing, the Itream or
jet S will be uniform, as long as the adtion of the
plunger continues ; and when the valve b opens, to let
the water follow the plunger upward, the valve « lliuts,
to hinder the water, which is forced into the air-vefiel,
from running back by the pipe MM into the barrel of
the pump.
If there was no air-veflel to this engine, the pipe
GHI would be joined to the pipe MMN at P; and
then, the jet S would Hop every time the plunger is
raifed,. and run only when the plunger is deprefled. 25
Of lifting-pumps there are feveral forts; the moll T,1C
common is thus conftrudled. AB is the barrel, fixed p)'™ep‘
in the frame KILM ;r which is alfo fixed immoveable, ci.IT.
with the lower part in the water that is to be pumped fig. 13.
up. GEQHO is a frame with two ilrong iron rods,
moveable through holes in the upper and lower parts
of the pump, IK and EM. In the bottom of this
frame is fixed an inverted pillon BD, with its bucket
and valve uppermoll at D. From the top of the bar¬
rel there goes off a part KH, either fixed to the bar¬
rel, or moveable by a ball and focket (as here repre-
fented at F) ; but in either cafe fo very exadl and
tight, that no water or air can polfibly get into the
barrel, as that would prevent the effeil of the pump.
In this part, at C, is fixed a valve opening upward.
When the pillon frame is thrull down into the waT
ter, the pillon D will defcend, and the water beneath
it rulh up through the valve at D, and get above the
pillon ; where, upon the frame’s being lifted up, the
pillon will force the water through the valve C, into
the cillern P, there to run off by the fpout. It is to
be remembered, that this fort of pump mull be fet fo
far in the w'ater, that the pillon may play below its
furface. It appears by the above defcription, that
this is only a different manner of conllrudling a for¬
cing-pump.
By means of forcing-pumps, —water may be raifed
to any height above the level of a river or fpring ; and
machines may be contrived to work thefe pumps, ei¬
ther by a running ftream, a fall of water, or by horfes.
An intlance in each fort will be fufficient to fliew the
method. p|ae
1. By a ropning dream, or a fall of water. Eet CLIIT.
AA be a wheel, turned by the fall of water BB; and fig. j.
have any number of cranks (fuppofe fix) as C, D, E,
F, G, H, on its axis, according to the llrength of the
fall of water, and the height to which the water is in- *7
tended to be raifed by the engine. As the wheel turns ^ P“!TI.1^’.
round, thefe cranks move the levers c, d, e, f, g, h, up g" bywa-
and down, by the iron rods /, k, /, 711, n, 0 ; which al- ter.
ternately raife and deprefs the pillons by the other iron
rods p, q, r,f i, u, w, x, y, in 12 pumps ; nine where¬
of, as L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, appear in the
plate ; the other three being hid behind the work atV.
And as pipes may go from all thefe pumps, to con¬
vey
Hydrostatics.
cV'/!M/r/cv///^
iled.V. HYDROS
r] draulic Vey the water (drawn up by them to a fmall height)
gmes. fnt0 a c]0fe dftern, from which the maia pipe pro¬
ceeds, the water will be forced into this ciftern by the
defcent of the piftons. And as each pipe, going from
* its refpedfive pump into the ciftern, has a valve at its
end in the ciftern, thefe valves will hinder the return of
the water by the pipes ; and therefore, when the ci¬
ftern is once full, each pifton upon its defcent will
force the water (conveyed into the ciftern by a former
ftroke) up the main pipe, to the height the engine was
intended to raife it: which height depends upon the
quantity raifed, and the power that turns the wheel.
When the power upon the wheel is leflenedby any de¬
feat of the quantity of water turning it, a proportion-
able number of the pumps may be laid afide, by difen-
gaging their rods from the vibrating levers.
This figure is a reprefentation of the engine ere&ed
at Blenheim for the duke of Marlborough, by the late
ingenious Mr Alderfea. The water-wheel is yl- feet
in diameter, according to Mr Switzer’s account in his
Hydraulics.
When fuch a machine is placed in a ftream that
runs upon a fmall declivity, the motion of the levers
and aftion of the pumps will be but flow ; fince the
wheel muft go once round for each ftroke of the
pumps. But, when there is a large body of flow running
water, a cog or fpur wheel may be placed upon each
fide of the water-wheel AA, upon its axis, to turn a
trundle upon each fide; the cranks being upon the
axis of the trundle. And by proportioning the cog-
wheels to the trundles, the motion of the pumps may
be made quicker, according to the quantity and
ftrength of the water upon the firft wheel ; which
may be as great as the workman pleafes, according
to the length and breadth of the float-boards or wings
of the wheel. In this manner, the engine for raii
fing water at London-Bridge is conftrufted in which
the water-wheel is 20 feet diametei, and the floats 14
feet long.
ABCD is a wheel turned by water according to the
ip. order of the letters. On the horizontal axis are four
ir fmall wheels, toothed almoft half round ; and the parts
va- of their edges on which there are no teeth are cut
down fo as to be even with the bottoms of the teeth
where they ftand.
The teeth of thefe four wheels take alternately in¬
to the teeth of four racks, which hang by two chains
over the pullies Q^and L ; and to the lower ends of
thefe racks there are four iron rods fixed, which go
down into the four forcing-pumps, S, R, M, and N.
And, as the wheels turn, the racks and pump-rods are
alternately moved tip and down.
Thus fuppofe the wheel G has pulled down the rack
I, and drawn up the rack K by the chain : as the laft
tooth of G juft leaves the uppermoft tooth of I, the
firft tooth of H is ready to take into the lowermoft
tooth of the rack K, and pull it down 3s far as the
teeth go ; and then the rack I is pulled upward thro’
the whole fpace of its teeth, and the wheel G is ready
to take hold of it, and pull it down again, and fo
draw up the other In the fame manner, the wheels
E and Fwork the racks O and P.
Thefe four wheels are fixed oh the axle of the great
wheel in fuch a manner, with refpehl to the pofitions
of their teeth, that, whillt they continue turning round,
T A T I C S. 378.?
there is never one inftant of time in which one or other Hydraulic
of the pump-rods is not going down and forcing the EnS'nes-
water. So that, in this engine, there is no occafion
for having a general air-veflel to all the pumps, to pro¬
cure a conftant ftream of water flowing from the up¬
per end of the main pipe.
From each of thefe pumps, near the loweft end, in
the water, there goes off a pipe, with a valve on its
fartheft end from the pump ; and thefe ends of the
pipes all enter one clofe box, into which they de¬
liver the water: and into this box, the lower end of
the main conduft-pipe is fixed. So that, as the wa¬
ter is forced or puftied into the box, it is alfo pufhed
up the main pipe to the height that it is intended to
be raifed- (ad) iS
2. Where a ftream or fall of water cannot be had, a pump-
and gentlemen want to have water raifed,.and brought engine to
to their houfes from a rivulet or fpring ; this may be 8° by
effefted by a horfe-engine, working three forcing-^orfes*
pumps which ftand in a refervoir filled by the fpring
or rivulet: the piftons being moved up and down in the
pumps by means of a triple crank ABC, which, as it Plate
is turned round by the trundle G, raifes and depreffes CHIH-
the rods D, E, F. If the wheel has three times as"^'
many cogs as the trundle has ftaves or rounds, the
trundle and cranks will make three revolutions for
every one of the wheel: and as each crank will fetch
a ftroke in the time it goes round, the three cranks
will make nine ftrokes for every turn of the great
wheel.
The cranks ftiould be made of caft iron, becaufe
that will not bend ; and they ftiould each make an
angle of 120 with both of the others, as at a, b, c
which is (as it were) a view of their radii in looking
endwife at the axis: and then there will be always one
or other of them going downward, which will pulh the
water forward with a continued ftream into the main
pipe. For, when b is almoft at its loweft fituation, and
is therefore juft beginning to lofe its aftion upon the
pifton which it moves, c is beginning to move down¬
ward, which will by its pifton continue the pro¬
pelling force upon the water: and when c is come
down to the pofition of b, a will be in the pofition
of c.
The more perpendicularly the pifton rods move up
and down in the pumps, the freer and better will their
ftrokes be : but a little deviation from the perpendicu¬
lar will not be material. Therefore, when the pump-
rods D, E, and F, go down into a deep well, they may
be moved dire&ly by the cranks, as is done in a very
good horfe-engine of this fort at the late Sir James
Creed’s at Greenwich, which forces up water about
64 feet from a well under ground, to a refervoir on
the top of his houfe. But when the cranks are only
at a fmall height above the pumps, the piftons muft be
moved by vibrating levers, as in the above engine at
Blenheim : and the longer the levers are, the nearer
will the ftrokes be to a perpendicular.
Let us fuppofe, that in fuch an engine as Sir James a catcula-
Creed’s, the great wheel is 12 feet diameter, the tion of the
trundle 4 feet, and the radius or length of each crank <ll1aDt'T
9 inches, working a pifton in its pump. Let there be
three pumps in all, and the bore of each pump be four fed'by a
inches diameter. Then, if the great wheel has three horfe-ea-
titnes as many cogs as the trundle has ftaves, the trun- g“ie*
di
3786
Hydraulic
Engines.
HYDROS
die and cranks will go three times round for each re¬
volution of the horfes and wheel, and the three cranks
'will make nine ftrokes of the pumps in that time, each
ftroke being 18 inches (or double the length of the
crank) in a four-inch bore. Let the diameter of the
horfe-walk be 18 feet, and the perpendicular height
to which the water is raifed above the furface of the
well be 64 feet.
If the horfes go at the rate of two miles an hour
(which is very moderate walking) they will turn the
great wheel 187 times round in an hour.
In each turn of the wheel the pillons make nine
ftrokes in the pumps, which amount to 1683 in an
hour.
Each ftroke raifes a column of water 18 inches long
and four inches thick, in the pump barrels ; which co¬
lumn, upon the defcent of the pifton, is forced into
the main pipe, whofe perpendicular altitude above the
furface of the well is 64 feet.
Now, frnce a column of water 18 inches long, and
4 inches thick, contains 226.18 cubic inches, this
rmnrtbef multiplied by 1683 (the ftrokes in an hour)
gives 380661 for the number of cubic inches of water
raifed in an hour.
A gallon, in wine-meafure, contains 231 cubic
inches,,,by which divide 380661, and it quotes 1468
in round numbers, for the number of gallons raifed in
an hour ; which, divided by 63, gives 26^ hogfheads.
If the horfes go fafter, the quantity raifed will be fo
much the greater.
In this calculation it is-fuppofed that no water is
wafted by the engine. But as no forcing engine can be
fuppofed to lofe lei's than a fifth part of the calculated
quantity of water,between the piftons and barrels, and
by the opening and {hutting of the valves, the horfes
ought to walk almoft 2|- miles /w hour to fetch up
this lofs.
A column of water 4 inches thick and 64. feet high,
weighs 349-^- pounds averdupois, or 424^ pounds
troy ; and this weight, together with the friftion of the
engine, is the refiftance that muft be overcome by the
ftrength of the horfes.
The hoife-tackle fttould be fo contrived, that the
horfes may rather pufh on than drag the levers after
them. For, if they draw, in going round the walk,
the out fide leather-ftraps will rub againft their fides
and hams ; which will hinder them from drawing at
right angles to the levers, and fo make them pull at a
difadvantage. But if they pufh the levers before their
breafts, inftead of dragging them, they can always
walk at right angles to thefe levers.
It is noways material what the diameter of the
main or conduct pipe be : for the whole refiftance of
the water therein againft the horfes will be according
to the height to which it is raifed, and the diameter of
that part of the pump in which the pifton works, as
we have already obferved. So that by the fame pump,
an equal, quantity of water may be raifed in (and con-
fequently made to run from) a pipe of a foot diameter,
with the fame eafe as in a pipe of five or fix inches:'
,or rather with more eafe, becaufe its velocity' in a
large pipe will be lefs than in a fmall one, and there-
■ fore its fri&ion againft the fides of the pipe, will be
lefs alfo.
And the force required to raife water-depends not
T A T I C S. Sefl. V
upon the length of the pipe, but upon the perpendi- Hydraii
cular height to which it is raifed therein above the le- EnginJ
vel of the fpring. So that the fame force, which “ q
would raife water to the height AB in the upright 1
pipe A. i k lm * 0p q~£>, will raife it to the fame height fj,r> ‘ |
or level BIHin the oblique pipe AEFGH. Forthe “
preffure of the water at the end A of the latter, is i'|
no more than its preflure againft the end A of the
former.
The weight or prefiure of water at the lower end
of the pipe, is always as the fine of the angle to
which the pipe is elevated above the level parallel to i
the horizon. For, although the water in the upright ' (
pipe AB would require a force applied immediately to
the lower end A equal to the weight of all the water
in it, to fupport the water, and a little more to drive
it up and out of the pipe; yet, if that pipe be in¬
clined from its upright pofition to an angle of 80 de- iJ
grees (as in A 80) the force required to fupport or to
raife the fame cylinder of water will then be as much
lefs, as the fine 80 h is lefs than the radius AB; or as
the fine of 80 degrees is lefs than the fine of 90. And i
fo, decreafing as the fine of the angle of elevation lef-
fens, until it arrives at its level AC or place of reft,
where the force of the water is nothing at either end
of the pipe. For, altho’ the abfolute weight of the
water is the fame in all pofitions, yet its preflure at the
lower end decreafes, as the fine of the angle of eleva¬
tion decreafes ; as will appear plainly by a farther con-
fideration of the figure.
Let two pipes, AB and AC, of equal lengths and
bores, join each other at A; and let the pipe AB
be divided into too equal parts, as the fcale S is;
whofe length is equal to the length of the pipe.—
Upon this length, as a radius, deferibe the quadrant
BDC, and divide it into 90 equal parts or degrees.
Let the pipe AC be elevated to 10 degrees upon
the quadrant, and filled with water: then, part of the
water that is in it will rife in the pipe AB; and if it be
kept full of water, it will raife the water in the pipe
AB from A to ;; that is, to a level i 10 'with the
mouth of the pipe at 10 : and the upright line a 10,
equal to A e, will be the fine of 10 degrees elevation ;
which being meafured upon the fcale S, will be about
17.4 of fuch parts as the pipe contains lOQin length:
and therefore, the force or preffure of the water at A,
in the pipe A to, will be to the force or preffure at A
in the pipe AB, as 17.3 to 100.
Let the fame pipe be elevated to 20 degrees in the
quadrant; and if it be kept full of water, part of that
water will run into the pipe AB, and rife therein to the
height A k, which is eqtial to the length of the up¬
right line 3 20, br tb the fine of 20 degrees elevation;
which, being meafured upon the fcale will be 34.2
of fuch parts as the pipe contains ioo in length.
And therefore, the preffure of the water at A, in the
full pipe A 20, will be to its preffure, if that pipe
were raifed to the perpendicular fituation AB, as 34.2
to 100. : ' ' ‘
Elevate the pipe to the pofition A 30 on the qua¬
drant, and if it be fupplied with water, the water
will rife from it, into the pipe AB, to the height A/,
or to the fame level with the mouth of the pipe at 30.
The fine of this elevation, or of the angle of 30 de¬
grees/- is c 30 ; which is juft equal to half the length
efca. v.
HYDROSTATICS.
r| rdraulic of the pipe, or to 50 of fuch parts of the fcale as the
ni nginlength of the pipe contains too. Therefore, the pref*
fure of the water at A, in a pipe elevated 30 degrees
abo^e the horizontal level, will be equal to one half
of what it would be if the fame pipe flood upright
in thi ikuation AB.
And thus, by elevating the pipe to 40, 50, 60, 70,
and 80 degrees on the quadrant, the fines of thefe
elevations will be d 40, e 50, f 60, g 70, and /$ 80 ;
which will be equal to the heights Kvi, An, Ao,
Ap, and Aq : and thefe heights meafured upon
the fcale S will be 64.3, 76.6, 86.6, 94.0, and 98.5;
which exprefs the preflures at A in all thefe eleva¬
tions, confidering the preffure in the upright pipe AB
Sine of Parts Sine of Parts ; Sine of Parts
530
545
559
573
588
602
616
629
643
656
669
682
695
707
719
731
743
755
766
777
788
799
809
819
829
839
848
857
866
D. 61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
9°
875
883
891
899
906
9i3
920
927
934
940
945
951
956
961
966
970
974
978
982
985
988
990
992
994
996
997
998
999
1000
J>/°/
loo equal parts, the fame fine will be only 70.7 or Hydraulic
70to of thefe parts. For, as 1000 is to 707, fo is. ■En£lnes-
too to 70.7.
As it is of great importance to all engine-makers,
to know what quantity and weight of water will be
contained in an upright round pipe of a given diameter
and height ; fo as, by knowing what weight is to be
raifed, they may proportion their engines to the force
which they can afford to work them; we (hall fubjoin
Tables fhewing the number of cubic inches of water
contained in an upright pipe of a round bore, of any
diameter from one inch to fix and a half, and of any
height from one foot to two hundred : together with
the weight of the fa id number of cubic inche?, both
in troy and avoirdupois ounces. The number of cu¬
bic inches divided by 231, will reduce the water to
gallons in wine-meafure ; and, divided by 282, will
reduce it to the meafure of ale-gallons. Alfo, the
troy ounces divided by 12, will reduce the weight to
troy pounds ; and the avoirdupois ounces divided by
16, will reduce the weight to avoirdupois pounds.
And here we mud repeat it again, that the weight
or preffure of the water a£Hng againft the power that
works the engine, muff always be eftimated accord¬
ing to the perpendicular height to which it is to be
raifed, without any regard to the length of the con-
du£t-pipe, when it has an oblique pofition, and as if
the diameter of that pipe were jutt equal to the dia¬
meter of that part of the pump in which the pifton
works. Thus, by the following Tables, the preffure
of the water, againft an engine whofe pump is of a
44 inch bore, and the perpendicular height of the
water in the condudl pipe is 80 feet, will be equal to
8057.5 troy ounces, and to 8848.2 avoirdupois oun¬
ces ; which makes 671.4 troy pounds, and 553 avoir¬
dupois.
Example. Required the number of cubic inches,
and the ^weight of the ’water, in an upright pipe 27%feet?
high, and i-i- inch diameter.
Feet. Cubic inches. Troy oz. Avoir, oz.
200 4241.1 2238.2 2457.8-
70 1484.4 783-3 860.2
8 169.6 89.5 98.3
Anfw. 278 5895.1.
3111.0
34l6-3
Becaufe it may: be of ufe to have the lengths of all
the fines-of a quadrant from o degrees to 90, we have
given the foregoing Table, fhewing thelength of the fine
of every degree in fuch parts as the whole pipe (equal
to the radius of the quadrant) contains 1000. Then
the fines will be integral or whole parts in length.
But if you fuppofe the length of the pipe to be di¬
vided only into too equal parts, thelaft figure of each
part or fine muff be cut off as a decimal ; and then
thofe which remain at the left hand of this feparation
will be integral or whole parts.
Thus, if the radius of the quadrant (fuppofed to
be equal to the length of the pipe AC) be divided
into 1000 equal parts, and the elevation be 45 de¬
grees, the fine of that elevation will be equal to 707
of .thefe parts : but if the radius be divided only into
Here the neareft'fingle decimal figure is only taken
into the account; and the whole being reduced by
divifion, amounts to 25!- wine-gallons in meafure ;
to 259^ pounds troy, and to 213^- pounds avoirdu¬
pois.
Thefe tables were at firft calculated to fix decimal
places for the fake of exaftnefs: but in tranfcribing
them there are no more than two decimal figures taken
into the account, and fometimes but one ; becaufe
there is no neceffity for computing to hundredth-parts
of an inch or of an ounce in pradlice.
3788
HYDROSTATICS.
HYDROSTATICAL TABI^ES.
Inch diameter.
Solidity
cubic
inches.
Weight
troy
ounces.
9.42
18.85
28.27
37-70
47.12
56-5?
■65.97
75.40
84.82
94.25
188.49
282.74
376.99
471.24
565.49
6S9‘73
753-98
843-23
942.48
1884.96
4-97
9-95
14.92
19.89
24.87
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
29.84
34.82
39-79
44.76
49 74
99.48
149.21
198.95
248.69
298.43
348.17
397.90
447.64
497-38
994-76
5.46
10.92
16.38
21.85
27-31
32-77
38-23
43-69
49.16
54.62
109.24
163.86
218.47
273.09
327-7I
382.33
436.95
491-57
546.19
1092.38
Inch diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
21.21
42.41
63.62
84.82
106.03
127.23
147.44
169.65
190.85
212.06
424.12
636.17
848.23
1060.29
1272.35
1484.40
1696.46
1908.52
2120.58
I -
Weight
in troy
ounces
In avoir-
dupoife
ounces.
11.19
22.38
33-57
44.76
55-95
67.15
78-34
89-53
100.72
111.91
223.83
335-73
447.64
671.46
783-37
895.28
1007.19
1119.09
2238,
12.29
24.58
36.87
49.16
61.45
73-73
86.02
98.31
110.60
122.89
245.78
.368.68
49I-57
614.46
737-35
860.24
983.14
1106.03
1228.92
24.57.84
2 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
iriches.
37-70
75.40
113.1a
150.80
188.50
Weight
in troy
ounces.
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
226.19
26-3.89
301.59
339-29
376.99
753-98
1130.97
1507.97
1884.96
2261.95
2638.94
3ot5-93
3392-92
3769.9!
7539-82
19.89
39-79
59.68
79.58
99-47
”9-37
139.26
159.16
179.06
198.95
397.90
596.85
795.80
994-75
1193.70
1392.65
1591.60
1790.56
1989.51
3979-OQ
2 1.85
43-69
65.54
87-39
109.24
131.08
152-93
174.78
196.63
218.47
436-95
665.42
873.90
1092.37
ij 10.85
1529.32
1747.80
1966.27
2184.75
4369-50
2^ Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
58.90
117.81
176.71
235.62
294.52
353-43
4I2-33
471.24
530-14
589.05
1178. JO
.1767.15
2356.20
2545.25
3534-29
4I23-34
4712.39
5301.44
5890.49
11780.98
Weight
in troy
ounces.
31.08
62.17
93.26
124.34
I55-43
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
186.52
217.60
248.69
279.77
310.86
621.72
932-58
1243.44
1554-30
1865.16
2176.02
2486.88
2797.74
3108.60
6217.20
34-14
68.27
102.41
136-55
170.68
204.82
238.96
273.09
3°7-i3
341-37
682.73
1024.10
1365-47
1706.83
2048.20
2389.57
2730.94
3072.30
2413.67
4827.34
Sea. V
Hydro!:-
JTabf
HYDRO.
Sea. V.
HYDROSTATICS.
hydrosTatical tables.
3 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
84
169
254
239
424
508
593
698
763
848
1696
2244
339
424
5089
593
678
763
848
1696.
Weight
in troy
ounces.
44.76
89-53
l34-29
179.06
223.82
268.58
313-35
358.11
402.87
447.64
895.2.8
1342.92
1790.56
2238.19
2685.83
3581.11
4028.75
In avoir-
dupos
ounces.
49-16
98.31
I47*47
196.63
245.78
294.94
344.10
393-25
442.41
49t-57
983.14
1474.70
1966.27
2457.84
2949-41
3440.98
3932-55
4424.12
4476.39 ; 49*5-68
8952.78 ! 9831.36
3^ Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
115.4
230.9
346.4
461.8
577-3
692.7
808.2
923.6
1039.1
1 *54-5
2309.1
3463-6
4618.1
5772-7
6927.2
8081.7
9236.3
10390.8
11545.4
23090.7
Weight
in troy
ounces.
60.9
121.8
182.8
243-7
304.6
365-6
426.5
487.4
548.3
609.3
1218.6
1827.9
2437-1
3046,4
3655-7
4265.0
4874-3
5483.6
6092.9
12185.7
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
66.9
133-8
200.7
267.6
334-5
401.4
468.4
535-3
602.2
669.1
1338.2
2007.2
2676.3
3345-4
4014.5
4683.6
5352-6
60^1.7
6690.8
13381.5
4 inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
150.8
301.6
452.4
603.2
754.0
904.8
1055.6
1206.4
1357-2
1508.0
31 *5-9
4523-9
6631.9
7539-8
9047.8
10555.8
12063.7
13571.7
15079.7
3oi59-3
Weight
in troy
inches.
79.6
159.2
238.7
318-3
397-9
477-5
557-1
636.6
716.2
795.8
1591.6
2387-4
3183.2
3997.0
4774.8
5570.6
6366.4
7162.2
7958.0
15916.0
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
87.4
174.8
262.2
349-6
436.9
524-3
611.7
699.1
786.5
873-9
1747.8
2621.7
3495-6
4369-5
5243-4
6117.3
6991.2
7865.1
8739.0
17478.0
44- Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
190.8
381.7
572.6
763-4
954-3
1145.1
1337-9
1526.8
1717.7
1908.5
3817.0
5725.6
7634-1
9542.6
"451-1
13359-6
15268.2
17176.7
19085.2
38170-4
Weight
in troy
ounces.
100.7
201.4
302.2
402.9
503.6
604.3
705.0
805.7
906.5
1007.2
2014.4
3021.6
4028.7
5°35-9
6043,1
7050.3
8057.5
9064.7
10071.9
20143-8
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
331-8
442.4
453-o
663.6
774-2
995-4
1106.0
2212.1
3818.1
4424.1
553o-i
6636.2
7742.2
8848.2
9954-3
11060.3
22120.6
3789
31 P
Hydro-
7390
Hyrlroftatic
Tables.
HYDROSTATICS.
HYDROS TICAL TABLES.
5 Inches diameter.
Solidity-
in cubic
inches.
235.6
471.2
706.8
942.5
1178.1
Hid-?
1649.3
1884.9
2120.6
2356.2
4712.4
7068.6
9424.8
11780.0
i4137-2
16493.4
18849.6
21205.8
23562.0
47124.0
Weight
in troy
inches.
124-3
248.7
373-o
497-4
621.7
746.1
870.4
994.8
1119.1
1243 4
2486.9
373°-3
4973.8
62'j 7.2
7460.6
8704.1
9947-5
11191.0
12434.4
24868.8
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
136.5
273.1
409.6
546.2
682.7
819.3
955.8
1092.4
1228.9
i365-5
2730-9
4096.4
5461.9
6827.3
8192.6
955s-3
10923.7
12289.2
I3654-7
273°9-3
54- Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
285.1
570.2
857-3
1140.4
1425.5
1710.6
1995.7
2280.8
2565.9
2851.0
- 5702.0
8553-0
11404.0
14255.0
17106.0
19957.0
22808.0
25659.0
20510.0
57020.0
Weight
in troy
ounces.
150.5
300.9
451.4
601.8
752-3
902.7
1053.2
1203.6
i354-i
1504.6
3009.1
45'3-7
6018.2
7522.8
9027.4
IO53I.9
I2036.5
I3541-I
150 5.6
3OO9I.2
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
164.3
328.5
492.8
657.1
821.3
985.6
1149.9
1314.2
1478.4
1642.7
3285.4
4928.1
6570.8
8213.5
9856.2
11498.9
13141.6
I4784-3
16426.9
32853.9
6 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
339-3
678.6
1017.9
1357-2
!696.5
2035.7
2375.0
2714-3
3053-6
3392.9
6785.8
10178.8
i357'-7
16964.6
20357.5
23750.5
27143.4
5°536-3
3392-92
67858.4
Weight
in troy
ounces.
179.0
358-1
537-2
716.2
895-3
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
196.6
393-3
589-9
786.5
983.1
6i Inches diameter.
2390.1
2788.3
3186.5
3584-7
3982.9
7965.8
11948.8
15931-7
19914.6
23897.6
27880.5
31863.4
35846-3
39829-3
79658.6
Weight
in troy
ounces.
420.3
630.4
840.6
1050.8
1260.9
I47I-I
1681.2
1891.3
2101.5
4202.9
6304.4
8405.9
10507.4
12608.9
14710.4
16811.8
18913.3
21014.8
42029.6
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
230.7
461.4
692.1
922.8
1153.6
I384-3
1615.0
1845.7
2076.4
2307.1
4614.3
6921.4
9228.6
H535-7
13842.9
16150.0
18457.2
20764.3
23071.5
46143.0
Sea. V.
Under
Sea. V. HYDROSTAT IC
jjHydraulic Under the article Stzavi-Engine, the reader will letters, with buckets
S. 379 j
u , j a, a, See. hung upon the Hydraulic
find a particular account of that ufeful invention, with a wheel by ftrong pins b, b, b, b, &c. fixed in the fide Er|gines-
 oA  J  j n... 0f the rjm . but the wj,eei mufl ma(je as as
the water is intended to be raifed above the level of
that part of the ftream in which the wheel is placed.
As the wheel turns, the buckets on the right band go
down into the water, and are thereby filled, and go up
full on the left hand, until they come to the top at K,
whree they ftrike againft the end n of the fixed trough
M, and are thereby overfet, and empty the water into
corredf defeription and plate of it in its improved Hate.
The multiplying machine has no dependence on the
a&ion of the atmofphere ; but, by the weight of wa-
for ter only, and without pump-work of any kind, raifes
„ wa- water fufficient to ferve a gentleman’s feat, with an
mb' f ! overP^us f°r fountains, fifh-ponds, &c.
■heeK y!ng are twC) copper pans or buckets of unequal
CLVI vreight and fize, fufpeuded to chains, which alternately
nd off and on the multiplying-wheel YZ ; whereof the trough ; from which it may be conveyed in pipes
the wheel Y is fmaller in diameter, and Z larger,* in to the place which it is defigned for : and as each
proportion to the different lifts each is defigned to bucket gets over the trough, it falls into a perpendi-
perform. cular polition again, and goes down empty, until it
When the buckets are empty, they are Hopped le- comes to the water at A, where it is filled as before,
vel with the fpring at X, whence they are both filled On each bucket is a fpring r, which, going over the
with water in the fame time. top or crown of the bar m, (fixed to the trough M),
The greater of the two A, being the heavier when raifes the bottom of the bucket above the level of its
full, prep#nderates and d^feends ten feet, perhaps from
C to D ; and the leffer, B, depending on the fame
axis, is thereby weighed up or raifed ' from E to F,
fuppofe thirty feet.
Here, by particular little contrivances, opening the
valves placed at bottom of each of thefe buckets, they
ith, and fo caufes it to empty all its water into the
trough.
Sometimes this wheel is made to raife water no
higher than its axis ; and then, inftead of buckets
hung upon it, its fpokes, C, d, e, f, g, h, are made
of a bent form, and hollow within ; thefe hollows
both difeharge their water in the fame time, through opening into the holes C, D, E, F, in the outfide of
apertures proportionable to their capacities ; the fmali- the wheel, and alfo into thofe at O in the box N up*
er into the cifiern W, whence it is conveyed for fer- on the axis. So that as the holes CD, &c. dip into
vice by the pipe T, and the larger at D, to run wafte the water, it runs into them ; and as the wheel turns,
by the drain below at H. The bucket B being emp- the water rifes in the hollow fpokes c d, &c. and runs
ty, is fo adjufied as then to overweigh ; and defeending out in a ftream P from the holes at O, and falls into
fteadily as it rofe betwixt the guiding rods VV, brings the trough Q_, from whence it is conveyed by pipes,
or weighs up A to its former level at X, where both And this is a very eafy way of raifing water, becaufe
being again replenifhed from the fpring, they thence the engine requires neither men nor horfes to turn it.
proceed as before. And thus will they continue con-
ftautly moving (merely by their circumftantial differ¬
ence of water-weight, and without any other affiftance
than that of fometimes giving the iron-work a little
oil) fo long as the materials fhall laft, or the fpring
fupply water.
The fteadinefs of the motion is in part regulated by’
a worm turning a jack-fly, and a little fimple wheel-
work at LM ; which cdnfmunicating with the multi¬
plying wheel axle at M, is thereby moved forward or
backward as the buckets either rife of defeend. Tut
what principally keeps the Whole movement fleady, is'
the equilibrium 'preferved in th<? whole ope.rs’tjon by a
certain weight of lead, at the end of a lever of fit
length, and fixed on one of the fpifidles of the wheel-
work, the numbers whereof are fo calculated as, du-'
ring the whole performance up and down, to let it
move no more than one-fourth of a circle, from G to
K ; by which contrivance, as more or lefs of the
Engines for extinguifhing fire are either forcing or Fjre.
lifting-pumps ; and being made to raife water with engines,
great velocity, their execution in great meafure de¬
pends upon the length of their levers, and the force
wherewith they are wrought.
For example, AB is the common fquirting fire- plate CLY,
engine. D C is the frame of a lifting-pump, fig. ij.
wrought by the levers E and F afting always toge¬
ther. During the ftroke, the quantity of water raifed
by the pifton N fpouts with force through the pipe G,
made capable of any degree of elevation by means of
the yielding leather-pipe H, or by a ball and focket,
capable of turning every way, fere wed on the top of
the pump. Between the ftrokes on this machine the
ftream is difeontinued. The engine is fupplied by wa¬
ter poured in with buckets above ; the dirt and filth
whereof are kept from choaking the pump w'ork by
help of the ftrainer IK.
.A confiderable itnprovemenfihas fince been made to
chains fufpending the buckets come to be wound off thefe machines in order to keep them difeharging a
their refpe£tive wheels Y and Z, this weight gradu- continualilream. In doing whereof it is not to be
underftood that they really throw out more water than
do the fquirting ones of the fame fize and dimenfions
with themfelvCs ; but that the velocity of the water,
and of courfe the fridVion of all the parts, being lefs
violent, the ftream is more even and manageable, and
may be direfted' hither or thither with greater cafe
and certainty than if it came forth only by fits and
ttarts : The machine, thus'improved, is therefore ge¬
nerally better adapted to the purpofe intended than
the former, efpecially in the beginning of thefe cala-
ally falls in as a counter-balance, and fo continues the
motion equable and eafy in all its parts.
The water wafted by this machine is not above the
hundredth part of what a water-wheel will expend, to
raife an equal quantity. But where a fall, propor¬
tionable to the intended rife of water, cannot be bad,
with a convenient fewer to carry off the wafte water
over and above, this device cannot be well put in prac-
n tjee.
Water may alfo be raifed by means of a ftream A B
8. turning a wheel CDE, according to the order of the. mitous accidents.
The
3792 HYDROS
Hydraulic The ftream is made continual from the fpring of air
Engines, confined in a tlrong metal veflel CC, in the fire-engine
Plate CLV. fjxeci between the two forcing-pumps D and E,
l6' wrought with a common double lever FG moving on
the centre H. Thepiftons in D and E both fuck and
force alternately, and are here reprefented in their dif¬
ferent aftions; as are alfo the refpe&ive valves at IK
and LM.
The water to fupply this engine, if there be no op¬
portunity of putting the end of a fucking-pipe, oc-
cafionally to be fcrewed on, into a moat or canal,
which would fpare much hurry and labour in cafe of
fire, is alfo poured into the vefiel AB; and being
firained through the wire-grate N, is, by the prefiure
of the atmofphere, raifed through the valves K and
M into the barrels of D or E, when either of their
forcers afeend ; whence again it will be powerfully
pufhed when they defeend into the air-vefi'el CC, thro’
the valves I and L by turns: by the force whereof
the common air between the water and the top of the
air-veffel O will from time to time be forcibly crowd¬
ed into lefs room, and much comprefied ; and the air
being a body naturally endowed with a llrong and
lively fpring, and always endeavouring to dilate itfelf
every way alike in fuch a circumftance, bears itrongly
both againft the fides of the veffel wherein it is confi¬
ned, and the furface of the water thus injected; and
fo makes aconftant regular ftream to rife through the
metal pipe P into the leather one fcrewed thereon ;
which being flexible, may be led about into rooms
and entries, as the cafe may require.
Should the air contained in this veffel be compreffed
into half the fpac.e it took up in its natural (late, the
fpring thereof will be much about doubled ; and as
before it equalled and was able to fuftain the preffure
of a Angle atmofphere, it having now a double force,
by the power of that fpring alone will throw water
into air, of the common degree of denfity, about
thirty feet high. And fhould this compreffure be ftill
augmented, and the quantity of air which at firft fill¬
ed the whole veffel be reduced into one-third of that
fpace, its fpring will be then able to refift, and confe-
quently to raife the weight of a treble atmofphere;
in which cafe, it will throw' up a jet of water fixty feet
high. And fhould fo much water again be forced in¬
to the veffel as to fill three parts of the capacity, it
will be able to throw it up about ninety feet high :
and wherever the fervice (hall require a ftill greater
rife of water, more water muft be thruft into this vef¬
fel ; and the air therein being thus driven by main
force into a ftill narrower compafs, at each explofion,
the gradual reftitution thereof to its firft dimenfions is
what regularly carries on the ftream between the
ftrokes, and renders it continual during the operacion
of the machine.
This experiment, in little, may be either made on
the lifting or forcing pump, the nofels of which may
be left large, on purpofe for the reception of the fmall
pipe F, reaching nearly to the valve at E, and occa-
fionally to be fcrewed in. Between this pipe and the
fides and top of the nofel H, a quantity of air will
neceffarily be lodged, which, when the forcer afts,
will be compreffed at every ft'roke by the rife of the
water; more whereof will be puihed through E than
can immediately get away through the pipe F, which
T A T I C S. Sed.V.j
is to be always lefs in diameter than the opening of rTydraulicj
the valve at E. The degree of which condenfation, Eng,nes-
and that of the reftitution to its natural ftate of den- ' ^
fity, may be obferved through the glafs-machines to j
fatisfaftion. |
Archimedes’s screw is a fort of fpiral pump, and The ferew)
receives its name from its inventor. It confifts of a long of Archi- j
cylinder AB with a hollow pipe CD round it ; and is
placed in an oblique pofition, with the lower end in the ^ 4>
water, the other end being joined to the lower end of
the winch IK, fupported by the upright piece IR.
When this ferew is immerfed in the water, it imme¬
diately rifes in the pipe by the orifice C to a level with
the furface of the water EF ; and if the point in the fpi¬
ral, which in the beginning of the motion is coincident
with the furface of the water, happen not to be on the
lower fide of the cylinder, the water, upon the motion
of the ferew, will move on in the fpiral till it come to
the point on the other fide that is coincident with the
water. W’hen it arrives at that point, which we will
fuppofe to be O, it cannot afterwards poffefs any other
part of the fpiral than that on the loweft part of the
cylinder: for it cannot move from O toward H or G,
becaufe they are higher above the horizon ; and as
this will be conftantly the cafe after the water in the
fpiral has attained the point O, it is plain it muft. al¬
ways be on the under fide of the cylinder.
But becaufe the cylinder is in conftant motion, every
part .of the fpiral ferew,, from O to D, will by de¬
grees fucceed to the under part of the cylinder. The
water therefore muft fucceed to every part of it, from
O to D, as it comes on the lower fide; that is, it muft
afeend on the lower part of the cylinder through all
the length of the pipe, till it come to the orifice at
D, where it muft run out, having nothing further to
fupport it. i
There is a Ample and eafy method of working two 35 j
pumps at once, by means of the balance AB, having balance- *
a large iron ball at each end, and placed in equilibrium pumps,
on the two fpindles C, as reprefented in the 6th fi- S, $-|
gure. On the right and left are two boards I, nailed
to two crofs pieces, fattened to the axis of the ma¬
chine. On thefe boards the perfon who is to work
the pump (lands, and fupports himfelf by a crofs piece
nailed to the two pofts ED, fig. 5. At the diftance
of ten inches on each fide the axis, are faftened the
piftons MN.
The man, by leaning alternately on his right and
left foot, puts the balance in motion, by which the
pumps OP are worked, and the water thrown into the
pipe H, and carried to a height proportional to the
diameter of the valves, and the force of the balance.
There muft be placed on each fide an iron fpring, as
F and G, to return the balance, and prevent its ac¬
quiring too great velocity.
The Chain-pump, A B, is ordinarily made from'pi^
twelve to twenty-four feet long; and confifts of two pump-
collateral fquare barrels, and a chain of piftons of the.Plate CL*
fame form, fixed at proper diftances thereon. The 5
chain is moved in thefe round a coarfe kind of wheel-
work at either end of the machine, the teeth whereof
are fo made as to receive one half of the flat piftons,
and let them fold in ; and they take hold of the links
as they rife in one of the barrels, and return by. the
other. The machine is wrought either by the turning.
/./], //./r
Plate C LTV
Fobcwinb
: ^ ^
Sea. VI. HYDROS
ntertain- of one handle or two, according to the labour requi-
gexpcri- depending on the height to which the water is to
1 s‘   be raifed. A whole row of the piftons (which go'
free of the fides of the barrel by perhaps a quarter of
an inch) are always lifting when the pump is at work ;
yet do they, by the general pufh in the ordinary way
of working, as it is pretty bri/k, commonly bring up
a full bore of water in the pump. This machine is
fo contrived, that, by the continual folding in of the
piftons, ftones, dirt, and whatever happens to come
in the way, may alfo be cleared t and therefore it is
generally made ufe of to drain ponds, to empty few-
ers, and remove foul waters, in which no other pump
could work.
The lad machine to be defcribed confifts of five
pieces of board, forming a fort of fcoop, as B. The
ia late CLIV ^ianc‘‘e ^ 's fl|fpended by a rope faftened to three
i(j ;ri ‘ poles, placed in a triangle, and tied together at A.
The working of this machine confifts entirely in
balancing the fcoop that contains the water, and di-
redting it in fuch manner that the water may be thrown
in any given direftion. It is evident that the opera¬
tion of this machine is fo very eafy, that it may ra¬
ther be confidered as an agreeable and falutary recre¬
ation than hard labour.
With this machine a man of moderate ftrength, by
two ftrokes in four feconds, can draw half a cubic foot
of water, that is, more than four hundred cubic feet
in an hour.
This machine is frequently ufed by the Dutch in
emptying the water from their dikes.
Sect. VI. Entertaining Experiment!.
i(| f the fy- i. Several amufing appearances may be produced
> i ion dif- by difguifing or diverfifying a fyphon. It may, for
!e mtalus’s cxarnP^e> he difguifed in a cup, from which no liquor
&Ci will flowtill the fluid is raifed therein to a certain height;
but when the efflux is once1i>egun, it will continue till
CLIT.the veffel is emptied. Thus, fig. n. is a cup, in the
centre whereof is fixed a glafs pipe A, continued
through the bottom at B, over which is put another
glafs tube, made air-tight at top by means of the cork
at C; but left fo open at foot, by holes made at D,
that the water may freely rife between the tubes as
the cup is filled. Till the fluid in the cup (hall have
gained the top of the inmoft pipe at A, no motion
will appear: The air however from between the two
pipes being in the mean time extruded, by the rife of
the*denfer fluid, and palling down the inner tube, will
get away at bottom; and the water, as foon as the top
of the inclofed tube (hall be covered thereby, will very
foon follow, and continue to rife in this machine, as in
the fyphon, till the whole is run off.
This is called by fome, a Tantalus’s cup; and, to
humour'the thought, a hollow figure is fometimes put
over the inner tube, of. fuch a length, that when the
fluid is got nearly up to the lips of the man, the fy¬
phon may begin to a£t and empty the cup.
This is in effe& no other than if the two legs of the
fyphon were both within the veffeP, as in fig. 12. into
| which the water poured will rife in the fflorter leg of
the machine,, by its natural preflure upwards, to its
own level; and when it lhall have gained the bend of
the fyphon, it will come away by the longer leg, as
already dtferibed. An apple, an orange, or any other
T A T I C S. 3793
fblid, may be put into the veflel, to raife the water, Entertain-
when it is near the bend, to fet it a-runnine, by way ,nS exI’m-
oi amulement.
Again, let the handle of the cup, fig. 8. be hollow; PlateCLiV
let the tube CD, ferewed therein, communicate freely
with the water poured into the cup, that it may rife
equally in both. Being once above the level ED, it
will overflow, and, defeending through the cavity DB,
will empty the cup of its liquor. 39
2. The device called tie fountain at coimnand, a&s'tain^com-
upon the fame principle with the fyphon in the cup. mand.
Let two vefTels A and B be joined together by the Plate CLlll
pipe C, which opens into them both. Let A be opened *•
at top, B clofe both at top and bottom, (fave only a
fmall hole at b to let the air get out of the veflel B,)
and A be of fuch a fize as to hold about fix times as
much water as B. Let a fyphon DEF be foldered to
the veffel D, fo that the part DEe may be within the
veffel, and F without it; the end D almoft touching
the bottom of the veffel, and the end F below the level
of D: the veffel B hanging to A by the pipe C (fol¬
dered into both), and the whole fupported by the pil¬
lars G and H upon the ftand I. The bore of the
pipe muft be confiderably lefs than, the bore of the
fyphon.
The whole being thus conftrufled, let the veffel A
be filled with water, which will run through the pipe
C, and fill the veffel B. When B is filled above the
top of the fyphon at E, the water will run through the
fyphon, and be difeharged at F. But as the bore of
the fyphon is larger than the bore of the pipe, the fy¬
phon will run fafter than the pipe, and will foon empty
the veffel B; upon which the water will ceafe from
running through the fyphon at F, until the pipeC re¬
fills the veffel B, and then it will begin to run as be¬
fore. And thus the fyphon will continue to run and
flop alternately, until all the water in the veffel A has
run through the pipe C.—So that, after a few trials,
one. may eafily guefs about what time the fyphon will
flop, and when it will begin to run; and then, to
amufe others, he may call out 11 ftop ” or Y run,” ac:
cordingly.
3. This fig. reprefents a very pretty portable fountain, portah|e
which, being charged with water, and inverted, will fountain
play a jet nearly as high as the refervoy-, till the fluid and clep-
is exhaulled ; and then turned up on the other end, the ^™'CI y
fame thing will happen, and a real ckpfydra, or water- ^ *8i
clock, be thereby formed.
This device confifts of two hollow veffels, A and B,
communicating with each other only by the requrvetj
tubes G and D; at the ends of which, E and F, are
placed fmall adjutages to diredl the jet. G and H are
two open tubes, foldered into the bottom of the bafons
belonging to A and B, through which the water flows
in, and fills thofe veffels to a certain height, that is,
according to their length. They by their difpoutign
alfo prevent the return of the water , the fame wayj
when the machine is turned upfide down.
4. Provide a cylindric veffel of glafs or china,- ABGD, Hydm-
about a foot high, and four inches diameter/ Makefcope, or
a hole in its bottom, in which glue a fmall gjafs-tubewatcr-
E, of about one-third=of an inch diameter, and whofe cl',’ck-
end has been partly clofed in the flame of a lamp, fo^ a,eCL^’1
that it will not fuffer the water to pafs' out but by S' 4‘
drops* and that very flowly. Cover the top of the vef¬
fel
3794
Entertain¬
ing experi-
Clcplydra.
Plate CLV1
fig- 7-
HYDROS
fel witli a circle of wood F, in the centre of which
make a round hole about half an inch diameter.
Have a glafs-tube GH, a foot high, and a quarter
of an inch diameter; and at one end let it have a (mall
glafs globe I, to which you may hang a weight L, by
which it is kept in equiiibrio, on or near the furface
of the water ; or you may pour a fmall quantity of
mercury into the tube, for the fame purpofe. Fill the
veffel with water; put the tube in it, and over it place
the cover F, through the hole of which the tube
muft pafs freely up and down. Now, as the water
drops gradually out of the vefiel, the tube will con¬
tinue to defcend till it come to the bottom.
Therefore, pnfte on the tube a graduated paper, and
put it in the vefTcl when nearly full of water. Hang
a watch by it, fet to a certain hour; and as the tube
defcends, mark the hours, with the half and quarter
hour,s. If the veflel be fufficiently large, with regard
to the hole at the bottom, it will go for 12 hours, a
day, or as much longer as you pleafe, and requires no
other trouble than that of pouring in water to a cer¬
tain height. Care muft be had, however, that the
water be-clean ; for if there be any fediment, it will
in time ftop the fmali hole at bottom, or at leaft render
the motion of the water irregular.
The veffel may be of tin, but the pipe at bottom
fiiould be glafs, that its fmall aperture may not alter by
tife. It is to be obferved, that the tube of one of thefe
qlocks is not to be graduated by another : for though
the veffel be of the fame diameter at top, it may not
be perfe&ly cylindrical throughout; nor is it eafy to
make the hole at the bottom of one veffel exaftly of
the fame dimenfion with that of another.
5. The hon. Mr Charles Hamilton has defcfibed
a curioUs c'lepfydra or water-clock of new conftruc-
tion. An open canal e e> fupplied with a conftant
and equal ftream by the fyphon d, has at each end
//, open pipes of exactly equal bores, which deliver
the Water that rnns along the canal e, alternately
into the veffels £ i» £ 2> *n fuch a quantity as to raife
fh6 water from the mouth of the tantalus t, exactly in
an hour., The canal e e is equally poifed by the two
pipes f 1, f 2, upon a centre r, the ends of the canal
e are raifed alternately, as the cups z z are depreffed,
to which they are conne&ed by lines running over
tM pullies //. The cups zz are fixed at each end of
thfe balance mvi, which moves up and down upon its
center v, ni, n2t Are the edges of two wheels or
pullies, moving different ways alternately, and fitted
to’the cylinder 0 by oblique teeth both in the cavity
bFthe wheel and upon the cylinder, which, when the
Wheel n moves one way, that is, in the dire&ion of
the fnirfule-hand, meet the teeth of the cylinder and
carry the cylinder with it, and, when n moves the con¬
trary way, flip over thofe of the cylinder, the teeth not
meeting/ but receding from each other. One or other
of 'thele wheels «» continually moves c in the fame
dire&ian, with an equable and uninterrupted motion.
A fine clflin goes twice round each wheel, having at
One end a weight x, always out of water, which equi¬
ponderates with at the other end, when kept floating
on the Furfade of the water in tne veffel g, which y mull
always be; the two cups z, z, one at each end of the
balance, keep it in ccquilibrio, till one of them is forced
down by the weight and impulfe of the water, which
T A T I C S.
Sed. VI.
it receives from the tantalus 11 i: each of thefe cups Entertain,
z, z, has likewife a tantalus of its own h, h, which emp irrg exper1
ties it after the water has done running from g, and mf,nr<:-
leaves the two cups again in aquiUbrio: q is a drain to
carry off the water. The dial-plate, &c. needs no
defcription. The motion of the clCpfydra is effefted
thus: As the end of the canal ee, fixed to the pipe
/"i, is, in the figure, the loweft, all the water fupplied
by the fyphon runs through the pipe f 1, into the veffel
g 1, till it runs over the top of the tantalus t; when it
immediately runs out at i into the cup z, at the end of
the balance m, and forces it down ; the balance moving
on its centre v. When one fide of m is brought down,
the ftring which connedls it to/"!, running over the
pulley /, raifes the endyi, of the canal e, which turns
upon its centre r, higher than f 2; confequently, all
the water which runs through the fyphon d paffes
through f 2 into£ 2, till the fame operation is per¬
formed in that veflel, and fo on alternately. As the
height the water rifes in g in an hour, viz. from s to /,
is equal to the circumference of», the floaty rifing
thro’ that height along with the water, lets the weight
x a£t upon the pulley », which carries with it the cy¬
linder 0; and this, making a revolution, caufes the in¬
dex k to defcribe an hour on the dial-plate. This re¬
volution is performed by the pulley n 1; the next is
performed by«2, whilft n 1 goes back, as the water
in £ 1 runs out through the tantalus ; for y muft fol¬
low the water, as its weight increafes, out of it. The
axis 0 always keeps moving the fame way; the index/i
defcribes the minutes; each tantalus muft be wider than
the fyphon, that the vefiels gg maybe emptied as low
as /, before the water returns to them. ^
6. To the tube wherein the water is to rife, fit a fphe- a founta{|
rical or lenticular head, AB, made of a plate of metal, which ;
and perforated at top with a great number of little
holes. The water rifing with vehemence towards AB, o/a'fhol
will be there divided into innumerable little threads, and fig.
afterwards broke, and difperfed into the fineft drops. 44
7. To the tube AB, folder two fpherical fegments C A[l^0|/nta'
and D, almoft touching each other ; with a fcrew £, ^r^ds
to contraft or amplify the interftice or chink at plea- water
fure. Others choofe to make a fmooth, even cleft, inform of
a fpherical or lenticular head, fitted upon the tube.'ab,e'c*)
The water fpouting through the chink, or cleft, will 3‘ j
expand itfelf in manner of a cloth. 4S
8. Make a hollow globe A, of copper or lead, and of The glob
from the pipe to which it is to be placed. Pierce a ^ a
number of fmall holes thro’ this globe, that all tend
towards its centre ; obferving, however, that the dia¬
meters of all thefe holes, taken together, muft not
exceed that of the pipe at the part from whence the
water flows. Annex to it a pipe B, of fuch height as
you think-convenient; and let it be fcrewed at C, to
the pipe from whence the jet flows. The water that
comes from the jet rufliing with violence into the globe,
will be forced out at the holes, with the direction in
which they are made, and will produce a very plea-
fing fphere of water. ^
9. Procure a little figure made of cork, as ABj-pfiefiy. i
which you may paint, or drefs in a light fluff, afterdraulic
your own fancy. In this figure you are to place <jancer»
the fmall hollow cone C, made of thin leaf brafs. g'^
When the figure is placed on the jet-d’eau that plays
'
f) Sea. VI. HYDROSTATICS. 3795
utertain- in a perpendicular diredion, it will remain fufpended extremity G there is a very fmall hole: this pipe muft Entertain-
■ins13'11" on l^e t0P t^ie water> anc^ perform a great variety of be fcrewed into the former. in2 experi-
 motions.
If a hollow ball of copper, of an inch diameter, and
very light, be placed on a fimilar jtf, it will, in like
manner, remain fufpended, revolving on its centre, and
fpreading the water all round it, in the manner repre-
fentedby fig. 14. or Plate CLVI. fig. 1. —But note,
that as it is neceflary the ball, &c. when on the de-
fcent, ihould keep the fame precife perpendicular
wherein it rofe (fince otherwife it would mifs the
ftream and fall downright,) fuch a fountain fhouhi
^4? _ only be played in a place free from wind,
ler call* 10’ 3 bollow leaden cone A, whofe axis is one-
third of the diameter of its bafe. The circle C, that
iteCLV. forms its bafe, muft be in proportion to the furface of
*• water that flows from the jet on which it is to be pla¬
ced, that it may flow from it equally on all fides. To
the cone join the pipe B, which ferves not only as a
fupport, but is to be pierced with a number of holes,
that it may fupply the cone with a fufficient quantity
of water. Screw the tube juft mentioned to the top of
that from whence the jet proceeds.—The water that
nifties into the cone from the pipe, will run over its
circumference, and form a hemifpherical cafcade. If
this piece be fo conftru&ed that it may be placed in a
reverfed polition, it will produce a fountain in the form
of a vafe, (fee fig. 8.) ; and if there be a fufficient
quantity of water, both thefe pieces may be placed on
the fame pipe, the fountain at top and the cafcade
underneath, which by their variety will produce a
48 very pleafing appearance.
s water- 11. Let there be two portions of a hollow fphere, that
e CLVIare Ver^ ^a^ow : and 'et t^em fo joined together,
that the circular fpace between them may be very nar¬
row. Fix them vertically to a pipe from whence a jet
proceeds. In that part by which the portions of the
fphere are joined, there muft be made a number of
holes; then the water rufhing into the narrow cavity
will be forced out from the holes, and produce a regu¬
lar figure of the fun, as in the plate. This piece re¬
quires a large quantity and force of water to make it
appear to advantage.
Several pieces of this fort may be placed over each
other, in a horizontal dire&ion, and fo that the fame
e CLV. pipe may fupply them all with water (fee fig. 7.) It is
proper to obferve, that the diameter of thefe pieces rauft
continually diminifh, in proportion to their diftance
49 from the bottom.
revol- 12. Make a hollow circle A, the fides of which are to
; wafer-be pierced with 12 or 15 holes, made in an inclined
e CLV. ^!re<^‘on : or you may place lhe like number of fmall
1, tubes round the circle.. Fix this circle on the top
of a jet, in fuch manner that it may turn freely round.
The water ruftiing violently into the hollow circle
will keep it in continual motion ; and at the fame time
forcing out of the holes or fmall tubes, will form a re¬
volving figure with rays in different dire&ions, as in
8jo the plate.
com- 13. Provide a ftrong copper veffel A, of fuch figure as
cujer you think convenient; in which folder a pipe BE, of
the fame metal. Let there be a cock at H, which muft
be made fo tight that no air can pafs by it. The pipe
Bi. muft go very near the bottom of the veffel, but
not touch it- There muft be another pipe F, at whofe
The veffel being thus difpofed, take a good fyringe; 01611 s'
and placing the end of it in the hole at G, open the
cock, and Force the air into the veffel; then turn the
cock and take out the fyringe. Repeat this operation
feveral times, till the air in the veffel be ftrongly con-
denfed. Then fill the fyringe with water, and force it
into the veffel, in the fame manner as you did the air ;
and repeat this operation till you can force no more
water into the veffel; then fhut the cock. This veffel
will be always ready to perform an extempore jet d’eau :
for, on turning the cock, the fpring of the compreffed
air will force out the water with great violence, and
the jet will continue, tho’ conftantly decreafing in force,
till the water is all exhaufted, or the air within the vef¬
fel is come to the fame denfity with that without. Jt
14. Let there be made a tin veffel, about fix inches The mar-
high, and three inches in diameter. The mouth of vcllous vev-
this veffel mnft be only one quarter of an inch wide; ^e1'
and in its bottom make a great number of fmall holes,
about the fize of a common fewing needle. Plunge
this veffel in water, with its mouth open ; and when
it is full, cork it up and take it out of the water.
So long as the veffel remains corked, no water what¬
ever will come out, but as foon as it is uncorked,
the water will iffue from the fmall holes at its bottom.
You muft obferve, that if the holes at the bottom
of the veffel be more than one-fixth of an inch diame¬
ter, or if they be in too great number, the water will
run out tho’ the veffel be corked; for then thepreffure
of the air againft the bottom of the veffel will not be
fufficient to confine the water.
An experiment fimilar to this is made with a glafs a glfft full
filled with water, over which a piece of paper is placed, of water in-
The glafs is then inverted; and the water, by the verte<h and
preffure of the air under it, will remain in the glafs. ^ ^a.jer
That the paper, tho’ the feeming, is not the real, fup- F°g.
port of the water, will appear from n° 20.
15. In this fountain the boxes CE and DYX. being The^rcu-
clofe, you fee only the bafon ABW, with a hole at latingfoun-
W, through which the water that fpouts put at B falls tain, fig. 10- *
and runs down through the pipe WX into the box
DYX, from whence it drives out the air, through the
afeending pipe Y Z, into the cavity of the box C E,
where preffing upon the water contained in that box,
it forces it out, through the fpouting pipe OB, as long
as there is any water in CE ; fo that the continuance
of the play is while the water in CE fpouts out and
falls down through the pipe W X, into the cavity
DYX. The force of the jet is in proportion to the height
of the pipe WX, or of the diftance between the boxes
CE and DY. The height of the water, meafured
from the bafon ABW to the furface of the water in
the lower box DYX, is always equal to the height,
meafured from the top of the jet to the furface of the
water in the middle cavity CE. Now, fince the fur¬
face CE is always falling, and the water DY is always
riling, the height of the jet muft continually decreafe,
till it is ftiorter by the depth of the cavity CE, wfdch is
emptying, added to the depth of the cavity DY, which
is always filling; and when the jet is fallen fo low, it
immediately ceafes.
The method of preparing this fountain is as follows.
Firft, pour water in at W, till you have filled the ca¬
vity >
3796 HYDROS
Entertain- vity DXY : then turn the fountain over, and the water
ing experi- w;jj run f'rom the cavity DXY, into the cavity CE,
mei1ts' which you will know to be full by the water’s running
out at B when it is held down. Set the fountain up
again, and pour about a pint of water into the bafon
ABW; and as foon as it has filled the pipe WX, the
fountain will play, and continue as long as there is any
water in CE. You may then empty the water left in
the bafon into any other veffel, and invert the fountain ;
which, upon being placed again ereft, will begin to
play, when the water poured out of the bafon is put
into it again. There are fountains of this fort that
have four pipes, inftead of two, and by that means the
water is forced up to twice the height it is in this. See
;+ alfo n° 40.
The magi- 16. Procure a tin veflel ABC, five inches high and
cal cascade, four in diameter ; and let it be clofed at top. To the
bottom of this veffel let there be foldered the pipe DE,
of ten inches length and half an inch in diameter : this
pipe muff be open at each end, and the upper end muff
be above the water in the veffel. To the bottom alfo
fix five or fix fmall tubes F, about one-eighth of an
inch diameter. By thefe pipes the water contained in
the veffel is to run (lowly out.
Place this machine on a fort of tin bafon GH, in
the middle of which is a hole of one quarter of an inch
diameter. To the tube DE, fix fome pieces that may
fupport the veffel over the bafon 4 and obferve that the
end D, of the tube DE, muff be little more than one
quartet of an inch from the bafon. There muff be alfo
another veffel placed under the bafon, to receive the
water that runs from it.
Now, the fmall pipes difcharging more water into
the bafon than can run out at the hole in its centre, the
water will rife in the bafon, above the lower end of the
pipe DE, and prevent the air from getting into the
veffel AB; and confequently the water will ceafe to
flow from the fmall pipes. But the water continuing
to flow from the bafon, the air will have liberty again to
enter the veffel AB, by the tube DE, and the water
will again flow from the fmall pipes. Thus they will
alternately flop and flow, as long as any water remains
in the veffel AB.
As you will eafily know, by obferving the rife of the
water, when the pipes will ceafe to flow, and by the
fall of it, when they will begin to run again, you may
fafely predidt the change; or you may command
them to run or (top, and they vyill feem to obey your
orders.
The iilumi- 17. This fountain begins to play when certain can-
nated foun- dies placed round it are lighted, and flops when thofe
tain, fig. 4. candies are extinguifhed. It is conftru&ed as follows.
Provide two cylindrical veffels, AB and CD. Con¬
ned! them by tubes open at both ends, as HL, FB, &c.
fo that the air may defcend out of the higher into the
lower veffel. To thefe tubes fix candlefticks H, &c.
and to the hollow cover CF, of the lower veffel, fit a
fmall tube EF, furnifhed with a cock G, and reaching
almoft to the bottom of the veffel. In G let there be
an apefture with a fcrew, whereby water may be poured
Into CD.
Now, the candles at H, Sect being lighted, the air
in the contiguous pipes will be thereby rarified, and
the jet from the fmall tube EF will begin to play : as
the air becomes more ratified, the force of the jet will
T A T I C S. Sed. Vl.j
increafe, and it will continue to play till the water in Entertain-
the lower veffel is exhaufted. It is evident, that as the In£ expert
motion of the jet is caufed by the heat of the candles, ments' -i
if they be extinguiflled, the fountain muft prefently
flop. _ < _ S6 i
18. The motion of the water in this fountain is pro- The tolar
duced by the heat of the fun, in the following manner. f.ounta,'‘V:
GNS is a thin hollow globe of copper, of 18 inches"®’ l^' j
diameter, fupported by a fmall inverted bafon, placed
on a frame with four legs ABCD, which have between
them, at the bottom, a bafon of two feet diameter.
Through the leg C paffes a concealed pipe, which
comes from G, the bottom of the infide of the globe:
this pipe goes by HV, and joins the upright pipe tt I,
to make a jet at I. The fhort pipe u I, which goes
to the bottom of the bafon, has a valve at V, under
the horizontal pipe H «, and another valve at V, above
that horizontal pipe, under the cock at K. The ufe
of this cock is to keep the fountain from playing in
the day, till you think proper. The north pole N of
the globe has a fcrew that opens a hole, whereby wa¬
ter is poured into the globe.
The machine being thus prepared, and the globe
half filled with water, let it be fet in an open place,
when the heat of the fun, rarifying the air as it heats
the copper, the air will prefs ftrongly again ft the wa¬
ter, which coming down the pipe GCHVI, will lift up
the valve V, and (hut the valve u. The cock being
opened, the water will fpout out at I, and continue to
play a long time, if the fun (hine.
At night, when the air is condenfed, that which is
on the outfide of the veffel will prefs on the adjutage I, j
and (hut the valve V; and at the fame time prefling
on the water in the bafon DaH, which has been played
in the day, will pu(h it up, through the valve a, and
pipe aHG, into the globe, fo as to fill it again, to the
fame height as at firft. When the fun fliines again on
the globe, the fountain will play again, &c. A fmall
jet will play fix or eight hours.
If the globe be fet to the latitude of the place, and
reftified before it be fixed, with the hour-lines or me¬
ridians drawn upon it, the hours marked, and the
countries painted, as on the common globe, it will
form a good dial; the fun then (hining upon the fame
places in this globe, as it does on the earth itfelf. This
fountain was invented by Dr Defaguliers. ^
19. There is a pretty contrivance, by which the fpe- The hy-
cific gravity of the body is fo altered, that it rifes anddrauliedi*;
finks in water at our pleafure. Let little images of men,vers-
about an inch high, of coloured glafs, be beffioke at a
glafs-houfe; and let them be made fo as to be hollow
within, but fo as to have a fmall opening into this hol¬
low, either at the foie of the foot or elfewhere. Let
them be fet afloat in a clear glafs-phial of water, filled
within about an inch of the mouth of the bottle; then
let the bottle have its mouth clofed with a bladder,
clofely tied round its neck, fo as to let no air efcape
one way or the other. The images themfelves are
nearly of the fame fpecific gravity with water, or ra¬
ther a little more light, and confequently float near the
furface. Now when we prefs down the bladder, tied
on at the top, into the mouth of the bottle, and thus
prefs the air upon the furface of the water in the bottle;
the water being preffed will force into the hollow of
the image through the little opening; thus the air
within
-4-' /•
HYDROSTATICS
c^3
Tlate CL VI.
(>V- ^
H Y G [ 3797 ] H Y G
tfydrotho- within the images will be preffed more clofely together,
and being alfo more filled with water now than before,
. the images will become more heavy, and will confe-
quently defcend to the bottom ; but, upon taking off
- the preffure from above, the air within them will again
flygro
drive out the water, and they will rife to the fame Hygrome
heights as before. If the cavities in fome of the ima- ter'
ges be greater than thofe in others, they will rife and
fall differently, which makes the experiment more
amufing.
HYDROTHORAX, \ aSedtion of water in the
bread. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYGINUS (Caius Julius), agrammarian, the freed-
man of Auguftus, and the friend of Ovid, was born in
Spain, or, according to others, in Alexandria. He
wrote many books which are mentioned by ancient
authors ; all of which are loft, except fome fables, and
a work entitled AJironcmicon Poeticon ; and even thefe
are come down to us very imperfedt. The beft edition
of thefe remains is that of Munker, publiftied with
fome other pieces of antiquity in 2 vols 8vo, 1681, un¬
der the title of Mythcgraphi Latini.
HYGROMETER, an inftrument for meafuring
the degrees of drynefs or moifture of the atmofphere,
in like manner as the barometer and thermometer mea-
fure its different degrees of gravity or warmth.
Though every fubftance which fwells in moift, and
fbrinks in dry weather, is capable of becoming an hy¬
grometer; y£t this kind of inftrument is far from be¬
ing as yet arrived atfuch a degree of perfe&ion as the
barometers and thermometers. There are three gene¬
ral principles on which hygrometers have been con-
ftru&ed. i. The lengthening and fhortening of firings
by drynefs and moifture, or their twifting and untwift-
ing by the fame. 2. The fwelling and fhrinking of
folid fubftances by moifture or drynefs ; and, 3. By
the increafe or decreafe of the weight of particular bo¬
dies whofe nature is to abforb the humidity of the at¬
mofphere.
1. On the firft of thefe principles Mr Smeaton hath
conftrudted an hygrometer greatly fuperior to any that
had appeared before, and of which the following ac¬
count is given in the 62d volume of the Philofophical
Tranfa6tions.
“ Having fome years ago attempted to make an ac¬
curate and fenfible hygrometer by means of a hempen
cord of a confiderable length, I quickly found, that,
though it was more than fufSciently fufceptible of eve¬
ry change in the humidity of the atmofpherej- yet the
cord was upon the whole in a continual flate of length¬
ening. Though this change was the greatefk at firft,
yet it did not appear probable that any given time
would bring it to a certainty ; and, furthermore, it
feemed, that as the cord grew more determinate in
mean length, the alteration by certain differences of
moifture grew lefs. Now, as on confidering wood,
catgut, paper, &c. there did not appear to be a like¬
lihood of finding any fubftance fufficiently fenfible of
differences of moifture that would be unalterable under
the fame degrees thereof; this led me to confider of a
conftru£tion which would readily admit of an adjuft-
ment; fo that, though the cord whereby the inftrument
is actuated may be variable in itfelf, both as to abfo-
lute length and difference of length under given de¬
grees of moifture, yet that, o» fuppofition of a mate¬
rial departure from its original fcale, it might be re-
dily reftored thereto; and, in confequence, that any
number of hygrometers fimilarly conftrudled, might,
Vol. V.
H Y G
like thermometers, be capable of fpeaking the fame
language.
“ The two points of heat the more readily deter¬
minable in a thermometer, are the points of freezing
and boiling water. In like manner, to conftruCt hy¬
grometers which (hall be capable of agreement, it is
neceffary to eftablifti two different degrees of a moi¬
fture which fhall be as fixed in themfelves, and to which
we can have recourfe as readily and as often as poffible.
“ One point is given by making the fubftance per-
fe£lly wet, which feems fufficiently determinable ; the
other is that of perfedl dry, which I do not apprehend
to be attainable with the fame precifion. A readinefs
to imbibe wet, fo that the fubftance may be foon and
fully faturated, and alfo a facility of parting with its
moifture on being expofed to the fire to dry; at the
fame time, that neither immerfion, nor a moderate ex-
pofition to the warmth of the fire, fhall injure its tex¬
ture; are properties requifite to the firft mover of fucb
an hygrometer, that in a manner exclude all fubftances
that I am acquainted with, befides hempen and flaxen
threads and cords, or fubftances compounded of them.
“ Upon thefe ideas, in the year 1758, I conftrudled
two hygrometers as nearly alike as poffible, in order
that I might have the means of examining their agree¬
ment or difagreement on fimilar or diffimilar treat¬
ment. The interval or fcale between dry and wet I
divided into 100 equal parts, which I call the degrees
of this hygrometer. The point of o denotes perfedl
dry*; and the numbers increafe with the degrees of
moifture to 100, which denotes perfedl wet.
“ On comparing them for fome time, when hung
up together in a paffage or ftaircafe, where they would
be very little affetled by fire, and where they would
be expofed to as free an air as poffible in the infide of
the houfe, I found that they were generally within one
degree, and very rarely differed two degrees; but as
thefe comparifons neceffarily took up fome time, and
were frequently interrupted by long avocations from
home, it was fome years before I could form a tolerable
judgment of them. One thing I foon obferved, not
altogether to my liking, which was, that the flaxen
cords made ufe of feemed to make fo much refiftance
to the entry of fmall degrees of moifture, (fuch as is
commonly experienced within doors in the fituation
above-mentioned), that all the changes were comprifed
within the firft 30° of the fcale ; but yet, on expofing
them to the warm fteam of a wafti-houfe, the index
quickly mounted to 100. I was therefore defirous of
impregnating the cords w’ith fomething of a faline na¬
ture, which fliould difpofe them more forcibly to at¬
tract moifture ; in order that the index might, with the
ordinary changes of the moifture in the atmofphere, tra¬
vel over a greater part of the fcale of 100. How to do
this in a regular and fixed quantity, was the fubjedl of
many experiments, and feveral years interrupted inquiry.
At lafl I tried the one hereafter deferibed, which feemed
to anfwer my intention in a great meafure j and tho’
2 x upon
H Y G
H Y G [ 3798 1
Hygrome- upon the whole it does not appear probable that ever
 this inftrument will be made capable of fuch an accu¬
rate agreement as the mercurial thermometers are, yet
if we can reduce all the difagreements of an hygrome¬
ter within V-gth part of the whole fcale, it will pro¬
bably be of ufe in fome philofophical inquiries, in lieu
of inftruments which have not yet been reduced to any
common fcale at all.
“ Fig. t. and 2. ABC is an orthographic delinea¬
tion of the whole inftrumen't feen in front in its true
proportion. DE is that of the profile, or inftru¬
ment feen edgewife. FG in both reprefents a flaxen
cord about 35 inches long, fufpended by a turning peg
F, and attached to a loop of brafs-wire at A, which
goes down into the box cover H, and defends the in¬
dex, &c. from injury; and by a glafs expofes the fcale
to view.
“ ■F'gb 3- ihews the inftrument to a larger fcale, the
upright part being fliortened, and the box-cover re¬
moved; in which the fame letters reprefent the fame
parts as in the preceding figures; GI are two loops
or long links of brafs-wire, which lay bold of the in¬
dex KL, moveable upon a fmall ftud or centre K. The
cord FG is kept moderately {trained by a weight
M of about half a pound avoirdupois.—It is obvious,
that, as the cord lengthens and fhortens, the extreme
end of the index rifes and falls, and fucceffively paffes
over N 2 the fcale difpofed in the arch of a circle, and
containing xoo equal divifions. This fcale is attached
to the brafs Aiding ruler QP, which moves upon the
directing piece RR, fixed by ferews to the board, which
makes the frame or bafe of the whole ; and the fcale
and ruler NQP is retained in any place nearer to, or
further from, the centre K, as may be required by the
fcrew S.
“ Fig. 4. reprefents in profile the Aiding piece and
ftud I (fig. 3.), which traverfes upon that part of the
index next the centre K; and which can, by the two
ferews of the ftud, be retained upon any part of the
index that is made parallel; and which is done for
three or four inches from the centre, for that purpofe.
The ftud is filed to the edges, like the fulcrum of a
feale-beam; one being formed on the under-fide, the
other on the upper, and as near as may be to one
another. An hook formed at the lower end of the
wire-loops Cl, retains the index, by the lowermoft
edge of the ftud ; while the weight M hangs by a fmall
hook upon the upper edge: by thefe means the index
is kept tteady, and the cords drained by the weight,
with very little fridfion or burthen upon the central
ftud K.
“ Fig. 5. is a parallellogram of plate brafs, to keep
out dull, which is attached to the upper edge of the
box-cover H; and ferves to ftiut the part of the box-
cover nece'flarily cut away, to give leave for the wire
GI to traverfe with the Aiding ftud nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index K ; and where, in
fig. 5. a is an hole of about an inch diameter, for the
wire GI to pafs through in the rifing and falling of the
index freely without touching ; £ is a Ait of a lefler
fize, fufficient to pafs the wire, and admit the cover to
come off without deranging the cord or index ; cc are
two fmall ferews applied to two Aits, by which the
plate Aides lengthways, in order to adapt the hole a
to the wire GI, at any place of the ftud I upon the
index KL. Hygro
“ 1. In this conftru&ion, the index KL being 12 ter
inches long, 4 inches from the extreme end are filed fo
narrow in the dire&ion in which it is feen by the eye,
that any part of thefe four inches lying over the divi¬
fions of the fcale, becomes an index thereto. The fcale
itfelf Aides four inches, fo as to be brought under any
part of the four incises of the index attenuated as above-
mentioned.
“ 2. The pofition of the dire&ing piece RR is fo
determined as to be parallel to a right line drawn thro’
o upon the fcale, and the centre K of the index; con-
fequently, as the attenuated part of the index forms a
part of a radius or right line from the fame centre, it
follows, that whenever the index points to o upon the
fcale, though the fcale is moved nearer to or further
from the centre of the index, yet it produces no change
in the place to which the index points.
“ 3. When the divided arch of the fcale is at 10 inches
from the centre, (that is, at its mean diftance); then
the centre of the arch and the centre of the index are
coincident. At other diftances, the extremes of which
are eight or twelve inches, the centre of the divifions,
and the centre of the index pointing thereto, not be¬
ing coincident, the index cannot move oyer the fpaces
proportionable to one another in all fi-
tuations of the fcale, yet, the whole fcale not exceed¬
ing 30° of a circle, it will be found on computation,
that the error can never be fo great as-r^g- part of the
fcale, or i° of the hygrometer ; which in this inftru-
ment being confidered as indivifible, the mechanical
error will not be fenAble.
“ The cord here made ufe of is Aax, and between
V^h and Tg-th of an inch in diameter ; which can be
readily afeertained by meafuring a number of turns
made round a pencil or fmall flick. It is a fort of cord
ufed in London for making nets, and is of that par¬
ticular kind called by net-makers flaxen three-threads
laid- A competent quantity of this Cord was boiled
in one pound avoirdupois of water, in which was put
two pennyweights troy of common fait ; the whole
was reduced by boiling to fix ounces avoirdupois,
which was done in about half an hour. As this afcer>
tains a given ftrength of the brine, on taking out the
cord ; it may be fuppofed that every fibre of the cord
is equally impregnated with fait. The cord being
dried, it will be proper to ftretch it ; which may be
dene fo as to prevent it from nntwifting, by tying
three or four yards to two nails again ft a wall, in an
horizontal pofition, and hanging a weight of a pound
or two to the middle, fo as to make it form an obtufe
angle. This done for a week or more in a room, will
lay the fibres of the cord clofe together, and prevent
its ftretching fo fall after being applied to the in¬
ftrument, as it would otherwife be apt to do.
“ The hygrometer is to be adjufted in the following
manner. The box-cover being taken off to prevent its
being fpoiled by the fire, and choofing a day natu¬
rally dry, fet the inftrument nearly upright, about a
yard from a moderate fire; fo that the cord may be¬
come dry, and the inftrument warm, but not fo near
as would fpoil the fineft linen by too much heat, and
yet fully evaporate the moifture ; there let the inftru¬
ment ftay till the index is got as low as it will go ;
now and then ftroaking the cord betwixt the thumb
and. .
H Y G [ 37
and finger downwards, in order to lay the fibres there'-
of clofe together; and thereby caufing it to lengthen
as much as poffible. When the index is thus become
ftationary, which will generally happen in about an
hour, more or lefs, as the air is naturally more or lefs
dry, by means of the peg at top raife or deprefs the
index, till it lies over the point 0. This done, remove
the inftmment from the fire ; and having ready fome
warm water in a tea-cup, take a middling camel’s-hair
pencil, and, dipping it in the water, gently anoint the
cord till it will drink up no more, and till the index
becomes ttationary and water will have no more effeCl
upon it, which will alio generally happen in about an
hour. If in this ftate the index lies over the degree
marked 100, all is right: if not, flack the fcrew S,
and Aide the fcale nearer to or further from the centre,
till the point too comes under the index, and then the
inftrument is adjufled for ufe : but if the compafs of
the Aide is not fufficient to effe& this, as may proba¬
bly happen on the firft: adjullment, flack the proper
fcrews, and move the Aiding ftudd / nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index, according as the
angle formed by the index between the two points of
dry or wet happens to be too fmall or too large for
the fcale.”
r. On the fecond general principle, namely, that
of the fwellihg of folid bodies by moifture, and their
contra&ion by drynefs, Mr De Luc’s is the beft. He
makes choice of ivory for the conftru&ion of his hy¬
grometer, becaufe he finds, that, being once wetted,
ivory regularly fwells by moifture, and returns exaftly
to the fame dimenfions when the moifture is evapora¬
ted, which other bodies do not. This hygrometer is
reprefented in fig. 6. a a b is an ivory tube open at the
end a a, and dole at b. It is made of a piece of ivory
taken at the diftance of fome inches from the top of a
pretty large elephant’s tooth, and likewife at the fame
diftance from its furface, and from the canal which
reaches to that point. (This particular dire&ion is
given, that the texture of the ivory in all different hy¬
grometers may be the fame, which is of great impor¬
tance.) This piece is to be bored exaftly in the direc¬
tion of its fibres ; the hole muft be very ftraight, its
dimenfions 24- lines in diameter, and 2 inches 8 lines
in depth from a a to c. Its bore is then to be exactly
filled with a brafs cylinder, which, however, muft pro¬
ject fomewhat beyond the ivory tube, and thus it is to
be turned on a proper machine, till the thicknefs of
the ivory is exaftly T3T of a line, except at the two ex¬
tremities. At the bottom b, the tube ends in a point;
and at the top a a \t muft for about two lines be left a
little thicker, to enable it to bear the preffure of ano¬
ther piece put into it. Thus the thin or hygrometri-
cal part of the tube will be reduced to 2-|-French inches,
including the concavity of the bottom. Before this
piece is ufed, it muft be put into water, fo that the
external part alone may be wetted by it; and here it
is to remain till the water penetrates to the infide, and
appears in the form of dew, which will happen in a
few hours. The reafon of this is, that the ivory tube
remains fomewhat larger ever after it is wetted the firft
time.
For this hygrometer, a glafs tube muft be provided
about 14 inches long, the lower end of which is fhewn
in ddee. Its internal diameter is about of a line.
99 ] H Y G
If now the ivory tube is exadlly filled with mercury,
and the glafs one affixed to it, as the capacity of thb
former decreafes by being dried, the mercury will be
forced up into the glafs one.
The piece/fgg is intended to join the ivory with
the glafs tybe. It is of brafs, (haped as in the figure.
A cylindrical hole is bored through it, which holds
the glafs tube as tight as poffible without danger of
breaking it ; and its lower part is to enter with fome
degree of difficulty into the ivory pipe. To hinder
that part of the tube which inclofes the brafs piece
from being affe&ed by the variations of the moifture,
it is covered witli a brafs verrel reprefented in hkii.
The pieces muft be united together with gum-lac or
maftic.
The introdu&ion of the mercury is the next opera¬
tion. For this purpofe, a flip of paper three inches
wide is firft to be rolled over the glafs tube, and tied
faft to the extremity neareft the ivory pipe. A horfe-
hair is then to be introduced to the tube, long enough
to enter the ivory pipe by an inch, and to reach three
or four inches beyond the extremity of the glafs one.
The paper which has been fhaped round the tube muft
now be raifed, and ufed as a funnel to pouf the mer¬
cury into the inftrument, which is held upright. The pu-
reft quickfilver is to be ufed for this purpofe, and it will
therefore be proper to ufe that revived from cinnabar. It
eafily runs into the tube ; and the air efcapes by means
of the horfe hair, affifted with fome gentle fhakes. Freflt
mercury muft from time to time be fupplied, to pre¬
vent the mercurial tube from being totally emptied; in
which cafe, the mercurial pellicle which always forms
by the contact of the air would run in along with it.
Some air-bubbles generally remain in the tube;
they may be feen through the ivory pipe, which is thin
enough to have fome tranfparency. Thefe being col-
lefted together by fliaking, muft be brought to the
top of the tube, and expelled by means of the horfe-
hair. To facilitate this operation, fome part of the
mercury muft be taken out of the tube, in order that
the air may be lefs obftru&ed in getting out, and the
horfe-hair have a freer motion to affift it. Air, how¬
ever, cannot be entirely driven out in this manner. It
is the weight of the mercury with which the tube is
for that reafon to be filled, which in time completes
its expulfion, by making it pafs through the pores of
the ivory. To haften this, the hygrometers are put
into a proper box. This is fixed nearly in a ver¬
tical dire&ion to the faddie of a horfe, which Is fet a-
trotting for a few hours. The fhakes fometimes divide
the column of mercury in the glafs tube, but it is
eafily re-united with the horfe-hair. When, upon (ba¬
king the hygrometer vertically, no fmall tremulous
motion is any longer perceived in the upper part of
the column, one may be fure that all the air is gone
out.
The fcale of this hygrometer may be adjufted, as
foon as the air is gone out, in the following manner,
The inftrument is to be fufpcnded in a veffel of water
cooled with ice, freffi quantities of which are to be ad¬
ded as the former melts. Here it is to remain till it
has funk as low as it will fink by the enlargement of
the capacity of the ivory tube, owing to the moifture
it has imbibed. This ufually happens in feven or
eight hours, and is to be carefully noted. In two or
21 O 2 three
Hygrome¬
ter.
H Y G [ 3800 ] H Y G
Hygrome- three hours the mercury begins to afcend, becaufe the
tc'r- moifture paffes into the cavity, and forces it up. The
the lowell Ration of the mercury is then to be marked
o; and for the more accurate marking the degrees on
the fcale, M. De Luc always chofe to have his hy-
grometrical tube made of one which had formerly be¬
longed to a thermometer. The reafon of this is, that
in the thermometer the expanlion of the mercury by
heat had been already determined. The diftance be¬
tween the thermometrical points of melting ice and
boiling water at 27 French inches of the barometer
was found to be 1937 parts. The bulb of this prepa¬
ratory thermometer was broke in a bafon, in order to
receive carefully all the mercury that it contained.
This being weighed in nice fcales amounted to 1428
grains. The hygrometer contained 460 grains of the
fame mercury. Now it is plain, that the extent of the
degrees on the hygrometer, ought to be to that of the
degrees on the preparatory thermometer as the diffe¬
rent weights of the mercury contained in each ; con-
fequently 1428 : 460 : : 193-7 : 624 nearly; and there¬
fore the correfponding intervals ought to follow the
fame proportion : and thus the length of a fcale was
obtained, which might be divided into as many parts
as he pleafed.
Fig. 7. is a reprefentation of De Luc’s hygrome¬
ter when fully conftru&ed. In elegance it far exceeds
Smeaton’s or any other, and probably alfo in accu¬
racy ; for by means of a fmall thermometer fixed on
the board along with it, the expanfion of the mercury
by heat may be known with great accuracy, and of
confequence how much of the height of the mercury
in the hygrometer is owing to that caufe, and how
much to the mere moifture of the atmofphere.
3. On the third principle, namely, the alteration of
the weight of certain fubftances by their attra&ing the
moifture of the air, few attempts have been made, nor
do they feem to have been attended with much fuccefs.
Sponges dipped in a folution of alkaline falts, and
fome kinds of paper, have been tried. Thefe are fuf-
pended to one end of a very accurate balance, and
counterpoifed by weights at the other, and fhew the
degrees of moifture or drynefs by the afcent or defcent
of one of the ends. But, befides that fuch kinds of
hygrometers are deftitute of any fixed point from
whence to begin their fcale, they have another incon¬
venience (from which indeed Smeaton’s is not free, and
which has been found to render it erroneous), namely,
that all faline fubftances are deftroyed by long conti¬
nued expofure to the air in very fmall quantities, and
therefore can only imbibe the moifture for a certain
time. Oil of vitriol, hath therefore been recommended
in preference to the alkaline or neutral falts. See
Chemistry, n° 105 ; and, indeed, for fuch as do not
chufe to beat the trouble of conftrufting a hygrome¬
ter on the principles of Mr Smeaton or De Luc, this
will probably be found the moft eafy and accurate.
Fig. 8. reprefents an hygrometer of this kind. A is
a fmall glafs cup containing a fmall quantity of oil of
vitriol, B an index counterpoifing it, and C the-fcale;
where it is plain, that as the oil of vitriol attra&s the
moifture of the air the fcale will defcend, w'hich will
raife the index, and vice verfa. This liquid is exceed¬
ingly fcnfible of the increafe or decreafe of moifture.
A lingle grain, after its full increafe, has varied its
equilibrium fo fenfibly, that the tongue of a balance, HygrofeopS
only an inch and a half long, has defcribed an arch !1 i
one third of an inch in compafs, (which arch would ymcn‘
have been almoft three inches if the tongue had been
one foot), even with fo fmall a quantity of liquor; con-
fequently, if more liquor, expanded under a large fur-
face, were ufed, a pair of fcales might afford as nice
an hygrometer as any kind yet invented.—A great in¬
convenience, however, is, that as the air muft: have j
full accefs to the liquid, it is impolfible to keep out
the dull, which, by continually adding its weight,
muft; render the hygrometer falfe : add to this, that
even oil of vitriol itfelf is by time deftroyed, and
changes its nature, if a fmall quantity of it is conti¬
nually expofed to the air. So that of all the inventions
that have hitherto appeared, De Luc’s alone feems ca¬
pable of being brought to the requifite perfection.
HYGROSCOPE. The fame with Hygrome¬
ter.
HYLA (anc. geog.), a river of Myfia Minor, fa¬
mous for Hylas the favourite boy of Hercules, who
was carried down the ftream and drowned. It is faid
to~run by Prufa; whence it feems to be the fame with
the Rhyndacui, which runs north-weft into the Pro¬
pontis.
HYLAS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Theodamus,
was raviihed by the nymphs of a fountain as he was
taking out fome water for Hercules by whom he was
beloved.
HYMEN, or Hymen^eus, a fabulous divinity,
the fon of Bacchus and Venus Urania, was fuppofed
by the ancients to prefide over marriages; and ac¬
cordingly was invoked in epithalamiums, and other
matrimonial ceremonies, under the formula, Hyi?ient
0 Hymen#e !
The poets generally crown this deity with a chap¬
let of rofes ; and reprefent him, as it were, diffolved
and enervated with pleafures ; dreffed in a yellow
robe, and fhoes of the fame colour; with a torch in
his hand.—Catullus, in one of his epigrams, addreffes
him thus : Cinge tempera florihus,
Suaveolentis amaraci.
It was for this reafon, that the new-married couple
bore garlands of flowers on the wedding-day : which
cuftom.alfo obtained among the Hebrews; and even
among Chriftians, during the firft ages of the
church, as appears from Tertullian, De corona mi-
litari, where he fays, Covenant fy nuptee fponfos.—
S. Chryfoftom likewife mentions thefe crowns of
flowers; and to this day the Greeks call marriage
in refped of this crown or garland.
Hymen, in anatomy, a membrane in general; but
by it is ufually underftood the membrane which ap¬
pears in the form of a crefcent, and is fituated at the
entrance of the. vagina. When this membrane is rup¬
tured, it is fhrivelled up, and forms the carunculae1
myrtiformes. It naturally (brinks with years, and
often difappears before the age of 20, fo can be no
proof of virginity.
In fome infants this membrane fo clofes up the ure¬
thra, that the urine cannot be voided : in others, the
urine pafies, but when the menfes flow, they cannot
be difeharged, becaufe of the imperforated hymen.
When the mark of perforation cannot be feen, th£
cure is thought to be impracticable.; but when the
punCture-
HYP
H Y O [ 3801 ]
rffmensal pun&ure of a lancet could not produce the defired ef-
: II feet, a trochar and canula hath fucceeded, though a
^ jrofeya- pa{page of four ;nct] es was perforated before the end
-  was obtained.—In the memoirs of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences for 1756, we have an account of a
conception without any perforation of the hymen.
HYMENiEAL, fomething belonging to mar¬
riage; fo called from Hvmen. See Poetry, n° 157.
HYMN, a fong or ode in honour of God; or a
poem, proper to be fung, compofed in honour of fome
deity. See Song, and Ode.—The word is Greek,
vftv®‘) hymn, formed of the verb celebro, “ I cele-
I brate.”—Ifiodore, on this word, remarks, that hymn
is properly a fong of joy, full of the praifes of God :
by which, according to him, it is diltinguiflied from
threna, which is a mourning fong, full of lamentation.
St Hilary, bilhop ofPoidliers, is faid to have been
the firft that compofed hymns to be fung in churches,
and was fallowed by St Ambrofe. Moft of thofe
in the Roman Breviary were compofed by Pruden-
9 tins. They have been tranflated into French verfe
by Meffieurs de Port Royal.—In the Greek Liturgy
there are four kinds of hymns; but the word is not
taken in the fenfe of a praife offered in verfe, but
fimply of a laud or praife. The angelic hymn, or
Gloria in exceljls, makes the firft kind; the trifagion
the fecund ; the Cherubic hymn, the third ; and the
hymn of viftory and triumph called the laft.
The hymns or odes of the ancients, generally con-
1 fifted of three ftanzas or couplets ; the firft called
Jlropke, the fecond antiflrophe, and the laft epode.
HYMMETTUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of At¬
tica near Athens, famous for its marble quarries, and
for its excellent honey. Hymsttius the epithet.
Pliny fays that the orator Craffus was the firft who
! had marble columns from this place.
HYOIDES, in anatomy, a bone placed at the
root of the tongue. See Anatomy, n° 27.
HYOSCYAMUS, henbane ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are feveral fpecies, one of which, viz.
the niger, or common henbane, is a native of Britain.
It grows on road-fides, and among rubbifti. It is a
biennial plant, with long flelhy roots which ftrike deep
into the ground, fending out feveral large foft leaves,
deeply flalhed on their edges ; the following fpring the
J _ ftalks come up, which are about two feet high, gar-
nifhed with flowers Handing on one fide in a double
row, fitting clofe to the ftalks alternately. They are
of a dark pnrplilh colour, with a black bottom; and
are fucceeded by roundifh capfules which open with a
lid at the top, and have two cells filled with fmall ir¬
regular feeds.—The feeds, leaves, and roots of this
plant, as well as of all other fpecies of this genus, are
poifonous: and many well attefted inftances of their
bad effefts are recorded; madnefs, convulfions, and
death, being the common confequence. In a fmaller
dofe, they occafion giddinefs and ftupor. It is faid
that the leaves fcattered about a houfe will drive away
mice.—The juice of the plant evaporated to an ex-
I trail, is ordered by the Edinburgh college in fome
cafes as a narcotic, in which refpe.il undoubtedly it may
be a powerful medicine if properly managed. The
dofe is from half a fcruple to half a dram.—Goats are
not fond of the plant; horfes, cows, fheep, andfwine,
refufe it. Hyb thyr-
HYO-THYROIDES, in anatomy, one of the
mufcles belonging to the os hyoides. See Anatomy, h '* ;
Table of the Mufcks. _ _
HYPALLAGEj among grammarians, a fpecies
of hyperbaton, confifting in a mutual permutation of
one cafe for another. Thus Virgil fays, Dare clafibus
aujlros, ■ for dare claffes auftris ; and again, Necdum
illii labra admovi, for necdum ilia labris admovi.
HYPANTE, or Hyferpante, a name given by
the Greeks to the feaft of the prefentation of Jefus
in the temple.—This word, which fignifies lowly or
humble meeting, was given to this feaft from the meet¬
ing of old Simeon and Anna the prophetefs in the
temple when Jefus was brought thither.
HYPATIA, a learned and beautiful lady of anti¬
quity, the daughter of Theon a celebrated philofo-
pher and mathematician, and prefident of the famous
Alexandrian fchool, was born at Alexandria about
the end of the fourth century. Her father, encouraged
by her extraordinary genius, had her educated not
only in all the ordinary qualifications of her fex, but
caufed her likewife to be inftruded in the moft ab-
ftrufe fciences. She made fuch great progrefs in phi-
lofophy, geometry, aftronomy, and the mathematics,,
that (he palled for the moft learned perfon of her time.
At length Ihe was thought worthy to fueceed her fa¬
ther in that diftinguilhed and important employment,
the government of the fchool of Alexandria ; and to
teach out of that chair where Ammonius, Hierocles,
and many other great men, had taught before ; and
this at a time too when men of great learning abounded
both at Alexandria and in many other parts of the
Roman empire. Her fame was fo extenfive, and her
worth fo univerfally acknowledged, that we cannot
wonder if Ihe had a crowded auditory. “ She ex¬
plained to her hearers, (fays Socrates), the feveral
fciences that go under the general name of philofophy;
for which reafon there was a confluence to her, from
all parts, of thofe who made philofophy their delight
and ftudy.” One cannot reprefent to himfelf without
pleafure, the flower of all the youth of Europe, Alia,,
and Africa, fitting at the feet of a very beautiful lady,
for fuch we are allured Hypatia was), all greedily
wallowing inftru&ion from her mouth, and many of
them, doubtlefs, love from her eyes ; though we are
not fure that Ihe ever liftened to any folicitations,
fince Suidas, who talks of her marriage with Ifiodorus,,
yet relates at the fame time that Ihe died a maid.
Her fcholars were as eminent as they w'ere nume¬
rous ; one of whom was the celebrated Synefius, who
was afterwards bifhop of Ptolemais. This ancient
Chriftian Platonift every where bears the ftrongeft, as
well as the moft grateful teftimony of the virtue of
his tutorefs ; and never mentions her without the moll
profound refpe£t, and fometimes in terms of affc&ion
coming little Ihort of adoration. But it was not Sy¬
nefius only, and thedifciplesofthe Alexandrian fchool,
who admired Hypatia for her virtue and learning:
never was woman more careffed by the public, and
yet never woman had a more unfpotted chara&er. She
was held as an oracle for her wifdom, which made her
confulted by the magiftrates in all important cafes;
and this frequently drew her among the greateft con-
courfe of men, without the leaft cenfure of her manners.
la
HYP [ 3802
Hypatia Jn a word, when Nicephorus intended to pafs the
II higheft compliment on the princefs Eudocia, he
^ a* thought he could not do it better than by calling her
r_   another Hypatia.
While Hypatia thus reigned the brighteft orna¬
ment of Alexandria, Oreftes was governor of the-
fame place for the emperor Theodofius, and Cyril was
bifhop or patriarch. Oreftes having had a liberal edu¬
cation, could not but admire Hypatia ; and as a wife
governor frequently confulted her. This, together
with an averfion which Cyril had againft Oreftes,
proved fatal to the lady. Above 500 monks affem-
bling, attacked the governor one day, and would have
killed him, had he not been refcued by the townfmen ;
and the refpeft which Oreftes had for Hypatia cau-
fing her to be traduced among the Chriftian multitude,
they dragged her from her chair, tore her to pieces,
and burned her limbs. Cyril is not clear from a fuf-
picion of fomenting this tragedy. Cave indeed en¬
deavours to remove the imputation of fuch an horrid
adlion from the patriarch ; and lays it upon the Alex¬
andrian mob in general, whom he calls leviffivmm ho-
minum genus, “ a very trifling inconftant people.”
But though Cyril (hould be allowed neither to have
been the perpetrator, nor even the contriver of it,
yet it is much to be fufpefted that he did not difcoun-
tenance it in the manner he ought to have done:
which fufpicion muft needs be greatly confirmed by
refle&ing, that he was fo far from blaming the out¬
rage committed by the monks upon Oreftes, that he
afterwards received the dead body of Ammonius, one
of the moft; forward in that outrage, who had griev-
oufly wounded the governor, and who was juftly pu-
nilhed with death. Upon this riotons ruffian Cyril
made a panegyric in the church where he was laid,
in which he extolled his courage and conftancy, as
one that had contended for the truth ; and changing
his name to Thaumajius, or the “ Admirable,” or¬
dered him to be confidered as a martyr. “ However,
(continues Socrates), the wifeft part of Chriftians did
not approve the zeal which Cyril Ihewed on this man’s
behalf, being convinced that Ammonius had juftly
fuffered for his defperate attempt.”
HYPECOUM, wild cumin ; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants.
There are four fpecies, all of them low herbaceous
plants with yellow flowers. The juice of thcfe plants
is of a yellow colour, -refembling that of celandine,
and is affirmed by fome eminent phyficians to be as
narcotic as opium. From the neftarium of the blof-
fom the bees colleft great quantities of honey. All
the fpecies are eafily propagated by feeds.
HYPER, a Greek prepofition frequently ufed in
compofition, where it denotes excefs ; Rs literal fignifi-
cation being above, or beyond.
HYPERBATON, in grammar, a figurative con-
ftru&ion inverting the natural and proper order of
words and fentences. The feveral fpecies of the hy¬
perbaton are, the anaftrophe, the hyfteron-proteron,
the hypallage, fynchyfis, tmefis, parenthefis, and the
hyperbaton ftri&ly fo called. See Anastrophe, &c.
Hyperbaton, ftridtly fo called, is a long reten¬
tion of the verb which completes the fentence, as in
the following example from Virgil.
Interea Reges : ingenti mole Latinus
] HYP
Qnadrijugo vehitur curru, cui tempora eircum Hyperfetat
Aurati bis fex radii fulgentia cingunt, Hyperbia
Solis avi fpecimen: bigis it Turmts in albis
Bino manu lato crifpans bojlilia ferro :
Hinc Pater JEneas, Roman# Jlirpis origo,
Sidereo flagrans clypeo et celefiibus armis ;
Et juxta Afcanius, magn# fpes altera Roma :
Procedunt Cajlris.
HYPERBOLA, a curve formed by cutting & : I
cone in a diredtion parallel to its axis. See Conic-
Seftions.
HYPERBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby the j
truth and reality of things are exceffively either enlar- }]
ged or diminifhed. See Oratory, n° 58.
An objeft uncommon with refpedl to fize, either Element
very great of its kind or very little, ftrikes us with Critkifnt
furprife ; and this emotion forces upon the mind a mo¬
mentary convidtion that the objedt is greater or lefs J
than it is in reality : the fame effedl, precifely, attends
figurative grandeur or littlenefs ; and hence the hy¬
perbole, which expreffes this momentary convidb’on.
A writer, taking advantage of this natural delufion,
enriches his defcription greatly by the hyperbole: and j
the reader, even in his cooleft moments, relifhes this
figure, being fenfible that it is the operation of nature
upon a warm fancy.
It cannot have efcaped obfervation, that a writer is
generally more fuccefsful in magnifying by a hyper¬
bole than in diminilhing. The reafon is, that a mi¬
nute objedt contradts the mind, and fetters its powers i
of imagination ; but that the mind, dilated and in¬
flamed with a grand objeft, moulds objedls for its gra¬
tification with great facility. Longinus, with refpedt
to a diminiftiing hyperbole, cites the following ludi¬
crous thought from a comic poet: “ He was owner
of a bit of ground not larger than a Lacedemonian
letter.” But, for the reafon now given, the hyperbole j
has by far the greater force in magnifying objedls ; of
which take the following examples:
For all the land which thou feeft, to thee will I
give it, and to thy feed for ever. And I will make |
thy feed as the dull of the earth : fo that if a man
can number the dull of the earth, then (hall thy feed i
alfo be numbered. Gen. xiii. 15. 16.
Ilia vel intadlse fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina : nec teneras curfu Ixfiflet ariftas.
Mneid. vii. 808.
  —Atque imo barathri ter gurgitevaftos
Sorbet in abruptum fludlus, rurfufque fub auras
Erigit alternos, et fidera verberat unda.
Mneid. iii. 421.
 Horrificis juxta tonat .(Etna minis,
Interdumque atram prorumpit ad sethera nubem,
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla:
Attollitque globes flammarum, et fidera lambit.
Mneid. iii: 571.
Speaking of Polyphemus,
 Ipfe arduus, altaque pulfat
Sidera. Mneid. iii. 619.
 When he fpeaks.
The air, a charter’d libertine, is ftill.
Henry V. aft 1. fc. t.
Now
H Y r [ 3803 ] HYP
erbole. Now {hield with ftiield, with helmet helmet clos’d,
To armour Rrmour, lance to lance oppos’d,
Hoft againft hoft with fhadowy fquadrons drew,
The founding darts in iron tempefts flew,
Victors and vanquifh’d join promifcuous cries.
And Ihrilllng fhouts and dying groans arife ;
With dreaming blood the flipp’ry fields are dy’d.
And flaughter’d heroes fwell the dreadful tide.
Iliad iv. 508.
Quintilian is fenfible that this figure is natural:
“ For, (fays he), not contented with truth, we natu¬
rally incline to augment or diminilh beyond it; and
for that re^fon the hyperbole is familiar even among
the vulgar and illiterate:” and he adds, veryjuftly,
“ That the hyperbole is then proper, when the obje&
of itfirlf exceeds the common meafure.” From thefe
premifles, one would not expeft the following infe¬
rence, the only reafon he can find for juftifying this
figure of fpeech, “ Conceditur enim amplius dicere,
quia dici quantum eft, non poteft : meliufque ultra
quam citra ft'at oratio.” (We are indulged to fay
more than enough, becaufe we cannot fay enough ;
and it is better to be above than under.) In the name
of wonder, why this flight and childilh reafoning,
when immediately before he had obferved, that the
hyperbole is founded on human nature ? We could not
refift this perfonal ftroke of criticifm ; intended not
againft our author, for no human creature is exempt
from error; but againft the blind veneration that is
paid to the ancient claflic writers, without diftinguilh-
ing their blemifhes from their beauties.
Having examined the nature of this figure, and the
principle on which it is eredled ; let us proceed to the
rules by which it ought to be governed. And, in the
firft place, it is a capital fault, to introduce an hy¬
perbole in the defcription of an ordinary objedt or
event; for in fuch a c&fe, it is altogether unnatural,
being deftitute of furpvife, its only foundation. Take
the following inftance, where the fubjeft is extreme¬
ly familiar, viz. fwimming to gain the fhore after a
fhipwreck,
I faw him beat the furges under him.
And ride upon their backs : he trod the-water
Whofe enmity.he flung aiide, and breafted
The furge molt fwoln that met him : his bold head
’Bove the contentious waves he kept, and oar’d
Himfelf with his good arms, in luily ftrokes
To ih’-JJjuare, that o’er his wave-born bafis bow’d,
As {looping to relieve him. Tempejl^ aft 2.fc, 1.
In the next'place it may be gathered from what is
faid, that an hyperbole can never fuit the tone of any
difpiriting pafiion : forrow in particular will never
prompt fuch a figure , and for that reafon the follow-
ing hyperboles muft be condemned as unnatural:
K. Rich. Aumerle, thou weep’ft, my tender¬
hearted coufiii !
We’ll make foul weather with defpifed tears;
Our figns, and they, {hall lodge the fummer-corn.
And make a dearth in this revolving land.
Richard II. aft fc. 6.
Draw them to Tyber’s bank, and weep your tears.
Into the channel, till the loweft ftream
Do kifs the mod exalted ftiores of all. Hyperbole.
Julius Cafar, aft 1. fc. 1.   
Thirdly, A writer, if he wifh to fucceed, ought al¬
ways to have the reader in his eye : he ought, in par¬
ticular, never to venture a bold thought or expreffion,
till the reader be warmed and prepared. For this rea¬
fon, an hyperbole in the beginning of a work can ne¬
ver be in its place. Example :
Jam pauca aratrojugera regiae
Moles relinquent. Herat. Carm. lih. 2. ode 15.
In the fourth place, The niceft point of all, is to
afeertain the natural limits of an hyperbole, beyond
which being overftrained it has a bad efFe&. Longi¬
nus, (chap. Hi.) with great propriety of thought, en¬
ters a caveat againft an hyperbole of this kind : he
compares it to a bow-ftring, which relaxes by over-
ftraining, and produceth an effedt diredlly oppofite to
what is intended. To afeertain any precife boundary,
would be difficult, if not impra&icable. We fhall
therefore only give a fpecimen of what may be rec¬
koned overftrained hyperboles. No fault is more
common among writers of inferior rank; and inftan-
ces are found even among thofe of the fined tafte ;
witnefs the following hyperbole, too hold even for an
Hotfpur.
Hotfpur, talking of Mortimer :
In Angle oppofition hand to hand,
He did confound the beft part of an hour
In changing hardiment with great Glendower.
Three times they breath’d, and three times did they
drink,
Upon agreement, of fwift Severn’s flood ;
Who then affrighted with their bloody looks,
Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds.
And hid his crifp’d head in the hollow bank,
Blood-ftained with thefe valiant combatants.
Firjl Part Henry IV. aft 1. fc 4.
Speaking of Henry V.
England ne’er had a King until his time.
Virtue he had, deferving to command :
His brandifh’d fword did blind men with its beams:
His arms fpread wider than a dragon’s w-ings :
His fparkling eyes, replete with awful fire,
More dazzled, and drove back his enemies,
Than mid-day fun fierce bent againft their faces.
Whatftiould I fay? his deeds exceed all fpeech :
He never lifted up his hand, but conquer’d.
Firjl Part Henry VI. aft l. fc. J.
Laftly, An hyperbole, after it is introduced with
all advantages, ought to be comprehended within the
feweft words poffible : as it cannot be relifhed but in
the hurry and fwelling of the mind, a leifurely view dif-
folves the charm, and difeovers the defcription to be-
extravagant at leaft, and perhaps alfo ridiculous. This
fault is palpable in a fonnet which paffeth for one of
the moft complete in the French language : Phillis, in-
a long and florid defcription, is made as far to ottt-
ftiine the fun as he outfliines the ftars :
Le filence regnoit fur la terre et fur 1’onde,
L’air devenoit ferain et 1’Olimp vermeil,
Eft
HYP [ 3804 ] HYP
Hyperbo- Et 1'amourex Zephir afFranchi du fomeil,
r|an Rcflufcitoit lesfleurs d’une haleine feconde.
Hypcria. L’Aurore deployoit I’or de fa trefle blonde,
 Eet femoit de rubis le chemin du foleil;
Enfin ce Dieu venoitau plus grand appareil
Qu’il foil jamais venu pour eclairer le monde :
Quand la jeune Philis au vifage riant,
Sortant de fon palais plus clair quel’orient.
Fit voir une lumiere et plus vive et plus belle.
Sacre flambeau du jour, n’en foiez point jaloux,
Vous parutes alors aufii peu devant elle,
Que les feux de la nuit avoient fait devant vous.
Malleville.
There is in Chaucer a thought exprefled in a Angle
line, which fees a young beauty in a more advanta¬
geous light than the whole of this much laboured
poem:
Up rofe the fun, and up rofe Emelie.
HYPERBOREAN, in the ancient geogra¬
phy. The ancients denominated thofe people and
places Hyperborean, which were to the northward of the
Scythians. They had but very little acquaintance
with thefe Hyperborean regions ; and all they tell us
of them is.very precarious, much of it falfe. Diodorus
Siculus fays, the Hyperboreans were thus called by
reafon they dwelt beyond the wind Boreas ; ‘'ersp fig.
nifying “ above, or beyond,” and Bopixt, Boreas, the
“ north wind.” This etymology is very natural and
plaufible; notwithftanding all that Rudbeck has faid
againft it, who would have the word to be Gothic,
and to fignify nobility. Herodotus doubts, whether
or no there were any fuch nations as the Hyper¬
borean. Strabo, who profefles that he believes there
are, does not take hyperborean to {\%miy beyond Boreas
or the north, as Herodotus underftood it: the prepo-
fition vsnp, in this cafe, he fuppofes only to help to
form a fuperlative; fo that hyperborean, on his prin¬
ciple, means no more than mojl northern : by which it
appears the ancients fcarce knew themfelves what the
name meant.
HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and La¬
tin poetry is applied to a verfe that has one or two
fyllables too much, or beyond the regular and juft
meafure; as,
Mufa forores funt Minerva :
Alfo,
Mu/a forores Palladis lugent.
HYPERCRITIC, an over-rigid cenfor, or critic:
one who will let nothing pafs, but animadverts fe-
verely on the flighteft fault. See Criticism. The
word is compounded of 0rfp, fuper, “ over, above, be¬
yond;” and of %s,hi, judex, of KSiVU, judico,
“I judge.”
HYPERDULIA, in the Romilh theology, is the
worfhip rendered to the holy virgin. The word is
Greek, v7npSv\u«, compofed of urep, above, and Surioc,
•worjhip, fervice. The worfhip offered to faints is
called and that to the mother of God, hyper*
dulia, as being fuperior to the former.
HYPERIA (anc. geog.), the feat of the Phaea-
cians near the Cyclops, (Homer): fome commentators
take it to be Camarina in Sicily; but, according toHypericrj
others, fuppofed to be an adjoining ifland, which they
take to be Melita, lying in fight of Sicily. And this
feems to be confirmed by Apollonius Rhodius. Whence
the Phaeacians afterwards removed to Corcyra, called
Scheria, Phaacia, and Maoris; having been expelled
by the Phoenicians, who fettled in Melita for com¬
merce, and for commodious harbours, before the war
of Troy. (Diodorus Siculus.)
HYPERICUM, St John’s wort; a genus of the |;
polyandria order, belonging to the polyadelphia clafs |l
of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are 29 fpecies, moft y
of them hardy deciduous fhrubs, and under-fhrubby
plants, adorned with oblong and oval fimple foliage,
and pentapetalous yellow flowers in clufters. The
moft remarkable are, x. The hircinum, or ftinking St j
John’s-wort. This rifes three or four feet high, with
feveral fhrubby two-edged ftalks from the root, branch¬
ing by pairs oppofite at every joint; oblong, oval,
clofe fitting oppofite leaves; and, at the ends of all
the young (hoots, clufters of yellow flowers. Of this
there are three varieties ; one with ftrong ftalks, fix j
or eight feet high, broad leaves, and large flowers;
the other with ftrong ftalks, broad leaves, and without
any difagreeable odour; the third hath variegated
leaves. All thefe varieties are flirubby; and flower
in June and July in fuch numerous clufters, that
the ftirubs appear covered with them; and pro- !
duce abundance of feed in autumn. 2. The canarien- |
fis hath fhrubby ftalks, dividing and branching fix or
feven feet high; oblong, clofe-fitting leaves by pairs;
and, at the ends of the branches, clufters of yellow
flowers appearing in June and July. 3. The afeyron,
or dwarf American St John’s-wort, hath fpreading s
roots, fending up numerous, flender, fquare ftalks, a
foot long; oval, fpear-fhaped, clofe-fitting, fmooth
leaves by pairs oppofite; and, at the ends of the ftalks,
large yellow flowers. 4. The androfamum, commonly
called tutfan, or park-leaves, hath an upright under-
fhrubby ftalk, two feet high, branching by pairs op¬
pofite; and at the ends of the ftalks, clafters of fmall
yellow flowers appearing in July and Auguft, and |
fucceeded by roundifh berry-like black capfules. This
grows naturally in many parts of Britain. 5. The |
balearicum, or wart-leaved St John’s-wort, is a native
of Majorca; and hath a fhrubby ftalk, branching two ;
feet high, with reddifh fcarified branches, fmall oval |
leaves waned underneath, and large yellow flowers
appearing great^part of the year. 6. The monogynum, |
or one-ftyled hypericum, hath a fhrubby purplifh
ftalk, about two feet high; oblong, fmooth, ftiff, clofe- J
fitting leaves, of a fhining green above, and white
underneath; clufters of fmall yellow flowers, with co¬
loured cups, and only one ftyle, flowering the greatefl
part of the year. 7. The lafianthus, or Surinam St J
John’s-wort, hath fhrubby ftalks, branching a yard
high; fpear-fhaped ferrated leaves; hoary underneath,
and yellow flowers from the axillas of the (talks. It is
a native of Surinam and Carolina.
Culture. The four firft fpecies are hardy, and will
grow in any foil or fituation; the three laft muft be
potted, in order to have fhelter in the green-houfe in
winter. The two firft fpecies propagate very faft by
fuckers, which are every year fent up plentifully from
HYP [ 3805 ] HYP
: yperides the root; and in autumn or fpring may be readily flip-
li ped off from the old plants with roots to each, or the
is fpnum wh0]e plant may be taken up and divided into as many
parts as there are fuckers and flips with roots, planting
the ilrongeft where they are to remain, and the weakefl
in nurfery-rows, where they are to remain a year in
order to acquire ftrength. They may alfo be propa¬
gated by feeds fown in autumn, in a bed of common
earth, in drills an inch deep. The other two hardy
forts are alfo propagated by flipping the roots in au-
]| tumn, or early in the fpring; and may likewife be raifed
in great plenty from feeds. The three other fpecies
are propagated by layers and cuttings, planted in pots,
and plunged in a hot-bed.
Properties. The tutfan hath long held a place in
the medicinal catalogues; but its ufes are very much
undetermined. The leaves given in fubftance are faid
to deftroy worms. By diflillation they yield an efien-
tial oil. The flowers tinge fpirits and oils of a fine
purple colour. Cows, goats, and fheep, eat the plant;
horfes and fwine refufe it. The dried plant boiled in
water with alum, dyes yarn of a yellow colour; and
the Swedes give a fine purple tinge to their fpirits with
the flowers.
HYPERIDES, an orator of Greece, was the dif-
ciple.of Plato and Ifocrates, and governed the republic
of Athens. He defended with great zeal and courage
the liberties of Greece; but was put to death by Anti¬
pater’s order, 322 B. C. He compofed many orations,
of which only one now remains. He was one of the
ten celebrated Greek orators.
HYPERMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, one of
the 50 daughters of Danaus king of Argos. She
alone refufed to obey the cruel order Danaus had given
to all his daughters, to murder their hufbands the firft.
night of their marriage; and therefore faved the life
of Eynceus, after (he had made him promife not to
violate her virginity. Danaus, enraged at her difobe-
dience, confined her clofely in prifon, whence Lynceus
delivered her fome time after.
HYPERSARCOSIS, in medicine and furgery,
an excefs of flelh, or rather a flefliy excrefcence,
fuch as thofe generally arifing upon the lips of
wounds, &c.
HYPHEN, an accent or chara&er in grammar,
implying that two words are to be joined, or con-
nefted into one compound word, and marked thus -;
| aspre-ejiciblijhed,Jive-lecrded, <bc. 'Hyphens alfo ferve
to conneft the fyllables of fuch words as.are divided by
the end of the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the materia medica, fuch medi¬
cines as any way produce fleep, whether called nar¬
cotics, hypnotics, opiates, or foporifics.
HYPNOTICUS serpens, iht Sleep-fnake, in zoo-
logy, the name of an Eaft-Indian fpecies of ferpent,
called by the Ceylonefe nintipolong, a word importing
the fame fenfe. It is of a deep blackifh brown, varie¬
gated with fpots of white, and is a very fatal kind in
its poifon; its bite always bringing on a fleep which
ends in death.
HYPNUM, feather-moss; a genus of the order
|l . of mufci, belonging to the cryp.togamia clafs of plants.
There are 46 fpecies, ail of them natives of Great Bri-
„|| tain; none of them, however, have any remarkable
property, except the proliferum and parietinum. The
i: Vol. V.
firft is of a very Angular ftrufture, one flioot growing
out from the centre of another; the veil is yellow and
Alining; the lid with a kind of long bill; the leaves
not fliining; fometimes of a yellowifli, and fometimes
of a deep green. This mofs covers the furface of the
earth in the thickeft (hades, through which the fun
never (hines, and where no other plant can grow. The
fecond hath (hoots nearly flat and winged, undivided
for a confiderable length, and the leaves (hining ; but
the old (hoots do not branch into new ones as in the
preceding fpecies. It grows in woods and (hady places;
and, as well as the former, is ufed for filling up the
chinks in wooden houfes.
HYPOBOLE. See Oratory, n° 8r.
HYPOCAUSTUM, among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, a fubterraneous place, where was a furnace to
heat the baths. The word is Greek, formed of the
prepofition under; and the verb *«<"> to burn.—
Another fort of hypocauftum was a kind of kiln to
.heat their winter-parlours. The remains of a Roman
hypocauftum, or fweating-room, were difcovered un¬
der ground at Lincoln in 1739. We have an account
of thefe remains in the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
n°46i. § 29.—Among the moderns, the hypocauftum
is that place where the fire is kept, which warms a
Hove or hot-houfe-
HYPOCHiERIS, hawk’s-eye ; a genus of the
polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. There are four fpecies; none of which
have any remarkable property, except the maculata, or
fpotted hawk’s-eye. It is a native of Britain, and
grows on high grounds. The leaves are oblong, egg-
(haped, and toothed; the ftem almoft naked, generally
with a tingle branch; the bloflbms yellow, opening at
fix in the morning, and doling at four in the after¬
noon. The leaves are boiled and eaten like cab¬
bage. Horfes are fond of this plant when green, but
not when dry. Cows, goats, and fwine eat it; (heep
are not fond of it.
HYPOCHONDRIA, in anatomy, a fpace on each
fide the epigaftric region, or upper part of the abdo¬
men. See Anatomy, n° 349, d.
HYPOCHONDRIAC passion,' a difeafe in men,
fimilar to the hyfteric affe&ion in women. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYPOCISTIS, in the materia medica, an-infpif-
fated juice obtained from the fefiile afarum, much re-
fembling the true Egyptian acacia. They gather the
fruit while unripe, and exprefs the juice, which they
revaporate ove a very gentle fire, to the confidence
of an extrad, and then form into cakes, and ex-
pofe them to the fun to dry. It is an aftringent
of confiderable power; is good againft diarrhoeas
and htemqrrhages of all kinds; and may he ufed in
redellent gargarifms in the manner of the true aca¬
cia ; but it is very rarely met with genuine in our
(hops, the German acacia being ufually fold under its
name.
HYPOGASTRIC, an appellation given to the in¬
ternal branch of the iliac artery.
HYPOGASTRIUM, in anatomy, the middle part
of the lower region of the belly. See Anatomy,
n° 349, d.
HYPOPYON, in medicine, a colleftion of purulent
matter under the corner of the eye.
21 R HYPOTHEC,
Hypobole
Hypopyon.
HYP [ 3806 ] H Y S
Hypothec HYPOTHEC, in law, a right of fecurity efta-
blifhed by law to creditors upon the goods and
A °pHS' efFefts of their debtors, for the payment of certain
debts.
HYPOTHENUSE, in geometry, the longeft fide
of a right-angled triangle, or that which fubtends the
right-angle.
HYPOSTASIS, a Greek term, literally fignifying
fubjlance, or fubjijience; ufed in theology for perfon.—
The word is Greek, urorao-ic; compounded of fub)
“ under;” and Jlo, exifto, “ I (land, I exifl:;” q. d.
fub-fijlentia. Thus we hold, that there is but one na¬
ture or effence in God, but three hypojiajes or perfons.
The term hypejbajts h of a very ancient ftanding in
the church. St Cyril repeats it feveral times, as nlfo
the phrafe union according'to kypoflafis. The firft time
it occurs is in a letter from that father to Neftorius,
where he ufes it inftead of wpso-orav, the word we com¬
monly render perfon, which did not feem expreffive
enough. “ The philofophers (fays St Cyril) have
allowed three hypoJ}afe)\ They have extended the Di¬
vinity to three hypojiafes: They have even fometimes
ufed the word trinity: And nothing was wanting but
to have admitted the confubftantiality of the three hy-
fojiafes, to (hew the unity of the divine nature, exclu-
five of all triplicity in refpedt of diitinftion of nature,
and not to hold it neceflary to conceive any refpe&ive
inferiority of hypojiafes.”
This term occafioned great diflentions in the ancient
church; firft among the Greeks, and afterwards alfo
among the Latins. In the council of Nice, hypofiajis
was defined to denote the fame with effence or fubjlance;
fo that it was herefy to fay that Jefus Chrift was of a
different hypojiajis from the Father; but cuftom altered
its meaning. In the neceffity they were under of ex¬
prefling themfelves ftrongly againft the Sabellians, the
Greeks made choice of the word hypojlafis, and the
Latins of perfona; which change proved the occafion
of endlefs difagreement. The phrafe «•/>»? vxoramte, ufed
by the Greeks, fcandalized the Latins, whofe ufual
Way of rendering vros-ao-is in their language was by
fubjlantia. The barrennefs of the Latin tongue in
theological phrafes, allowed them but one word for
the two Greek ones, w* and vrorao-*?; and thus dif-
abled them from diftinguifhing effence from hypojiajis*
For which reafon they chofe rather to ufe the term
tres perfona, and tres hypojiafes.—An end w'as put to
logomachias, in a fynod held at Alexandria about the
year 362, at which St Athanafius aflifted; from which
time the Latins made no great fcruple of faying tres
hypojiafes, nor the Greeks of three perfons.
HYPOTHESIS, in general, denotes fomething
fuppofed to be true, or taken for granted, in order to
prove or illuftrate a point in queftion. Hypothefes,
however elegant or artful, ought to be firft proved by
repeated obfervations and conftant experience, before
they are received as truths.
HYPOTIPOSIS. See Oratory, n° 91.
HYRCANIA (anc. geog.), a country of the far¬
ther Afia, lying to the fouth-eaft of the Mare Hyr-
canum or Cafpium; with Media on the weft, Parthia
on the fouth, and Margiana on the weft. Famous
for its tygers, (Virgil) ; for its vines, figs, and olives,
(Strabo).
HYSSOPUS, hyssop; a genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia dafs of Hyfteri
plants. There are three (pecies; but only one of them, I *
viz. the officinalis, or common hyffop, is cultivated for
ufe. This hath under-fhrubby, low, bufhy ftalks,
growing a foot and a half high ; final!, fpear-fhaped, 1
clofe-fitting, oppofitfi leaves, with feveral fmaller ones
rifing from the fame joint; and all the ftalks and .
branches terminated by ereft whorled fpikes of flowers, 1
of different colours in the varieties. They are very s
hardy plants; and may be propagated either by flips
or cuttings, or by feeds. The leaves have an aromatic
fmell, and a warm pungent tatte. Befides the general
virtues of aromatics, they are particularly recommended
in humoural aftmas, coughs, and other diforders of the
bread and lungs; and are faid notably to promote ex-
perforation.
HYSTERICS, or Hysteric Passion. See (/«-
dex fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYSTERON proteron, in grammar and rhe- j
toric, a fpecies of the hyperbaton, wherein the proper i
order of conftru&ion is fo inverted, that the part of
any fentence which (hould naturally come firft is placed
laft: as in this of Terence, Falet et vivit, for vivit et
valet; and in the following of Virgil, Moriamur, is 1
in media arma ruamus, for In media arma ruamus, is i
moriamur.
HYSTRIX, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of glires, the chara&ers of
which are thefe: They have two fore-teeth, obliquely >
divided both in the upper and under jaw, befides '
eight grinders; and the body is covered with quills or
prickles. There are four fpecies, viz.
1. The crijlata, or crefted porcupine, has four toes
on the fore-feet, five toes on the hind-feet, a crefted
head, a (hort tail, and the upper lip is divided like
that of a hare. The length of the body is about two
feet, and the height about two feet and a half. The
porcupine is covered with prickles, fome of them nine
or ten inches long, and about of an inch thick. Like
the hedge-hog, he rolls himfelf up in a globular form,
in which pofition he is proof againft the attacks of the
moft rapacious animals. The prickles are exceedingly
(harp, and each of them has five large black and as
many white rings, which fucceed one another alter¬
nately from the root to the point. Thefe quills the
animal can ere& or let down at pleafure; when irri¬
tated, he beats the ground with his hind-feet, erefts
his quills, (hakes his tail, and makes a confiderable
rattling noife with his quills.
Moft authors have afferted that the porctlpine, when
irritated, darts his quills to a confiderable diftance
againft the enemy, and that he will kill very large ani¬
mals by this means. But M. Buffon, and fome other
late hiftorians, affure that the animal pofftffes no fuch j?
power. M. Buffon frequently irritated the porcupine,
but never faw any thing like this darting of his quills.
He fays indeed, that when the creature was much agi¬
tated with pafiion, fome of the quills which adhered but
(lightly to the (kin, would fall off, particularly from
the tail; and this circumftancc, he imagines, has given |
rife to the miftake.
The porcupine, though originally a native of Africa
and the Indies, can live and multiply in the more tem¬
perate climates of Spain and Italy. Pliny, and every
other natural hiftor.ian fince the days, of Ariftotle,
tells 1
H Y S [ 3807 ] H Y S
tffyftr'x tells us, tliat the porcupine, like the bear, conceals
I 'll iiieli fc-.-ag the winter, and that they bring forth
“ their young in 80 days. But thefe circumftances re-
jr.ain to this day uncertain. It is remarkable, that
alitiough this animal be very common in Italy', no
1B perfon has ever given us a tolerable hiftory of it. We
only know in general, that the porcupine, in a dome-
ftic hate, is not a fierce or ill-natured animal ; that
with his fore-teeth, which are ftrong and fltarp, he can
cut through a ftrong board; that he eats bread, fruits,
roots, &c.; that he does confiderable damage when he
gets into a garden ; that he grows fat, like moft ani¬
mals, about the end pf fummer; and that his flefh is
not bad food.
2. The prehenfdit, or cuandu, has four toes on the
fore-feet, five on the hind-feet, and a long tail. It
is confiderably lefs than the former fpecies; being
only 17 inches long from the point of the muzzle to
the origin of the tail, which is nine inches long; the
legs and feet are covered with long browniflr hair;
the reft of the body is covered with quills interfperfed Hyftrix
with long hairs; the quills are about five inches long,
and about x-j- of an inch in diameter. He feeds upon ■’;>'0I'C u
birds and fmall animals. He deeps in the day like
the hedge-hog, and fearches for his food in the night.
He climbs trees, and fupports himfelf by twifting his
tail round the branches. He is generally found in the
high grounds of America from Brafil to Louifiana, and
the fouthern parts of Canada. His flefh is efteemed
very good eating.
3. The dorfata has four toes on the fore-feet, five
on the hind-feet; and has quills only on the back,
which are fhort, and almoft hid among the long
hair. He is about two feet long. He is a native of
Hudfon’s-bay. The favages eat his ftefh, and make
ufe of his fkin as a fur, after taking off the prickles.
4. The viacroura, has five toes both on the hind
and fore-feet; his tail is very long, and the prickles
are elevated. He is a native of Africa and the Eaft-
Indies.
I.
I or /, the ninth letter and third vowel of the al-
’ phabet, is pronounced by throwing the breath
fuddenly againft the palate, as it comes out of the la¬
rynx, with a fmall hollowing of the tongue, and nearly
the fame opening of the lips and talk as in pronoun¬
cing a or e. Its found varies: in fome words it is
long, as high, mind, &c.; in others fhort, as bid, hid,
Jin, &c. ; in others, again, it is pronounced like^, as in
collier, onion, &c.; and in a few, it founds like ce, as
in machine, magazine, &c. No Englifh word ends
in i, e being either added to it, or elfe the i turned
into y.
But befides the vowel, there is the jod confonant;
which, becaufe of its different pronunciation, has like-
wife a different form, thus J, j. In Englifh, it has
the foft found of g; nor is ufed, but when g foft is
required before vowels, where^ is ufually hard: thus
we fay, jack, jet, join, &c. inftead of gack, get, goin,
&c. which would be contrary to the geniys of the
Englifh language.
I, ufed as a numeral, fignifies no more than one, and
ftands for fo many units as it is repeated times: thus I,
one; II, two; III, three, &c.; and when put before
a higher numeral, it fubftra&s itfelf, as IV, four;
IX, nine, &c. But when fet after it, fo many are added
to the higher numeral, as there are Ps added: thus
VI is 5-H> or fix; VII, 5+2, or feven; VIII, 5+3,
or eight. The ancient Romans likewife ufed 10 for
for500, CIO for 1000, 100 for 5000, CCI00 for
10,000, 100 0 for 50,000, and CCCIOOO for
100,000. Farther than this, as Pliny obferves, they
did not go in their notation; but, when neceffary', re¬
peated the laft number, as CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO,
for 200,000; CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO,
for 300,000; and fo on.
The ancients fometimes changed i into a; as
ducumus for deeimus; maxmius for maximtn, &c.
— According to Plato, the vowel i is proper to
exprefs delicate but humble things, as in this verfe
in Virgil, which abounds in i’s, and is generally
admired:
Accipiunt inimicum imbrem, rimifque fatifcunt.
I, ufed as an abbreviature, is often fubftituted
for the whole word Jesus, of which it is the firft
letter.
JABES-GALAAD, or Jabesh-Gilead, (anc.
geogr.) a city of Judsea, lying beyond the river Jor¬
dan, called Jabifus and Jabijfa by Jofephus; the me¬
tropolis of Gilead. In Jerome’s time, a village on an
eminence, fix miles from Pella.
JABLONSKI (Daniel Erneft), a learned Poli/h
Proteftant divine, born at Dantzick in 1660. He
became fuccefiively minifter of Magdeburg, Liffa, Ko-
ningfberg, and Berlin; and was at length ecclefiaftical
counfellor, and prefident of the academy of fciences at
the latter. He took great pains to effedt an union
between the Lutherans and Calvinifts; and wrote fome
works which are in good efteem, particularly Medita¬
tions on the origin of the Scriptures, &c. He died
in 1 741.
Jablonski (Theodore), counfellor of the court of
Pruffia, and fecretary of the royal academy of fciences
at Berlin, was alfo a man of diftinguifhed merit. He
loved the fciences, and did them honour, without that
ambition which is generally feen in men of learning:
it was owing to this modefty that the greateft part of
his works were publiftied without his name. He
publilhed in 1711,3 French and German di&ionary;
a Courfe of Morality, in 1713; a Didlionary of Arts
and Sciences, in 1721; and tranflated Tacitus de mo-
ribus Germanorum into High Dutch, in 1724.
2 r R 2 JABNE,
Jabne
II
Jackfon
JAB [ 3808 1 J A C
JABNE (anc. geogr,), a town of Paleftine, near
Joppa; called J amnia or Jamnial, by the Greeks and
Romans. In Jolhua xv. it feems to be called Jabrieel;
but in 2 Chron. xxvi. Jabne. It was taken from the
Philiftines by Uzziah, who demolilhed its fortifications.
Its port, called Jamnitarum portus, lay between Joppa
and Azof us.
JABOK (anc, geogr.), a river of the Persea, the
north boundary of the Amorites, running with an
oblique courfe from the eaft into the river Jordan.
jACCA, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Arragon, with abilhop’s fee, and a fort; feated
on a river of the fame name, among the mountains of
J.tcca, which are part of the Pyrenees. W. Long. o. 19.
N. Lat. 44. 22.
JACK, in mechanics, a well-known inftrument of
common ufe for raifing great weights of any kind.
The common kitchen-jack is a compound engine,
where the weight is the power applied to overcome
the fri&ion of the parts and the weight with which
the fpit is charged ; and a fteady and uniform motion
is obtained by means of the fly.
Jack, in the fea-language, a fort of flag or colours,
difplayed from a maft ere&ed on the outer end of a
Ihip’s bowfprit. In the Britifli navy the jack is no¬
thing more than a fmali union flag, compofed of the
interfeftion of the red and white erodes ; but in mer-
chant-fliips this union is bordered with a red field.
See the article Union.
jACK-i7/^, in a fltip, that hoifted up at the fprit-
•fail top-matt head.
Jack-Z)<zw, the Englilh name of a fpecies of cor-
vus. SeeCoRVUS.
This bird is very mifehievous to the farmer and
gardener; and is of fuch a thievifli difpofition, that
he will carry away much more than he can make ufe
of. There is a method of deftroying them by a kind
of fprings much ufed in England ; and is fo ufeful,
that it ought to be made univerfal.—A flake of about
five feet long is to be driven firmly into the ground,
and made fo fall that it cannot move, and fo iharp in
the point that the bird cannot fettle upon it. With¬
in a foot of the top there muft be a hole bored thro’
it, of three quarters of an inch diameter ; through
this hole is to be put a flick of about eight inches
long ; then a horfe-hair fpringe or noofe is to be made
faft to a thin hazel-wand, and this brought up to the
place where the Ihort flick is placed, and carried with
it through the hole, the remainder being left open
under that flick. The other end of the hazel rod is
to be put through a hole in the flake near the ground,
and fattened there. The flake is to be planted among
the jack-daw’s food, and he will naturally be led to
fettle on it; but finding the point too (harp, he will
defeend to the little crofs flick. This will fink with
his weight, and the fpringe will receive his leg, and
hold him faft.
JACKALL, in zoology. See Canjs.
JACKSON (Thomas), an eminent Englifh divine,
was born at Witton in the bifliopric of Durham in
1579, of a good family. He commenced doctor of
divinity at Oxford in 1622; and at laft was made
chaplain in ordinary, prebendary of Winchetter, and
dean of Peterborough. He was a very great fcholar;
and died in 1640. His performance upon the Creed,
is a learned and valuable piece; which, with his other
works, was publiihed in 1673.
JACOB (Ben Hajim), a rabbi famous for the
collection of the Maforah'in 1525 ; together with the
text of the bible, the Chaldaic paraphrafe, and Rab¬
binical commentaries.
Jacob (Ben Naphthali), a famous rabbi of the 5th
century 4 he was one of the principal mafforets, and
bred at the fchool of Tiberias in Paleftine with Ben
Afer, another principal maflbret. The invention of
points in Hebrew to ferve for vowels, and of accents
to facilitate the reading of that language, are aferibed
to thefe two rabbis; and faid to be done in an affem-
bly of the Jews held at Tiberias, A. D. 476.
Jacob (Giles), an eminent law-writer, born at
Romfey in the county of Southampton, in 1686. He
was bted,under a confiderable attorney ; and is prin*
cipally known for his La<w Dittionary in one vol.
folio, which has^ been often printed ; a new and im¬
proved edition having been lately given by counfellors
Ruffhead and Morgan. Mr Jacob alfo wrote two
dramatic pieces; and a Poetical Rcgifter, containing
the lives and chara&ers of Englifh dramatic poets.
The time of his death is not known.
JACOBiEUS (Oliger), a celebrated profeflbr of
phyfic and philofophy at Copenhagen, was born in
1651 at Arhufen in the peninfula of Jutland, where
his father was bifhop. Chriftian V. intrufted him
with the management of his grand cabinet of curio-
fities ; and Frederic IV. in 1698, made him coun-
feller of his court of juftice. He wrote many medical
works, and fome excellent poems.
JACOBINE Monks, the fame with Dominicans.
JACOBITES, a term of reproach beftewedon the
perfons who, vindicating the do&rines of paflive obe¬
dience and non-refiftance with refpedl to the arbitrary
proceedings of princes, difavow the revolution in 1688,
and affert the fuppofed rights and adhere to the in-
terefts of the late abdicated king James and his fa¬
mily.
Jacobites, in church-hiftory, a fe£I of Chriftians
in Syria and Mefopotamia ; fo called, either from Ja¬
cob a Syrian who lived in the reign of the emperor
Mauritius, or from one Jacob a monk who flourifhed
in the year 550.
The Jacobites are of two fe&s, fome following the
rites of the Latin church, and others continuing fe-
parated from the church of Rome. There is alfo a
divifion among the latter, who have two rival patri¬
archs. As to their belief, they hold but one nature
in Jefus Chrift ; with refpeft to purgatory and prayers
for the dead, they are of the fame opinion with the
Greeks and other eaftern Chriftians : they confecrate
unleavened bread at the eucharift, and are againft
confeflion, believing that it is not of divine inftitu-
tion.
JACOBUS, a gold coin, worth 25 (hillings; fo
called from king James the firft of England, in whofe
reign it was ftruck. See Coin.
We ufually diftinguifh two kinds of Jacobus, the
old and the new; the former valued at 25 (hillings,
weighing fix pennyweight ten grains: the latter,
called alfo Carolus, valued at 23 (hillings; in weight
five pennyweight twenty grains.
JAQUELOT. See Ja^uelot.
Jacob
Jaquelo
JAG [ 3809 ] J A L
Jaculator JACULATOR,or shooting-fish. See Chjetodon.
II JAFFA, the modern name of the city of Joppa in
I J3g°- Judsa.
Ji\FNAPATAN, a fea-port town, feated at the
north-eaft end of the ifland of Ceylon in the Eaft In¬
dies. The Dutch took it from the Portuguefe in
1658, and have continued in the pofleffion of it fince
that time. They export from thence grea-t, quantities
of tobacco, and feme elephants, which are accounted
the moft docile of any in the whole world. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 9. 30.
JAGENDORF, a town and caftle of Silefia, ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name, feated on the ri¬
ver Oppa. E. Long. 17. 47. N. Lat. 50. 4.
St JAGO, a large river of South America, which
rifes in the audience of Quito and Peru. It is navi¬
gable ; and falls into the South Sea, after having wa¬
tered a fertile country abounding in cotton-trees, and
inhabited by wild Americans.
St Jago, the largeft, moft populous and fertile of
the Cape Verd iflands on the coaft of Africa, and the
refidence of the Portuguefe viceroy. It lies about
13 miles eaftward from the ifland of Mayo, and a-
bounds with high barren mountains ; but the air, in
the rainy feafon, is very unwholefome to ftrangers. Its
produce is fugar, cotton, wine, and fome excellent
fruits. The animals are black cattle, horfes, afles,
deer, goats, hogs, civet-cats, and fome very pretty
green monkeys with black faces.
St Jago, a handfome and confiderable town of
South America, the capital of Chili, with a good
harbour, a bifhop’s fee, and a royal audience. It is
feated in a large and beautiful plain, abounding with
all the neceffaries of life, at the foot of the Cordilleras,
on the river Mapocho, which runs acrofs it from eaft
to weft. Here are feveral canals and a dyke, by
means of which they water the gardens and cool the
ftreets.—It is very much fubjedl to earthquakes. W.
Long. 69. 35. S. Lat. 33. 40.
St Jago de Cuba, a town of North America, fitu-
ated on the fouthern coaft of the ifland of Cuba in the
bottom of a bay with a good harbour, and on a river
of the fame name. W. Long. 76. 44. N. Lat. 20. o.
Jago de los Cavalleros, a town of America, and
one of the principal of the ifland of Hifpaniola.
It is feated on the river Yague, in a fertile foil, but
bad air. W. Long. 70. 5. N. Lat. 19- 40.
St Jago del Entero, a town of South America,
one of the moft confiderable of Tucuman, and the
nfual refidence of the inquifitor of the province. It
is feated on a large river, in a flat country, where
there is game, tygers, guanacos, commonly called
camel-Jheep, &c.
Jago de la Vega, otherwife called Spanijh-t&vmi
is the capital of the ifland of Jamaica, in America,
where the aflembly and the grand courts of juftice are
held. It is feated in a fine pleafant valley, on the
banks of the Rio Cobre. It was once a large, popu¬
lous place, containing 2000 houfes, two churches, a
monaftery, and feveral private chapels; but it is now
reduced to a fmall compafs, and has only one fine
church, and a chapel, with about 500 inhabitants-
Being an inland place, its trade is fmarfl ; but feveral
wealthy merchants and gentlemen refide there,- living
in a gay manner. There are a great number of
coaches; and they have lately got a playhoufe, with Jaqnar
good a&ors. It is feated near the fouth-eaft part of
the ifland, in W. Long. 76. 45. N. Lat. 18. 20. •**ap'
JAQUAR, a name given to the Brafilian once, a
fpecies of Felis.— It grows to the fize of a wolf: its
hair of a bright tawny colour ; the. bread and belly
whitifh ; the tail fhorter than the body, the upper
part deep tawny, marked irregularly with black fpots.
It inhabits the hotteft parts of South America from
the Ifthmus of Darien to Buenos Ayres; is fierce,
and deftrudlive to man and beaft. Like the tiger, it
plunges its head into the body of its. prey, and fucks
out the blood before it devours it; makes a great
noife like the howling of a hungry dog; and is a very
cowardly animal, eafily put to flight either by the
(hepherds dogs or by a lighted torch, being very
fearful of fire. It lies in ambufh near the fides of ri¬
vers.—There is fometimes feen a Angular combat be¬
tween this animal and the crocodile : when the jaquar
comes to drink, the crocodile, ready to furprife any
animal that approaches, raifes its head out of the wa¬
ter ; the former ftrikes its claws into the eyes, the
only penetrable part of this dreadful reptile, who im¬
mediately dives under water, pulling his enemy along
with him, where they commonly both perifti.
JAIL-fever, a very dangerous diftemper of the
contagious kind, arifing from the putrefeent difpofi-
tion of the blood and juices. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
JALAP, in botany and the materia medica, the
root of a fpecies of convolvulus or bind-weed. See
Convolvulus.
This root is brought to ns in thin tranfverfe flices
from Xalapa, a province of New Spain. Such pieces
fhould be chofen as are moft compaft, hard, weighty,
dark-coloured, and abound moft with circular ttriae.
Slices of bryony root are faid to be fometimes mixed
with jalap ; but thefe may be eafily diftinguifhed by
their whiter colour and lefs compact texture. Jalap
has no fmell, and very little tafte upon the tongue;
but when fwallowed it affe&s the throat with a fenfe
of heat, and occafion&a plentiful difeharge of faliva.—
Taken in fubftance in a. dofe of about half a dram,
(lefs or more according to the circumftanccs of the
patient), in plethoric or cold phlegmatic habits, it
proves an effe&ual and in general a fafe purgative,
performing its office mildly, feldom occafioning nau~
fea or gripes which too frequently accompany the
other ftrong cathartics. In hypochondriacal diforders,
and hot bilious habits, it gripes violently if the jalap
is good; but rarely takes due effedl as a purge. An
extradl made by water purges almoft universally, but
weakly ; and at the fame time has a confiderable ef-
fed by urine. The root remaining after thisprocefs,
gripes violently. The pure refin prepared with fpi-
rit of wine occafions moft violent gripings and other
terrible fymptoms, but fcarce proves at all cathartic ;
triturated with fugar, or with almonds into the form of
an emulfion, or diffblved in fpirit and mixed with fyrups,
it purges plentifully in a fmall dofe, without occafion¬
ing much diforder. The part of the jalap remaining
after the reparation of the refin yields to water an ex-
trad which has no effed as a cathartic, but operates
powerfully by urine.—Hoffman particularly cautions
againft giving, jalap to children; and affures us, that it
will i
JAM [ 38
Jamaica, will detlroy appetite, weaken the body, and perhaps
“ occafion even death: but herein he is contradifted by
GeolFry; who obferves, that children whofe veflelsare
lax:, and the food foft and lubricating, bearthefe kinds
of medicines better than adults.—Certain it is, how¬
ever, that jalap, when given to children, mod fre¬
quently proves emetic as well as cathartic.
JAMAICA, an ifland of the Well Indies, the larged
of the Antilles, lying between 170 and 190 N. Lat. and
between 76° and 790 W. Long.; in length near 170
miles, and about 60 in breadth. It approaches in its
figure to an oval. The windward paflage right before
it hath the illand of Cuba on the wed, and Hifpaniola
on the ead, and is about 20 leagues in breadth.
This ifland was difeovered by admiral Chridopher
Columbus in his fecond voyage, who landed upon it
May 5. 1494; and was fo much charmed with it, as al¬
ways to prefer it to the red of the iflands; in confe-
quence of which, his fon chofe it for his dukedom. It
was fettled by Juan de Efquivel A. D. 1509, who built
the town, which, from the place of his birth, he called
Seville, and 11 leagues farther to the ead flood Me-
lilla. Oridan w’as on the fouth fide of the ifland, feated
on what is now called Blue Fields River. All thefe
are gone to decay; but St Jago, now Spanifh Town,
is dill the capital. The Spaniards held this country
160 years, and in their time the principal commodity
was cacao ; they had an immenfe flock of horfes, afies,
and mules, and prodigious quantities of cattle. The
Englifli landed here under Penn and Venables, May
it. 1654, and quickly reduced the ifland. Cacao was
alfo their principal commodity till the old trees decay¬
ed, and the new ones did not thrive; and then the
planters from Barbadoes introduced fugar-canes, which
hath been the great Aaple ever fince.
The profpeft of this ifland from the fea, by reafon
of its condant verdure, and many fair and fafe bays, is
wonderfully pkafant. The coaft, and for fome miles
within, the land is low; but removing farther, it rifes
and becomes hilly. The whole ifle is divided by a
ridge of mountains running ead and wed, fome rifing
to a great height: and thefe are compofed of rock, and
a very hard clay; through which, however, the rains
that fall inceflantly upon them, have worn long and
deep cavities, which they ca\\ gullies. Thefe moun¬
tains, however, are far from being unpleafant, as they
are crowned even to their fummits by a variety of fine
trees. There are alfo about a hundred rivers that iffue
from them on both fides ; and, though none of them
are navigable for any thing but canoes, are both plea-
fing and profitable in many other refpedts. The cli¬
mate, like that of all countries between the tropics, is
very warm towards the fea, and in marfliy places un¬
healthy ; but in more elevated fituations, cooler; and,
where people live temperately, to the full as wholefome
as in any part of the Wed Indies. The rains fall hea ¬
vy for about a fortnight in the months of May and
October; and as they are the caufe of fertility, are fly led
feafons. Thunder is pretty frequent, and fometimes
fhowers of hail: but ice or fnow, except on the tops of
the mountains, are never feen ; but on them, and at no
very great height, the air is exceedingly cold.
The mod eadern parts of this ridge are famous un¬
der the name of the Blue Mountains. This great
chain of rugged rocks defends the fouth fide of the
1
JAM
ifland from thofe boiderous north-wed winds, which Jamaica,
might be fatal to their produce. Their dreams, tho’—'
fmall, fupply the inhabitants with good water, which
is a great blefling, as their wells are generally brackifh.
The Spaniards were perfuaded that thefe hills abounded
with metals: but we do not find that they wrought any
mines; or if they did, it was only copper, of which they
faid the bells in the church of St Jago were made.
They have feveral hot fprings, which have done great
cures. The climate was certainly more temperate be¬
fore the great earthquake; and the ifland was fuppofed
to be out of the reach of hurricanes, which fince then
it hath feverely felt. The heat, however, is very much
tempered by land and fea breezes; and it is aflerted,
that the hotted time of the day is about eight in the
morning. In the night, the wind blows from the land
on all fides, fo that no fhipscan then enter their ports.
In an ifland fo large as this, which contains above
five millions of acres, it may be very reafonably con¬
ceived that there are great variety of foils. Some of
thefe are deep, black, and rich, and mixed with a kind
of potter’s earth; others fhallow and fandy ; and fome of
a middle nature. There are many favannahs, or wide
plains, without flones, in which the native Indians had
luxuriant crops of maize, which the Spaniards turned
into meadows, and kept in them prodigious herds of
cattle. Some of thefe favannahs are to be met with
even amongd the mountains. All thefe different foils
may be juftly pronounced fertile, as they would cer¬
tainly be found, if tolerably cultivated, and applied to
proper purpofes. A fufficient proof of this will arife
from a very curfory review of the natural and artificial
produce of this fpadous country.
It abounds in maize, pulfe, vegetables of all kinds,
meadows of fine grafs, a variety of beautiful flowers,
and as great a variety of oranges, lemons, citrons, and
other rich fruits. Ufeful animals there are of all forts,
horfes, affes, mules, black cattle ofalarge fize,and flteep,
the flefh of which is well taded, though their wool is
hairy and bad. Here are alfo goats and hogs in great
plenty ; fea and river fifli 5 wild, tame, and water fowl.
Amongd other commodities of great value, they have
the fugar-cane, cacao, indigo, pimento, cotton, ginger,
and coffee ; trees for timber and other ufes, fuch as
mahogany, manchineel, white wood, which no worm
will touch, cedar, olives, and many more. Befides
thefe, they have fudick, red wood, and various other
materials for dyeing. To thefc we may add a multi¬
tude of valuable drugs, fuch as guaiacum,' china, farfa-
parilla, caflia, tamarinds, vanellas, and the prickle-pear
or opuntia, which produces the cochineal; with no in-
confiderable number of odoriferous gums. Near the
coad they have falt-ponds, with which they fupply
their own confumption, and might make any quantity
they pleafed.
As this ifland abounds with rich commodities, it is
happy likewife in having a number of fine and fafe
ports. Point Morant, the eadern extremity of the
ifland, hath a fair and commodious bay. Faffing on
to the fouth, there is Port Royal: on a neck of land
which forms one fide of it, there flood once the faired
town in the ifland; and the harbour is as fine a one as
can be wifhed, capable of holding a thoufand large
veffels, and dill the ffation of our fquadron. Old
Harbour is alfo a convenient port, fo is Maccary Bay;
and
JAM [ 38
and there are at lead twelve more, between this and
the weftern extremity, which is Point Negrillo, where
our ihips of war lie when there is a war with Spain.
On the north fide there is Orange Bay, Cold Harbour,
Rio Novo, Montego Bay, Port Antonio one of the
fined in the ifiand, and 1'everal others. The north-
wed winds, which fometimes blow furioufly on this
coad, render the country on that fide lefs fit for canes,
but pimento thrives wonderfully; and certainly many
other daples might be raifed in fmall plantations, which
are frequent in Barbadoes, and might be very advan-
tageous' here in many refpe&s.
The town of Port Royal dood on a point of land
running far out into the fea, narrow, fandy, and inca¬
pable of producing any thing. Yet the excellence of
the port, the convenience of having drips of feven hun¬
dred tons coming clofe up to their wharfs, and other
advantages, gradually attrafted inhabitants in fuch a
manner, that though many of their habitations were
built on piles, there were near two thoufand houfes in
the town in its mod flouridling date, and which let at
high rents. The earthquake by which it was over¬
thrown happened on the 7th of June 1692, and num¬
bers of people perifhed in it. This earthquake was
followed by an epidemic difeafe, of which upwards of
three thoufand died : yet the place was rebuilt; but the
greated part was reduced to allies by a fire that hap¬
pened on the 9th of January 1703, and then the inha¬
bitants removed modly to Kingdon. It was, however,
rebuilt for the third time; and was rifing towards its
former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the fea,
Augud 20. 1722. There is, notwithdanding, a final!
town there at this day. Hurricanes fince that time
have often happened, and occafioned terrible devada-
tions; yet they have been lefs frequent and lefs vio¬
lent of late years, and the climate is alfo faid to be al¬
tered for the better.
In fo large an ifland as this, it might be expe&ed
there Ihould be a confiderable number of great towns;
which, however, there is not. The reafon of this is very
obvious ; for the wealth of the inhabitants arifing from
their plantations, of which there are at prefent about
five hundred, and each of thefe containing fome hun¬
dreds of inhabitants, it appears from hence that every
plantation forms a village, and accounts fufficiently for
the difpofal of the greated part of the inhabitants.
There are however feme few towns; the larged of
which is Kingdon, which bands on the harbour of
Port Royal, contains about t6oo houfes, and is very
populous. St Jago de la Vega, or, as it is ufirally
called, Spdnijh Town, is properly the capital of the
ifland, being the refidence of the governor, the place
where the affembly meets, aad^is alfo the feat of the
principal courts of judice.
The adminidration of public affairs is by a gover¬
nor and council of royal appointment, and the repre-
fentatives of the people in the lower houfe of affembly.
They meet at Spanifli Town, and things are conduced
with great order and dignity. The colony hath a
confiderable public revenue; of which the quit-rents,,
by a grant of the crown, make a part. Another
branch arifes from a tax or fine laid upon fuch as keep
fewer than three white to 100 black fervants. This
is preferring the eafe to the fecurity of the communi¬
ty, in.refpeft, to which it would have operated much
n ] JAM
more beneficially as a regulation. The ifiand is di¬
vided into three counties, Middldfex, Surry, and Corn¬
wall, containing 19 paridies, over each of which pre- _
fides a magillrate ityled a cujios, but thefe parifhes in
point of fize are a kind kind of hundreds. Yet is this
fine country, upon the whole, but thinly peopled, and
indifferently cultivated ; for though near a fourth part
of the lands are patented, yet not above a ninth part
is actually under cultivation. The commerce of Ja¬
maica is very confiderable, not only with all parts of
Great Britain and Ireland, but with Africa, North
and South America, the Wed India iflands, and the
Spanifh main, for the encouragement of which a late
adt was paffed. The (hips annually employed are up¬
wards of 500 fail. The number of inhabitants is very
uncertain; fome fay about 30,000 or perhaps more
whites, and about 170,000 negroes.
The following account of the exports of this ifland,
in 1770, will.contribute more than all that hath been
faid, to (hew the importance of Jamaica. They con¬
fided in 2249 bales of cotton, which at 10 pounds
per bale, the price in the ifland, amounts to 22,490!.;
1873 hundred weight of coffee, at three pounds five
fliillings pet hundred, 6088I. ; 2753 bags of ginger,
at two pounds five (hillings per bag, 6194I. ; 2211
hides, at feven (hillings per hide, 773 1.; 15,796 hog-
(heads of rum, at ten pounds per hoglhead, 157,960!.
To Ireland, 679 hogdieads, at ten pounds per hogfhead,
6790I. Mahogany, 15,282 pieces, and 8500 feet,
50,000!. Of pimento, 2,089,734 pounds weight,
52,243!. Sugar, 57,675 hogffieads, 6425 tierces,
52 barrels, at feventeen pounds ten (hillings per hogf¬
head, twelve pounds per tierce, and four pounds per
barrel, amounting in the whole to 1,086,620!. Sarfa-
parilla, 205 bags, at ten pounds per bag, 2250I.
Exports to Great Britain and Ireland 1,391,2101.
To North America, 146,324!. To the other iflands,
595 1. Total of the exports, 1,538,730!.
JAMBI, or Jambis, a fea-port town and fmall
kingdom of Afia, on the eaftern coaft of the ifland of
Sumatra. It is a trading place. The Dutch have a
fort here ; and export pepper from thence, with the
beft fort of canes. E. Long. 103. 55. S. Lat. o. 30.
IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a • fort of verfe, fo
called from its confifling either wholly, or in great
part, of iambus’s. ' See Iambus.
Ruddiman makes two kinds of iambic, viz. dime¬
ter and trimeter; the former containing four feet, and
the latter fix. And as to the variety of their feet, they
confift wholly of iambus’s, as in the two following ver-
fes of Horace:
1 , 2 3 4 56
Dim. Inar\fit a \fuo\ft us \
Trim. Suis | <6' i\pfa Ro\ma vi\ribus\ruit.
Or, a daftylus,. fpondeus, anapeftus, and fome¬
times tribrachys, obtain in the odd places ; and the tni-
btachys alfo in the even places, excepting the laft.
Examples of all which may be feen in Horace ; as,
Dimeter.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Canidi\a tra\<r}avit\dapes\
Vide\re prope\rantes domum\
Trimeter.
£>ub qub\fccle\JU rui\tis aut\cur dex\teris.
Prius\que cteVumfi\det in\ferius\mari.
Jamaica
ft
lambic.
Jlitir
Jamblicus
II '
Jam«.
JAM [ 3812 ] JAM
Alitl\bus at\que cani\bus homi\cid'He\ttorem. the year 62. His life was fo holy, thatjofephuscon-
Pavidum\que lepoY’ aut ad\venam laqueo\gntem. fiders the ruin of Jerufalem as a punilhment inflifted”
JAMBLICUS, the name of two celebrated Plato- on that city for his death. He was the author of the
nic philofophers, one of whom was of Colchis, and the epiftle which bears his name.
other of Apamea in Syria. The firft, whom Julian James, the name of feveral kings of Scotland
equals to Plato, was the difciple of Anatolius and and of Great Britain. See {Hiftories of) Scotland
Porphy.ry, and died under the reign of the emperor and Britain.
Conllantine.-—The'fecond alfo enjoyed great reputa- James I. king of Scotland in 1423, the firft of the
tion. Julian wrote feveral letters to him, and it is houfe of StuSrt, was taken prifoner by the Englifh
faid he was poifoned under the reign of Valens.— It is in 1406, who were at war with Robert III. his fa-
not known to which of the two we ought to attribute ther; and remained fo till 1424, when he was fet at
the works we have in Greek under the name of Jam- liberty by John duke of Bedford regent of England
blicus, viz. 1. The hiilory of the life of Pythagoras, during the minority of Henry VI. In 1437, this un-
and the feft ofihe Pythagoreans. 2. An exhortation fortunate prince was afiaffinated in his bed by the re-
to the ftudy of philofophy. 3. A piece againft Por- lations of thofe whom he had punifhed for mal-admi-
phyry’s letter on the myfteries of the Egyptians. niftration during his imprifonment.
IAMBUS, in the Greek and Latin profody, a James II. king of Scotland, 1437, fucceeded his
poetical foot, confifting of a (hort fyllable followed father, being then but feven years of age ; and was
by it long one; as in ’ killed at the fiege.of Roxburgh in 1460, aged 29.
u. This prince wrote, 1. A panegyric on his queen, be-
©£«, Dei, meas. fore flic was married to him. 2. Scotch fonnets: one
Syllaba longa brevi fubjefta vocatur iambus, as Horace of them, a lamentation while in England, is in ma-
exprefles it; who alfo calls the iambus a fwift, rapid nufcript in the Bodleian library, and beftows great
foot, pes citus.
The word, according to fome, took its rife from 4. On mufic.
Iambus, the fon of Pan and Echo, who invented this
foot; or, perhaps; who only ufed (harp-biting expref-
fions to Ceres, when afflifted for the death of Profer-
James. ji
praifes on Gower and Chaucer. 3. Rythmi Latini,
James III. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father in
460. He was a tyrannical prince; and having irritated
his fubje&s, they rebelled againft him, and he was flain
pine. Others rather derive it from the Greek <©•, ve- by them in battle in 1488, aged 35.
nenum, “ poifon ;” or from maledico, “ I James IV. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father
rail, or revile;” becaufe the verfes compofed of iam- in 1488. He was a pious and valiant prince; fub-
bus’s were at firft only ufed in fatire. dued his rebellious fubje&s ; and afterwards, taking
JAMES (St.), called^e Great, the fon of Zebe- part with Louis XII. againft Henry VIII. of Eng-
dee, and the brother of John the evangelift, was born land, he was flain in the battle of Flouden-Field in
at Bethfaida, in Galilee. He was called to be an 1513, aged 41.
apollle, together with St John, as they were mending James V. king of Scotland, in 1513, was but 18
their nets with their father Zebedee, who was afiftier- months old when his father loft his life. When of age,
man ; when Chrift gave them the name of Boanerges, he affifted Francis I. king of France, againft the em-
«r Sons of Thunder. They then followed Chrift, were peror Charles le Quint; for which fervice Francis gave
vvitneffes with St Peter of the transfiguration on mount him his eldeft daughter in marriage, in 1535. This
Tabor, and accompanied our Lord in the garden of princefs died in two years; and James married Mary of
olives. It is believed that St James firft preached the Lorraine, daughter of Claud duke of Guife, and
gofpel to the difperfed Jews ; and afterwards returned widow of Louis d'Orleans, by whom he had only one
to Judea, where he preached at Jerufalem, when the child, the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, born on-
Jews raifed up Herod Agrippa againft him, who put ly eight days before his death, which happened De-
him to a cruel death about the year 44. Thus St cember 13. This was the firft prince of his
James was the firft of the apoftles who fuffered martyr- family who died a natural death, fince its elevation to
dom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his ac- the throne. He wrote the celebrated ballad called
cufer was fo (truck with his conftancy, that he became Chriji's Kirk on the Green, and other little poems,
converted and fuffered with him. There is a magni- which, at lead, tradition reports to have been of his
ficent church at Jerufalem which bears the name of St compofitjon. They have a character of eafe and li-
James, and belongs to the Armenians. The Spa- bertinifm, fays Mr Walpole, which makes the tradi-
niards pretend, that they had St James for their a- tion the more probable, and are to be found in a col-
poftle, and boait of poffefiing his body ; but Baronius, le£tion of Scottifh poems called The Evergreen ; the
in his Annals, refutes their pretenfions. Gaber-luinzie Man is reckoned the belt. There is
James (St.), called the Lefs, an apoftle, the brother fomething very ludicrous in the young woman’s diftrefs
of Jude, and the fon of Cleophas and Mary the iifter when (he thought that her firft favour had been thrown
of the mother of our Lord, is called in Scripture the away on a beggar.
Juf, and the brother of Jefus, who appeared to him James I. king of England in 1603, and VI. of Scot-
Jn particular after his refurreftion. He was the firft land in 1567, fon of Mary queen of Scots; whom he
bifliop of Jerufalem, when Ananias II. high prieft of fucceeded in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in Eng-
the Jews, caufed him to be condemned, and delivered land. Strongly attached to the Proteftant religion, he
him into the hands of the people and the Pharifees, fignalizcd himfelf in itsfupport; which gave rife to the
who threw him down from the fteps of the temple, horrid confpiracy of the Papifts to deftroy him and all
when a fuller dallied out his brains with a club, about the Englilh nobility by the Gunpowder Plot, difco-
vered
JAM [ 38
vered November 5. 1605. The following year, a po¬
litical teft of loyalty was required, which fecured the
king’s perfon, by clearing the kingdom of thofe dif-
affe&ed Roman-Catholic fubjefts who would not fub-
mit to it. The chief glory of this king’s reign con-
fifted in the eftablifhment of new colonies, and the in-
trodufh’on of feme manufactures. The nation enjoy¬
ed peace, and commerce flouriflied during his reign.
Yet his adminiftration was defpifed both at home and
abroad : for, being the head of the Proteflant caufe in
Europe, he did not fupport it in that great crifis, the
war of Bohemia; abandoning his fon-in-law the eleftor
Palatine ; negotiating when he fhould have fought,
deceived at the fame time by the courts of Vienna and
Madrid ; continually fending illuftrious ambafladors to
foreign powers, but never making a tingle ally. He
valued himfelf much upon his polemical writings; and
fo fond was he of theological difputations, that to
keep them alive, he founded, for this exprefs purpofe,
Chelfea-college ; which was converted to a much bet¬
ter ufe by Charles II. His Baftlicon Doro?i, Com¬
mentary on the Revelation, writings againft Bellar-
mine, and his Damonologia, or dodtrine of witchcraft,
are fufficiently known. There is a colleCIion of his
writings and fpeeches in one folio volume. Several o-
ther pieces of his are extant; fome of them in the Ca-
balla, others in manufeript in the Britith Mufeum, and
others in Howard’s colle&ion. He died in 1625, in
the 59th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.
James II. king of England, Scotland, &c. 1685,
grandfon of James I. fucceeded his brother Char. II.
It is remarkable, that this prince wanted neither cou¬
rage nor political abilities whilft he was duke of York;
on the contrary, he was eminent for both : but when
he afeended the throne, he was no longer the fame
man. A bigot from his infancy to the Romilh reli¬
gion and td its hierarchy, he facrificed every thing
to eftablifh them, in direft contradiftion to the expe¬
rience he had acquired, during the long reign of his
brother, of the genius and charafter of the people he
was to govern. Guided by the jefuit Peters his con-
fefibr, and the infamous chancellor Jeffries, he violated
every law enafted for the fecurity of the Proteftant re¬
ligion ; and then, unable to face the refentmentof his
injured fubje&s, he fled like a coward, inftead of dif¬
arming their rage by a difmifiion of his Popifh mini-
fters and priefts. He rather chofe to live and die a bi¬
got, or, as he believed, a faint, than to fupport the
dignity of his anceftors, or pefifli beneath the ruins of
his throne. The confequence was the revolution in
1689. James II. died in France in 1710, aged 68.
He wrote Memoirs of his own life and campaigns to
the reftoration ; the original of which is preferved in
the Scotch college, at Paris. This piece is printed
at the endof Ramfay’slifeofMarfhalTurenne. 2. Me¬
moirs of the Englilh affairs, chiefly naval, from the
year 1660 to 1673. 3. The royal fufferer, king
James II. confifling of meditations, foliloquks, vows,
&c. faid to be compofed by his majefty at St Ger¬
mains. 4. Three letters; which were publifhed by
William Fuller, gent, in 1702, with other papers re¬
lating to the court of St Germains, and are faid in
the iitle-page to be printed by command.
James (Thomas), a learned Englifli critic and di¬
vine, born about the year 1571. He recommended
Vol. V.
>3 ] jam
himfelf to the office of keeper of the public library at
Oxford, by the arduous undertaking of publifhing a '
catalogue of the MSS in each college-library at both
univerfities. He was eletted to this office in 1602, and
held it 18 years, when he refigned it to profecute his
(Indies with more freedom. In the convocation held
with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, of which he
was a member, he moved to have proper commiffion-
ers appointed to collate the MSS. of the fathers in all
the libraries in England, with the Popifli editions, in
order to deleft the forgeries in the latter ; but this
propofal not meeting with the defired encouragement,
he engaged in the laborious talk himfelf, which he
continued until his death in 1629. He left behind
him a great number of learned works.
James (Richard), nephew of the former, entered
into orders in 1615 : but, being a man of humour, of
three fermons preached before the univerfity, one con¬
cerning the obfervation of Lent was without a text,
according to the mod ancient manner; another againft
the text; and the third befide it. About the year
1619, he travelled through Wales, Scotland, Shet¬
land, into Greenland, and Ruffia, of which he wrote
obfervations. He affifted Selden in compofing his
Marmora Arundeliana ; and was very ferviceable to
Sir Robert Cotton, and his fon Sir Thomas, in dif-
pofing and fettling their noble library. He died in
1638 ; and has an extraordinary charafter given him
by Wood for learning and abilities.
Knights of St James, a military order in Spain,
firft inftituted about the year 1170 by Ferdinand II.
king of Leon and Galicia. The greateft dignity-
belonging to this order is that of Grand Mafter,
which has been united to the crown of Spain. The
knights are obliged to make proof of their defeent
from families that have been noble, for four genera¬
tions, on both fides; they muft likew'ife make it ap¬
pear, that their faid anceftors have neither been Jews,
heretics, nor Saracens ; nor have ever been called into
queftion by the inquifition. The novices are obliged
to ferve fix months in the galleys, and to live a month
in a monaftery ; they obferve the rules of St Auftin,
making no vows but of poverty, obedience, and conju¬
gal fidelity.
James’/ Powder, an antimonial medicine, fome-
what of the nature of tartar emetic, prepared by the
late Dr Robert James, phyfician in London, who died
on the 23d of March 1776. His powder was found
to be of confiderable efficacy in fome kinds of (fevers;
fo that it is much to be regretted, that the inventor
thought proper to conceal his method of preparing it
even till his death.
James-7c/w«, in North America, was once the ca¬
pital of Virginia, but now Williamlburg claims that
honour. It is feated on a peninfula on the north fide
of James river; and confifts of about 80 houfes, chiefly
for the entertainment of feafaring men; for the feat of
the government, and the courts of juftice, have been
removed to Williamfburg, which is feven miles north
of it. W. Long. 77. 30. N. Lat. 37. O.
St James’/ Day, a feftival of the Chrifiian church,
obferved on the 25 th of July, in honour of St James
the greater, fon of Zebedee.
Epijlle of St James, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being the firft of the catholic or general
2t S epiftles;
James,
JAN [ 3814 ] JAN
j'amefonc epiftles ; which are fo called, as not being written to
. il one but to feveral Chriftian churches.
JamcBlum. generai epift]e is addreffed partly to the belie¬
ving and partly to the infidel Jews ; and is defigned to
correft the errors, foften the ungoverned zeal, and re¬
form the indecent behaviour of the latter; and to com¬
fort the former under the great hardlhips they then did,
or fhortly were to fuffer, for the fake of Chriftianity.
JAMESONE (George), an excellent painter, jutt-
Jy termed the Vandyke of Scotland, was the fon of An¬
drew Jamefone, an architedt; and was born at Aber¬
deen, in 1586. He ftudied under Rubens, at Ant¬
werp ; and, after his return, applied with indefatigable
induftry to portraits in oil, though he fometimes prac-
tifed in miniature, and alfo in hiftory and landfcapes.
His largell portraits were fomewhat lefs than life.
His earlieft works are chiefly on board, afterwards on
a fine linen cloth fmoothly primed with a proper tone
to help the harmony of his fhadows. His excellence
is faid to confift in delicacy and foftnefs, with a clear
and beautiful colouring ; his {hades not charged, but
helped by varnifh, with little appearance of the pencil.
When king Charles I. vifited Scotland in 1633, the
magiftrates of Edinburgh, knowing his majefty’s taltc,
employed this artill; to make drawings of the Scottifli
monarchs ; with which the king was fo pleafcd, that,
inquiring for the painter, he fat to him, and reward¬
ed him with a diamond-ring from his own finger. It
is obfervable, that Jamefone always drew himfelf with
his hat on, either in imitation of his mafter Rubens,
or on having been indulged in that liberty by the king
when he fat to him. Many of Jamefone’s works are
in both the colleges of Aberdeen ; and the Sybils there
he is faid to have drawn from living beauties in that
city. His beft works are from the year 1630 to his
death, which happened at Edinburgh in 1644.
JAMYN (Amadis), a celebrated French poet in
the 16th century. He is efteemed the rival of Ron-
fard, who was his cotemporary and friend. He was
fecretary and chamber-reader in ordinary to Char. IX.
and died about 1585. He wrote, 1. Poetical works,
2 vols. 2. Philofophical difcourfes to Paficharis and
Rodanthe, with feven academical difcourfes. 3. A
tranflation of the Iliad of Homer, begun by Hugh
Sabel, and finifhed by Jamyn ; with a tranflation into
French verfe of the three firft books of the Odyfley.
JANEIRO, a province of Brafil in South Ameri¬
ca, feated between the tropic of Capricorn, and 22°
of S. Lat. It is bounded on the north by the province
of Spirito San&o, on the eaft and fouth by the At¬
lantic Ocean, and on the well by the mountains
which feparate it from Guiara, in Spanifli Ameri¬
ca. This is the moll valuable province which the
Portuguefe are mailers of; for they import from
thence yearly great quantities of gold and precious
ftones, which they find in the mountains to a prodi¬
gious value.
JANICULUM, or Janicularis, a hill of Rome,
added by Ancus Martius ; the burial-place of Numa,
and of Statius Caeciliusthe poet: to the call and fouth,
having the Tiber ; to the weft, the fields; to the
north, a part of the Vatican. So called, either from
pn ancient city, (Virgil); or becaufe it was a janua,
or gate, from which to iffue out and make incurfions
®n the Tufcans, (Verrius Flaccus.) Now called Akaj-
Aureus, corruptly Montorius, from its fparkling fands. Janlzariraf
From this bill, on account of its height, is the moll :
extenfive profpedt of Rome : but it is lefs inhabited,
becaufe of its grofs air ; neither is it reckoned among
the feven hills. Hither the people retired, and were
hence afterwards recalled by Q^Hortenfius the dicta¬
tor, (Pliny.)
JANIZARIES, an order of infantry in the Turkilh
armies; reputed the grand feignior’s foot-guards.
Voflius derives the word from genizers, which in the
Turkifti language fignifies novi homines or milites.
D’Herbelot tells us, that jenitcheri fignifies a new
land, or troop ; and that the name was firft given by
Amurath I. called the Conqueror, who choofing out
one fifth part of the Chriftian prifoners whom he had
taken from the Greeks, and inftru&ing them in the
difcipline of war and the doCtrines of their religion,
fent them to Hagi Bektafche (a perfon whofe pretend¬
ed piety rendered him extremely revered among the
Turks), to the end that he might confer his blefiing
on them, and at the fame time give them fome mark
to dirtinguilh them from the reft of the troops.—Bek¬
tafche, after blefiing them in his manner, cut off one
of the fleeves of the fur-gown which he had on, and
put it on the head of the leader of this new militia;
from which time, viz. the year of Chrift 1361,
they have Hill retained the name jenitcheri, and the
fur-cap.
As, in the Turkifli army, the European troops are
diftinguifltedfrom thofe of Afia ; the janizaries are al¬
fo diftinguifhed into janizaries of Conjlantino-ple, and
of Damafcus. Their pay is from two afpers to twelve
per diem ; for when they have a child, or do any fig-
nal piece of fervice, their pay is augmented. - Their
drefs confifts of a dolyman, or long gown, with fhort
fleeves, which is given them annually by the grand
feignior on the firft day of Ramazan. They wear no
turban; but, in lieu of that, a kind of cap, which they
call zarcola, and a long hood of the fame duff hang¬
ing on their flioulders. On folemn days they are ad¬
orned with feathers, which are ftuck in a little cafe in
the fore-part of the bonnet.—Their arms, in Europe,
in time of war, are a fabre, a carabine or mufquet,
and a cartouch-box hanging on the left fide. At Con-
llantinople, in time of peace, they wear only a long
ftaff in their hand. In Afia, where powder and fire¬
arms are more uncommon, they wear a bow and ar¬
rows, with a poinard, which they call haniare.—
Though the janizaries are not prohibited marriage,
yet they rarely marry, nor then but with the confent
of their officers ; as imagining a married man to make
a worfe foldier than a bachelor.— It was Ofman, or
Ottoman, or, as others will have it, Amurath, who
firft inftituted the order of janizaries. They were at
firft called jaja, that is, footmen, to diftinguifh them
from the other Turks, the troops whereof confided
moftly of cavalry. The number of janizaries is gene¬
rally above 40,000; divided into 162 companies or
chambers called odas, in which they live together at
Conftantinople as in a convent. They are of a fupe-
rior rank to all other foldiers, and are alfo more arro¬
gant and factious, and it is by them that the public
tranquillity is moftly difturbed. The government may
therefore be faid to be in the hands of the janizaries.
They have, however, fome good qualities: they are
em-
JAN [38
iitjanfen, employed to efcort travellers, and efpecially ambaf*
Mfanfeniits. facjors ancl perfons of high rank, on the road ; in which
cafe, they behave with the utmoft zeal and fidelity.
JANSEN (Cornelius), bifhop of Ypres, one of the
inoft learned divines of the 17th century, and princi¬
pal of the fedt called from his name Janfenifts. He
was born in Holland of Catholic parents, and ftudied
at Louvain. Being fent to tranfadt fome bufinefs of
confequence relating to the univerfity, into Spain, the
Catholic king, viewing with a jealous eye the intriguing
policy of France, engaged him to write a book to ex-
pofe the French to the pope as no good Catholics, fince
they made no fcruple of forming alliances with Prote-
ftant ftates. Janfen performed this talk in his Mars
Gallicus; and was rewarded with a mitre, being pro¬
moted to the fee of Ypres in 1635. He had, among
other writings, before this, maintained a controverfy
againft the Proteftants upon the points of grace and
predeftination ; but his Augujlinus was the principal
labour of his life, on which he fpent above 20 years.
See the next article.
JANSENISTS, in church-hiftory, a fe& of the
Roman Catholics in France, who followed the opinions
of Janfenius, bilhop of Ypres, and dodlor of divinity
of the univerfities of Louvain and Douay, in relation
to grace and predeftination.
In the year 1640, the two univerfities juft mention¬
ed, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard
Celfus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Je-
fuits on grace and free-will. This having fet the con¬
troverfy on foot, Janfenius oppofed to the dodtrine of
the Jefuits the fentiments of StfAuguftine ; and wrote
a treatife on grace, which he entitled Auguftinus.
This treatife was attacked by the Jefuits, who accufed
Janfenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opi¬
nions; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of pope Ur¬
ban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatife wrote
by Janfenius : when the partifans of Janfenius gave
out that this bull was fpurious, and compofed by a per-
fon entirely devoted to the jefuits. After the death
of Urban VIII. the affair of Janfenifm began to be
more warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infi¬
nite number of polemical writings concerning grace.
And what occafioned fome mirth, was the titles which
each party gave to their writings : one writer publilh-
ed The torch of St AuguJUne, another found Snuffers
for St Augufine's torch, and father Veron formed A gag
for the Janfenifts, &c. In the year 1650,68 bilhops
of France fubfcribed a letter to pope Innocent X. to
obtain an inquiry into and condemnation of the five
following propofitions, extrafted from Janfenius’s Au¬
guftinus : I. Some of God’s commandments are im-
poffible to be obferved by the righteous, even though
they endeavour with all their power to accomplilh
them. 2. In the ftate of corrupted nature, we are in¬
capable of refilling inward grace. 3. Merit and de¬
merit in a ftate of corrupted nature, does not depend
on a liberty which excludes neceflity, but on a liberty
which excludes conftraint. 4. The Semipelagians ad-
/ mitted the neceffity of an inward preventing grace for
the performance of each particular aft, even for the
beginning of faith ; but they were heretics in main¬
taining that this grace was of fuch a nature, that the
will of man was able either to refill or obey it. It is
Semipelagianifra to fay, that Jefus Chrift died, or Ihed
15 ] J A N
his blood, for all mankind in general. Jam!ar5;,
In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congrega- J3nus-
tion for examining into the difpute in relation to grace.
In this congregation Janfenius was condemned ; and
the bull of condemnation, publilhed in May 1653, fill¬
ed all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and
alarms againft the herefy of the Janfenifts. In the year
1656, pope Alexander VII. ifl'ued out another bull,
in which he condemned the five propofitions of Janfe¬
nius. However, the Janfenifts affirm, that thefe pro¬
pofitions are not to be found in this book ; but that
fome of his enemies having caufed them to be printed
on a Iheet, inferted them in the book, and thereby de¬
ceived the pope. At laft Clement XI. put an end to the
difpute by his conftitution of July 17. 1705; in which,
after having recited the conftitutions of his predecef-
fors in relation to this affair, he declares, “ That in
order to pay a proper obedience to the papal conftitu¬
tions concerning the prefent queftion, it is neceffary to
receive them with a refpeftful filence.” The clergy of
Paris, the fame year, approved and accepted this bull,
and none dared to oppofe it.
This is the famous bull Unigenitus, fo called from
its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei Fi¬
lins, &c. which has occafioned fo much confufion in
France.
JANUARY, in chronology, the firft month of the
year, fo called from Janus, one of the ancient Roman
deities, painted with two faces 5 one whereof was fup-
pofed to look towards the new year, and the other to¬
wards the old.—January was introduced into the year
by Numa Pompilius ; Romulus’s year beginning in the
month of March. The Chriftians heretofore failed on
the firft of January, by way of oppofition to the
fuperftitution of the heathens ; who, in honour of Ja¬
nus, obferved this day with feaftings, dancings, maf-
querades, &c.
JANUS, in heathen worlhip, the firft king of Ita¬
ly, who, it is faid, received Saturn into his dominions,
after his being driven from Arcadia by Jupiter. He
tempered the manners of his fubjefts, and taught them
civility ; and from him they learned to improve the
vine, to fow corn, and to make bread. After his death,
he was adored as a god. Romulus caufed a temple to
be erefted to him, the gates of which were open in
time of war, and Ihut in time of peace. This temple
was Ihut up, for the firft time, in the reign of Numa ;
the fecond, after the firft Punic war ; and thrice under
Auguftus. Nero, Vefpafian, and feveral others, ob¬
ferved the fame ceremony; but we do not find that it
was obferved by the Chriltian emperors.
This deity was thought to prefide over all new un¬
dertakings. Hence, in all facrifices, the firft libations
of wine and wheat were offered to Janus, and all pray¬
ers prefaced with a Ihort addrefs to him. January,
the firft month of the year was dedicated to and
named from him. At this fellival, the Romans offer¬
ed cakes of new meal and fait, with new wine and
frankincenfe. Then the confuls for the new year fo-
lemnly entered on their office, all artificers and tradef-
men began their works, quarrels were laid afide, mu¬
tual prefents were made, and the day concluded with
mirth and joy.
Janus was reprefented with two faces, either to de¬
note his prudence, or that he views at once the pall'
21 S 2 and
Japan‘
Smollet's
Prefenl
State of
oil Na¬
tions.
IAP [ 38
and approaching ye^rs; he had a fceptre in his right
hand, and a key in his left, to fignify his extenfive au¬
thority, and his invention of locks.
Tho’ this is properly a Roman deity, the abbe la
Pluche reprefents it as derived from the Egyptians,
who made known the rifing of the dog-ftar, which o-
pened their folar year, with an image with a key in
its hand, and two faces, one old and the other young,
to tipify the old and new year.
JAPAN, a general name for a great number of
iflands lying between the eaftern coall of Afia and the
weftern one of America, and which all together form a
large and potent empire. They extend from the 30th
to the 41ft degree of latitude, and from the 130th to
the 147th of call longitude.
Were South and North Britain divided by an arm of
the fea, Japan might be moft. aptly compared to Eng¬
land, Scotland, and Ireland, with their refpedive
fmaller iflands, peninfulas, bays, channels, &c. all un¬
der the fame monarch.
The Europeans call the empire but the in¬
habitants Niphon, from the greateil ifland belonging
to it; and the Chinefe Ciphon, probably on account of
its eaftern fituation ; thefe names fignifying, in both
languages, the Bajis or Foundation of the Sun. It
was firft difcovered by the Portuguefe, fome time be¬
twixt the years 1535 and 1548.
Moft of the iflands which compofe it are furrounded
with fuch high craggy mountains, and fuch (hallow
and boifterous feas, that failing about them is extreme¬
ly dangerous; and the creeks and bays are choaked
up with fuch rocks, (helves, and fands, that it looks
as if Providence had defigned it to be a kind of little
world by itfelf. Thefe feas have likewife many dan¬
gerous whirlpools, which are very difficult to pafs at
low water, and will fuck in and fwallow up thelargeft
vefiels, and all that comes within the reach of their
vortex, dafliing them againft the rocks at the bottom ;
infomuch that fome of them are never feen again, and
others thrown upon the furface at fome miles diftance.
Some of thefe whirlpools alfo make a noife terrible to
hear.
The Chinefe pretend that the Japan iflands were
firft peopled by themfelves: but it is more probable
that the original inhabitants were a mixture of differ¬
ent nations, driven thither by thofe tempeftuous feas,
and at different times; and this conje&ure is confirm¬
ed by the great difference obfervable between the pre-
fent inhabitants, in regard to feature, complexion,
(hapes, habits, cuftoms, and language, notwithftand-
ing their having been fo long united under one mo¬
narch.
As thefe iflands lie in the fifth and fixth climates,
they would be much hotter in fummer than England,
were not the heats refrefhed by the winds which conti¬
nually blow from the fea around them, and to which
they are much expofed by the height of their fitua¬
tion : this circumftance, however, not only renders
their winters excefliv.e cold, but the feafons more in-
conftant. They have great falls of fnow in winter,
which are commonly followed by hard frofts. The
rains in fummer are very violent, efpecially in the
months of June and July, which on that account are
called fat-fuki, or water-months. The country is al¬
io much fubjeft to dreadful thunders and lightnings,
,6 ] JAP,
as well as ftorms and hurricanes, which frequently do JaF
a great deal of damage.   
The foil, though naturally barren and mountainous,
by the induftry of the inhabitants, not only fupplies
them with every neceffary of life, but alfo furnifhes
other countries with them ; producing, befides corn,
the fined; and whiteft rice, and other grains, with a
great variety of fruits, and vaft numbers of cattle of
all forts. Befides rice, and a fort of wheat and bar¬
ley, with two forts of beans, they have Indian wheat,
millet, and feveral other kinds, in great abundance.
Their feas, lakes, and rivers, abound with fifh ; and
their mountains, woods, and forefts, are well (locked
with horfes, elephants, deer, oxen, buffaloes, fheep,
hogs, and other ufeful animals. Some of their moun¬
tains alfo are enriched with mines of gold, filver, and
copper, exquifitely fine, befides tin, lead, iron, and
various other minerals and fofiils ; whilft others abound
with feveral forts of marble and precious (tones. Of
thefe mountains, fome may be juftly ranked among
the natural rarities of this country ; one, in particu¬
lar, in the great ifland of Niphon, is of fuch prodi¬
gious height as to be eafily feen forty leagues off at
fea, though its diftance from the (hore is about eigh¬
teen. Some authors think it exceeds the famous Peak
of Teneriffe ; but it may rather be called a clufter Or
group of mountains, among which are no lefs than
eight dreadful volcanoes, burning with incredible fury,
and often laying wafte the country round about them :
but, to make iome amends, they afford great variety
of medicinal waters, of different degrees of heat;
one of thefe, mentioned by Varenius, is faid to be as
hot as burning oil, and to fcorch and cdnfume every
thing thrown into it.
The many brooks and rivers that have their fources
among the mountains, form a great number of delight¬
ful cafcadcs, as well as fome dreadful catara&s. A-
mong the great variety of trees in the forefts here,
the cedars exceed all of that kind through India, for
ftraightnefs, height, and beauty. They abound in
moft of the iflands, efpecially the largeft.
Their feas, befides fifh, furnifh them with great
quantities of red and white coral, and fame pearls of
great value, befides a variety of fea-plants and (hells;
which lalt are not inferior to thofe that are brought
from Amboyna, the Molucca and other eaftern iflands.
The vaft quantity of fulphur, with which moft of
the Japan iflands abound, makes them fubjeft to fre¬
quent and dreadful earthquakes. The inhabitants are
fo accuftomed to them, that they are fcarcely alarmed
at any, unlefs they chance to be very terrible indeed,
and lay whole towns in ruins, which very often proves
the cafe. On thefe occafions, they have recourfe to
extraordinary facrifices, and acls of worftiip to their
deities or demons, according to the different notions
of each fed, and fometimes even proceed to offer hu¬
man vi&ims; but in this cafe they only take fome of
the vileft and moft abandoned fellows they can meet
with, becaufe they are only facrificed to the malevo¬
lent deities.
With refpect to religion, that of the Japanefe is al¬
lowed by all writers to have been downright heathen-
ifm and idolatry from time immemorial. They do not
feem fo much as to have any fort of notion of a Su¬
preme Creator; but believe the world to have exilted
JAP [38
from eternity, and that the gods they worfhip were
men or beings that lived on earth feveral thoufands of
years, and were afterwards, for their piety, mortifi¬
cation, and even by their voluntary death, raifed to
that height of power and dignity they have ever fince
enjoyed. They are divided, however, into various
fe&s ; probably according to the various nations that
firft fettled there. One of them is called the feci of
Sirttto, which is that of their philofophers and mora-
lifts, whofe profeffors, like the Chinefe literati, de-
fpife all notions of public worfhip and popular fuper-
llition. Every perfon here is at liberty to choofe what
feft pleafes him bell, no compulfipn being ufed by
the government or by the parents. Moft of the fe6ts
believe a future ftate of blifs or mifery, though they are
not agreed about the nature and duration of it: the ge¬
nerality, however, think that it will confift in a tranf-
migration of the foul from one body to another, more
or lefs excellent and happy, according to their beha¬
viour in their late Hate ; and that this revolution will
continue, as well as the world, to eternal ages. All
the different fedts, or at lead the priefts and priefteffes
of them, however divided in other refpedts, agree in
regarding the five following negative precepts as ab-
folutely binding ; 1. Not to kill, nor to eat any thing
that is killed ; 2. Not to fteal; 3. Not to defile ano¬
ther man’s bed ; 4. Not to lie ; 5. Not to drink wine.
From the example of their two chief deities, Amida
and Xaca, the Japanefe have a notion of its being
fuch a meritorious thing to difpatch one’s felf, that
great numbers of them embrace, in the moft public
manner, a voluntary death, either by drowning, hang¬
ing, or flinging themfelves down from a precipice, or
by poifon, dagger, or any other quick riddance. The
followers of Xaca commonly drown themfelves ; but
thofe of Amida fhut them'felves up in fome clofe con¬
fined place, where they have juft room to fit, and, be¬
ing immured on every fide, have only a little hole to
breathe through by means of a fmall cane, and never
eeafe calling on that deity till they expire.
There is not a country in. all the eaft that abounds
more with temples and monafteries than this: not on¬
ly cities and towns, but plains and mountains, and
even defarts, fwarm with them ; for the priefts here,
like thofe of the church of Rome,, are either fecular
or regular. The former live in private houfes of their
own, allow themfelves one or two wives, and live on
the income and offerings made to their refpedtive tem¬
ples and deities, and are at their own liberty as to the
pra&ice of abftinence and other feverities : the regu¬
lars live in communities, under their refpe&ive fupe-
riors, and lead more or lefs reclufe and auftere lives,
according to their feels. Some of the monafteries
contain, a thoufand, or even more of them, who, be-
fides a perpetual celibacy and other mortifications, are
all bound to obferve the five rules before mentioned.
Both fecular and regular are under the government of
the dairo or high-prieft, who is the head of all the
religious and fedts in the empire. Befides the multi¬
tude of idols in their temples, there is a great num¬
ber of others fet up in their other public buildings,
in their piazzas and markets, ftreets, and even public
roads.
The Japanefe have as great variety of feftivals as of
fcdts and deities, which it would therefore be endlefs
■7 1. . J a p
to defcribe : they confift in general in the anniverfary
of their gods and of their dead relations.
Chriftianity, if Popery deferves that name, had
once made a confiderable progrefs in this country;
but, about the year 1622., a dreadful perfecution was
raifed againft the mifiionaries, and all that adhered to
them, occafioned partly by the indifcreet zeal of the
former, partly by the jealoufy of the unconverted
nobles, but efpecially of the Japanefe priefts, who
could not, without the greateft envy and regret, be¬
hold their old religion, with all its powerful attrac-
tives of profit, popular efteem, and refpeft, daily lo-
fing ground ; but more particularly by the policy and
treachery of the Dutch, who found effeftual means
to undermine them. All the Chriftian converts were
put to death; and the Europeans, except the Dutch,
forbid to come within the Japanefc dominions under
the fevereft penalties.
With refpeA to the government of thefe iflands, it
is and has been for a long time monarchical; though
formerly it feems to have been fplit into a great num¬
ber of petty kingdoms, which w’ere at length all fwal-
lowed by one. The imperial dignity had been en¬
joyed, for a confiderable time before the year 1500,
by a regular fucceffion of princes, under the title of
dairos, a name fuppofed to have been derived from
Dairo the head of that family. Soon after that
epoch, fuch a dreadful civil war broke out, and lafted
fo many years, that the empire was quite ruined. Du¬
ring thefe diftraftions and confufions,. a common fol-
dier, by name Tayckoy, a perfon of obfeure birth,
but of an enterprifing genius, found means to raife
himfelf to the imperial dignity ; having, in little more
than three years time, by an uncommon fhare of good
fortune fubdued all his competitors and opponents,
and reduced all their cities and caftles. The
dairo, not being in a condition to obftrudt or put a
flop to his progrefs, was forced to fubmit to his
terms ; and might perhaps have been condemned to
much harder, had not Tayckoy been apprehenfive left:
his foldiers, who (till revered their ancient natural mo¬
narch, fftould have revolted in his favour. To prevent
this, he granted him the fupreme power in all religious
matters, with great privileges, honours, and revenues
annexed to it; whilft himfelf remained invefted with
the whole civil and military power, and was acknow¬
ledged and proclaimed king of Japan. This great re¬
volution happened in 1517, and Tayckoy reigned fe¬
veral years with great wifdom and tranquillity ; during
which he made many wholefome laws and regulations,
which ftill fubfift, and are much admired to this day.
At his death, he left the crown to his fon Tayckof-
fama, then a minor; but the treacherous prince under
whofe guardianftiip he was left, deprived him of his
life before he came of age. By this murder, tb&
crown paffed to the family of Jejafiama, in which it
ftill continues. Tayckoy and his fucceffors have con¬
tented themfelves with the title of culo, which, under
the dairos, was that of prime minifter, whofe,office is
now fupprefled ; fo that the cubo, in all, fecular con¬
cerns, is quite as abfolute and defpotic, and has as
extenfivt a power over the lives and fortunes of all his
fubje&s, from the petty, kings down to the lowed per-
fons, as ever the dairos had. The dairo refides con-
ftantly at Meacpr and the cubo at Jedo..
The,
JAP [ 3818 1 JAP
Japan. The Japanefe traffic with the Chinefe, Koreans, and
“'people of Jetzo: but, of the European nations, the
Dutch alone are fufFered to trade with them ; having
declared, as fome fay, after the expulfion of the Por-
tuguefe, that they were no Chriftians ; but more pro¬
bably on the merit of fupplanting and affifting in ex¬
pelling the Portuguefe : for it is impoffible that the
Japanefe can be ignorant that the Dutch profefs Chri-
ftianity, as they trade to China; and we find the Ja¬
panefe ufe as much caution in their commerce with the
Dutch as if they were really Chriftians.
At the feafon that the Dutch fleet is expeftrd, the
governor of Nangafaque places centinels on the hills
to give notice of the approach of any (hips. When
they appear, a boat is fent off to every (hip, with a
waiter or officer ; and as foon as the ftiips come to an
anchor, an exprefs is immediately difpatched to court,
before whofe return the Dutch may not difpofe of any
thing. In the mean time, the particulars of every
fliip’s cargo are taken, with the name, age, ftature,
and office, of every man on board, which is tranflated
and printed in the Japanefe language. When the ex¬
prefs is returned, the (hips crew are permitted to come
on fliore, and are all muftered before a Japanefe com-
miffary; and every perfon is called over aloud, and
made to give an account of his age, quality, and of¬
fice, to fee if it agrees with the particulars given in
by the Dutch : after this examination they are fent on
board again, and the fails of the (hip, with the guns,
arms, ammunition, and helm, are brought on fhore,
and the hatches fealed down by a Japanefe officer;
nor can they be opened, whatever the (hip’s crew may
want, without a permiffion from the governor, who
always fends a perfon to fee what is taken out, and
feal them down again ; nor dare the Dutch failors
light a candle or make any fire on board their (hips,
any more than on (hore. The (hips are allowed no
communication with one another; nor is any officer
or failor fuffered to go on (hore, except the perfons
who are appointed to carry the company’s prefent to
the king at Jedo or Yeddo. His majefty having ac¬
cepted the prefent, and prepared another for the com¬
pany, the Dutch officer is conveyed to Nangafaque
under a ftrong guard as he came. This journey, and
the tranfa&ing their mercantile affairs, ufually take
up about three months and a half.
The Dutch, who attend the king on this occafion,
approach him on their knees, with their hands joined
together, and carried to their foreheads, as the Japa¬
nefe governors and minifters alfo do.
While the Dutch (hips lie in the road, none of the
Japanefe are allowed to go on board them to trade
with the failors ; and thofe that carry provifions on
board are not fuffered to take any money for them till
the permiffion to trade comes from court, and then
they deliver in their accounts and are paid. After
this, the Japanefe permit fix perfons from every veffel
to come on (hore, and buy and fell for themfelves, and
ftay four days, either in Difnia or in the city, as they
fee fit; when thefe fix men return on board, fix others
are allowed to go on (hore and traffic in the like man¬
ner, and fo on.
The goods are generally paid in bullion or pieces
of filver, of ten or five crowns value, or fmaller pieces
by weight; for they have no coin, except fome little
pieces of copper. Japan;
After fix weeks free trade, there is no further com- ;
munication allowed of between the city of Nangafaque
and the Dutch in the ifland of Difnia, or with the (hip¬
ping ; whereupon the fleet prepares to return, and the '
factory in Difnia are confined to their little ifland a-
gain, until the feafon of the year for traffic returns.
With refpedt to the character of the Japanefe, they j
are generally very adtive, and of a quick apprehenfion
and good underftanding, modeft, patient, and cour¬
teous, and excelling all the Orientals in docility. They
are fo juft in their dealings, that one may abfolutely
depend on their word ; and, contrary to the Chinefe,
difdain to take the lead advantage of thofe they deal
with. They are all very induftrious and laborious,
and much given to ftudy and reading. They affeft a
furprifing neatnefs and decency in their eating, drink¬
ing, furniture, drefs, and converfation ; and have an
abhorrence to intemperance, luxury, and defamation.
Drunkennefs and gluttony are as much detefted by
the rich and poor, as cheating and diflionefty. This
is the bright fide of their charafter. On the other
hand, they are reprefented as proud, ambitious, cruel, >
and uncharitable ; and fo infenfible of the miferies of
their fellow-creatures, that they will fuffer them to
perifh, rather than relieve them. They are likewife
faid to be fo paffionate and revengeful, that they will
make away with themfelves if they cannot find an op¬
portunity of revenging an affront. They allow not
only of polygamy, but alfo of fornication: but there
is ftill a more heinous and unnatural vice laid to their
charge, viz. that of fodomy, which is not only com¬
mitted with impunity, both by priefts and laiety, but
without either brand or difgrace. In their wars they
are very fierce and cruel, feldom giving or alking for
quarter; and when a town is taken, they commonly
deftroy it by fire and fword. Like the Chinefe, they
are fo given to aftrology, that they fcarce undertake
anything of moment, without confulting fome pretender
to that art. There is a vaft number of univerfities dif-
perfed'^11 over the empire, in which the bonzas prefide,
richly endowed, finely fituated, and accommodated with
all the conveniences of life, as well as with large libraries.
The Japanefe laws and puniftiments are fevere be¬
yond all juftice ; and may be juftly faid, like thofe of
the Spartan Draco, to be written in blood. They
have few, if any, written laws, the emperor’s will be¬
ing the fupreme one, and next to it that of the kings
and princes in their refpeftive dominions. The very
lords of every diftricl, and even the heads of every fa¬
mily, have power of life and death over all that are under
them, and try and condemn them according to their
will. There is fcarcely any crime fo fmall, that is not
puniftied with death, except the offender be a petty
king or prince, and even thefe are not always exempt¬
ed. Every petty larceny, infult, detraction, cheat¬
ing of any kind, even at play, a lie or prevarication
before a magiftrate, are all capital, as well as the more
heinous crimes of treafon, murder, parricide, inceft,
rape, adultery. Their moft common way of putting
criminals to death, is by crucifixion with their heads
downwards, boiling in oil, tearing them to pieces by
horfes, or cutting them in pieces by the hangman.
For the higheft crimes, not only the criminal, but his <
parents alfo, brothers, and even children, are all put
to
J A P
to death. The Japanefe have but very little fkill in
phyfic and furgery. In the cure of difeafes they de¬
pend much on their medicinal waters, and on certain
roots and plants, particularly the root ginfeng, brought
from China. The operation of blood-letting is per¬
formed by pricking the belly with a fine needle, made
either of gold or filver. . By this acupuncture they not
only affwage, but effectually cure, an endemic colicky
diforder common among them, and called fbcnki. The
other difeafes to which they are moft liable, are the
dropfy, diarrhoea, fmall-pox, bloody-flux; but the
gout, ftone, and gravel, are hardly known among
them.
The Japanefe are much addicted to poetry, mufic,
and painting; the firft is faid to be grand as to the
ftyle and imagery, lofrinefs, and cadence ; but, like
that of the Chinefe, is not eafily underftood or relifh-
ed by the Europeans. The fame may be faid of their
mufie, both vocal and inftrumental 5 the belt of which,
of either kind, would hardly be tolerable to a nice
European ear. They are better painters than the
Chinefe, but much inferior to the Europeans ; moft of
their performances in that kind, are either in water¬
colours on paper, fine leather, &c. or in their ja¬
panning and fine porcelain-ware. What is moft to
be admired in their paintings, is the Angular beau¬
ty of the colours, in many of which they greatly ex¬
cel us.
They pretend, like the Chinefe, to have been the
inventors of printing from time immemorial, and their
method is the fame with theirs on wooden blocks; but
they excel them in the neatnefs of cutting them, as
well as in the goodnefs of their ink and paper. They
likewife lay claim to the invention of gunpowder; and
are vaftly fuperior to the Chinefc in the ufe of all forts
of fire, efpecially of artillery, as well as the curioufnefs
of their fire-works.
Their manner of writing is much the fame as that
of the Chinefe, viz. in columns from top to bottom,
and the columns beginning at the right and ending at
the left hand. Their chara&ers were alfo originally
the fame, but now differ confiderably.
Their language hath fome affinity with the Chinefe,
though it appears from its various dialers to have
been a kind of compound of that and other languages,
derived from the various nations that firft peopled
thofe iflands. It is not only very regular, polite, ele¬
gant, and copious, but abounds with a great variety
of fynonima, adapted to the nature of the fubje£t they
are upon, whether fublime, familiar, or low; and to
the quality, age, and fex, both of the fpeakerand per-
fon fpoken to.
The Japanefe are commonly very ingenious in moft
handicraft trades ; and excel even the Chinefe in fe-
veral manufaftures, particularly in the beauty, good¬
nefs, and variety of their filks, cottons, and other
fluffs, and in their japan and porcelain wares. No
caftern nation comes up to them in the tempering and
fabricating of fcymitars, fwords, mufkets, and other
fuch weapons.
The Japanefe archite&ure is much in the fame tafte
and ftyle as that of the Chinefe, efpecially as to their
temples, palaces, and other public buildings; but in
private ones they affeft more plainnefs and neatnefs
than fhow: thefe laft, being rnoftly built of wood,
J A P
make their cities exceedingly liable to conflagrations, Japs
which, wherever they happen, generally reduce the
greatefl pjrtof them to afhes, they having neither en¬
gines nor any other method of flopping the progrefs
of the flames. The gardens about their houfes are a-
dorned with a variety of flowers, trees, verdure, baths,
terraces, and other embelli/hments. The furniture
and decorations of the houfes of perfons of diftindlion,
confift in japan-work of various colours, curious paint¬
ings, beds, couches, fkreens, cabinets, tables, a va¬
riety of porcelain jars, vafes, tea-equipage, and other
veffels and figures, together with fwords, guns, fcy¬
mitars, and other arms. Their retinues are more or
lefs numerous and fplendid, according to their rank ;
but there are few of the lords who have lefs than 500c
60 men richly clad and armed, fome on foot, but moft;
on horfeback. As for their petty kings and princes,
they are feldom feen without 300 or 200 at leall, when
they either wait on the emperor, which is one half of
the year, or attend him abroad. The Japanefe drefs
is much like that of the Chinefe, only fomewhat more
elegant and neat, and moft commonly of filk or cot¬
ton. They wear nothing on their heads either win¬
ter or fummer, though they fhave themfelves clofe all
over, except one lock, which is left hanging on the
top by way of ornament: but to guard themfelves
from fun or rain, they always carry an umbrella in one
hand ; and, if rich enough, have them held over their
heads by a fervant. The poorer fort have, inftead of
that, either a fan or ftiort Ikreen. The women of fa-
fhion, efpecially the young ones, adorn themfelves
with flowers, feathers, pearls, &c. but are feldom feen
abroad, or even at home, to any but thofe of the fa¬
mily, without a veil.
The proper colour here for feftivals is black, for
mourning white. Inftead of rifing at the approach of
a fuperior, they fet themfelves down ; and inftead of
bowing or proftrating when they falute, they (land
upright. They choofe to have their teeth and nails of
a ftiining black, and to let the latter grow to an ex-
ceffive length. The chief food of the Japanefe is rice,
pulfe, fruits, roots, herbs, eating very little flefh, and
that only of fuch beafts as they take in hunting. In¬
ftead of knives, forks, and fpoons, they make ufe of
the fame forts of fmall flicks as the Chinefe. Their
common drink is either water or tea; but they have
other liquors, fome diftilled from rice or wheat, o-
thers made of their grains boiled with fugar or ho¬
ney, or of fruits, or tapped from the palm, birch, and
other trees.
After marriage, the wife is confined to her own
apartment, from whence (he hardly ever ftirs, except
once a-year to the funeral-rites of her family ; nor is
flie permitted to fee any man, except perhaps fome
very near relation, and that as feldom as can be. The
wives, as well as in China and other parts of the eaft,
bring no portion with them, but are rather bought by
the hulband of their parents and relations. The bride¬
groom moft commonly fees his bride for the firft time
upon her being brought to his houfe from the place of
the nuptial ceremony : for in the temple where it is per¬
formed (he is covered over with a veil, which reaches
from the head to the feet. A hufband can put his wives
to a more or lefs fevere death, if they give him the lead
caufe of jealoufy, by being feen barely to converfe withs
t 38i9 ]
JAP [ 3820 ] JAP
Japanning, another man, or fuffering one to come into their
apartment.
The Japanefe, both poor and rich, make an annual
proceffion to the fepulchres of their dead relations, with
longs and mufic; carrying money, victuals, cloathing,
&c. as prefents to relieve their various wants in the
other world.
When a prince or great man dies, there are com¬
monly about 10, 20, or more youths of his houfehold,
and fuch as were hisgreateft favourites, who put them-
felves to a voluntary death, at the place where the bo¬
dy is buried or burned: as foon as the funeral pile,
confiding of odoriferous woods, gums, fpices, oils,
and other ingredients, is fet on fire, the relations and
friends of the deceafed throw their prefents into it, fuch
as cloaths, arms, victuals, money, fweet herbs, flow¬
ers, and other things which they imagine will be of
ufe to him in the other world. Thofe of the middle
or lower rank commonly bury their dead, without any
other burning than that of fome odoriferous woods,
gums, &c. The fepulchres into which the bones and
allies of perfons of rank are depofited, are generally
very magnificent, and fituated at fome dillance from
the towns.
Japan Earth. See Terra Japonica.
JAPANNING, the art of varnilhing and drawing
figures on wood, in the fame manner as is done by the
natives of Japan in the Eaft Indies.
The fubftances which admit of being japanned are
almoft: every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too
flexible; as wood, metals, leather, and paper pre¬
pared.
Wood and metals do not require any other prepara¬
tion, but to have their furface perfe&ly even and clean :
but leather fhould be fecurely ftrained either on frames,
or on boards ; as its bending or forming folds would
otherwife crack and force off the coats of varnilh : and
paper fhould be treated in the fame manner, and have
a previous ftrong coat of fome kind of fize; but it is
rarely made the fubjeft of japanning till it is converted
into papier mache, or wrought by other means into fuch
form, that its original flate, particularly with refpeft
to flexibility, is loft..
One principal variation from the method formerly
ufed in japanning is, the ufing or omitting any priming
or undercoat on the work to be japanned. In the
older pradtice, fuch priming was always ufed ; and is
at prefent retained in the French manner of japanning
coaches and fnuff-boxes of the papier mache : but in the
Birmingham manufa&ure here, it has been always re-
jedled. The advantage of ufing fuch priming or un¬
dercoat is, that it makes a faving in the quantity of
varnifh ufed; becaufe the matter of which the priming
is compofed fills up the inequalities of the body to be
varnifhed; and makes it eafy, by means of rubbing and
water-polifhing, to gain an even furface for the varnifh :
and this was therefore fuch a convenience in the cafe
of wood, as the giving a hardnefs and firmnefs to the
ground was alfo in the cafe of leather, that it became
an eftablifhed method; and is therefore retained even
in the inftance of the papier mache, by the French, who
applied the received method of japanning to that kind
of work on its introduSion. There is neverthelefs this
inconvenience always attending the ufe of an under¬
coat of fize, that the japan coats of varnifh and colour
will be conftantly liable to be cracked and peeled off Japanni
by any violence, and will not endure near fo long as
the bodies japanned in the fame manner, but without
any fuch priming; as may be eafily obferved in com- ;
paring the wear of the Paris and Birmingham fnuff-
boxes; which latter, when good of their kind, never
peel or crack, or fuffer any damage, unlefs by great j
violence, and fuch a continued rubbing as waftes away j
the fubftance of the varnifh ; while the japan coats of i
the Parifian crack and fly off in flakes, whenever any
knock or fall, particularly near the edges, expofes
them to be injured. But the Birmingham manufac¬
turers, who originally pra&ifed the japanning only on
metals, to which the reafon above given for the ufe of |
priming did not extend, and who took up this art of ii|
themfelves as an invention, of courfe omitted at firlt
the ufe of any fuch undercoat; and not finding it more i
neceflary in the inftance of papier mache, than on me- j
tals, continue ftill to rejeft it. On which account, the J
boxes of their manufa&ure are, with regard to the
wear, greatly better than the French.
The laying on the colours in gum-water, inftead of j
varnifh, is alfo another variation from the method of
japanning formerly praftifed : but the much greater !
ftrength of the work, where they are laid on in varnifh j
or oil, has occafioned this way to be exploded with the
greateft reafon in all regular manufaftures: however,
they who may pradlife japanning on cabinets, or other j
fuch pieces as are not expofed to much wear and vio- s
lence, for their amufement only, and confequently may 1
not find it worth their while to encumber themfelves
with the preparations neceffary for the other methods,
may paint with water-colours on an undercoat laid on
the wood, or other fubftance of which the piece to be
japanned is formed ; and then finifh with the proper
coats of varnifh, according to the methods below
taught: and if the colours are tempered with the
ftrongeft ifinglafs fize and honey, inftead of gum-
water, and laid on very flat and even, the work will
not be much inferior in appearance to that done by
the other method, and will laft as long as the old
japan.
Of Japan Grounds.—The proper grounds are either
fuch as are formed by the varnifh and colour, where the
whole is to remain of one Ample colour; or by the
varnifh either coloured, or without colour, on which
fome painting or other decoration is afterwards to be
laid. It is neceflary, however, before we proceed to ^
fpeak of the particular grounds, to (hew the manner of
laying on the priming or undercoat, where any fuch is
ufed.
This priming is of the fame nature with that called
clear-coating, or vulgarly clear-coaling, praftifed erro-
neoufly by the houfe-painters ; and confifts only in '
laying on and drying in the moft even manner, a com-
pofition of fize and whiting, or fometimes lime inftead
of the latter. The common fize has been generally . Ij
ufed for this purpofe: but where the work is of a nicer ^
kind, it is better to employ the glover’s or the parch¬
ment fize; and if a third of ifinglafs be added, it will ; ;
be ftill better, and, if not laid on too thick, much lefs ; ;
liable to peel and crack. The work fhould be pre¬
pared for this priming, by being well fmootfied with
the fifh-fkin or glafs-fhaver; and, being made tho¬
roughly clean, fhould be brufhed over once or twice
with J
JAP [ 3821 ] JAP
anning. with hot fize, diluted with two thirds of water, if it be
of the common ftrength. The priming (hould then be
ndm. id on vv't^1 a bruih as even as poffible ; and fhould be
)e Arts, formed of a fize, whofe confidence is betwixt the com¬
mon kind and glue, mixed with as much whiting as
will give it a fufficient body of colour to hide the fur-
face of whatever it is laid upon, but not more.
If the furface be very clean, on which the priming
is ufed, two coats of it, laid on in this manner, will be
fufficient; but if, on trial with a fine rag wet, it will
not receive a proper water poliffi, on account of any in¬
equalities not fufficientiy filled up and covered, two or
more coats muft be given it; and whether a greater or
lefs number be ufed, the work ffiould be fmoothed, af¬
ter the laft coat but one is dry, by rubbing it with the
Dutch rulhes. When the lad coat is dry, the water
polilh fhould be given, by paffing over every part of
it with a fine rag gently moifiened, till the whole ap¬
pear perfe&ly plain and even. The priming will then
be completed, and the work ready to receive the
painting or coloured varnifh ; the red of the proceed¬
ings being the fame in this cafe as where no priming
is ufed.
When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no
priming is ufed, the bed preparation is to lay two or
three coats of coarfe varnifh compofed in the following
manner:
“ Take of re&ified fpirit of wine one pint, and of
coarfe feed-lac and refin each two ounces. Diffolve the
feed-lac and refin in the fpirit; and then drain off the
varnifh.”
This varnifh, as well as all others formed of fpirit of
wine, mud be laid on in a warm place; and, if it can
be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be var-
nifhed fhould be made warm likewife: and for the fame
reafon all dampnefs fhould be avoided; for either cold
or moidure chills this kind of varnifh, and prevents its
taking proper hold of the fubdance on which it is laid.
When the work is fo prepared, or by the priming
with the compofition of fize and whiting above de-
fcribed, the proper japan ground mud be laid on,
which is much the bed formed of fhell-lac varnifh, and
the colour defired, if white be not in quedion, which
demands a peculiar treatment 5 or great brightnefs be
not required, when alfo other means mud be purfued.
The colours ufed with the fhell-lac varnifh may be
any pigments whatever which give the teint of the
j ground defired ; and they may be mixed together to
form browns or any compound colours.
As metals never require to be undercoated with
whiting, they may be treated in the fame manner as
wood or leather, when the under-coat is omitted, ex¬
cept in the indances particularly fpoken of below.
White Japan Grounds.—The forming a ground per-
fe&ly white, and of the fird degree of hardnefs, re¬
mains hitherto a defidcratum, or matter fought for, in
the art of japanning, as there are no fubdances which
form a very hard varnifh, but what have too much co¬
lour not to deprave the whitenefs, when laid on of a
due thicknefs over the work.
The neared approach, however, to a perfeft white
varnifh, already known, is made by the following com¬
pofition.
“ Take flake white, or white lead, wafhed over and
ground up with a fixth of its weight of darch, and then
Vol. V.
dried; and temper it properly for fpreading with the Japanning,
madich varnifh prepared as under the article Varnish. '
“ Lay thefe on the body to be japanned, prepared
either with or without the under-coat of whiting, in
the manner as above ordered ; and then varnifh it over
with five or fix coats of the following varnifh :
“ Provide any quantity of the bed feed-lac; and
pick out of it all the cleared and whited grains, re-
ferving the more coloured and fouler parts for the
coarfe varnifhes, fuch as that ufed for priming or pre¬
paring wood or leather. Take of this picked feed-lac
two ounces, and of gum-animi three ounces ; and dif¬
folve them, being previoufly reduced to a grofs pow¬
der, in about a quart of fpirit of wine; and drain off
the clear varnifh.”
The fecd-Iac will yet give a flight tinge to this com¬
pofition ; but cannot be omitted where the varnifh is
wanted to be hard: though, when a fofter will anfwer
the end, the proportion may be diminifhed, and a little
crude turpentine added to the gum-animi to take off
the bitternefs.
A very good varnifh, free entirely from all bitter¬
nefs, may be formed by diffolving as much gum-animi
as the oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil; which
mud be made to boil gently when the gum is put into
it. The ground of white colour itfelf may be laid on
in this varnifh, and then a coat or two of it may be
put over the ground; but it mud be well diluted with
oil of turpentine when it is ufed. This, though free
from brittlenefs, is neverthdefs liable to fuffer by being
indented or bruifed by any flight drokes; and it will
not well bear any polifh, but may be brought to a very
fmooth furface without, if it be judicioufly managed
in the laying it on. It is likewife fomewhat tedious
in drying, and will require fome time where feveral
coats are laid on; as the lad ought not to contain
much oil of turpentine.
Blue Japan Grounds.—Blue japan grounds may be
formed of bright Pruffian blue, or of verditer glazed
over by Pruffian blue, or of fmalt. The colour may
be bed mixed with fhell-lac varnifh, and brought to a
polifhing date by five or fix coats of varnifh of feed-
lac: but the varnifh, neverthelefs, will fomewhat in¬
jure the colour by giving to a true blue a cad of green,
and fouling in fome degree a warm blue by the yel¬
low it contains : where, therefore, a bright blue is re¬
quired, and a lefs degree of hardnefs can be difpenfed
with, the method before direfted in the cafe of white
grounds mud be purfued.
Red Japan Grounds.—Yox a fcarlet japan ground,
vermilion may be ufed: but the vermilion has a glaring
effedf, that renders it much lefs beautiful than the crim-
fon produced by glazing it over with carmine or fine
lake ; or even with rofe-pink, which has a very good
cffeft ufed for this purpofe. For a very bright crim-
fon, neverthelefs, inflead of glazing with carmine, the
Indian lake fhould be ufed, diffolved in the fpirit of
which the varnifh is compounded, which it readily ad¬
mits of when good: and, in this cafe, indead of gla¬
zing with the fhell-lac varnifh, the upper or polifhing
coats need only be ufed ; as they will equally receive
and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which may be
aftually diffolved by fpirit of wine: and this will be
found a much cheaper method than the ufing carmine.
If, neverthelefs, the highed degree of brightnefs be re-
21 T quired,
J A P
Japanning, quired, the white varnifhes muft be flfed.
' 2^//(SW Jap an Grounds.—For bright yellow grounds,
the king’s yellow, or the turpeth mineral, (hould be
employed, either alone or mixed with fine Dutch pink:
and the effect may be ftill more heightened by difibl-
ving powdered turmeric-root in the fpirit of wine of
which the upper or polifiiing coat is made; which fpi¬
rit of wine mull be ftrained from off the dregs, before
the feed-lac be added to it to form the varnilh.
The feed-lac varnilh is not equally injurious here,
and with greens, as in the cafe of other colours; be-
caufe, being only tinged with a reddifh yellow, itis little
more than an addition to the force of the colours.
Yellow grounds may be likewife formed of the Dutch
pink only ; which, when good, will not be wanting in
brightnefs, though extremely cheap.
Green Japan Grounds.- Green grounds may be
produced by mixing the king’s yellow and bright
Prufiian blue, or rather the turpeth mineral and Pruf-
lian blue; and a cheap, but fouler kind, by verdigrife
with a little of the abovementioned yellows, or Dutch
pink. But where a very bright green is wanted, the
cryftals of verdigrife, called diftilled verdigrife, fhould
be employed; and to heighten the effeiS, they (hould
be laid on a ground of leaf-gold, which renders the
colour extremely brilliant and pleafing.
They may any of them be ufed fuccefsfully with good
feed-lac varnifh, for the reafon before given; but will
be ftill brighter with white varnifti.
Orange-coloured Japan Grounds.—Orange-col cured
japan grounds maybe formed by mixing vermilion or
red-lead with king’s yellow, or Dutch pink; or the
orange-lake, which will make a brighter orange ground
than can be produced by any mixture.
Purple Japan Grounds. Purple japan grounds
may be produced by the mixture of lake and Pr„ufiian
blue; or a fouler kind, by vermilion and Pruflian blue.
They may be treated as the reft, with refpedl to the
varnifh.
Black Japan Grounds to be produced without Heat.—
Black grounds may be formed by either ivory-black,
or lamp-black: but the former is preferable, where it
is perfe&ly good.
Thefe may be always laid on with (hell-lac varnifh;
and have their upper or polifhing coats of common
feed-lac varnilh, as the tinge or foulnefs of the varnifti
can be here no injury.
Common black Japan Grounds on Iron or Copper,
produced by means of Heat. For forming the com¬
mon black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece
of work to be japanned muft be painted over with dry¬
ing oil; and, when it is of a moderate drynefs, muft be
put into a (love of fuch degree of heat as will change
the oil black, without burning it fo as to deftroy or
weaken its tenacity. The ftove (hould not be too hot
when the work is put into it, nor the heat increafed
too faft; either of which errors would make it blifter:
but the (lower the heat is augmented, and the longer
it is continued, provided it be reftrained within the
due degree, the harder will be the coat of japan.
This kind of varnifti requires no polifli, having re¬
ceived, when properly managed, a fufficient one from
the heat.
The fine Tortoife-Jhell Japan Ground, produced by
means of Heat.—The belt kind of tortoife-ftiell ground
JAP
produced by heat is not lefs valuable for its great hard- Japannir
nefs, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling water
without damage, than for its beautiful appearance. It
is to be made by means of a varnifti prepared in the
following manner:
“ Take of good linfeed-oil one gallon, and of umbre
half-a-pound: boil them together till the oil become
very brown and thick: drain it then through a coarfe
cloth, and fet it again to boil; in which date it muft
be continued till it acquire a pitchy confiftence; when
it will be fit for ufe.”
Having prepared thus the varnifti, clean well the
iron or copper plate, or other piece which is to be ja¬
panned; and then lay vermilion tempered with fnell-
lac varnifli, or with drying oil diluted with oil of tm>
pentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate
the more tranfparent parts of the tortoife-(hell. When
the vermilion is dry, bruftr over the whole with the
black varnifti, tempered to a due confiftence with oil
of turpentine; and when it is fet and firm, put the
work into a ftove, where it may undergo a very
ftrong heat, and muft be continued a confiderable
time; if even three weeks or a month, it will be the
better.
This was given amongft other receipts by Kunkel;
but appears to have been negle&ed till it was revived
with great fuccefs in the Birmingham manufa&ures,
where itwas not only the ground of (huff-boxes, dreffing-
boxes, and other fuch leffer pieces, but of thofe beau¬
tiful tea-waiters which have been fo juftly efteemed
and admired in feveral parts of Europe where they
have been fent. This ground may be decorated with
painting and gilding, in the fame manner as any other
varniftied furface, which had bed be done after the
ground has been duly hardened by the hot ftove; but
it is well to give a fecond annealing with a more gentle
heat after it is finiftied.
Method ofpainting Japan Work.—Japan work ought
properly to be painted with colours in varnifti; though,
in order for the greater difpatch, and, in fome very
nice works in (mail, for the freer ufe of the pencil, the .]
colours are fometimes tempered in oil; which fhould
previoufly have a fourth part of its weight of gum-
animi diffolved in it; or, in default of that, of the gums
fandarac or maftic. When the oil is thus ufed, it
(hould be well diluted with fpirit of turpentine, that
the colours may be laid more evenly and thin; by which
means, fewer of the poliftring or upper-coats of varniih
become neceffary.
In fome inftances, water-colours are laid on grounds
of gold, in the manner of other paintings; and are bed,
when fo ufed, in their proper appearance, without any
varnifti over them; and they are alfo fometimes fo ma¬
naged as to have the effedt of em.boffed work. The
colours employed in this way, for painting, are beft
prepared by means of ifinglafs fize corredled with ho¬
ney or fugar-candy. The body of which the emboffed
work is raifed, need not, however, be tinged with the
exterior colour; but may be beft formed of very ftrong
gum-water, thickened to a proper confiftence by-bole-
armenian and whiting in equal parts; which being
laid on in the proper figure, and repaired when dry,
may be then painted with the proper colours tempered
in the ifinglafs fize, or in the general manner with (hell-
lac varnifti.
[ 1
Manner
JAP [ 3823 ] JAP
'ing. Manner of Varnifhing Japan JVork.—'Tht laft and
' finiftiing part of japanning lies in the laying on and
polilhing the outer coats of varnifh; which are necef-
fary, as well in the pieces that have only one fimple
ground of colour, as with thofe that are painted. This
is in general beft. done with common feed-lac varnifh,
except in the inftances and on thofe occafions where
we have already fhewn other methods to be more ex¬
pedient: and the fame reafons which decide as to the
titnefs or impropriety of the varnifhes, with refpedl to
the colours of the ground, hold equally with regard to
thofe of the painting: for where brightnefs is the
moll material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure
it, feed-lac muft give way to the whiter gums ; but
where hardnefs, and a greater tenacity, are moft eflen-
tial, it muft be adhered to; and where both are fo ne-
ceffary, that it is proper one ftiould give way to the
other in a certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnifh
muft be adopted.
This mixed varnifh, as we have already obferved,
fhould be made of the picked feed-lac. The
common feed-lac varnifh, which is the moft ufeful
preparation of the kind hitherto invented, may be
thus made:
“ Take of feed-lac three ounces, and put it into
water to free it from the flicks and filth that are fre-
qently intermixed with it; and which muft be done
by ftirring it about, and then pouring off the water,
and adding frefh quantities in order to repeat the ope¬
ration, till it be freed from all impurities, as it very
cffedlually may be by this means. Dry it then, and
powder it grofsly, and put it, with a pint of redtified
fpirit of wine, into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above two-thirds. Shake the mixture well together;
and place the bottle in a gentle heat, till the feed
appear to be diflblved; the fhaking being in the mean
time repeated as often as may be convenient: and
then pour off all that can be obtained clear by this
method, and ftrain the remainder through a coarfe
cloth. The varnifh thus prepared muft be kept for ufe
in a bottle well ftopt.”
When the fpirit of wine is very ftrong, it will dif-
folve a greater proportion of the feed-lac: but this
will faturate the common, which is feldom of a ftrength
futficient for making varnifhes in perfedlion. As the
chilling, which is the moft inconvenient accident at¬
tending thofe of this kind, is prevented, or produced
more frequently, according to the ftrength of the
fpirit; we fhall therefore take this opportunity of
fhewing a method by which weaker redlified fpirits
may with great eafe, at any time, be freed from
the phlegm, and rendered of the firft degree of
flrength.
“ Take a pint of the common redlified fpirit of
wine, and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-
afhes, fait of tartar, or any other alkaline fait, heated
red-hot, and powdered, as well as it can be without
much lofs of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently
for the fpace of half an hour ; before which time, a
great part of the phlegm will be feparated from the
fpirit, and will appear, together with the undiffolved
part of the falls, in the bottom of the bottle. Let the
fpirit then be poured off, or freed from the phlegm
and falts, by mea"' of a tritorium or feparating funnel;
and let half an ounce of the pearl-afhes, heated and J-jpa
powdered as before, be added to it, and the fame
treatment repeated. This may be done a third time,
if the quantity of phlegm feparated by the addition of
the pearl-afties appear confiderable. An ounce of
alum reduced to powder and made hot, but not burnt,
muft then be put into the fpirit, and fuffered to remain
fome hours; the bottle being frequently (haken : after
which, the fpirit, being poured off from it, will be fit
for ufe.,,
The addition of the alum is neceflary, to neutralize
the remains of the alkaline fait or pearl-alhes; which
would otherwife greatly deprave the fpirit with refpeft
to varnifhes and lacquer, where vegetable colours are
concerned; and muft confequently render another diftil-
lation neceflary.
The manner of ufing the feed-lac or white var-
niflies is the fame, except with regard to the fubftance
ufed in polifhing; which, where a pure white or great
clearnefs of other colours is in queftion, fhould be it-
felf white: whereas the browner forts of polifhing duft,
as being cheaper, and doing their bufinefswith greater
difpatch, may be ufed in other cafes. The pieces of
work to be varnifhed fhould be placed near a fire, or
in a room where there is a ftore, and made perfe&ly
dry; and then the varnifh may be rubbed over them
by the proper brufhes made for that purpofe, begin¬
ning in the middle, and palling the brufh to one end;
and then with another ftroke from the middle, palling
it to the other. But no part Ihould be crofted or
twice palled over, in forming one coat, where it can
poflibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another
muft be laid over it; and this muft be continued at
leaft five or fix times, or more, if on trial there be
not a fuflicient thicknefs of varnifh to bear the polilh,
without laying bare the painting or the ground co¬
lour underneath.
When a fufficient number of coats is thus laid on,
the work is fit to be polifhed: which muft be done, in
common cafes, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in
Tripoli or pumice-ftone, commonly called rotten fone,
finely powdered: but towards the end of the rubbing,
a little oil of any kind Ihould be ufed along with the
powder; and when the work appears fulficiently bright
and glofiy, it Ihould be well rubbed with the oil alone,
to clean it from the powder, and give it a flill brighter
luftre.
In the cafe of white grounds, inftead of the Tripoli
or pumice-ftone, fine putty or whiting muft be ufed;
both which Ihould be wafhed over to prevent the dan¬
ger of damaging the work from any fand or other
gritty matter that may happen to be commixed with
them.
It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan
work, to harden the varnifh by means of heat; which,
in every degree that it can be applied fhort of what
would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a
more firm and ftrong texture. Where metals form
the body, therefore, a very hot ftove may be ufed,
and the pieces of work may be continued in it a
confiderable time; efpecially if the heat be gra¬
dually increafed: but where wood is in queftion,
heat muft be fparingly ufed, as it would otherwife
warp or fhrink the body, fo as to injure the general
figure.
21 T 2 JAQUE-
J A S [ 38H ] J A S
Juquelot JAQUELOT (Ifaac), a celebrated French Pro-
11 teftant divine, born in 1647 at Vaffy in Champagne,
Jafher- where his father was minifter. The revocation of the
edift of Nantz obliging him to quit France, he took
refuge firft at Heidelberg, and then at the Hague,
where he procured an appointment in the Walloon
church. Here he continued till that capital was taken
by the kingof Pruffia, who, hearing him preach, made
him his French miniller in ordinary at Berlin; to
which city he removed in 1702. While he lived at
Berlin, he entered into a warm controverfy with M.
Bayle on the dodtrine advanced in his didtionary fa¬
vouring manichseifm, which continued until death im-
pofed filence on both parties: and it was in this dif-
pute that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the
Remonftrauts. Fie wrote, among other w'orks, 1.
Dijfertations fur I’exijlence de Dieu. 2. Dijfertations
fur le Me fie. 3. Lettres a Mefieures les Prelats de
I’Eglife Gallicane. He was employed in finifhing an
important work upon the divine authority of the holy
feriptures, when he died fuddenly, in 1708, aged 61.
JAR, or Jarr, an earthen pot or pitcher, with a
big belly and two handles.—The word comes from
Spanifh jarra, or jarro, which fignify the fame.
Jar is ufed for a fort of meafure or fixed quantity
of divers things.—The jar of oil is from 18 to 26
gallons; the jaroi green ginger, is about 100 pound
weight.
JARCHI (Solomon),' otherwife Rafchi and Ifaaki
Solomony a famous rabbi, born at Troyes in Cham¬
pagne, who flourilhed in the 12th century. He was
a perfedf mafler of the talmud and gemara ; and he
filled the poflils of the bible with fo many talmudical
reveries, as totally extinguilhed both the literal and
moral fenfe of it. A great part of his commentaries
are printed in Hebrew, and fome have been tranflated
into Latin by the Chriftians. They are all greatly
efteemed by the Jews, who have beftowed on the au¬
thor the title of prince of commentators.
JARIMUTFI, Jarmuth, or Jerimoth, Jolh. xv.
a town reckoned to the tribe of Judah, four miles from
Eleutheropolis, weftward, (Jerome). Thought to be
the fame with Ramoth and Remeth, Jolhua xix. and
Nehem. x. 2. (Reland).
JARNAC, a town of France, in Orleanois and
in Angumois, remarkable for a vidtory gained by
Henry III. over the Huguenots in 1569. It is feated
on the river Charente, in W. Long. o. 13. N. Lat.
45. 40.
JAROSLOW, a handfome town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Rufita, with a ftrong citadel. It is
remarkable for its great fair, its handfome buildings,
and a battle gained by the Swedes in 1656, after
which they took the town. It is feated on the river
Saine, in E. Long. 22. 23. N. Lat. 49. 58.
JASHER (The book of). This is a book which
Jolhua mentions, and refers to, in the following paf-
fage : “ And the fun flood ftili, and the moon flayed,
until the people had avenged themfelves upon their
enemies : is not this written in the book of Jafher ?”
It is difficult to determine what this book ofjajher,
or “ the upright,” is. St Jerom and the Jews be¬
lieved it to be Genefis, or fome other book of the
Pentateuch, wherein God foretold he would do won¬
derful things in favour of his people, Huetius fup-
pofes it was a book of morality, in which it was faid
that God would fubvert the courfe of nature in fa- jafminutn
vour of thofe who put their truft in him. Others
pretend, it was public annals, or records, which were
ftyled jufice or upright, becaufe they contained a
faithful account of the hiftoryof the Ifraelites. Gro-
tius believes, that this book was nothing elfe but a
fong, made to celebrate this miracle and this vi&ory.
This feems the more probable opinion, becaufe the
words cited by Jofhua as taken from this work,
“ Sun, fland thou ftill upon Gibeon, and thou moon
in the valley of Ajalon,” are fuch poetical expreffions
as do not fuit with hiftorical memoirs ; befides that
in the 2d book of Samuel (i. 18.) mention is made of
a book under the fame title, on account of a fong
made on the death of Saul and Jonathan.
JASMINE. See Jasminum.
Arabian Jasmine. See Nyctanthes.
JASMINUM, Jasmine, ox Jefamine-tree ; a ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the dian-
dria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The officinalis, or common white jaf-
mine, hath fhrubby long (lender ftalks and branches,
rifing upon fupport 15 or 20 feet high, with nume¬
rous white flowers from the joints and ends, of a very
fragrant odour. There is a variety with white-ftrip-
ped, and another wu’th yellow-flripped leaves. 2. The
fruticans, or Ihrubby yellow jafmine, hath fhrubby,
angular, trailing^fealks and Branches, rifing upon fup¬
port eight or ten feet high ; trifoliate and Ample al¬
ternate leaves; with yellow flowers from the fidesand
ends of the branches, appearing in June ; frequently
producing berries of a black colour. This fpecies is
remarkable for fending up many fuckers from its roots ;
often fo plentifully as to overfpread the ground, if not
taken up annually. 3. The humilis, or dwarf yellow
jafmine, hath fhrubby firm ftalks, and angular bran¬
ches, of low, fomewhat robuft and bufhy grow’th ;•
broad, trifoliate, and pinnated leaves ; and large yel¬
low flow'ers in July, fometimes fucceeded by berries.
4. The grandiflorum, or great-flowered Catalonian
jafmine, hath a fhrubby firm upright ftem, branch¬
ing out into a fpreading head from about three to fix
or eight feet high, with large flowers of a blufh-red
colour without, and wdiite within, appearing from
July to November. Of this there is a variety with
femi-double flowers, having two feries of petals.
5. The azoricum, or azorian wdiite jafmine, hath
fhrubby, long (lender ftalks and branches, rifing up¬
on fupport 15 or 20 feet high, with pretty large
flowers of a pure white colour; coming out in loofe
bunches from the ends of the branches, and appear¬
ing moft part of the fummer and autumn. 6. The
odoratiffimum, or moft fweet-feented yellow Indian
jafmine, hath a fhrubby upright ftalk branching eredt,
without fupport, fix or eight feet high, with bright-
yellow flowers in bunches from the ends of the bran¬
ches ; flowering from July till O&ober, and emitting
a moft fragrant odour.
Culture. The three firft fpecies are fufficiently
hardy to thrive in this climate without any fhelter.
They may be eafily propagated by layers and cuttings;
and the ftripped varieties by grafting or budding on
flocks of the common kind.—The other three fpecies,
which are tender, may alfo be increafed by layers, or
feeds.
J A S [ 3825 ] J A S
m Jafon feeds, or by grafting and budding them upon the
II common white and ihrubby yellow jafmine. They
jij atrop a. reqU;re fhelter in a green-houfe in winter, and there¬
fore muft always be kept in pots to move them out
and in occafionally. The pots muft be filled with
light, rich earth, frequently watered in fummer, and
about once a week in winter, but always moderately
during that feafon. Prune off all the decayed wood
at any time when it appears, and ftiorten or retrench
the rambling fhoots as you fee occafion, to preferve
the heads fomewhat regular; managing them in other
refpe&s as the common green-houfe plants.
JASON, the Greek hero who undertook the Ar-
gonautic expedition, the hiftory of which is obfcured
by fabulous traditions, flourifhed about 937 B. C.
JASPER, in natural hiftory, a genus of fcrupi, of
a complex irregular ftrufture, of a great variety of
colours, and emulating the appearance of the finer
marbles, or femipellucid gems.
The great charafteriftic of jafpers is, that they all
readily ftrike fire with fteel, and make not the leaft
effervefcence with aquafortis.
Jafpers, though commonly reckoned among the pre¬
cious ftones, ought undoubtedly to be ranged among
the fcrupi; being only opake cryftalline maffes, vari-
oufly debafed with an earthy admixture: and to
this laft ingredient it is that they owe all their va¬
riety of colours, as white, green, red, brown, and
bluiih.
The feveral kinds of nephritic ftone, and the lapis
divinus or jade, are all genuine jafpers; but the hard,
bright, green jafper of the Eaft Indies, feems to be
the true kind. It is found in maffes of various fizes
and ihapes : but the more ufual ftandard as to fize is
between four and fix inches in diameter; tho’there are
maffes of it found of a foot or more in diameter,, and
others no larger than a horfe-bean. It is generally
fimple and unmixed: but if it be variegated at all, it
is always with white ; and this is difpofed not in ftreaks
or veins, but in clouds. It is capable of a very fine
polifh ; and, when the white clouds are well difpofed,
is very beautiful; and, in pieces not too thick, is to¬
lerably pellucid when held up againft the light.
JASPONYX, in natural hiftory, the pureft horn
coloured onyx, with beautiful green zones, which are
compofed of the genuine matter of the fineft jafpers.
Bee Jasper and Onyx.
JATROPHA, the cassada-plant ; a genus of
the monodelphia order, belonging to the monoecia
clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies; the. moft re¬
markable of which is the manihot or manioc,-the root
of which is naturally poifonous, but may be deprived of
that quality, and made into bread ; and as fuch is ufed
both in Africa and America, though it hath been dif-
puted whether the plant is really a native of the latter
country, or imported to it from Africa. The fhrub
rifes feven or eight feet high, with a thin bark, that
is grey, red, or violet, according to the different co¬
lours of the wood which it covers- The trunk and
branches are filled with fmall prominences or knots,
exhibiting the veftigia of the fallen leaves ; for as. the
tree increafes in height, the leaves relinquilh the bot¬
tom of the branches, and are only to be found near the
top. The wood is foft and brittle. The plant is bet¬
ter propagated by layers fhan from feed; at leaft,
little of the root proper for eating is to be obtained Jatropha.
by the latter method. The principal root produces
fuckers, in number from four to feven, and of different
length and thicknefs, according to the age of the tree
and goodnefs of the foil. The bark of the roots is
like that of the trunk, grey, when the wood is grey;
red, when red ; white, when white : but the infide
or heart is always white, and of the confiftence of
turnip.
The roots of white manioc are ripe in eight months;
thofe of the other kind require 14 or 18 months to at¬
tain their full fize and maturity. When ripe, they
are plucked out of the earth by tearing up the whole
tree, which never fails to be accompanied by the root;
and if in that operation any of the offsets fhould be
feparated from the main root, which is eafily obferved,
they take them up with a hoe. It requires no great
force to pluck up thefe (hrubs ; for, befides that the
foil is of a foft nature, the roots do not penetrate very
deep into it.
When plucked up, the negroes deftined for this work
grate or rafp the bark with a blunt knife, as is done
to turnips, and then throw them into a tub full of wa¬
ter. They are then reduced to a powder or meal, refem-
bling the coarfe fawings of wood : this is effected by
rubbing the root very forcibly againft a copper file or
grater, about 15 or x'8 inches long, and 10 or i 2
broad, that is faftened by fmall nails upon a plank of
timber, three feet and a half long and one broad.
The negro, who files, puts one end of the plank into
a wooden trough or tub, and holds the other againft
his ftomach ; at his fide is a balket, containing roots
that are rafped, wafhed, and fit for being filed ; one
of thefe betakes in each hand, and paffes it violently
upon the file or grater, till it is reduced to a rough
powder.
All the roots being grated in this manner, they
take the pow'der and put it into a prefs, with a view
to fqueeze out the juice, which is regarded as a very
ftrong poifon, not only for men, but for beafts alfo,
who drink of it, or chance to eat-of thefe roots before
the juice is expreffed. It is remarkable, that animals
which die in confequence of having fwallowed any
quantity of tins fubllance, have their breafts prodi-
gioufly fvvelled, without any vifible alteration on the
noble parts. Some have hence argued, that the juice
in queition is not effentially a poifon ; but that, poffef- •
ling a fuperfluity. of nourilhment, it proves an over¬
match to the digeftive faculties, and thus proves
mortal.
Befides this fuper-abundance of nourifhment, fays
father Labat, a part of its malignity confifts in its
coldnefs,. which flops the circulation, benumbs the
animal-fpirits, and at length canfes death : hence the
beft antidote againft this poifon is heat and violent mo¬
tion. The patient, after fwallowing large quantities
of oil, to excite anaufea and vomiting, is made.torun
as quick as he can, and drink plentifully of the ftrongeft
fpirits; in fine, every method is ufed to excite violent
heat, to roufe the fpirits, and put. the blood in mo¬
tion.
Animals which have accuftomed themfelves infen-
fibly to the juice of manioc, feel no inconvenience from
the root of it, but rather the contrary. It is in this
manner that the Turks,, by a gradual and conftant
ufe,.
JatropJba.
J A T [ 3826 ] T A V
ufe, have rendered opium a harmlefs and even exhila¬
rating medicine.
The juice of manioc lofes its malignity when heat¬
ed. The natives of the Weft-Indies, who ufe it in all
their fauces, feel no fort of inconvenience from it, be-
caufe they never ufe it till after being boiled. Of the
fame juice they make ftarch, by drying it in the fun,
where it becomes as white as fnow, and is frequently
made into cakes, which are as delicate as if made with
the fineft wheat- flour.
When the manioc is fufficiently prefled, they either
make it into bread, called caffada, or into flour for
preferving. For the firft-mentioned purpofe, they
have a plate of iron, two feet broad and half an inch
thick ; this they place upon a tripod, or on ftones,
and kindle a,fite below it. When fufficiently heated,
fo as not to admit of the touch, they lay on the whole
furface about the thicknefs of three fingers of manioc,
which lias been previoufly prefled and fifted. The heap
falls down in proportion as it roafts, and the parts
join and incorporate. This compreffion and incorpo¬
ration is aided by the perfon who roafts, flightly pafs-
ing a piece of wood over the plate. When the fide of
the cake next the plate is fufficiently done, that is,
adheres, and the colour, formerly very white, becomes
red, it is turned ; and the other fide allowed to roaft
till the fame fymptoms appear. When roafted, it is
laid in the fun for two or three hours, with a view to
diffipate any poifonous humidity, which may ftill lurk
in the root under this new form.
The infide of caflada is as white as fnow, the fides
of a pale gold colour; the fubftance, which is very
nourifliing, and of eafy digeftion, may be preferved
feven or eight months, or more, provided it is kept
dry and fometimes expofed to the fun. When dipped
in water, or put in foup, caflada fwells up to a great
height, which feems to prove its great abundance in
fubftance.
The other mode of preparation, however, is moft
common, as being more convenient for preferving, di-
ftributing to the negroes, and tranfporting from place
to place. The manioc, in this cafe, is put into a pan
or ftove that is but flightly heated, where it is conti¬
nually turned, like coffee-beans, with a fmall wooden
inftrument contrived for that purpofe. This motion
prevents it from flicking to the pan; fo that, when
dried and roafted, it has the appearance of thick red
grains of fait. This mode of preparation is much
more expeditious than the former. When dried, it is
put in granaries, where it may be preferved whole
years, if kept dry, or put into a ftove every fix
months.
This fubftance may be eat quite dry, as crumbled
bread, or as the Turks eat roafted rice. When moi-
ftened, it fwells prodigioufly.
This latter method of preparing manioc is never
pra&ifed by the natives, who ufe only caffada, which
they prepare once everjr day, or oftener, as occafion
requires; for they eat it quite hot, as being then more
delicate and agreeable to the tafte. Before their in-
tercourfe with the Europeans had procured them iron
plates, they made their caffada upon large flat ftones,
whofe thicknefs they adjufted to that purpofe. In de¬
fault of copper files or grates, they made ufe of a plank
of wood, in which were fixed very ftnall (harp bits of
pebbles.
One fort of manioc is faid to be exempt from the
poifonous quality poffeffed by the juice of the others.
It is called camoniac, that is, chief of maniocs: in
fa<St, its wood, leaves, and roots, are larger and thicker
than the others, and it is eaten without danger, or any
precaution ; but as it is longer of growing and ripen¬
ing, and the roots yield much lefs meal, becaufe lighter
and more fpungy, it is generally neglefted.
The fmall bits of manioc which have efcaped the
grater, and the clods which have not paffed the fieve,
are not ufelefs. They are dried in the ftove after the
flour is roafted, and then pounded in a mortar to a fine
white powder, with which they make foup. It is like-
wife ufed for making a kind of thick coarfe caflada,
which is roafted till almoft burnt; of this, fermented
with molafles and Weft-India potatoes, they prepare
a much efteemed drink or beverage called ouycou.
This liquor, the favourite drink of the natives, is
fometimes made extremely ftrong, efpecially on any
great occafion, as a feaft ; with this they get intoxi¬
cated, and, remembering their old quarrels, maffacre
and murder each other. Such of the inhabitants and
workmen as have not wine, drink ouycou. It is of a
red colour, ftrong, nourifhing, refrefhing, and eafily
inebriates the inhabitants, who foon accuftom them-
felves to it as eafily as beer.- The leaves of manioc
are ufed in both Indies, as thofe of fpinnage arc
with us.
JAVA, a large ifland of the Eaft Indies, lying be¬
tween 105° and 116° E. Long, and from 6° to 8° S.
Lat. extending in length 700 miles, and in breadth
about 100, It is fituated to the fouth of Borneo, and
fouth-eaft from the peninfula of Malacca, having Su¬
matra lying before it, from which it is feparated by a
narrow paffage, now fo famous in the world by the
name of the Straits of Sunda. The country is moun¬
tainous and woody in the middle; but a flat coaft, full
of bogs and marfhes, renders the air unhealthful. It
produces pepper, indigo, fugar, tobacco, rice, coffee,
cocoa-nuts, plaintains, cardamoms, and other tropical
fruits. Gold alfo, but in no great quantities, hath
been found in it. It is diverfified by many mountains,
woods, and rivers; in all which nature has very boun¬
tifully bellowed her treafures. The mountains are
many of them fo high as to be feen at the diftance of
three or four leagues. That which is called the Blue
Mountain is by far the higheft of them all, and ften
the fartheft off at fea. They have frequent and very
terrible earthquakes in this ifland, which lhake the city
of Batavia and places adjacent, to fuch £ degree, that
the fall of the houfes is expe&ed every moment. The
waters in the road are exceffively agitated, infomuch
that their motion refembles that of a boiling pot;
and in fome places the earth opens, which affords a
firange and terrible fpeftacle. The inhabitants are of
opinion, that thefe earthquakes’proceed from the moun¬
tain Parang, which is full of fulphur, faltpetre, and
bitumen. The fruits and plants of this ifland are all
in their feveral kinds excellent, and almoft out of num¬
ber. There are abundance of forefts fcattered over it,
in which are all kinds of wild beads, fuch as buffaloes,
tygers, rhinocerofes, and wild horfes, with an infinite
variety of ferpents, fome of them of an enormous lize.
Crocodiles are prodigioufly large in Java, and are found
chiefly
JAY [ 3827 1 JAV
chiefly about the mouths of rivers; for, being amphi¬
bious animals, they delight moftly in marlhes and fa-
vannahs. This creature, like the tortoife, lays its eggs
in the hot fands, without taking any further care of
them; and the fun hatches them at the proper feafon,
when they run inftantly into the water. There is, in
Ihort, no kind of animal wanting here: fowls they have
of all forts, and exquifitely good, cfpecially peacocks,
partridges, pheafants, wood-pigeons: and, for cr.rio-
fity, they have the Indian bat, which differs little in
form from ours; but its wings, when extended, mea-
fure a full yard, and the body of it is of the fize of a
rat. They have fifh in great plenty, and very good ;
fo that for the value of three-pence ther§ may be enough
bought to dine-fix or feven men. They have likewife
a multitude of tortoifes, the flefli of which is very little
inferior to veal, and there are many who think it bet¬
ter.
It is faid, that there are in the ifland upwards of
40 great towns, which, from the number of their in¬
habitants, would, in any other part of the world, me¬
rit the title of cities; and more than 4,500 villages,
befides hamlets, and ftraggling houfes, lying very
near each other, upon the fea-coaft, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of great towns: fo that, upon a fair and
moderate computation, there are within the bounds
of the whole ifland, taking in perfons of both fexes,
and of all ranks and ages, more than thirty millions
of fouls; fo that it is thrice as populous as France,
which, though twice as big, is not computed to have
more than twenty millions of inhabitants.
There are a great many princes in the ifland, of
which the moft confiderable are, the emperor of Ma-
teran, who refides at Katafura, and the kings of Ban¬
tam and Japara. Upon the firft of thefe many of the
petty princes are dependant ^ but the Dutch are ab-
folute mailers of the greateft part of the ifland, par¬
ticularly of the north coaft, though there are fome of
the princes beyond the mountains, on the fouth coaft,
who ftill maintain their independency. The natives
of the country, who are eftabliftied in the neighbour¬
hood of Batavia, and for a trad of about 40 leagues
along the mountains of the country of Bantam, are
immediately fubjedl to the governor-general. The
company fend droflards, or commilfaries, among them,
who adminifter juftice and take care of the public re¬
venues.
The city of Batavia is the capital not only of this
ifland, but of all the Dutch dominions in India. It
is an exceeding fine city, fituated in the latitude of
6° fouth, at the mouth of the river Jucatra, and in
the bofom of a large commodious bay, which may be
confidered not only as one of the fafeft harbours in
India, but in the world. The city is furrounded by
a rampart, 21 feet thick, covered on the outfide with
ftone, and fortified with 22 baftions. This rampart is
environed by a ditch 45 yards over, and full of water,
efpecially when the tides are high, in the fpring. The
avenues to the town are defended by feveral forts,
each, of which is well furnilhed with excellent brafs
cannon : no perfon is fuffered to go beyond thefe forts
without a paflport. The river Jucatra pafies through
the midft of the town, and forms 15 canals of run¬
ning water, all faced with free-ftone, and adorned
with trees that are ever green : over thefe canals are
56 bridges, befides thofe which lie without the town. Java
The ftreets are all perfedlly ftraight, and each, ge- '
nerally fpeaking, 30 feet broad. The houfes are
built of ftone, after the manner of thofe in Holland.
The city is about a league and a half in circumference,
and has five gates ; but there are ten times the num¬
ber of houfes without that there^are within it. There
is a very fine town-houfe, four Calvinift churches, be¬
fides other places of worlhip for all forts of religions,
a fpin-huys or houfe of corredlion, an orphan-houfe,
a magazine of fea-ftores, feveral for fpices, with
wharfs and cord-manufa&ures, and many other pub¬
lic buildings. The garrifon confifts commonly of be¬
tween 2000 and 3000 men. Befides the forts men¬
tioned above, there is the citadel of Batavia, a very
fine regular fortification, fituated at the mouth, of the
river, and flanked with four baftions ; two of which
command the fea, and the other two the town. It
is in this citadel that the governor-general of the In¬
dies has his palace ; over-againft which is that of the
direftor-general, who is the next perfon to the gover¬
nor. The counfellors, and other principal officers of
the company, have alfo their apartments there ; as
have likewife. the phyfician, the furgeon, and the a-
pothecaryi There are in it, befides, arfenals and ma¬
gazines, furniftied with ammunition for many years.
The city of Batavia- is not only inhabited by Dutch,
French, Portuguefe, and other Europeans, eftablifhed
here on account of trade ; but alfo by a vaft number
of Indians of different nations, Javanefe, Chinefe,
Malayans, Negroes, Amboynefe, Armenians, na¬
tives of the ifle of Bali, Mardykers or Topaffes,
Macaffers, Timers, Bougis, &c. Of the Chinefe,
there are, it is faid, about 100,000 in the ifland ; of
which, near 30,ooorefided in the city till the year 1740,
when the Dutch, pretending that they were in a plot
againft them, fent a body of troops into their quarter,
and demanded their arms, which the Chinefe readily
delivered up ; and the next day the governor fent ano¬
ther body, with orders to murder and maffacre every
one of the Chinefe, men, women, and children. Some
relate there were 20,000, others 30,000, that were
put to death, without any manner of trial: and yet
the barbarous governor, who was the inftrument of
this cruel proceeding, had the affurance to embark
for Europe, imagining he had amaffed wealth enough
to feenre him againft any profecution in Holland ;
but the Dutch* finding themfelves detefted and ab¬
horred by all mankind for this piece of tyranny, en¬
deavoured to throw the odium of it upon the governor,
though he had the hands of all the council of Batavia,
except one, to the order for the maffacre. The Hates,
therefore, difpatched a packet to the Cape of Good
Hope, containing orders to apprehend the governor,
and fend him back to Batavia to be tried. Fie was
accordingly apprehended at the Cape ; but has never
been heard of fince. It is fuppofed, he was thrown
over-board in his paffage to Batavia, that there might
be no farther inquiries into the matter ; and, it is
faid, all the wealth this merciful gentleman had a-
maffed, and fent over before him in four fhips, was
caft away in the paffage.
Befides the garrifon here, the Dutch, it is faid,
have about 15,000 men in the ifland, either Dutch,
or formed out of the feveral nations they have en-
flaved %
I B E [ 3828 ] ICE
Javelin flaved ; and they have a fleet of between 20 and 30
II. men of war, with which they give law to every power
er's' on the coalt of Afia and Africa, and to all the Euro¬
pean powers that vifit the Indian Ocean, unlefs we
fhould now except the Britifli: it was, however, but
a little before the revolution, that they expelled us
from our fettlement at Bantam.
JAVELIN, in antiquity, a fort of fpear five feet
and an half long; the (haft of which was of wood,
with a fleel point.—Every foldier in the Roman ar¬
mies had feven of thefe, which were very light and
{lender.
JAVELLO (Chryfoftome), a learned Italian Do¬
minican of the 16th century, taught philofophy and
theology at Bologna, and died about the year 1540.
He wrote a work on philofophy, another on politics,
and another on Chriftian ceconomy, which are efteem-
ed; with notes on Pomponatius, and other works,
printed in 3 vols folio.
JAWER, a city of Silefia, capital of a province of
the fame name, with a citadel, and a large fquare
furrounded with piazzas. It is 12 miles fouth-eaft of
Lignitz, 30 fouth-weft of Breflau, and 87 eaft of
Prague. E. Long. 16. 29. N. Lat. 50. 56.
JAUNDICE. 1 See (the Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
JAW, in anatomy. See there, n° tq, 25.
I.ocked in medicine. See (the/Wex fubjoin¬
ed to) Medicine.
JAY (Guy Michael le), a French gentleman, who
diftinguiflied himfelf by canfing a polyglot bible to be
printed at his own expence in 10 vols folio : but he
ruined himfelf by that impreflion, firft becaufe he
would not fuffer it to appear under the name of cardi¬
nal Richelieu, who, after the example of cardinal Xi-
menes, was ambitious of eternizing his name by this
means ; and next, becaufe he made it too dear for the
Englifh market; on which Dr Walton undertook his
.polyglot bible, which, being more commodious, redu¬
ced the price of Mr le Jay’s. After the death of his
wife, M. le Jay took orders, was made dean ofVeze-
lay in the Nivernois, and Lewis XIV. gave him the
port of counfellor of ftate.
JAZER, or Jaser, (anc. geog.), a Levitical city
in the territory of the Amorrhites beyond Jordan, 10
miles to the weft, or rather fouth-weft, of Philadelphia,
and 15 miles from Efebon; and therefore fituated be¬
tween Philadelphia and Hdhbon, on the eaft border of
the tribe of Gad, fuppofed to be the Jazorem of Jo-
fephus. In Jeremiah xlviii. mention is made of the fea
of Jazer, that is a lake ; taken either for an effufion
or overflowing of the Arnon, or a lake thro’ which it
pafles, or from which it takes its rife.
IBERIS, sciatica CRESS, or Candy-tuft; a genus
of the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The umbellata, or common candy-tuft,
hath herbaceous, fhort, round, and very branchy (talks
of tufty growth, from about fix to eight or ten inches
high ; fmall fpear-fliaped leaves, the lower ones ferra-
ted, the upper entire ; and all the (talks and branches
terminated by umbellate clufters of flowers of different
colours in the varieties. 2. The amara, or bitter can¬
dy-tuft, hath (talks branching like the former, which
rife from eight to ten or twelve inches high ; fmall,
fpear-(haped, and (lightly indented leaves; and all the
branches terminated by racemofe bunches of white
flowers in June and July. 3. The fempcrvirens, com¬
monly called tree candy-tuft, hath low underftirubby
(talks very branchy and bufliy, riling to the height of
10 or 12 inches, with white flowers in umbels at the
ends of the branches, appearing great part of the fum-
mer. 4. The femperflorens, or ever-flowering (hrubby
iberis, hath low underfhrubby (talks very branchy,
growing to the height of 18 inches, with white flowers
in umbels at the ends of the branches, appearing at all
times of the year.
Culture. The two firft kinds, being hardy annuals,
may be flowed in any common foil in the month of
March, or from that time till midflummer, and will
thus afford a fucceffion of flowers from June to Sep¬
tember, which are fucceeded by great plenty of feeds.
The other two are fomewhat tender; and therefore
muft be planted in pots, in order to be (heltered from
the winter frofts. They are eaiily propagated by flips
or cuttings.
IBEX, in zoology. See Capra.
IBIS, in ornithology. See Tantalus.
IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, of whofe works
there are only a few fragments remaining, flourilhed
550 B. C. It is faid, that he was affaffinated by
robbers; and that, when dying, he called upon Come
cranes he faw flying to bear witnefs. Some time after,
one of the murderers feeing Come cranes, faid to his
companions, “ There are the witneffes of Ibycus’s
death which being reported to the magiftrates, the
affaffins were put to the torture, and having confeffed
the fact, were hanged. Thence arofe the proverb /-
byci Grues.
ICE, in phyfiology, a folid, tranfparent, and brittle
body, formed of fome fluid, particularly water, by
means of cold. See Frost.
The younger Lemery obferves, that ice is only a re-
eftabliftiment of the parts of water in their natural
ftate ; that the mere abfence of fire is fufficient to ac¬
count for this re-eftablilhment; and that the fluidity
of water is a real fufion, like that of metals expofed to
the fire; differing only in this, that a greater quan¬
tity of fire is neceffary to the one than the other. Gal-
lileo was the firft that obferved ice to be lighter than
the water which compofed it: and hence it happens,
that ice floats upon water, its fpecific gravity being to
that of water as eight to nine. This rarefaftion of ice
feems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in wa¬
ter by freezing ; and which, being confiderably large
in proportion to the water frozen, render the body fo
much fpecifically lighter: thefe air-bubbles, during
their produ&ion, acquire a great expanfive power, fo
as to burft the containing veffels, tho’ ever fo ftrong.
See Congelation, Cold, &c.
M. Mairan, in a differtation on ice, attributes the
increafe of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement
of the parts of the water from which it is formed; the
icy (kin on the water being compofed of filaments
which are-found to be conftantly and regularly joined
at an angle of 6o°; and which, by this angular dif-
pofition, occupy a greater volume than if they were
parallel. He found the augmentation of the volume
of water by freezing, in different trials, a 14th, an
18th, a 19th, and, when the water was previoufly pur-
ICE [ 3829 ] ICE
i Ice. ged of air, only a zsdpart: that Ice, even after Its
formation, continues to expand by cold; for, after wa¬
ter had been frozen to fome thicknefs, the fluid part
being let out by a hole in the bottom of the veflel, a
continuance of the cold made the ice convex; and a
piece of ice which was at firft only a 14th part fpeci-
fically lighter than water, on being expofed fome days
to the froft, became a 12th part lighter. To this
caufe he attributes the burfting of ice on ponds.
Wax, refins, and animal-fats, made fluid by fire, in-
ftead of expanding like watery liquors, fhrink in their
return to folidity : for folid pieces of the fame bodies
fink to the bottom of the refpeftive fluids ; a proof
that thefe bodies are more denfe in their folid than in
their fluid ftate. The oils which congeal by cold, as
oil-olive, and the efiential oil of anifeeds, appear alfo
to fhrink in thpir congelation. Hence, the different
difpofitions of different kinds of trees to be burfl by,
or to refift, ftrong frofts, are by fome attributed to the
juices with which the tree abounds; being in the one
cafe watery, and in the other refinous or oily.
Icz-Houfe, a building contrived to preferve ice for
the ufe of a family in the fummer-feafon.
Ice-houfes are more generally ufed in warm coun¬
tries than with us ; particularly in Italy, where the
meaneft perfon who rents a houfe, has his vault or
cellar for ice.
As to the fituation, it ought to be placed upon a
dry fpot of ground ; becaufe wherever there is moi-
fture, the ice will melt: therefore in all ftrong lands
which retain the wet, too much pains cannot be taken
to make drains all round them. The place fhould alfo
be elevated, and as much expofed to the fun and air as
pofflble.
As to the figure of the building, that may be ac¬
cording to the fancy of the owner ; but a circular form
is moft proper for the well in which the ice is to be
preferved, which fhould be of a fize and depth pro¬
portionable to the quantity to be kept: for it is pro¬
per to have it large enough to_ contain ice for two
years confumption ; fo that if a mild winter fhould
happen, in which little or no ice is to be had, there
may be a ftock to fupply the want. At the bottom
of the well, there fhould be a fpace of about two feet
deep, left to receive any moifture that may drain from
the ice ; over this fpace fhould be placed a ftrong
wooden grate, and from thence a fmall drain fhould be
laid under ground to carry off the wet. The fides of
the well fhould be built with brick or ftone, at leaft
two bricks thick; for the thicker it is, the lefs danger
there will be of the well being affedled by any exter¬
nal caufe. When the wall is brought up within three
feet of the furface, there fhould be another outer arch
or wall begun, which fhould be carried up to the height
of the top of the intended arch of the well; and if there
be a fecond arch turned over this wall, it will add to
1 the goodnefs of the houfe: the roof muft be high
enough above the inner arch to admit of a door-way
to get out the ice. If the building is to be covered
with flates or tiles, reeds fhould be laid confiderably
thick under them, to keep out the fun and external air;
and if thefe reeds are laid the thicknefs of fix or eight
inches, and plaftered over with lime and hair, there
will be no danger of the heat getting through them.
The external wall may be built in what form the pro-
. Vol. V.
prietor pleafes; and as thefe ice-houfes are placed in fee,
gardens, they are fometimes fo contrived as to have an Ieelan(!-
handfome alcove-feat in front, with a fmall door be-
hind it, through which a perfon might enter to take
out the ice; and a large door on the other fide, front¬
ing the north, with a porch wide enough for a fmall
cart to back, in order to (hoot down the ice near the
mouth of the well, which need not be more than two
feet diameter, and a ftone fo contrived as to ftuit it up
in the exa&eft manner : all the vacant fpace above and
between this and the large door ftiould be filled up
with barley-ftraw. The building thus finiftied, ftiould
have time to dry before the ice is put into it.
It is to be obferved, that upon the wooden grate, at
the bottom of the well, there ftiould be laid fome
fmall faggots; and if upon thefe a layer of reeds is
placed fmooth for the ice to lie upon, it will be bet¬
ter than ftraw, which is commonly ufed. As to the
choice of the ice, the thinner it is, the eafier it may be
broken to powder; for the fmaller it is broken, the
better it will unite when put into the well. In putting
it in, care muft be taken to ram it as clofe as poflible;
and alfo to allow a vacancy of two inches, all round,
next the fide iof the well, to give paffage to any moi¬
fture occafioned by the melting of fome of the ice.
When the ice is put into the well, if a little falt-petrc
be mixed with it at every ten inches or a foot in thick¬
nefs, it will caufe it to unite more clofely into a folid
mafs.
lei-IJland, a name given by failors to a great quan¬
tity of ice colleited into one huge folid mafs, and
floating about upon the feas near or within the Polar
Circles.—Many of thefe flu&uating iflands are met with
on the coafts of Spitzbergen, to the great danger of
the fhipping employed in the Greenland filhery. To¬
wards the South Pole, they are ftill more numerous
and formidable; but for a particular account of thefe
iflands and their formation, fee the articles Nop.th-
Sca and South-Sea.
ICELAND, a large ifland lying in the northern
part of the Atlantic Ocean, between 63 and 68 de¬
grees of north latitude, and between 10 and 26 de¬
grees of weft longitude, itsgreateft length being about
700 miles, and its breadth 300.
This country lying partly within the frigid zone, General ac-
and being liable to be furrounded with vaft quantities count of the
of ice which come from the Polar Seas, is on account country,
of the coldnefs of its climate very inhofpitable ; but
much more fo for other reafons. It is exceedingly
fubjeft to earthquakes ; and fo full of volcanoes, that
the little part of it which appears fit for the habita¬
tion of man feems almoft totally laid wafte by them.
The beft account that hath yet appeared of the ifland
of Iceland is in a late publication intitled, “ Let¬
ters on Iceland, &c. written by Uno Von Troll, D.D.
firft chaplain to his Swedifh majefty.” This gentle¬
man failed from London on the 12th of July 1772, in
company with Mr Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James
Lind ofEdinburgh, in a (hip for which L. 100 Ster¬
ling was paid every month. After vifiting the we-
ftern ifles of Scotland, they arrived on the 28th of Au-
guft at Iceland, where they call anchor at Beffeftedr Or
Beffaftadr, lying in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the we-
ftern part of the ifland. The country had to them the
moft difmal appearance that can be conceived. “ I-
21 U magine
ICE [ 3830 ] ICE
Iceland, magine to yourfelf (fays Dr Troil,) a country, which
from one end to the other prefents to your view only
barren mountains, whofe fummits are covered with
eternal fnow, and between them fields divided by vitri¬
fied cliffs, whofe high and fharp points feem to vie
with each other to deprive you of the fight of a little
grafs which fcantily fprings up among them. Thefe
fame dreary rocks likewife conceal the few fcattered
habitations of the natives, and no where a fingle tree
appears which might afford flicker to friendfhip and
innocence. The profpedl before us, though not plea-
fing, was uncommon and furprifing. Whatever pre-
fented itfelf to our view bore the marks of devaftation ;
and our eyes, accuftomed to behold the pleafing coafls
of England, now faw? nothing but the vefiiges of the
operation of a fire, Heaven knows how ancient!
“ On our landing, we found two tradfs of lava,
called gorde and htialeyre-hraun, (for what we and the
Italians call lava, is called in Iceland hraun, from
hritma, “ to flow”), of which the laft wras particularly
remarkable, fince we find there a whole field covered
with lava, w’hich muft have been liquefied in the higheft
degree ; and whole mountains of turf. Chance had
diredfedus exadlly to a fpot on which we could better
than on any other part of Iceland confider' the opera¬
tions of a fire which had laid wafle a ftretch of 10 or
12 miles (a).
Mount “ We had now feen almofl all the effedls of a vol-
Hecla de- cano except the crater from whence the fire proceed-
fcribed. C(]. ancl order to examine this likewife, we under¬
took a journey of 12 days to mount Hecla itfelf. We
travelled 50 or 60 miles, (300 or 360 Englifh ones,)
over an uninterrupted track of lava, and had at laft the
pleafure of being the firft who ever reached the fummit
of this celebrated volcano. The reafon that no one
has been there before is partly founded in fuperftition,
and partly in the extreme difficulty of the afcent be¬
fore the laft difcharge of fire, which happened in 1766.
This mountain has been more taken notice of than
many others in the country of as great extent, partly
from its having vomited fire more frequently, and part¬
ly from its fituation, which expofes it to the fight of
fliips failing to Greenland and North America. It is
fituated in the fourhern part of the ifland, about four
milts from the fea-coaft, and is divided into three
points at the top ; the higheft of which is that in the
middle ; and is, according to an exaft obfervation
with Ramfden’s barometer, 5000 feet higher than the
fea. We made ufe of our horfes, but were obliged to
ejpiit them at the firft opening from which the fire had
burft. This was a place furrounded with lofty glazed
Walls, and filled with high glazed cliffs, which I can¬
not compare with any thing I ever faw before.
“ A little higher up, we found a large quantity of
grit and ftones; and (till farther on, another opening,
which, though not deep, defeended lower down than
that of the higheft point. We thought we plainly ob-
ferved marks of hot boiling water in this place. Not
far from thence the mountains began to be covered
with fnow, fomc fmall fpots excepted, which were
bare. We could not at firft difeern the caufe of this
difference, but foon found that it proceeded from the
vapour which arofe from the mountain. As we Iceland,
afeended higher, thefe fpots became larger ; and about ^
200 yards from the fummit, we found a hole of about
one yard and a half in diameter, from which fo hot a
fleam exhaled, that it prevented us from afeertaining
the degree of heat with the thermometer.
“ The cold now began to be very intenfe, as Fah¬
renheit's thermometer,’ which was at 54 at the foot of
the mountain fell to 24. The wind was alfo become fo
violent, that we were fometimes obliged to lie down,
to avoid being thrown into the moft dreadful precipi¬
ces by its fury.
“ We were now arrived at one of the higheft fum¬
mits, when our conductor who did not take great
pleafure in the walk, endeavoured to peifuade us that
this was the higheft part of the mountains. We had
juft finifhed our obfervations, and found by them that
Ramfden’s barometer flood at 24.238, and the ther¬
mometer fixed to it at 27, when happily the clouds
divided, and we difeovered a ftill higher fummit.
Here we experienced at one and the fame time a high
degree of heat and cold ; for in the air Fahrenheit’s
thermometer was conftantly at 24, and when we fet
it down on the ground it rofe to 153. The barometer
was here at 22.247.—We could not fafely remain here
for any long time, though we were very much inclined
to it; and therefore defeended, after having confidered
the laft opening there, one of the fides of which was
entirely overturned, and the other quite covered with
afties and grit. In our return we obferved three con-
fiderable openings, in one of which every thing looked
as red as brick. From another the Java had flowed
in a ftream of about 50 yards in breadth, and at fome
diftance from thence the flream divided into three
broad arms. Further on we found a large circular
opening, at the bottom of which we obferved a moun¬
tain in the form of a fugar-loaf, in throwing up of
which the fire feemed to have exhaufted itfelf.
“ The mountain does not confift of lava, but chiefly
of fand, grit, and afties; which are thrown up with
the ftones partly melted and partly difcoloured by the
fire. We likewife found feveral forts of pumice, and
among them one piece with fome fulphur in it. The
pumice was fometimes fo much burnt, that it was as
light as tow; their form and colour was fometimes
very fine, but at the fame time fo foft, that it was dif¬
ficult to remove them from one place to another. Of
the common lava we found both large pieces and fmall
bits ; as likewife a quantity of black jafper burned at
the extremities, and refembling trees and branches.
Among the ftones thrown out of the mountain we
faw fome flate of a ftrong red colour. In one place
the lava had taken the form of chimney-ftalks half-
broken down. 3
“ It fcarcely ever happens that any of the Iceland Symptom*
volcanoes begin to throw out fire unexpetfledly. For Precet|jn8
belides a loud rumbling noife which is heard at a con- tiontJT '
fiderable diftance, for feveral days preceding any e-
ruption, and a roaring and cracking in the part from
whence the fire is going to burft forth, many fiery
meteors are obferved, but unattended in general with
any violent concuffion of the earth, though fometimes' f
earth-
(a) The miles mentioned by Dr Troil are always Swedifh, ten and an half of which are equal to a degree on one
of the great circles on the globe; and therefore one Swedith mile is nearly equal to fix Engliih miles. Ten or twelve
fuch miles are, confequently, equal to 60 or 70 Englifti ones.
ICE [ 3831 ] ICE
>by the
o| ptions.
I 5
■pory of
r» erup-
earthquakes, of which the Liftory of the country af¬
fords feveral inftances, have accompanied thefe dread¬
ful conflagrations.—It is likewife confidered as a fign
of an impending eruption, when fmall lakes, rivulets,
and ftreams, dry up. Some perfons believe, that it
does not a little contribute to haften the eruption,
when the mountain is fo covered with ice that the
holes are flopped up through which the exhalations
formerly found a free paflage ; and though it is by no
means probable that this contributes much to it, it
cannot be denied that the fire is generally contained
in thefe mountains covered with ice, or, as the Ice¬
landers call them, jokuls.
“ The fign of an eruption going to take place im¬
mediately, is the burfling of the mafs of ice with a
dreadful noife. Flames then burft forth, and light¬
ning and balls of fire iflue from the fmoke. With the
flames proceed a number of larger and fmaller ftones,
which are fometimes thrown to an incredible diftance.
A round ftone about a Swedifh ell (two feet) in dia¬
meter was thrown from Hecla, in thelaft eruption, to
the diftance of near fix Englilh miles. Egbert Olafs-
fen alfo relates, that at the laft eruption of Kattlegiaa,
another volcano, a ftone which weighed 290 pounds
was thrown to the diftance of 24 Englilh miles. A
quantity of white pumice-ftone is alfo thrown up,
with the boiling waters; and it is conjedlured with
great probability that the latter proceed from the fea,
as a quantity of fait fufficient to load feveral horfes
has frequently been found after the mountain has
ceafed to burn.—Then follow generally brown or black
pumice ftone, fand, allies, and lava.
“ The lava is feldom found near the opening ; but
rather tufa, or loofe alhes and grit; and indeed the
greater part of the Icelandic mountains confift of this
matter, which, when it is grown cold, generally takes
an arched form. The upper cruft frequently grows
hard and folid, whilft the melted matter beneath it
continues liquid; this forms great cavities, whofe
walls, bed, and roof, are of lava, and where great
quantities of ftaladtite of lava are found. There are a
great number of thefe caves in Iceland, fome of which
are very large, and are made ufe of by the inhabitants
for flickering their cattle. The largeft in the ifland is
5034 feet long, from 50 to 54 in breadth, and be¬
tween 34 and 36 in height.
“ Among the traces left by the eruptions of the
Iceland volcanoes, are fome prodigious clefts, the
largeft of which is called Almetmcggiaa, near the water
of Tingalla in the fouth-weftern part of the ifland.
It is 105 feet in breadth, and of great length. The
dire&ion of the chafm itfelf is from north to fouth.
Its weftern wall, from which the other has been per¬
pendicularly divided is 107 feet fix inches in height,
and confifts of many ftrata (each of which is about 10
inches in height) of lava grown cold at different times,
as may eafily be difeovered by the apparent cruft which
is full of blitters, of a darker brown, and not fo much
compreffed as the remaining part of the mafs of lava.
The eaftern wall is only 45 feet 4 inches in height;
and that part of it which is direftly oppofite to the
higheft part of the other fide is no more than 36 feet
five inches high.
“ The eruptions of the Iceland volcanoes are no lefs
terrible and deftru&ive than thofe of Vefuvius and
iEtna. The firft mentioned in the ancient records Iceland,
happened in the ninth century, immediately after the ———
arrival of the Norwegians on the ifland; and produced
a lava three miles in length, and two and a half in
breadth. After this there is no mention made of e-
ruptions till the year 1000, when Chriftianity was
introduced. At a time when the chiefs of the coun¬
try were affembled to confult about the reception of
the Chriftian religion, information was brought that
an eruption of fire had happened. The heathens con¬
fidered this as a proof of the wrath of the gods, on
which account they were refolved to refufe the new
religion ; but this refolution was over-ruled by one of
the affembly alking, “ On whom did the gods difplay
their wrath, when thofe rocks on which we now ftand
were on fire ?”—In 1311, 22 farms were deftroyed by
eruptions, and 70 more in 1366. Hecla deftroyed
two in 1374; feven in 1390; and 18 in one day in
1436. In the fame manner five farms were deftroyed
in 1660, and many more in 1693. In 1727, 600
ftieep and 150 horfes were deftroyed by the flood and
pieces of ice which rufhed down the fide of a volcano
during an eruption. In 1728, many farms were de¬
ftroyed, and a large lake entirely dried up. Intothis
lake the ftreams of fire that rolled from the mountains
flowed during fome years, and formed a traeft of lava
four miles in length, and one and a half in breadth.
In 1755 fix parifhes were deftroyed j and, in the laft
eruption of Hecla, a tratt of many miles was laid
watte. 6
“ In the eruption of 1755, a flafli of lightning Lightning
was feen to burft from the flame, and pierced through proceeds
the cliffs which intercepted its way. The fame light- *)oni t^.e,
ning in one place killed eleven horfes, three of which mountain
were in a liable. A farmer was alfo killed by it near
the door of his room : his upper cloaths, which were
woollen, remained entirely unhurt; but his Ihirt and
waiftcoat, which were both of linen, were burnt ; and
when his clothes were pulled off, it was found that
the flelh and Ikin on his right fide were confumed to
the very bones. The maid-fervant who wanted to
affift him in faving the cattle was likewife ftruck by
the lightning ; but did not die till fome days after,
during which time flie fuffered inexpreflible torture.
It is likewife faid that her cloaths were finged by the
glutinous fires which cleaved to her body. Account of
“ Iceland abounds with hot and boiling fprings, the hot
fome of which fpout up intp the air to a furprifing fprings of
height. All the jets d’eau which have been contrived lceland.
with fo much art, and at fuch an enormous expence,
cannot by any means be compared with thefe wonders
of nature in Iceland. The water-works at Herenhaufen
throw up a tingle column of water of half a quarter of
a yard in circumference to a height of about 70 feet;
thofe at the Winterkaften at Cafl'el, throw it up, but
in a much thinner column, 130 feet; and the jet
d’eau at St Cloud, which is thought the greateft of
all the French water-works, catts up a thin column
80 feet into the air: but fome fprings in Iceland pour
forth columns of water feveral feet in thicknefs to the
height of many fathoms; and many affirm, of feveral
hundred feet.
“ Thefe fprings are unequal in their degrees of
heat; but we have obferved none under 188 degrees
of Fahrenheit*^ thermometer, in fome it is 192, 193,
21 U 2 212,
ICE [ 3S3
Iceland. 212, and In one fmall vein of water 213 degrees.
* From fome the water flows gently, and the fpring is
then called laug, a “ bath from others it fpouts
s with a great noife, and is then called taw, or kittel.
It is very common for fome of thefe fpouting fprings
to clofe up, and others to appear in their (lead. All
thefe hot waters have an incrufting quality, fo that
we very commonly find the exterior furface from whence
it burlts forth covered with a kind of rind, which al-
moft refembles chafed work, and which we at firft
took for lime, but which was afterwards found by
Mr Bergman to be of a filiceous or flinty nature. In
fome places the water tafl.es of fulphur, in others not;
but when drank as foon as it is cold, taftes like com¬
mon boiled water. The inhabitants ufe it at particu¬
lar times for dyeing; and were they to adopt proper
regulations, it might be of ftill greater ufe. Viftuals
may alfo be boiled in it, and milk held over its fleam
becomes fweet: owing, moft probably, to theexceffive
heat of the water, as the fame efFedt is produced by
boiling it a long time over the fire. They have be¬
gun to make fait by boiling fea-water over it, which
when it is refined, is very pure and good. THe cows
which drink this hot water yield a great deal of milk.
Egbert Olafsen relates* that the water does not be¬
come turbid when alkali is thrown into it, nor does
it change the colour of fyrup of violets. Horrebow
aflerts, that if you fill a bottle at one of the fpouting
fprings, the water will boil over two or three times
while the fpring throws forth its water; and if corked
8 too foon, the bottle will burft.
A particu- “ Among the many hot fprings to be met with in
Jar defer!p- Iceland, feveral bear the name n't geyfer ; the follow¬
ing is a defeription of the moft remarkable of that
name, and in the whole ifland. It is about two days
journey from Hecla, near a farm called Haukadal.
Here a poet would have an opportunity of painting
whatever nature has of beautiful and terrible, united
in one pi&ure, by delineating this furprifing pheno¬
menon. Reprefent to yourfelf a large field, where
you fee on one fide, at a great diftance, high moun¬
tains covered with ice, whofe fummits are generally
wrapped in clouds, fo that their fharp and unequal
points become invifible. This lofs, however, is com-
penfated by a certain wind, which caufes the clouds to
fink, and cover the mountain itfelf when its fummit
appears as it were to reft on the clouds. On the other
fide Hecla is feen, with its three points covered with
ice, rifing above the clouds, and, with the fmoke which
afeends from it, forming other clouds at fome diftance
from the real ones : and on another fide is a ridge of
high rocks, at the foot of which boiling water from
time to time ifiues forth; and further on extends a
marfh of about three Englifh miles in circumference,
where are 40 or 50 boiling fprings, from which a va¬
pour afeends to a prodigious height.—In the midft of
thefe is the greateft fpring geyfer, which deferves a
more exaft and particular account. In travelling to
the place about an Englifh mile and an half from the
hver, from which the ridge of rocks flill divided us,
we heard a loud roaring noife, like the rufhing of a
torrent precipitating itfelf from ftupendous rocks.
We afked our guide what it meant ; he anfwertd, it
was geyfer roaring ; and we foon faw with our naked
eyes what before feemed almbft incredible.
named
Geyfer.
2 ] ICE
“ The depth of the opening or pipe from which Iceland.
the water gufhes cannot well be determined ; for fome-
times the water funk down feveral fathoms, and fome
feconds pafled before a ftone which was thrown into
the aperture reached the furface of the water. The
opening itfelf was perfeftly round, and 19 feet in dia¬
meter, and terminated in a bafon 59 feet in diameter.
Both the pipe and the bafon were covered with a
rough ftala&ic rind, which had been formed by the
force of the water : the outermoft border of the bafon
is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itfelf.
The water here fpouted feveral times a-day, but al¬
ways by ftarts; and after certain intervals. The peo¬
ple who lived in the neigbourhood told us, that they
rofe higher in cold and bad weather than at other
times; and Egbert Olafsen and feveral others affirm,
that it has fpouted to the height of 60 fathoms. Moft
probably they gueffed only by the eye, and on that
account their calculation may be a little extravagant;
and indeed it is to be doubted whether the water was
ever thrown up fo high, though probably it fome-
times mounts higher than when we obferved it. The
method we took to obferve the height was as follows.
Every one in company wrote down, at each time that
the water fpouted, how high it appeared to him to
be thrown, and we afterwards chofe the medium.
The firft column marks the fpoutings of the water,
in the order in which they followed one another ; the
fecond, the time when thefe effufions happened ; the
the third, the height to which the water rofe; and
the laft, how long each fpouting of water continued.
The pipe was now for the firft time full of water,
which ran flowly into the bafon.
■* 9 IX. 25 48 1 10
10 X. 16 24 1 00
“ At 35 minutes after twelve we heard as it were
three difeharges of a gun under ground, which made
it (hake: the water flowed over immediately, but in-
ftantly funk again. At eight minutes after two, the
water flowed over the border of the bafon. At 15
minutes after three, we again heard fevera! fubterranean
noifes, though not fo Itrong as before. At 43 mi¬
nutes after four, the water flowed over very ftrongly
during the fpace of a minute. In fix minutes after,
we heard many loud fubterraneous difeharges, not
only near the fpring, but alfo from the neighbouring
ridge of rocks where the water fpouted. At 51 mi¬
nutes after fix, the fountain fpouted up to the height
of 92 feet, and continued to do fo for four minutes.
After this great effort, it funk down very low into the
pipe, and was entirely quiet during feveral minutes;
but foon began to bubble again: it was not, how¬
ever, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of
the pipe.
“ The force of the vapours which throw up thefe
waters is exceffive; it not only prevents the flones
which
ICE [ 3833 ] ICE
d[fbland. which are thrown into the opening from finking, but
■* ~ even throws them up to a very great height, together
■with the water. When the baion was full, we placed
ourfelves before the fun in fuch a manner that we
could fee our fhadows in the water; when every one
obferved round the ihadow of his own head (though
I not round that of the heads of others,) a circle of al-
moft the fame colours which compofe the rainbow,
and round this another bright circle. This moft
probably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from
the water.
“ Not far from this place, another fpring at the
foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks fpouted water
to the height of one or two yards each time. The
opening through which this water iffued, was not fo
wide as the other: we imagined it poffible to flop up
the hole entirely by throwing large ftones into it,
and even flattered ourfelves that our attempt had fuc-
ceeded: but, to our aftonifhment, the water guflied
forth in a very violent manner. We haftened to the
pipe, and found all the ftones thrown afide, and the
water playing freely through its former channel. In
thefe large fprings the waters were hot in the higheft
degree, and tafted a little of fulphur; but in other
refpedls it was pure and clear. In the fmaller
fprings of the neighboorhood the water was tainted:
in fome, it was as muddy as that of a clay-pit; in
others, as white as milk; and, in fome few, as red as
g blood.
xount of* “ Iceland abounds with pillars of bafaltes, which
: bafaltic the lower fort of people imagine have been piled upon
lars. each other by the giants, who made ufe of fuperna-
tural force to effed. it. They have generally from
three to feven Tides; and are from four to fix feet in
thicknefs, and from 12 to 16 yards in length, without
any horizontal divifions.. But fometimes they are
only from fix inches to otie foot in height, and
they are then very regular, infomuch that they are
fometimes made ufe of for windows and door-pofts.
In fome places they only peep out here and there
among the lava, or more frequently among the tufa;
!' in other places they are quite overthrown, and pieces
of broken pillars only make their appearance. Some¬
times they extend without interruption for two or
three miles in length. In one mountain they have a
Angular appearance: on the top the pillars lie hori¬
zontally, in the middle they are Hoping ; the lowed
are perfe&ly perpendicular; and in fome parts they
are bent into a femicircular figure. The matter of
the Iceland bafaltes feems to be the fame with that of
Staffa; though in fome it is more porous, and inclines
to a grey. Some we obferved which were of a black-
i(h grey, and corapofed of feveral joints. Another
time we obferved a kind of porous glafly ftone, con¬
i'- fequently a lava, which was fo indiftinftly divided,
that we were for fome time at a lofs to determine whe¬
ther it was bafaltes or not, though at laft we all agreed
that it was.”
I 'coiim cf "^*ie c'‘mate Iceland is not unwholefome or na-
J ^ climste* turally fubjedf to exce-flive colds, notwithftanding its
northerly fituation. There have been inftances in¬
deed of Fahreinheit’s thermometer finking to 240 be¬
low the freezing point in winter, and rifing to 104°
in fummer. Since the year 1749, obfervations have
been made on the weather; and the refult of thefe ob¬
fervations. hath been unfavourable, as the coldnefs of Iceland,
the climate is thought to be on the increafe, and of "
confequence the country is in danger of becoming
unfit for the habitation of the human race. Wood,
which formerly grew in great quantities all over the
ifland, cannot now be raifed. Even the hardy firs of
Norway cannot be reared in this ifland. They fcemed
indeed to thrive till they were about two feet high ;
but then their tops withered, and they ceafed to grow.
This is owing chiefly to the ftorms and hurricanes
which frequently happen in the months of May and
June, and which are very unfavourable to vegetation
of every kind. In 1772, governor Thodal fowed a
little barley, which grew very brilkly ; but, a fliort
time before it was to be reaped, a violent llorn| fo
effedtually deftroyed it, that only a few grains were jr
found fcattered about. Befides thefe violent winds, Deftruflive
this ifland lies under another difadvantage, owing to effetts of
the floating ice already mentioned, with which the ice.
coafts arc often befet. This ice comes on by degrees,
always with an eafterly wind, and frequently in fuch
quantities as to fill up all the gulphs on the north-
weft fide of the ifland, and even covers the fea as far
as the eye can reach; it alfo fometimes drives to other
ihores. It generally comes in January, and goes away
in March. Sometimes it only reaches the land in
April; and, remaining there for a long time, does an
incredible deal of mifehief. It conlifts partly of
mountains of ice, faid to be fometimes 60 fathoms in
height; and partly of field-ice, which is neither fo
thick nor fo much dreaded. Sometimes thefe
enormous mafles are grounded in flioal water; and
in thefe cafes they remain for many months, nay
years, undifiblved, chilling the atmofphere for a
great way round. s When many fuch bulky and
lofty ice-mafles are floating together, the wood
which is often found drifting between them, is fo
much chafed, and prefled with fuch violence together,
that it fometimes takes fire; which circumftance has
occafioned fabulous accounts of. the ice being in
flames.
In 1753 ai,d 1754, this ice occafioned fuch a vio¬
lent cold, that horfes and Iheep dropped down dead
by reafon of it, as well as for want of food ; horfes
were obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the (beep
eat of each other’s wool. In 1755, towards the end
of the month of May, the waters were frozen over in
one night to the thicknefs of an inch and five lines.
In 1756, on the 26th of June, fnow fell to the depth
of a yard, and continued falling through the months
of July and Auguft. In the year following it froze
very hard towards the end of May and beginning of
June, in the Couth part of the ifland, which occafioned
a great fcarcity of grafs. Thefe frofts are generally
followed by a famine, many examples of which are to
be found in the Icelandic chronicles. Befides thefc
calamities, a number of bears annually arrive with the
ice, which commit great ravages among the Iheep.
The Icelanders attempt to deftroy thefe intruders as
foon as they get fight of them. Sometimes they af-
femble together, and drive them back to the ice, with
which they often float off again. For want of fire¬
arms, they are obliged to ufe fpears pn thefe occa-
fions. The government alfo encourages the deftruc*
tion of thefe animals, by paying a premium of 10
dollars
ICE [ 3834 ] ICE
Iceland, dollars for every bear that is killed, and purchafing
the ikin of him who killed it.
Thunder and lightning are feldom heard in Iceland,
except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora
Borealis is very frequent and ftrong. It mod com¬
monly appears in dry weather; though there are not
'wanting inftances of its being feen before or after rain,
or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which
prognofticates bad weather, is likewife very frequent
here; as are alfo parhelions, which appear from one
to nine in number at a time. Thefe parhelions are
obferved chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice,
when an intenfe degree of froft is produced, and the
frozen vapours fill the' air. Fire-balls, fometimes
round, and fometimes oval, are obferved, and a kind
of fatuus which attaches itfelf to men and beads;
and comets are alfo frequently mentioned in their
chronicles. This laft circumftance deferves the atten¬
tion of aftronotners.
Iceland, befides all the inconveniencies already men¬
tioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the na¬
tives Jkrida and fnioflodi: the name of the firft imports
large pieces of a mountain tumbling down and de-
flroying the lands and houfes which lie at the foot of
• it: this happened in 1554, when a whole farm was
ruined, and 13 people buried alive. The other word
fignifies the effe&s of a prodigious quantity of fnow,
which covers the tops of the mountains, rolling down
in immenfe mafles, and doing a great deal of damage:
of this there was an inftance in 1699, during the
night, when two farms were buried, with all their in¬
habitants and cattle. This laft; accident Iceland has
in common with all very mountainous countries, parti¬
cularly Switzerland.
Hiftoi-1 of wbat time the iflandof Iceland was firft peopled
the ifland. is uncertain. An Englilh colony indeed is faid to
have been fettled there in the beginning of the fifth
century; but of this there are not fufficient proofs.
There is, however, reafon to fuppofe, that the Englifti
and Iriftt were acquainted with this country under
another name, long before the arrival of the Norwe¬
gians; for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accu¬
rate defcription of the ifland. But of thefe original
inhabitants we cannot pretend to fay any thing, as
the Iceland chronicles go no farther back than the
arrival of the Norwegians. What they relate is to the
following purpofe.
Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coaft
of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snio-land,
“ Snow-land,” on account of the great quantities of
fnow with which he perceived the mountains covered.
He did not remain there long; but, on his return, ex¬
tolled the country to fuch a degree, that one Garder
Suafarfon, an enterprifing Swede, was encouraged by
his account to go in fearch of it in 864. He failed
quite round the ifland, and gave it the name of Gardal-
Jhohtiur, or Garder’s-ifland. Having remained in Ice¬
land during the winter, he returned in the fpring to
Norway, where he defcribed the new-difcovered ifland
qs a pleafant well-wooded country. This excited a
defire in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greateft
navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither.
As the compafs was then unknown, he took three
ravens on board to employ them on the difcovery. By
the way he vifited his friends at Ferro ; and having
failed farther to the northwaed, he let fly one of his
ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he
difmifled the fecond, which returned to the fliip again,
as he could find no land. The laft trial proved more
fuccefsful; the third raven took his flight to Iceland,
where the (hip arrived a few days after. Floke ftaid
here the whole winter with his company; and, be-
caufe he found a great deal of floating ice on the north
fide, he gave the country the name of Iceland, which it
has ever fince retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following
fpring, Floke, and thofe that had been with him,
made a very different -defcription of the country.
Floke defcribed it as a wretched place; while one of
his companions, named Thorulfr, praifed k fo highly,
that he affirmed butter dropped from every plant ;
which extravagant commendation procured him the
name of Tborulfr-fmior, or Butter-Thorulfr.
From this time there are no accounts of any voyages
to Iceland, till Ingolfr and his friend Leifr undertook
one in 874. They fpent the winter on the ifland,
and determined to fettle there for the future. Ingolfr
returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be
neceffary for the comfortable eftablifliment of a co¬
lony, and Leifr in the mean time went to aflift in the
w'ar in England. After an interval of four years,
they again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him
a confiderable number of people, with the. neceffary
tools and inftruments for making the country habita¬
ble; and the other imported his acquired treafures.
After this period, many people went there to fettle;
and, in the fpace of 60 years, the whole ifland was in¬
habited. The tyranny of Harold king of Norway
contributed not a little to the population of Iceland;
and fo great was the emigration of his fubje&s, that
he was at laft obliged to iffue an order that no one
fhould fail from Norway to Iceland, without paying
four ounces of fine filver to the king.
Befides the Norwegians, new’ colonies arrived from
different nations, between whom wars foon commen¬
ced ; and the Icelandic hiftories are full of the ac¬
counts of their battles. To prevent thefe confli&s
for the future, a kind of chief was chofen in 928,
upon whom great powers were conferred. This man
was the fpeaker in all their public deliberations; pro¬
nounced fentence in difficult and intricate cafes; de¬
cided all difputes; and publifhed new laws, after they
had been received and approved of by the people at
large: but he had no power to make laws, without
the approbation and confent of the reft. He there¬
fore affembled the chiefs, whenever the circumftances
feemed to require it; and, after they had deliberated
among themfelves, he reprefented the opinion of the
majority to the people, whofe affent was neceffary be¬
fore it could be confidered as a law. His authority
among the chiefs and leaders, however, was inconfi-
derable, as he w’as chofen by them, and retained his
place no longer than while he preferved their confi¬
dence.
This inftitution did not prove fufficient to re-
ftrain the turbulent fpirits of the Icelanders. They
openly waged war with each other; and, by their in-
teftine conflifts, fo weakened all parties, that the
whole became at laft a prey to a few arbitrary and
enterprifing men: who, as is too generally the cafe,
ICE [ 3835 ] I O E
telanj. wantonly abufed their power to the oppreffion of their
countrymen, and the difgrace of humanity. Net-
withdanding thefe troubles, however, the Icelanders
remained free from a foreign yoke till 1261 ; when the
greateft part of them put themfelves under the pro-
tefh’on of Hakans king of Norway, promifmg to pay
him tribute upon certain conditions agreed on between
them; and the reft followed their example in 1264.
Afterwards, Iceland, together with Norway, became
fubjeft to Denmark. For a long time the care of
the ifland was committed to a governor, who com¬
monly went there once a-year; though, according to
his inftru&ions, he ought to have refided in Iceland.
As the country fuffered incredibly through the abfence
of its governors, it was refolved a few years ago that
they (hould refide there, and have their feat at Bef-
fefftedr, one of the old royal domains. He has un¬
der him a baililf, two laymen, a fheriff, and 21 fyffel-
7)ien, or magiftrates who fuperintend fmall diftrifts;
and almo'ft every thing is decided according to the
13 laws of Denmark.
tners At the firfl fettlement of the Norwegians in Iceland,
iriders' t^e)r '‘ve^ *n t^ie fame manner as they had done in
j ‘ their own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their
lituation with regard to the kings of Norway, how¬
ever, foon obliged them to apply to other flates, in
order to learn as much of the knowledge of govern¬
ment and politics as was neceflary to preferve their
1 colony from fubjugation to a foreign yoke. For this
purpofe they often failed to Norway, Denmark, Swe¬
den, England, and Scotland. The travellers, at their
return, were obliged to give an account to their chiefs
of the ftate of thofe kingdoms through which they
paifed. For this reafon, hiftory, and what related to
fcience, was held in high repute as long as the repu¬
blican form of government lafted; and the great num¬
ber of hiftories to be met with in the country, (hew at
lealt the defire of the Icelanders to be inftru&ed. To
fecure themfelves, therefore, againfl their powerful
neighbours, they were obliged to enlarge their hifto-
rical knowledge. They likewife took great pains in
Undying perfectly their own laws, for the maintenance
and prote&ibnr of their internal fecurity. Thus Ice¬
land, at a time when ignorance and obfeurity over¬
whelmed the reft of Europe, was enabled to produce
a conllderable number of poets and hiftorians. When
the Chriftian religion was introduced about the e/id
of the 10th century, more were found converfant in
the law than could have been expefled, confidering
the extent of the country, and the number of its inha¬
bitants. Fifhing was followed among them; but they
devoted their attention confiderably more to agricul-
culture, which has fince entirely ceafed.
Two things have principally contributed towards
producing a great change both in their chara&er and
way of life, viz. the progrefs of the Chriftian religion,
and their fubjediion firft to Norway, and afterwards to
Denmark. For if religion, on one fide, commanded
them to defift from their ravages and warlike expedi¬
tions; the fecular. power, on the other, deprived them
of the necelfary forces for the execution of them :
and, fince this time, we find no farther traces of their
heroic deeds, except thofe which are preferved in their
hiftories.
The modern Icelanders apply themfelves to fifhing Iceland,
and breeding of cattle. They are middle-fized and-
well-made, though not veryflrong; and the women
are in general ill-featured. Vices are much lefs com¬
mon among them, than in other parts where luxury
and riches have corrupted the morals of the people.
Though their poverty difables them from imitating
the hofpitality of their anceftors in all refpe&s, yet
they continue to ftiew their inclination it: they cheer¬
fully give away the little they have to fpare, and ex-
prefs the utmoft joy and fatisfa&ion if you are pleafed
with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging and
faithful, and extremely attached to government. They
are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander never
pafles a river or any other dangerous place, without
previoufly taking off his hat, and imploring the divine
prote&ion; and he is always thankful for the protec¬
tion of the Deity, when he has pafted the danger in
fafety. They have an inexpreffible attachment to
their native country, and are nowhere fo happy. An
Icelander therefore rarely fettles in Copenhagen, tho’
ever fuch advantageous terms fhould be offered him.
On the other hand, we cannot aferibe any great in-
duftry or ingenuity to thefe people. They work on
in the way to which they have all along been accuf-
tomed, without thinking of improvements. They are
not cheerful in converfation, but fimple and credu¬
lous ; and have no averfion againft a bottle, if they
can find an opportunity. When they meet together,
their chief paftime confifts in reading their hiftory.
The matter of the houfe makes the beginning, and the
reft continue in their turns when he is tired. Some
of them know thefe (lories by heart; others have
them in print, and others in writing. Befides this,
they are great players at chefs and cards, but only
for their amufement, fince they never play for money :
which, however, feems to have been formerly in ufe
among them ; fince, by one of their old laws, a fine is
impofed upon thofe who play for money. ,4
The modern Icelanders have made very little alte.-Their drefs,
ratron in their drefs from what was formerly in ufe.
The men all wear a linen fturt next to the {kin, with
a fhort jacket, and a pair of wide breeches over it.
When they travel, another fhort coat is put over all.
The whole is made of coarfe black cloth, called nuaj-
wal; but fome wear clothes of a white colour. On
their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and
on their feet Iceland fhoes and worded ftockings.
Some of them indeed have fhoes from Copenhagen;
but, as they are rather too dear for them, they gene¬
rally make their own fhoes, fometimes of the hide of
oxen, but more frequently of ffieep’s leather. They
make them by cutting a fquare piece of leather, ra¬
ther wider than the length of the foot; this they few
up at the toes, and behind at the heel, and tie it on
with leather-tliongs. Thefe flioes are convenient
enough where the country is level; but it would be
very difficult for us who are not accuftomed to walk
with them amongft the rocks and flones, though the
Icelanders do it with great eafe.
The women are likewife dreffed in black wadmal.
They wear a bodice over their fhifts, which are fewed
up at the bofom ; and above this a jacket laced be¬
fore, with long narrow fleeves reaching down to the
wrifts..
I C E
ICE [ 3836 ]
Iceland, -wnfig. In the opening on the fide of the ifeeve, they
have buttons of chafed filver, with 3 plate fixed to
each button; on which the lover, when he buys them
in order to prefcnt them to his miftrefs, takes care to
have his name engraved along with hers. At the top
of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of. about
three inches broad, of velvet or filk, and frequently
trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewife of
vvadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the
top of it is a girdle of filver or fome other metal, to
which they faften the apron, which is alfo of wadmal,
and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed filver.
Over all this they wear an upper-drefs nearly refem-
bling that of the Swedifh peafants; with this differ¬
ence, that it is wider at bottom: this is clofe at the
neck and wrifts, and a hand’s-breadth fhorter than the
petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the
bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally
wove by the Icelandic women. On their fingers they
wear gold, filver, or brafs rings. Their head-drefs
confifts of feveral cloths wrapped round the head al-
moft as high again as the face. It is tied fa ft with a
handkerchief, and ferves more for warmth than orna¬
ment. Girls are not-allowed to wear this head-drefs
till they are marriageable. At their weddings they
are adorned in a very particular manner: the bride
wears, clofe to the face, round her head-drefs, a crown
of filver gilt. She has two chains round her neck,
one of which hangs down very low before, and the
other refts on her fhoulders. Befides thefe, (he wears
a leffer chain, from whence generally hangs a little
heart, which may be opened to put fome kind of per¬
fume in it. This drefs is worn by all the Icelandic
women without exception : only with this difference,
that the poorer fort have it of coarfe wadmal, with
ornaments of brafs; and thofe that are in eafier cir-
cumftances have it of broad cloth, with filver orna-
ments gilt.
Hoaies. The houfes of the Icelanders are very indifferent,
but the worft are faid to be on the fouth fide of the
ifland. In fome parts they are built of drift-wood, in
others of lava, almoft in the fame manner as the ftone-
walls we make for inclofures, with mofs fluffed be¬
tween the pieces of lava. In fome houfes the walls are
wainfcotted on the infide. The roof is covered with
fods, laid over rafting, or fometimes over the ribs of
whales ; the w'alls are about three yards high, and the
entrance fomewhat lower. Inftead of glafs, the win¬
dows are made of the chorion and amnios of fheep, or
the membranes which furround the womb of the ewe.
Thefe are ftretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in
the roof. In the poorer fort of houfes they employ
for the windows the inner membrane of the ftomach of
animals, which is lefs tranfparent than the others.
As the ifland of Iceland produces no kind of grain,
the inhabitants of confequence have no bread but what
is imported ; and which being too dear for common
ufe, is referred for weddings and other entertainments.
The following lift of their viands is taken from Troll's
Letters.
“ 1. Flour offialgras, (lichen iflandicus, or rock-
grafs). The plan; is firft wafhed, and then cut into
fmall pieces by fome ; though the greater number dry
it by .fire or in the fun, then put it into a bag in which
it is well beaten, and laftly w-ork it into a flour by
flam ping. Iceland
“ 2. Flour of komjyrg, (polygonum biftorta), is
prepared in the fame manner, as well as the two ;
other forts of wild corn inelur (Arundo arcnaria, and
Arundo foliorum lateribus convolutisJ, by feparaling it
from the chaff, pounding, and laftly grinding it.
“ 3. Surt fmoer, (four butter). The Icelanders
feldom make ufe of frefh or fait butter, but let it grow
four before they eat it. In this manner it may be I
kept for 20 years, or even longer; and the Icelanders
look upon it as more wholefome and palatable than the
butter ufed among other nations. It is reckoned bet¬
ter the older it grows, and one pound of it then is va- 1
lued as much as two of frefh butter.
“ 3. Striug, or whey boiled to the confiftence of
four milk, and preferved for the winter.
“ 4. Fifh of all kinds, both dried in the fun and in
the air, and either failed or frozen. Thofe prepared
in the laft manner are preferred by many.
“ 5. The flefh of bears, fheep, and birds, which
is partly falted, partly hung or fmoked, and fome !
preferved in calks with four or fermented whey poured i
over it.
“ 6. Mifoji, or whey boiled to cheefe, which is very-
good. But the art of making other kinds of good
cheefe is loft, tho’ fome tolerably palatable is fold in
the eaft quarter of Iceland.
“ 7. Beina-Jlriug, bones and cartilages of beef and
mutton, and likewife bones of cod, boiled in whey till
they are quite diflblved: they are then left to ferment,
and are eat with milk.
“ 8. Skyr. The curds from which the whey is fquee-
zed are preferved in cafks or other veffels; they are
fdmetimes mixed with black crow-berries or juni¬
per-berries, and are likewife eat with new milk.
‘s 9. Syra, is four whey kept in cafks, and left to
ferment; which, however, is not reckoned fit for ufe
till a year old.
“ 10. Blanda, is a liquor made of water, to which
a twelfth part of fyra is added. In winter, it is
mixed with the juice of thyme, and of the black crow-
berries.
“ 11. They likewife eat many vegetables, fome of
which grow wild, and fome are cultivated ; alfo fhell- i
fifh and mufhrooms.”
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at
feven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine
at night. In the morning and evening they common¬
ly eat curds mixed with new milk, and fometimes with
juniper or crow berries. In fome parts, they alfo
have pottage made of rock-grafs, which is very pala¬
table, or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red
colour, or new milk boiled a long time. At dinner,
their food confifts of dried fifh, with plenty of four
butter; they alfo fometimes eat frefh fifh, and, when
poffible, a little bread and cheefe with them. It is
reported by fome, that they do not eat any .fifh till it j
is quite rotten ; this report perhaps proceeds from
their being fond of it when a little tainted: they how¬
ever frequently eat fifh which is quite frefh, though,
in the fame manner as the reft of their food, often
without fait.
Their common beveridge is milk, -either warm from
the cow, or cold, and fometimes boiled: they like¬
wife ufe butter-milk with or without water. On the
coafts
ICE [ 3837 1 I C H
celand. coafts they generally drink blanda and four milk;
  which is fold after it is Ikimmed, at two fifths of a
rixdoilar per caflc: fome likewife fend for beer from
Copenhagen, and fome brew their own. A few of
the principal inhabitants alfo have claret and coffee.
The common people fometimes drink a kind of tea,
which they make from the leaves of the dryas ottopeta-
I7 la, and the veronica officinalis.
1 ploy- On the coafts, the men employ themfelves in fifh-
nt, ma- ing, both fummer and wunter. On their return home,
faftures, w^en tjley have drawn and cleaned their fifh, they give
r them to their wives, whofe care it is to dry them. In
the winter, when the inclemency of the weather pre¬
vents them from fifhing, they are obliged to take care
of their cattle and fpin wool. In fummer, they mow
the grafs, dig turf, provide fuel, go in fearch of fheep
and goats that were gone affray, and kill cattle. They
prepare leather with the fpiraca uhnaria inftead of
bark. Some few work in gold and filver; and others
are inftru&ed in mechanics, in which they are tolerable
proficients. The w’omen prepare the fifh, take care
of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, few, fpin,
and gather eggs and down. When they work in
the evening, they ufe, inftead of an hour-glafs, a
lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train
oil, which is contrived to burn four, fix, or eight
hours.
Among the common people of Iceland, time is not
reckoned by the couri'e of the fun, bnt by the work
they have done, and which is jjrefcribed by law Ac¬
cording to this prefcription, a man is to mow as much
hay in one day as grows on 30 fathoms of manured
foil, or 40 fathoms of land which has not been ma¬
nured ; or he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet
long and three broad. If as much fnow falls as reaches
to the horfes bellies, a man is required daily to clear
a piece of ground fufScient for too fheep. A wo¬
man is to rake together as much hay as three men can
mow, or to weave three yards of wadmal a-day.
The wages of a man are fixed at four dollars, and
12 yards of wadmal; and thofe of a woman at two
dollars, and five yards of wadmal. When men are
fent a-fifhing out of the country, there is allowed to
each man by law, fnlm the a jth of September to the
14th of May, fix pounds of butter, and 18 pounds
of dried fifh every week. This may feem to be too
great an allowance; but it muft be remembered that
they have nothing elfe to live upon. When they are
at home, and can get milk, &c. every man receives
only five pounds of dried fifh and three quarters of a
pound of butter a-week.
ifeafes anc* manncr of life of the Icelanders by no
means contribute to their longevity. It is very rare
indeed to fee an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age
of 50 or 60; and the greater part are attacked by
, grievous difeafes before middle age. Of thefe the
fcurvy and elephantiafis or leprofy are the worft. They
are alfo fubjeft to the gout in their hands, owing to
their frequent employment in fifhing, and handling
the wet fifhing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony’s
fire, the jaundice, pleurify, and lownefs of fpirits, are
frequent complaints in this country. The fmall-pox is
alfo exceedingly fatal, and not long ago deftroyed
16,000 perfons. By thefe difeafes, and the frequent
famines with which the country has been afflicted, the
Vol. V.
inhabitants are reduced to a much fewer number than Iceni
they formerly were, infomuch that it is computed II
they do not in all exceed 60,000. Ic neumon.
The exports of Iceland confift of dried fifh, faked ,9
mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil, Commerce
coarfe woollen cloth, dockings, gloves, raw wool,ana reve*
fheep-fkins, lamb-flans, fox-furs of various colours, ci- nue’
der down, feathers, and formerly fulphur; but there is
no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other
hand, the Icelanders import timber, fifhing-lines and
hooks, tobacco, bread, horfe-fhoes, brandy, wine, fait,
linen, a little filk, and a few other neceflaries, as well
as fuperfluities for the better fort. The whole trade
of Iceland is engroffed by a monopoly of Danes, in¬
dulged with an exclufive charter. This company
maintains factories at all the harbours of Iceland,
where they exchange their foreign goods for the mer¬
chandize of the country 5 and, as the balance is in fa¬
vour of the Icelanders, pay the overplus in Danifh
money, which is the only current coin in this ifland.
All their accounts and payments are adjufled accord¬
ing to the number of fifh : two pounds of fifh are
worth two fkillings in fpecie, and 48 fifh amount to
one rixdollar. A Danifh crown is computed at 30
fifh : what falls under the value of 12 fi(h, cannot be
paid in money; but muft be bartered either for fifh
or roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to one fifh.
The weights and meafures of the Icelanders are nearly
the fame wdth thofe ufed in Denmark.
The Icelanders being neither numerous nor warlike,
and altogether unprovided with arms, ammunition,
garrifons, or fleets, are in no condition to defend
themfelves from invafion ; but depend entirely on the
protection of his Danifh majefty, to whom they are
fubjefl.
The revenues which he draws from this ifland con¬
fift of the income of divers eftates, as royal demefne,
amounting to about 8000 dollars per annum ; of the
money paid by the company for an exclufive trade, to
the value of 20,000 dollars; and of a fixed propor¬
tion in the tythes of fifh, paid in fome particular di-
ftriCts.
ICENI, the ancient name of the people of Suffolk,
Norfolk, Cambridgefhii e, and Huntingdonfhire, in
England.
ICH-dien. See Heraldry, chap. iv. feft. 2.
ICHNEUMON, in zoology. See Viverra.
Ichneumon, is alfo the name of a genus of flies of
the hymenoptera order. It has no tongue; the an¬
tennae have above 30 joints; the abdomen, in moft of
the fpecies, is petiolated ; and it has a fling in the
tail inclofed in a double-valved cylindrical fheath.
There are 77 fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by
their colour.—Thefe flies are fomelimes at great pains
to deftroy and carry the caterpillars in whofe bodies
they intend to lay their eggs, to places where it is
proper thofe eggs fiiould be hatched. There is one
fpecies, whofe worm produced from the egg can ne¬
ver fucceed, unlefs it is both bred in the body of a
caterpillar, and alfo have that habitation buried under
ground. For this purpofe, the parent-fly, when the
time of laying her eggs is come, forms a hole in the
ground, which fhe covers with a little clod of earth,
that no duft may fall in to fill it up ; when this is done,
fhe goes out in queft of a caterpillar proper for her
21 X pur-
I C H
Icbnogra* purpofe. Dr Lifter affares us,
. .p lX’ feen one of thefe flies feize a caterpillar much larger
.CIOga ' than herfelf; and though this has been at a confider-
able diftance from her hole, ftie has with great labour
dragged the creature to it. As foon as ftie has ar¬
rived there with her load, (lie takes off the little pel¬
let of earth from the mouth of the hole, and going
down to fee that all is ready for the reception of the
new gueft, ftie returns out of it and draws in the
caterpillar, which ftie leaves there after giving it fuch
wounds as, though they do not caufe immediate death,
yet difable the creature fo as to make its efcape im-
prafticable. When the creature is thus lodged, ftie
depofits her eggs in the fiefti; after which flic flops
up the orifice of the hole very firmly with feveral pel¬
lets of dirt, and with duft carefully rammed in be¬
tween, and will even fly up into gummy and refinous
trees in order to get a cement to hold all firmly toge¬
ther. When the hole is thus filled up even with the
furface of the reft of the ground, (he draws a leaf or
two to the place, and laying them over the mouth
flies away. There is after this no more care taken ;
but the young worms are hatched from the eggs, and
feed on the flefh of the caterpillar till they are fully
grown. They then change into the nymph-ftate, and
come out of that in form of their parent-flies, in
which ftate they ufually make their way out of the
ground. Some of thefe ichneumons make the bodies
of other fmaller flies the places of hatching their eggs.
They may be often met with flying with one of thefe
fmall flies in their legs, the head of it being heldclofe
to their bellies. If they are watched on this occafion,
they will ufually be found to carry thofe flies to cer¬
tain holes in the ground refembling worm-holes. The
firft that they carry ferves as a nidus for their eggs:
the reft are for food to the young ones while in the
ftate of worms ; thefe being too voracious to be fub-
fifted long on the body of one fly, and therefore their
parents carry them more every day. The old ones
on this occafion crawl backwards into the holes,
dragging the flies in after them. When their young
worms have fed fufficiently, they are converted into
nymphae; the cafes of which are made up of the
wings, legs, and other hard parts of the flies they
had been feeding upon.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in perfpeftive, the view of
any thing cut off by a plane, parallel to the horizon,
juft at the bafe of it.—The word is derived from the
Greek ‘X*®', footjiep, and I write, as being a
defcription of the footfteps or traces of a work.
Among painters it fignifies a defcription of images
or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, of bulls
and femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICHOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages ferving
in the feraglio.—Thefe are the children of Chriftian
parents, either taken in war, purchafed, or fent in
prefents from the viceroys and governors of diftant
provinces ; they are the moft fprightly, beautiful, and
well-made that can be met with ; and are always re-
[ 3338 1 I C H
that he has often viewed and approved of by the grand fignior himfelf, Ichor,
before they are admitted into the feraglios of Pera,
Conftantinople, or Adrianople, being the three col- °
leges where they are educated, or fitted for employ¬
ments, according to the opinion the court entertains
of them.
ICHOR, properly fignifiSs a thin watery humour
like ferum ; but is fometimes ufed for a thicker kind
■flowing from ulcers, called alfo fames.
ICHTHYOCOLLA, Isinglass, a preparation
from the fifh known by the name of hufo. See
Accipenser. The word is Greek, formed of
fifh, and *!>**■«, glue.—The method of making
Ifinglafs was long a fecret in the hands of the Ruf¬
fians; but hath lately been difcovered, and the follow¬
ing account of it publifhed by Humphrey Jackfon,
Efq. in the 63d volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adtions.
“ All authors who have hitherto delivered pro-
ceffes for making ichthyocolla, fifh-glue, or ifinglafs,
have greatly miftaken both its conftituent matter and
preparation.
“ To prove this affertion, it may not be improper
to recite what Pomet fays upon the fubjedt, as he ap¬
pears to be the principal author whom the reft have
copied. After defcribing the fifh, and referring to a
cut engraved from an original in his cuftody, he fays:
‘ As to the manner of making the ifinglafs, the
‘ finewy parts of the fifh are boiled in water, till all
‘ of them be diffolved that will diffolve ; then the
‘ gluey liquor is ftrained, and fet to cool. Being
‘ cold, the fat is carefully taken off, and the liquor
* itfelf boiled to a juft confiftency, then cut to pieces,
« and made into a twift, bent in form of a crefcent,
* as commonly fold, then hung upon a firing, and
‘ carefully dried.’
“ From this account, it might be rationally con¬
cluded, that every fpecies of fifh which contained ge¬
latinous principles would yield ifinglafs: and this pa¬
rity of reafoning feems to have given rife to the hafty
conclufions of thofe, who ftrenuoufly vouch for the
extradlion of ifinglafs from fturgeon ; but as that fifh
is eafily procurable, the negligence of afcertaining the
fadl by experiment feems incxcufable.
“ In my firft attempt to difcover the conftituent
parts and manufadlure of ifinglafs, relying too much
upon the authority of fome chemical authors whofe
veracity I had experienced in many other inftances,
I found myfelf conflantly difappointed. Glue, not
ifinglafs, was the refult of every procefs ; and al¬
though, in the fame view, a journey to Ruflia proved
fruitlefs, yet a fteady perfeverance in the refearch
proved not only fuccefsful as to this objedl, but, in
the purfuit, to difcover a refinous matter plentifully
procurable in the Britifh fifheries, which has been
found by ample experience to anfwer fimilar purpofes.
It is now no longer a fecret, that our (a) lakes and
rivers in North America are flocked with immenfe
quantities of fifh, faid to be the fame fpecies with
thofe in Mufcovy, and yielding the fineft ifinglafs,* the
fifheries
(a) As the lakes of North America He nearly-in the fame latitude with the Cafpian Sea, particularly lake Superior,
which is faid to be of greater extent, it was conjedtured they might abound with the fame forts of fifh ; and, in con-
fequence of public advertifements diftributed in various parts of North America, offering premiums for the founds of
fturgeon and other fifh, for the purpofe of making ifinglafs, feveral fpecimens of fine ifinglafs, the produce of fifh
taken in thefe parts, have been lately fent to England, with proper atteftations as to the unlimited quantity which
may be procured.
I C H
F‘: clitbyo* fifteries whereof, under due encouragement, would
^ C°lla' doubtlefs fupply all Europe with this valuable article.
“ No artificial heat is neceffary to the produ&ion
of ifinglals, neither is the matter diffoived for this
purpofe ; for, as the continuity of its fibres would be
defiroyed by folution, the mafs would become brittle
in drying, and fnap fhort afunder, which is always
the cafe with glue, but never with ifinglafs. The
latter, indeed, may be refolved into glue with boil¬
ing water; but its fibrous recompofuion would be
found imprafticable afterwards, and a fibrous texture
is one of the mod diftinguiihing charafteriftics of ge¬
nuine ifinglafs.
“ A due confideration that an imperfedt folution
of ifinglafs, called fining by the brewers, pofTefied a
peculiar property of clarifying malt-liquors, induced
me to attempt its analyfis in cold fubacid menftruums.
One ounce and an half of good ifinglafs, fteeped a few
days in a gallon of flale beer, was converted into
good fining, of a remarkable thick confidence : the
fame quantity of glue, under fimilar treatment, yielded
only a mucilaginous liquor, refembling diluted gum-
water, which, indead of clarifying beer, increafed
both its tenacity and turbidnefs, and communicated
other properties in no refpedl correfponding with thofe
j of genuine fining. On commixing three fpoonfuls of
the folution of ifinglafs with a gallon of malt liquor,
in a tall cylindrical glafs, a vad number of curdly
maffes became prefently formed, by the reciprocal at-
tra&ion of the particles of ifinglafs, and the feculen-
cies of the beer, which, increafing in magnitude and
fpecific gravity, arranged themfelves accordingly, and
fell in a combined date to the bottom, through the
well-known laws of gravitation; for, in this cafe,
there is no eledive attradion, as fome have imagined,
which bears the lead affinity with what frequently oc¬
curs in chemical decompofitions.
“ If what is commercially termed long or Jhort
Jiapled ifinglafs be deeped a few hours in fair cold
water, the entwided membranes will expand, and re-
affume their original beautiful (b) hue, and, by a
dexterous addrefs, may be perfedly unfolded. By
this fimple operation, we find that ifinglafs is nothing
more than certain membranous parts of fifhes, di-
veded of their native mucofity, rolled and twided into
the forms abovementioned, and dried in the open air.
“ The founds, or air-bladders, of frelh-water fifh
in general, are preferred for this purpofe, as being
the mod tranfparent, flexible, delicate fubdances.
Thefe conditute the fined forts of ifinglafs ; thofe
called look and ordinary Jlaple, are made of the intef-
tines, and probably of the peritonaeum of the fifh.
The belluga yields the greated quantity, as being the
larged and mod plentiful fifh in the Mufcovy rivers ;
but the founds of all frefh-water fifh yield, more or
lefs, fine ifinglafs, particularly the fmaller forts, found
in prodigious quantities in the Cafpian Sea, and feve-
ral hundred miles beyond Adracan, in the Wolga,
Yaik, Don, and even as far as Siberia, where it is
called kle or kla by the natives, which implies a glu¬
tinous matter; it is the balls of the Ruffian glue,
which is preferred to all other kinds for its drength.
“ The founds, which yields the finer ifinglafs, confid
I C H
of parallel fibres, and are eafily rent longitudinally ; Iclnhyo-
but the ordinary forts are found compofed of double co*la'
membranes, whofe fibres crofseach other obliquely, re¬
fembling the coats of a bladder : hence the former are
more readily pervaded and divided with fubacid li¬
quors ; but the latter, through a peculiar kind of in¬
terwoven texture, are with great difficulty torn afun¬
der, and long refid the power of the fame mendruum ;
yet, when duly refolved, are found to aid with equal
energy in clarifying liquors.
“ Ifinglafs receives its different fhapes in the follow¬
ing manner:
“ The parts of which it is compofed, particularly
the founds, are taken from the fifh while fweet and
frefh, flit open, wafhed from their flimy fordes, dived-
ed of every thin membrane which invelopes the found,
and then expofed to diffen a little in the air. In this
date, they are formed into rolls about the thicknefs of
a finger, and in length according to the intended fize
of the flaple : a thin membrane is generally felefted
for the centre of the roll, round which the red are
folded alternately, and about half an inch of each ex¬
tremity of the roll is turned inwards. The due di-
menfions being thus obtained, the two ends of what
is called Jhort-Jlaple are pinned together with a fmall
wooden peg ; the middle of the roll is then prefled a
little downwards, which gives it the refemblance of a
heart-fhape; and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up
in the air to dry. The founds, which compofe the
long-daple, are larger than the former ; but the ope¬
rator lengthens this fort at pleafure, by interfolding
the ends of one or more pieces of the found with each
other. The extremities are fadened with a peg, like
the former ; but the middle part of the roll is bent
more confiderably downwards; and, in order to pre-
ferve the ftiape of the three obtufe angles thus formed,
a piece of round flick, about a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, is faflened in each angle with fmall wooden
pegs, in the fame manner as the ends. In this date,
it is permitted to dry long enough to retain its form,
when the pegs and dicks are taken out, and the dry¬
ing completed ; laflly, the pieces'of ifinglafs are col¬
ligated in rows, by running packthread through the
peg-holes, for convenience of package and exporta¬
tion.
“ The membranes of the book fort, being thick
and refra&ory, will not admit a fimilar formation with
the preceding: the pieces therefore, after their lides
are folded inwardly, are bent in the centre, in fuch
manner that the oppofite fides refemble the cover of a
book, from whence its name ; a peg being run acrofs
the middle, faftens the fides together, and thus it is
dried like the former. This fort is interleaved, and
the pegs run acrofs the ends, the better to prevent its
unfolding.
“ That called cake-ijinglafs, is formed of the bits
and fragments of the flaple forts, put into a flat me¬
talline pan, with a very little water, and heated jud
enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake, when
it is dried ; but frequently it is overheated, and fuch
pieces, as before obferved, are ufelefs in the bufinefs
of fining. Experience has taught the confumers to
rejedt them.
21 X 2 Ifin-
C 3839 1
(b) If the tranfparent ifinglafs be held in certain pofitions to the light, it frequently exhibits beautiful prifmatic
colours.
Icbfhyo*
colla.
I C H [ 3840 ] I C H
; Ifinglafs is beft made .in the fummer, as frotl “ It is remarkable, that, during the converfson of
gives it a difagreeable colour, deprives it of weight, ifinglafs into fining, the acidity of the menftruum feems
and impairs its gelatinous principles ; its faihionable greatly diminifhed, at lead; to tafte, not on account of
forms are unneceffary, and frequently injurious to its any alkaline property in the ifinglafs, probably, but
native qualities. It is common to find oily putrid by its inveloping the acid particles. It is likewife re¬
matter, and exuvta of infedls, between the implicated ducible into jelly with alkaline liquors, which indeed
membranes, which, through the inattention of the are .folvents of all animal-matters; even cold lime-vva-
cellarman, often contaminate wines and malt-liquors in ter diflblves it into a pulpous magma. Notwithftand-
the a<5t of clarification. Thefe peculiar fiiapes might, ing this is inadmilfible as fining, on account of the
probably, be introduced originally with a view to con- menftruum, it produces admirable effe&s in other re-
ceal and difguife the real fubftance of ifinglafs, and fpefts: for, on commixture with compofitions of pla-
preferve the monopoly; but, as the malk is now taken fter, lime, &c. for ornamenting walls expofed to vicif-
off, it cannot be doubted to anfwer every purpofe more fitudes of weather, it adds firmnefs and permanency to
effe&ually in its native ftate, without any fubfequent the cement; and if common brick-mortar be worked
manufa&ure whatever, efpecially to the principal con- up with this jelly, it foon becomes almoft as hard as
ftimers, who hence will be enabled to procure fufficient the brick itfelf: but, for this purpofe, it is more eom-
fupply from the Britifh colonies. Until this laudable modioufly prepared, by diffolving it in cold water, aci-
end can be fully accomplifhed, and as a fpecies of ifin- delated with vitriolic acid ; in which cafe, the acid
glafs, more eafily produceable from the marine filhe- quits the jelly, and forms with the lime a felenitic mafs,
ries, may probably be more immediately encouraged, while, at the fame time, the jelly being deprived in
it may be manufaftured as follows: fome meafure of its moifture, through the formation
M The founds of cod and ling bear great analogy of an indifibluble concrete amongft its parts, foon
IchthyoJ
•ogyjJ
Ichthyo*
phagW
with thofe of the accipenfer %er\m of Linnaeus and Ar- dries, and hardens into a firm body; whence its fu-
tedi; and are in general fo v
a well known, as to require perior ftrength and durability are eafily Compre¬
no particular defcription. The Newfoundland and bended.
Iceland fifhermen fplit open the fifh, as foon as taken, “ It has long been a prevalent opinion, that ftur-
and throw the back bones, with the founds annexed, geon, on account of its cartilaginous nature, would
in a heap ; but previous to incipient putrefaction, the yield great quantities of ifinglafs ; but, on examina-
founds are cut out, walhed from their dimes, and fait- tion, no part of this fifh, except the inner coat of the
edforufe. In cutting out the founds, the intercoftal found, promifed the leaft fuccefs. This being full of
parts are left behind, which are much the beft; the ruga, adheres fo firmly to the external membrane,
Iceland fifhermen are fo fenfible of this, that they beat which is ufelefs, that the labour of feparating them
the bone upon a block with a thick ftick, till the fuperfedes the advantage. The inteftines, however,
pockets, as they term them, come out eafily, and thus which in the larger fifh extend feveral yards in length,
preferve the found entire. If the founds have been being cleanfed from their mucus, and dried, were
cured with fait, that muft be diffolved by deeping found furprifingly ftrong and elaftic, refembling cords
them in water, before they are prepared for ifinglafs ; made with the inteftines of other animals, commonly
the frefh found muft then be laid upon a block of called cat-gut, and, from fome trials, promifed fu-
wood, whofe furface is a little elliptical, to the end of perior advantages when applied to mechanic opera-
which a fmall hair-brufh is nailed, and with a faw-knife tions.”
the membranes on each fide of the found muft befcra- Ifinglafs is fometimes ufed in medicine; and maybe
ped off. The knife is rubbed upon the brufh occa- given in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, after
iionally, to clear its teeth ; the pockets are cut open the fame manner as the vegetable gums and mucilages,
with feiflars, and perfeftly cleanfed of the mucous mat- regard being had to their different difpofition to putre-
ter with a coarfe cloth ; the founds are afterwards fcence.
wafhed a few minutes in lime-water in order to ab- ICHTHYOLOGY, the fcience of fifties, or thal
forb their oily principle, and laftly in clear water, part of zoology which treats of fifties. See Fish, and
They are then laid upon nets, to dry in the air; but Zoology, n° 10.
if intended to referable the foreign ifinglafs, the founds ICHTHYOPHAGI, fish-eaters, a name given
of cod will only admit of that called book, but thofe of to a people, or rather to feveral different people, who
ling both ftiapes. The thicker the founds are, the bet- lived wholly on fifties. The word is Greek, compound-
ter the ifinglafs, colour excepted; but that is immate- ed of pifcis, “ fifh,” and edere, “ to eat.3’
rial to the brewer, who is its chief confumer. The Icthyophagi fpoken of by Ptolemy are placed
“ This ifinglafs refolves into fining, like the other by Sanfon in the provinces of Nanquin and Xan-
foits, in fubacid liquors, as ftale beer, cyder, old hock, tong. Agatharcides calls all the inhabitants between
&c. and in equal quantities produces fimilar effecls Carmania and Gedrofia by the name Ichthyophagi.
upon turbid liquors, except that it falls fpeedier and From the accounts given us of the Ichthyopbagi by
clofer to the bottom of the veffel, as may be demon- Herodotus, Strabo, Solinus, Plutarch, &c. it ap-
ftrated in tall cylindrical glaffes; but foreign ifinglafs pears indeed that they had cattle, but that they
retains the confittency of fining preferably in warm made no ufe of them excepting to feed their fifh with-
weather, owiag to the greater tenacity of its native al. They made their houfes of large fifh-bones, the
mucilage. ribs of whales ferving them for their beams. The jaws
“ Vegetable acids are, in every refpeft, beft adap- of thefe animals ferved them for doors ; and the mor-
ted to fining: the mineral acids are too corrofive, and tars wherein they pounded their fifh, and baked it at
even infalubrious, in common beverage. the fun, were nothing elfe but their vertebrae..
ICHL-
IDE [ 3841 ] I D I
jrthihy- ICHTHYPERIA, in natural hiftory, a name gi-
c.jpena ven by j)r to bony palates and mouths of
i f t't Ail168? ufually met with either foffile, in (ingle pjeCes,
-J,   or in fragments. They are of the fame fubftance* with
the bufonitas; and are of very various figures, fome
broad and (hort, others longer and (lender'; fqthe very
gibbofe, and others plainly arched. They are likewife
of various fizes, from the tenth of an inch to two
inches in length, and an inch in breadth.
ICONOCLASTES, or Iconoclasts,-breakers of
images ; a name which the church of R.ome gives to
all who rejeft the ufe of images in religious matters.—
The word is Greek, formed from £<*av,; iviago^ and
x\«rtnT, rumpere, “ to break.”
In this fenfe, not only the reformed, but fome of
J the eaftern churches are called Iconoclajies, and eiteem-
ed by them heretics, as oppofing the worftiip of the
images of God and the faints, and breaking their fi¬
gures and reprefentations in churches.
ICOSAHEDRON, in geometry, a regular folid,
confiding of 20 triangular pyramids, whole vertexes
meet in the centre of a fphere fuppofed to circum-
fcribe it; and therefore have their height and bafes
equal: wherefore the folidity of one of thefe pyramids
multiplied by 20, the number of bafes, gives the folid
contents of the icofahedron.
ICOSANDR1A, (from “ twenty,” and
uryp, “ a man, or hufband the name of the 12th
clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method, confiding of plants
with hermaphrodite flowers, which are furnifhed with
20 or more flamina, that are inferted into the inner
fide of the calix or petals. See Botany, p. 1292.
ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architeft who lived-
about 430 B. C. built feveral magnificent temples,
and among others that of Minerva at Athens.
IDA, (anc. geog.) a mountain fituated in the heart
of Crete where broadeft ; the highefl of all in the
ifland; round, and in compafs 60 dadia, (Strabo); the
nu; fing-place of Jupiter, and where his tomb was vi-
fited in Varro’s time. - Another A/a, a mountain of
| Myfia, or rather a chain of mountains (Homer, Vir¬
gil), extending from Zeleia on the fouth of the terri-
- tory of Cyjticus to Leftum the utmofi: promontory of
Troas. The top was called Gargara, (Homer, Stra-
bo); and celebrated by the poets for the judgment of
Paris on the beauty of the three goddedes, Miner¬
va, Juno, and Venus, to the lad of whom he gave:
the preference.
IDALIUM, (anc. geog.) a promontory on the
j ead fide of Cyprus. Now Capo di Griego; with a
high rugged eminence rifing over it, in the form of a
table. It was facred to Venus; and hence the epi¬
thet Malta given her by the poets. The eminence
was covered with a grove; and in the grove was a-
little town, in Pliny’s time extinft. Malta, slcqoxA-
| ing to Bochart, denotes the place or fpot facred to
the goddefs.
IDEA, the reflex perception of objedts, after the
original perception or imprelfion has been felt by
the mind. See Metaphysics,and Logic,
Part I.
IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is it-
felf, and not any thing elfe ; in which fenfe identity
differs from fnnilitude, as well as diverfity. See Me-
I TAPHYSICS, n° 105, 120.
IDES, in the ancient Roman calendar, were eight Ides,
days in each month ; the fird of which fell on the 15th 1^locy'
of March, May, July, and O&ober; and on the 13th
day of the other months. — The origin of the word is
conte'fted. Some will have it formed from “ to
fee;” by reafan the full moon was commonly feen on the
day of the ides : others from eiJ®-, “ fpecies, figure,”
on account of the image of the full moon then vifible :
others from idulium, or ovis idulis, a name given by the
Hetrurians to a viflim offered on that day to Jupiter :
others from the Hetrurian word idtto, i. e. divido; by
reafon the ides divided the moon into two nearly equal
parts.
The ides came between the Kalends and theNoNEs;
and were reckoned backwards. Thus they called the
14th day of March, May, July, and Oftober, and the
12th of the other months, the pridie idus, or the day
before the ides; the next preceding day they called
the tertia idits; and fo on, reckoning always back¬
wards, till they came to the Nones. This method of
reckoning time is (till retained in the chancery of Rome,
and in the calendar of the Breviary.— The ides of
May were confecrated to Mercury : the ides of
March were ever efteemed unhappy, after Caefar’s
murder on that day: the time after the ides of June
was reckoned fortunate for thofe who entered into ma¬
trimony : the ides of Auguft were confecrated to Dia¬
na, and were obfcrved as a feaft.-day by the (laves. On
the ides of September,- auguries were taken for ap¬
pointing the magiftrates, who formerly entered into
their offices on the ides of May, afterwards on thofe of
March.
IDIOCY, a defedf of underftanding. Both idiocy
and Lunacy excufe from the guilt of crimes; (fee
Crime, par. ult.) For the rule of law as to lunatic?,
which alfo may be eafily adapted to idiots, is, that fu-
riofus furore folum punitur. In criminal cafes, there¬
fore, idiots and lunatics are not chargeable for their
own adts, if committed when under thefe incapacities:
no, not even for treafon itfelf.. Alfo, if a man in his
found memory commits a capital offence, and before
arraignment for it he becomes mad, he ought not to
be arraigned for it; becaufe he is not able to plead to
it with that advice and caution that he ought. And
if, after he has pleaded, the prifoner becomes mad,
he (hall not be tried : for how can he make his de¬
fence ? If, after he be tried and found guilty, helofes
hisfenfes before judgment, judgment (hall not be pro¬
nounced ; and if, after judgment, he becomes of non-
fane memory, execution (hall be flayed: for, perad-
venture, fays the humanity of the Englilh law, had
the prifoner been of found memory, he might have al¬
leged fomething in flay of judgment or execution. In¬
deed, in the bloody reign of Henry VIII. a ftatute
was made, which enaAed, that if a perfon, being com¬
pos mentis, (hould commit high treafon, and after fall
into madnefs, he might be tried in his abfence, and
(hould fuffer death, as if he were of perfeA memory.
But this favage and inhuman law was repealed by the
ftatute 1 &2 Ph.& M. c. 10. jFor, as is cbferved by
Sir Edward Coke, “ the execution of an offender is
for example, ut poena ad paucos, metus ad omnes per-
veniat: but fo it is not when a madman is executed ;
but (hould be a miferable fpe&acle, both againft law,
and of extreme inhumanity and cruelty,.and can be,
no 3
Idiocy.
* See Pri¬
vate Ads
S3 Geo. II.
c. 6.
I D I [ 3842 ] I D L
no example to others.” But if there be any doubt
■ whether the party be compos or not, this {hall be tried
by a jury. And if he be fo found, a total idiocy, or
abfolute infanity, excufes from the guilt, and of courfe
from the punifhment, of any criminal aftion commit¬
ted under fuch deprivation of the fenfes : but if a luna¬
tic hath lucid intervals of underftanding, he (hall an-
fwer for what he does in thofe intervals, as if he had
no deficiency. Yet, in the cafe of abfolute madmen,
as they are not anfwerable for their actions, they (hould
not be permitted the liberty of adting unlefs under pro¬
per control; and, in particular, they ought not to be
fuffered to go loofe, to the terror of the king’s fub-
jedts. It was the dodfrine of our ancient law, that per-
fons deprived of their reafon might be confined till they
recovered their fenfes, without waiting for the forms of
a commiffion or other fpecial authority from the crown:
and now, by the vagrant adfs, a method is chalked
out for imprifoning, chaining, and fending them to
their proper homes.
The matrimonial contradl likewife cannot take place
in a (late of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that
the iffue of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage
valid. A flrange determination! fince confent is ab-
folutely requifite to matrimony, and neither idiots
nor lunatics are capable of confenting to any thing.
And therefore the civil law judged much more fen-
fibly, when it made fuch deprivations of reafon a pre¬
vious impediment, though not a caufe of divorce if
they happened after marriage. And modern refolu-
tions have adhered to the fenfe of the civil law, by de¬
termining that the marriage of a lunatic, not being in
a lucid interval, was abfolutely void. But as it might
be difficult to prove the exa£t ftate of the party’s mind
at the a&ual celebration of the nuptials, upon this ac¬
count, (concurring with fome private family-reafons *)
the ftatute 15 Geo. II. c. 30. has provided, that the
marriage of lunatics and perfons under phrenzies (if
found lunatics under a commiffion, or committed to
the care of truftees under any aft of parliament) before
they are declared of found mind by the lord chancel¬
lor, or the majority of fuch truftees, fliall be totally
void.
Idiots, and perfons of nonfane memory, as well as in¬
fants, and perfons under durefs, are not totally difabled
either to convey or purchafe, but fitb modo only. For
their conveyances and purchafes are voidable, but not
aftually void. The king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot,
may avoid his grants or other afts. But it hath been
faid, that a non compos himfelf, though he be after¬
wards brought to a right mind, {hall not be permitted
to allege his own infanity in order to avoid fuch grant:
for that no man (hall be allowed to ftupify himfelf, or
plead his own difability. The progrefs of this notion
is fomewhat curious. In the time of Edward I. non
compos was a fufficient plea to avoid a man’s own
bond : and there is a writ in the regifter for the alie¬
nor himfelf to recover lands aliened by him during his
infanity ; dum fuit non compos mentis June, ut dicit, &c.
But under Edward III. a fcruple began to arife, whe¬
ther a man {hould be permitted to blemijh himfelf, by
pleading his own infanity: and, afterwards, a defen¬
dant in affife having pleaded a releafe by the plaintiff
fince the laft continuance, to which the plaintiff re¬
plied {ore tenus, as the manner then was) that he was
out of his mind when he gave it, the court adjourned Idiom i
the affife ; doubting, whether as the plaintiff was fane II j
both then and at the commencement of the fuit, he idlcn;‘ti
{hould be permitted to plead an intermediate depriva¬
tion of reafon; and the queftion was allied, how he
came to remember to releafe, if out of his fenfes when
he gave it ? Under Henry VI. this way of reafoning
(that a man (hall not be allowed to difable himfelf, by
pleading his own incapacity, becaufe he cannot know
what he did under fuch a fituation) was ferionfly adop¬
ted by the judges in argument; upon a queftion, whe¬
ther the heir was barred of his right of entry by the
feoffment of his infane anceftor. And from thefe loofe
authorities, which Fitzherbert does not fcruple to re-
jeft as being contrary to reafon, the maxim that a man
(hall not ftultify himfelf hath been handed down as
fettled law: though later opinions, feeling the incon¬
venience of the rule, have in many points endeavoured
to reftrain it. And, clearly, the next heir, or other
perfon interefted, may, after the death of the idiot or
non compos, take advantage of his incapacity and avoid
the grant. And fo too, if he purchafes under this
difability, and does not afterwards upon recovering his
fenfes agree to the purchafe, his heir may either waive
or accept the eftate at his option. In like manner, an
infant may waive fuch purchafe or conveyance, when
becomes to full age; or, if he does not then aftually
agree to it, his heirs may waive it after him. Perfons
alfo, who purchafe or convey under durefs, may affirm
or avoid fuch tranfaftion, whenever the durefs is cea-
fed. For all thefe are under the proteftion of the law;
which will not fuffer them to be impofed upon thro’
the imbecillity of their prefent condition; fo that their
afts are only binding, in cafe they be afterwards agreed
to when fuch imbecillity ceafes. Yet the guardians
or committees of a lunatic, by the flatute 11 Geo. III.
c. 20. are empowered to renew in his right, under the
direftions of the court of chancery, any leafe for lives
or years, and apply the profits of fuch renewal for the
benefit of fuch lunatic, his heirs, or executors*. * SceLu^lJ
IDIOM, among grammarians, properly fignifies NACY‘ 1
the peculiar genius of each language, but is often ufed
in a fynonimous fenfe with dialeft.
IDIOPATHY, in phyfic, a diforder peculiar to a
certain part of the body, and not arifing from any pre¬
ceding difeafe, in which fenfe it is oppofed to fym-
pathy. Thus, an epilepfy is idiopathic when it hap¬
pens merely through fome fault in the brain; and
fympathetic when it is the confequence of fome other
diforder.
IDIOSYNCRASY, among phyficians, denotes a
peculiar temperament of body, whereby it is rendered
more liable to certain diforders than perfons of a diffe¬
rent conftitution ufually are.
IDLENESS, a reluftancy in people to be employ¬
ed in any kind of work.
Idlenefs in any perfon whatfoever is a high of¬
fence againft the public ceconomy. In China it is a
maxim, that if there be a man who does not work, or
a woman that is idle, in the empire, fomebody muft
fuffer cold or hunger : the produce of the lands not be¬
ing more than fufficient, with culture, to maintain the
inhabitants; and therefore, though the idle perfon
may (hift off the want from himfelf, yet it muft in the
end fall fomewhere. The court alfo of Areopagus at
IDO [ 3843 ] J E A
Athens punifted idlefs, and exerted a right of examin¬
ing every citizen in what manner he fpent his time;
the intention of which was, that the Athenians, know¬
ing they were to give an account of their occupations,
fhould follow only fuch as were laudable, and that there
might be no room left for fuch as lived by unlawful
arts. The civil law expelled all fturdy vagrants from
the city : and, in our own law, all idle perfons or va¬
gabonds, whom our ancient ftatutes defcribe to be
“ fuch as wake on the night, and deep on the day,
and haunt cuftomable taverns, and ale-houfes, and
routs about ; and no man wot from whence they come,
ne whether they go or fuch as are more particular¬
ly defcribed by llatute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. and divided
into three claffes, idle and diforderly perfons, rogues
and vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues ;—all thefe are
offenders againft the good order, and blemilhes in the
government, of any kingdom. They are therefore all
punilhed, by the ftatute laft mentioned; that is to
fay, idle and diforderly perfons with one month’s im-
prifonment in the houfe of corre&ion ; rogues and va¬
gabonds with whipping, and imprifonment not exceed¬
ing fix months; and incorrigible rogues with the like
difcipline, and confinement not exceeding two years :
the breach and efcape from which confinement in one
of an inferior clafs, ranks him among incorrigible
rogues ; and in a rogue (before incorrigible) makes
him a felon, and liable to be tranfported for feven
years. Perfons harbouring vagrants are liable to a fine
of forty (hillings, and to pay all expences brought up¬
on the parifli thereby : in the fame manner as, by our
ancient laws, whoever harboured any ftranger for
more than two nights, was anfwerable to the public
for any offence that fuch his inmate might commit.
IDOL, in pagan theology, an image, or fancied
reprefentation of any of the heathen gods.—This
image, of whatever materials it confifted, was, by cer¬
tain ceremonies called confecration, converted into a
god. While under the artificer’s hands, it was only a
mere ftatue. Three things were neceffary to turn it
into a god ; proper ornaments, confecration, and ora¬
tion. The ornaments were various, and wholly defign-
ed to blind the eyes of the ignorant and ftupid multi¬
tude, who are chiefly taken with (hew and pagean¬
try. Then followed the confecration and oration,
which were performed with great folemnity among
the Romans.
IDOLATRY, or the worfhip of idols, may be di-
ftingnifhed into two forts. By the firft, men adore the
works of God, the fun, the moon, the liars, angels,
daemons, men and animals : by the fecond, men wor¬
fhip the work of their own hands, as ftatues, pi&ures,
and the like : and to thefe may be added 3 third, that
by which men have worlhipped the true God under
fenfible figures and reprefentations. This indeed may
have been the cafe with refpedl to each of the above
kinds ofidolatry; and thus the Ifraelites adored God
under the figure of a calf.
The liars were the firft objefls of idolatrous wor¬
fhip, on account of their beauty, their influence on
the productions of the earth, and the regularity of
their motions, particularly the fun and moon, which
are confidered as the moft glorious and refplendent
images of the Deity : afterwards, as their fentiments
became more corrupted, they began to form images,
and to entertain the opinion, that by virtue of confe¬
cration, the gods were called down to inhabit or dwell
in their ftatues. Hence Arnobius takes occalion to
rally the pagans for guarding fo carefully the (latues
of their gods, who, if they were really prefent in their
images, might fave their worflrippers the trouble of fe-
curing them from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient pagans paid
to the flatues of their gods, it is certain, that the wifer
and more fenfible heathens confidered them only as
fimple reprefentations or figures defigned to recal to
their minds the memory of their gods. This was the
opinion of Varro and Seneca: and the fame fentiment
is clearly laiddown in Plato, who maintains, that images
are inanimate, and that all the honour paid to them
has refpedl to the gods whom they reprefent. But as
to the vulgar, they were ftupid enough to believe the
ftatues themfelves to be gods, and to pay divine wor-
Ihip to ftocks and Hones.
Soon after the flood, idolatry feems to have been
the prevailing religion of all the \yorld; for wherever
we call our eyes at the time of Abraham, we fcarcely
fee any thing but falfe worlhip and idolatry. And it
appears from Scripture, that Abraham’s forefathers,
and even Abraham himfelf, were for a time idolaters.
The Hebrews were indeed exprefsly forbidden to
make any reprefentation of God; they were not fo
much as to look upon an idol: and from the time
of the Maccabees to the deftruftion of Jerufalem,
the Jews extended this precept to the making
the figure of any man: by the law of Mofes, they
were obliged to deftroy all the images they found,
and were forbidden to apply any of the gold or filver
to their own ufe, that no one might receive the leaft:
profit from any thing belonging to an idol. Of this
the Jews, after they had fmarted for their idolatry,
were fo fenfible, that they thought it unlawful to ufe
any veffel that had been employed in facrificing to a
falfe god, to warm themfelves with the wood of a
grove after it was cut down, or to Ihelter themfelves
under its lhade.
But the preaching of the Chriftian religion, where-
ever it prevailed, entirely rooted out idolatry; as did
alfo that of Mahomet, which is built on the worlhip
of one God. It muft not, however, be forgotten,
that the Proteftant Chrillians charge thofe of the
church of Rome with paying an idolatrous kind of
worlhip to the pidiures or images of faints and mar¬
tyrs : before thefe, they burn lamps and wax-
candles ; before thefe, they burn incenfe, and, kneel¬
ing, offer up their vows and petitions: they, like the
Pagans, believe that the faint to whom the image is
dedicated, prelides in a particular manner about its
Ihrine, and works miracles by the intervention of its
image; and that if the image was deftroyed or taken
away, the faint would no longer perform any miracle
in that place.
IDYLLION, in ancient poetry, is only a dimi¬
nutive of the word eidos, and properly fignifies any
poem of moderate extent, without confidering the
fubjedt. But as the colle&ion of Theocritus’s poems
were called idyllia, and the paftoral pieces being by
far the belt in that colledlion, the term idyllion feems to
be now appropriated to paftoral pieces.
JEARS, or Geers, in the fea-language, an affem-
blage
Idolatry
P
Jears.
J E F
Jebufaei blage of tackles, by which the lower yards of a (hip
II are hoifted along the maft to their ufual ftation, or
•’ ^ lowered from thence as occafion requires ; the former
of which operations is called fiuaying, and the latter
fir iking.
JEBUSJEI, one of the feven ancient people of
Canaan, defcendants of Jebufi, Canaan’s fon; fo war¬
like and brave, as to have flood their ground, efpe-
cially in Jebus, afterwards called Jerufalem, down to
the time of David. Judges i. 21. i Sam. v. 6.
JEDBURGH, a town of Scotland, capita! of
Tiviotdale or Iloxburghfliire. It is well-built and po¬
pulous, with a handfome church and town-hall, and a
good market for corn and cattle. It gives the title
oi lord to the marquis of Lothian’s eldeft fon, and is
the feat of the Iheriff’s court and preftytery.
JEDDO, the capital town or city of the iflands of
Japan, where the emperor refides. It is open on all
tides, having neither walls nor ramparts; and the
houfes are built with earth, and boarded on the out-
fide to prevent the rain from deftroying the walls. In
every ftreet there is an iron gate, which is thut up in
the night; and a kind of cuftom-houfe or magazine,
to put merchandizes in. It is a large place, being
nine miles in length and fix in breadth, and contains
1,000,000 of inhabitants. A fire happened in 1658,
which, in the fpace of 48 hours, burnt down 100,000
houfes, and in which a vaft number of the inhabitants
periihed. The emperor’s palace and all the reft were
reduced to afhes; but they are all rebuilt again. The
royal palace is in the middle of the town; and is de¬
fended with walls, ditches, towers, and baftions.
Where the emperor refides, there are three towers
nine ftories high, each covered with plates of gold;
and the hall of audience is faid to be fupported by
pillars of mafly gold. Near the palace are feveral
others, where the relations of the emperor live. The
emprefs has a palace of her own, and there are 20
fmall ones for the concubines. Befides, all the vafial
kings have each a palace in the city, with a handfome
garden, and ftables for 2000 horfes. The houfes of
the common fort are nothing but a ground-floor, and
the rooms are parted by folding-fereens; fo that
they can make the rooms larger or fmaller at plea-
fure. It is feated in an agreeable plain, at the bot¬
tom of a fine bay; and the river which crofles it,
is divided into feveral canals. E. Long. 140. o.
N. Lat. 35. 32.
JEFFERY. See Geoffrey.
JEFFREYS (lord George), baron Wem, com¬
monly called yudge Jeffreys^ was the fixth fon of
John Jeffreys, Efq; of A&on in Denbighfhire ; and
was educated at Weftminfter-fchool, whence he re¬
moved to the Inner Temple, where he applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the law. Alderman Jeffreys, who was
probably related to him, introduced him among the
citizens of London; and he being a merry bottle-
companion, foon came into great bufinefs, and was
chofen their recorder. He was afterwards chofen foli-
citor to the duke of York; and in 1680 was knighted,
and made chief-juftice of Chefter. At length, re-
figning the recorderlhip, he obtained the poll of chief-
juftice of the king’s-bench, and, foon after the accef-
fion of James II. the great feal. During the reign of
king Charles II. he {hewed himfelf a bitter enemy to
J E F
'-hole diffenting minifters who, in that time of perfe- Jeffreys,
cution, were tried by him ; he was one of the greateft j
advifers and promoters of all the oppreflions and arbi¬
trary meafures carried on in the reign of James II.;
and his fanguinary and inhuman proceedings againft
Monmouth’s unhappy adherents in the weft will ever
render his name infamous. Whenever the prffoner
was of a different party, or he could pleafe the court
by condemning him, inftead of appearing according
to the duty of his office, as his counfel, he would
fcarce allow him to fpeak for himfelf; but would load
him with the groffeft and moft vulgar abufe, browbeat,
infult, and turn to ridicule the witneffes that fpoke in
his behalf; and even threaten the jury with fines and
imprifonment, if they made the leatt hefitation about
bringing in the prifoner guilty. Yet it is faid, that
when he was in temper, and matters perfedly indif¬
ferent came before him, no one became a feat of juftice \
better. Nay, it even appears, that, when he was under
no ftate-influencc, he was fometimes inclined to pro-
teft the natural and civil rights of mankind, of which
the following iuftance has been given;—The mayor
and aldermen of Briftol had been ufed to tranfport
convidted criminals to the American plantations, and
fell them by way of trade. This turning to good ac¬
count, when any pilferers or petty rogues were brought
before them, they threatened them with hanging; and
then fome officers who attended, earneftly perfuaded
the ignorant intimidated creatures to beg for tranfpor-
tation, as the only way to favc them; and in general
their advice was followed. Then, without more form,
each alderman in courfe took one, and fold him for
his own benefit; and fometimes warm difputes arofe
between them about the next turn. This infamous
trade, which had been carried on many years, coming
to the knowledge of the lord chief juftice, he made the
mayor defeend from the bench, and ftand at the bar
in his fcarlet and furr, with his guilty brethren the
aldermen, and plead as common criminals. He then
obliged them to give fecurities to anfwer informa¬
tions ; but the proceedings were flopped by the Re¬
volution.
However, the brutality Jeffreys commonly {hewed
on the bench, where his voice and vifage were equally
terrible, at length expofed him to a fevere mortifica¬
tion. A ferivener of Wapping having a caufe before
him, one of the opponent’s counfel faid he was a
ftrange fellow, and fometimes went to church, and
fometimes to conventicles ; and it was thought he was
a trimmer. At this the chancellor fired : “ A trim¬
mer? (faid he); I have heard much of that monfter, \
but never faw one. Come forth, Mr Trimmer, and let
me fee your ftiape.” He then treated the poor fellow . 1
fo roughly, that, on his leaving the hall, he declared he
would not undergo the terrors of that man’s face again
to fave his life, and he fliould certainly retain the
frightful impreffions of it as long as he lived. Soon
after, the prince of Orange coming, the lord-chan¬
cellor, dreading the public refentment, difguifed him¬
felf in a feaman’s drefs, in order to leave the kingdom ;
and was drinking in a cellar, when this ferivener co¬
ming into the cellar, and feeing again the face which
had filled him with fuch horror, ftarted ; on which,
Jeffreys, fearing he was known, feigned a cough, and
turned to the wall with his pot of beer in his hand.
[ 3844 ]
JEN [ 3845 ] TER
I Jehovah But Mr Trimmer going out, gave notice that he was
I! U there; and the mob rufhing in, feized him, and carried
I Jen ins. ^;m before the lord-mayor, who fent him with a
ftrong guard to the lords of the council, by whom he
was committed to the Tower, where he died in 1689.
— It is remarkable, that the late countefs of Pomfret
met with very rude infults from the populace on the
weftern road, only becaufe the was grand-daughter of
the inhuman Jeffries.
JEHOVAH, one of the fcripture-names of God,
fignifying the Being who is felf-exiftent and gives ex-
ilience to others.
So great a veneration had the Jews for this name,
that they left off the cuftom of pronouncing it, where¬
by its true pronunciation was forgotten. They call it
tetragrammaton, or “ the name with four letters;” and
believe, that whoever knows the true pronunciation of
it cannot fail to be beard by God.
JEJUNUM, in anatomy, the name of one of the
fmall inteftines. See Anatomy, n° 354, g.
JELLY. SccGelly; and Chemistry, n° 52r.
JEMTERLAND, a province of Sweden, bound¬
ed on the north by Angermania, on the eaft by Me-
dalpadia, on the fouth by Helfingia, and on the weft
by Norway. It is full of mountains; and the principal
towns are Reffundt, Lich, and Docra.
JENA, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, with an univerfity.
It is feated on the the river Sala, in E. Long. 2. 59.
N: Lat. 51.0.
JENCAPORE, a town of Afia, in Indoftan, and
in the dominions of the Great Mogul, capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name. It is feated on the river
Chaul, in E. Long. 76. 25. N. Lat. 30. 30.
JENISA, a river of the Ruffian empire, that runs
from north to fouth through Siberia, and falls into the
Frozen Ocean.
JENISKOI, a town of the Ruffian empire, in Si¬
beria, feated on the river Jenifa. It is large, populous,
and pretty ftrong; and there are villages for feveral
miles round it. It is fubjeft to the Tungufians, who
are pagans, and chiefly live on the above river. They
pay a tribute to the emperor for every bow, reckon¬
ing a man and a woman for one. The climate is ex¬
tremely cold; and no other fruits grow there but black
and red currants, ftrawberries, and goofeberries. Corn,
butchers meat, and wild fowls, are very cheap. E. Lon.
86. 25. N. Lat. 58. 40.
JENCOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, feated on the fouth fide of the lake Wer- '
ter, with a ftrong citadel. The boufes are all built
with wood. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 57. 22.
JENKIN (Robert), a learned Englifh divine in the
18th century, was bred at Cambridge, became mafter of
St John’s college, and wrote feveral books much efteem-
ed, viz. 1. An hiftorical examination of the authority
of General Councils, 4to. 2. The reafonablcnefs and
certainty of the Chriftian religion, 2 vols 8vo. 3. De-
fenfio S. Augujiinu This book is written againft M.
Le Clerc. 4. Remarks on fome books lately^publifli-
ed, viz. Mr Whifton’s eight fermons, Locke’s para-
phrafe, &c. 5. A tranflation from the French of the
life of Apollonius Tyaneus.
JENKINS (Henry). See Longevity.
Jenkins (Sir Leoline), a learned civilian and able
Vol. V.
ftatefman of the laft century, born in Glamorganfliire Jenkins
about the year 1623. Being rendered obnoxious to !1,
the parliament during the civil war by adhering to the Jerem'a^'
king’s caufe, he confulted his fafety by flight; but
returning on the reftoration, he was admitted an ad¬
vocate in the court of arches, and fucceeded Dr Exton
as judge. When the queen-mother Henrietta died in
1669 at Paris, her whole eftate, real and perfonal, was
claimed by her nephew Lewis XIV.: upon which Dr
Jenkins’s opinion being called for and approved, he
went to Paris, with three otheM joined with him in a
commiffion, and recovered her effefts; for which he re¬
ceived the honour of knighthood. He officiated as one
of the mediators at the treaty of Nimeguen, in which
tedious negociation he was engaged about four years
and a half; and was afterwards made a privy-counfel-
lor and fecretary of ftate. He died in *685; and as
he never married, bequeathed his whole eftate to cha¬
ritable ufes: he was fo great a benefa&or to Jefus-
college Oxford, that he is generally looked on as the
fecond founder. All his letters and papers were col-
le&ed and printed in 1724, in 2 vols folio.
JENNY-wren, a name given by writers on fong-
birds to the wren. See Wren.
JEOFAILE, (compounded of three French words,
J* ay faille, “ I have failed”), a term in law, ufed for
an overfight in pleading or other proceedings at law.
The (hewing of thefe defers or overfights was for¬
merly often pra&ifed by the counfel; and when the
jury came into court in order to try the iffiie, they
laid, This inqueft you ought not to take ; and after
verdidl they would fay to the court, To judgment you
ought not to go. But feveral ftatutes have been made
to avoid the delays occafioned by fuch fuggeftions ;
and a judgment is not to be flayed after verdift for
miftaking the Chriftian or furname of either of the par¬
ties, or in a fum of money, or in the day, month, year,
&c. where the fame are rightly named in any prece¬
ding record.
JEREMIAH [the Prophecy of), a canonical book
of the Old Teftament. This divine writer was of the
race of the priefts, the fon of Hilkia of Anathoth, of
the tribe of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic
office when very young, about the 13th year of Jofiah,
and continued in the difcharge of it about 40 years. He
was not carried captive to Babylon with the other Jews,
but remained in Judea to lament the defolation of his
country. He was afterwards a prifoner in Egypt with
his difciple Baruch, where it is fuppofed he died in a
very advanced age. Some of the Chriftian fathers tell
us he was ftoned to death by the Jews, for preaching
againft their idolatry; and fome fay he was put to
death by Pharaoh Hophrah, becaufe of his prophecy
againft him. Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah re¬
lates to the time after the captivity of Ifrael, and be¬
fore that of Judah, from the firft chapter to the 44th;
and part of it was in the time of the latter captivity,
from the 44th chapter to the end. The prophet lays
open the fins of Judah with great freedom and bold-
nefs, and reminds them of the fevere judgments which
had befallen the ten tribes for the fame offences. He
paffionately laments their misfortune, and recommends
a fpeedy reformation to them. Afterwards he predifts
the grievous calamities that were approaching, parti-
ticularly the 70 years captivity in Chaldea. He like-
21 Y wife
J E R [ 384^ ] J E R
Jericho wife foretells their deliverance and happy return, and
II the recompence which Babylon, Moab, and other ene-
JcrorTie‘ inies of the Jews, Ihould meet with in due time. There
are likewife feveral intimations in this prophecy con¬
cerning the kingdom of the Mefliah ; alfo feveral re¬
markable vifions, and types, and hiftorical paflages re¬
lating to thofe times. The yzd chapter does not be¬
long to the prophecy of Jeremiah, which probably was
added by Ezra, and contains a narrative of the taking
of Jerufalem, and of what happened during the capti¬
vity of the Jews, to U^e death of Jechonias. St Jerom
has obferved upon this prophet, that his ftyle is more
eafy than that of Ifaiah and Hofea; that he retains
fomething of the rufticity of the village where he was
born ; but that he is very learned and majeftic, and
equal to thofe two prophets in the fenfe of his prophecy.
JERICHO, or Hierichus, (anc. geog.) a city
of Judea; fituated between Jordan and Jerufalem,
at the diflance of 150 ftadia from the latter, and
60 from the former. Jofephus fays the whole fpace
from Jerufalem is defart and rocky, and equally barren
and uncultivated from Jericho to the lake Afphal-
tites; yet the places near the town and above it are
extremely fertile and delicious, fo that it may be juftly
called a divine plain, furpaffing the reft; of the land of
Canaan, no unfruitful country, and furrounded by hills
in the manner of an amphitheatre. It produces opo-
balfamum, myrobalans, and dates ; from the laft of
which it is called the city of palm-trees, by Mofes.
JERIMOTH. See Jarimuth.
JEROME (St), in Latin Hieronymus, a famous
doftor of the church, and the moft learned of all the
Latin fathers, was the fon of Eufebius; and was born
at Stridon, a city of the ancient Pannonia, about the
year 340. He ftudied at Rome under Donatus, the
learned grammarian. After having received bap-
tifm, he went into Gaul, and there tranfcribed St Hi¬
lary’s book de Symdis. He then went into Aquileia,
where he contradled a friendfhip with Heliodorus, who
prevailed on him to travel with him into Thrace, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. In 372 St
Jerome retired into a defart in Syria, where he was
perfecuted by the orthodox of Melitius’s party, for
being a Sabellian, becaufe he made ufe of the word
Hypoftafts, which had been ufed by the council of Rome
in 369. This obliged him to go to Jerufalem ; where
he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Hebrew lan¬
guage, in order to receive a more perfedt knowledge
of the Holy Scriptures ; and about this time he con-
fented to be ordained, on condition that he fhould not
be confined to any particular church. In 381, he went
to Conftantinople to hear St Gregory of Nazianzen ;
and the following year returned to Rome, w"here he was
made fecretary to pope Damafus. He then inftrufted
many Roman ladies in piety and the knowledge of the
fciences, which expofed him to the calumnies of thofe
whom he zealoufiy reproved for their irregularities; and
pope Siricius not having all the efteem for him which h is
learning and virtue juftly entitled him to, this learned
dodtor left Rome, and returned to the monaftery of
Bethlehem, where he employed himfelf in writing a-
gainft thofe whom he called heretics, efpecially againft
Vigilantius and Jovinian. He had a quarrel with John
of Jerufalem, and Rufinus, about the Origenifts. He
was the firft who wrote againft Pelagias; and died on
the 30th of September, 420, at about 80 years of age. Jerome,’
There have been feveral editions of his works ; the ieifty- :
laft, which is that of Verona, is in 11 vols folio. His
principal works are, 1. A Latin verfion of the Holy
Scriptures, diftinguiflied by the name of the Vulgate.
2. Commentaries on the Prophets, Ecclefiaftes, St
Matthew’s Gofpel, and the Epiftle to the Galatians,
Ephefians, Titus, and Philemon. 3. Polemical trea-
tifes againft Montanus, Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilan¬
tius, and Pelagius. 4. Several letters. 5. A treatife
on the lives and writings of the ecclefiaftical authors
who had flourilhed before his time.—St Jerome’s ftyle
is lively and animated, and fometimes fublime.
Jerome of Prague, fo called from the place of. his
birth, in Bohemia. He was neither a monk nor
clergyman, but had a learned education. Having em¬
braced the opinions of John Hufs, he began to pro¬
pagate them in the year 1480. In the mean time the
council of Nice kept a watchful eye over him, and
confidering him as a dangerous perfon, cited him to
appear before them and give an account of his faith.
In obedience to this citation, he went to Conftance;
but on his arrival, in 1415, finding Hufs in prifon, he
fet out for his own country. Being feized however
on the way, imprifoned, and examined, he was fo in¬
timidated, that he retraefed, and pretended to approve
of the condemnation of WicklifPs and Hufs’s opinions;
but on the 26th of May, 1416, he condemned that
recantation in thefe terms: “ lam not afhamed to
confefs here publicly my weaknefs. YeS, with horror
I confefs my bafe cowardice. It was only the dread
of the punilhment by fire which drew me to confent,
againft my confcience, to the condemnation of the doc¬
trine of WicklifF and Hufs.” Accordingly fentence
was paired on him; in purfuance of which he was de¬
livered to the fecular arm, and burnt in 14x6. He
was a perfon of great parts, learning, and elocution.
JERSEY, an ifland in. the Englifti channel, belie¬
ved to be the ifland called in the Itinerary Ceefarea,
in fucceeding times Augia, by us Gerfey, more fre¬
quently Jerfey. It is lituated 25 leagues fouth from
the continent of Britain; five leagues weft from Cape
Carteret in Normandy; three leagues fouth from Sarke;
feven leagues, according to the common computation,
fouth-eaft from Gnernfey, but in reality not fo much;
and nine leagues fouth from Alderney. It is of an
oblong figure, meafuring 12 miles from weft to eaft,
and fix from north to fouth; in circumference between
35 and 36; and, in point of extent, nearly equal to,
or rather fomewhat larger than, Guernfcy: elevated
like that; but on the oppofite fide declining from fouth
to north, the cliffs on that fide which looks towards
Guernfey being 40 or 50 fathom in height, whereas
on the fouth it is in a manner level with the fea.
Hence the diftance between St Peter’s and St Hellier’s
is really feven leagues, though the iflands have not a-
bove four leagues of fea between them. The people
of Jerfey think, that from this elevation, they have a
great advantage in point of climate; that their fummers
are warmer, and that their corn and fruits ripen better.
The country is beautifully diverfified with little hills,
warm valleys, and, towards the fea, with pleafant plains.
The foil alfo varies very much; in fome places gravelly,
in others fandy: but the greateft part is a deep, rich,
fertile mould; and there Is hardly any part of the ifland
J E R [ 3847 ] J E R
Jerfey. that can be ftyled barren. It is alfo thought to be bet-
" ter watered than Guemfey, abounding everywhere
with rills, rivulets, and living fprings; fo that there
are between 30 and 40 corn-mills driven by water, ex-
clufive of feven' fulling, and feveral windmills. The
produce of this ifland is much the fame with that of
Guernfey; their pafture is fo fweet, that no country
in Europe can boaft of richer milk or finer butter;
and they have grain of all kinds, and particularly a
fort of wheat called fromoit-tremais, from its being
fown fn the latter end of May, and reaped in the be¬
ginning of Auguft. But what chiefly diilinguifhes this
ifland at prefent, is its orchards; which are very well
fenced, regularly planted, and yield commonly immenfe
quantities of fruit.
On the fouth of the ifland the fea feems to have en¬
croached upon the land, (which, as we have before ob-
ferved, declines on that fide), and to have fwallowed
upwards of fix fquare miles, making a very beautiful
bay of between two and three miles broad, and near
the fame in depth. In the eafi corner of this bay
ftands the town of St Hellier, very happily fituated,
having a profpeft open to the fea and Mount Elifa-
beth Caftle (which, fince it was repaired and the works
augmented in the reign of Charles II. entirely occupies
a rocky ifle, which the fea, when it devoured the foil,
could not digeft), covered with hills to the north, with
meadows between them and the town, through which
runs a copious and delightful ftream that waters the
place as well as can be wiflied. The ftreets are open
and well-built, with a handfome fquare in the centre,
and well accommodated in point of markets, and every
thing that can contribute to the convenience of the in¬
habitants, of whom there may be about 2000. There
has been of late years a pier raifed; which is a great
advantage to the port, and of courfe not a little to the
benefit of the town. But the principal haven is on the
other fide, in the weftern corner of the bay, which re¬
ceives its name from it, being called St Aubiri's. It is
about half the fize of St Hellier, chiefly occupied by
merchants and makers of (hips; and moil of the build¬
ings being new, make a very neat and elegant figure.
A little to the eaftward of the town a rock rifes up in
the fea, upon which the fort of St Aubin is ere&ed;
to which the inhabitants having joined a ftrong, well-
built pier, their haven is now equally fecured againft
the fury of the winds, and the infults of an enemy.
Within the pier, a fixth-rate' juft floats at a dead neap,
and a veflel of 200 tons at all times; but (hips of fu-
perior fize muft lie without, in the road, where there
is good anchoring; and the whole bay being a fine,
clean, hard land, renders the intercourfe between the
two towns, which are about three miles diftant, per-
fedlly eafy. There are, befides thefe, feveral other
havens of lefs note; as, St Brelade’s Bay, at the back
of St Aubin’s; the great bay of St Ouen, which takes
in the greateft part of the weft fide of the ifland, where
the largell (hips may ride in 12 and 15 fathom, fafe
from all but eaft winds. La Crevafle is a port only for
boats; Greve de Lecq and port St John are alfo fmall
havens on the north fide, where is likewife Bonnenuit.
On the eaft there is the bay of St Catherine, and the
harbour of Rofel; to the fouth of which lies the fa¬
mous Mount Orgueil Caftle, formerly Caftle Gourray,
upon a folid rock, which was entirely covered with its
out-works; once the glory of this ifle, and Hill maje- . Jerfey,
(lie though in decay. To the fouth-weit lies the ha-
ven de la Chauflee. The laft we (hall mention is the
port de Pas, a very little to the eaftward of St Aubin’s
bay. All thefe are covered with bread-woiks, well de¬
fended by cannon.
The date of things and the occupations of the
people are very much changed from what they were a
century pad, or a very little more. The country then
was in a manner altogether arable or pafture, and
the people in general applied themfelves to agriculture:
whereas now every houfe has its orchards; and thefe
orchards are fo fenced with ftrong and thick mounds
of earth and done, frequently furmounted by hedges,
and fometimes by trees, that it has been thought, not
by tranlient fpeftators, but even on reflection affirmed
by the moft competent judges, thefe inclofures, toge¬
ther with larger or lefler roads, take up not lefs than
a third part of the furface of the ifland; and they have
fuch an abundance of fruit, that it is believed inf a
good year they make between 20,000 and 30,000 hogf-
heads of cyder; and if we confider that this is the
common drink of the inhabitants, we may eafily ac-
quiefee in the account. Their great manufafture is
the fame with that of Guernfey, the working up of
their own wool, and that which by two a&s of parlia¬
ment they are allowed to import from England, which
is 4000 tods ; and fome fay that 10,000 pair of (lock¬
ings, of all forts and fizes, are brought weekly to the
market of St Hellier. In ancient times they depended
greatly upon their fiftiery, in which they are much in¬
ferior at prefent to Quernfey: but whereas they had
formerly larger (hips, and a greater (hare of commerce,
that is now in the hands of the people of Jerfey, who
fend annually 30 (lout (hips to the Newfoundland
fifhery; and in time of peace, great quantities of to¬
bacco are fmuggled from thence into France. For the
defence of the ifland they have two troops of horfe,
five regiments of infaritry, and a fine train of artillery,
exclufive of what is in their feveral caftles, and on the
redoubts and bread-works upon their coafts, amount¬
ing in the whole to 115 18-pounders, given by King
William to the ifland in 1692. There are always re¬
gular troops in Elizabeth Caftle and in Fort St Aubin ;
and in time of war, they have commonly a body of
forces from England. The whole number of inhabi¬
tants is computed at about 25,000, all of whom are
(except a very few) natives of the place.
The ifland of Jerfey, with thofe of Guernfey,
Sark, Alderney, and their appendages, were parcel of
the duchy of Normandy, and were united to the crown
of England by the firft princes of the Norman line.
They are governed by their own laws, which are for
the moft part the ducal cuftoms of Normandy, being
colledled in an ancient book of cuftoms intitled Le
grand coujiumer. The king’s writ, or procefs from
the courts of Weftminfter, is here of no force; but his
commiffion is. They are not bound by any common
adlsof our parliaments, unlefs particularly named. All
caufes are originally determined by their own officers,
the bailiffs and jurats of the iflands. But an appeal
lies from them to the king and counfel in the laft re¬
fort.
iVew Jersey, or, as it is commonly called, the Jer-
feys (being two provinces united into one govern-
21 Y 2 ment),
J E R [ 3848 ] J E R
Jerfey, ment), one of the Biitifti colonies in North America.
Jerufalem. They lie from 39 1041 degrees of north latitude, and
from 74 to 75 degrees 30 minutes longitude weft from
London. In length 150 miles, in breadth in fome
places about 100. Bounded on the north by New
York, on the eaft by the Atlantic, on the fouth by
Lelawar Bay, on the weft by Penfylvania. This fitua-
tion, and their having on all Tides either the fea or cul¬
tivated countries, accounts for the mildnefs of the cli¬
mate, which is equally ferene and pleafant. The foil
is almoft every-where deep and fertile, producing vaft
quantities of excellent wheat and all other kinds of
grain in abundance, a variety of rich fruits, fine timber-
trees fit for building, and prodigious quantities of cattle
of all forts. Abounding alfo in copper and iron ores,
which are very rich. The inhabitants live here much
at their eafe, and with little labour, enjoying not on¬
ly all the neceflaries but moft of the conveniencies of
life, from whence this country hath not been impro¬
perly ftyled the Garden of America. It is a royal go¬
vernment, the governor being affifted by a council of
j 2 which compofe the upper houfe, as the reprefenta-
tives of the people do the lower houfe of affembly, and
are in number 24. In Eaft Jerfey, the capital is Perth
Amboy, which hath a fine port, notwithftanding
which Elizabeth-Town is much larger. In Weft Jer¬
fey they have two ports, Burlington and Salem. The
commodities of the Jerfeys are the fame with thofe of
New York, and the number of inhabitants is faid to
be 60,000.
The duke of York, as proprietor of the province"
laft mentioned, by a deed, dated the 24th of June
1664, granted the fouthern part of it to Sir George
Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, which part
was called Neve Jerfey. Ten years after this the two
lords proprietors, with the confent of the duke, di¬
vided this country into Eaft Jerfey under Sir George
Carteret, and Weft Jerfey under Lord Berkeley. The
duke of York, notwithftanding this, refumed for a
fhort fpace the government of Weft Jerfey; but by a
new deed, in the year 1680, revived and confirmed the
former divifion, by which Weft Jerfey was reftored to
lord Berkeley. Thefe proprietors afterwards affigned
their rights to others; and the inhabitants frequently
falling out with the governors they fent over, and the
aflignees of the original proprietors difagreeing amongft
themfelves, the latter, by a folemn aft, April 17th,
1702, refigned both provinces to the queen, referving
however the property in the foil, &c. Since this pe¬
riod it hath been a royal government, though fome-
times the fame perfon hath been governor of New York
and the Jerfeys. The exports, 1769, amounted to
no more than 25311. all for the Britifh or foreign Weft
Indies. In 1770, there were entered inwards two
fhipsand 41 floops; cleared outwards two (hips and 47
floops.
JERUSALEM, a very famous and ancient city,
capital of Judea or Paleftine, now a province of Turky
in Afia. According to Manetho, an Egyptian hifto-
rian, it was founded by the Ihepherds who invaded E-
fSeeEgy/i/, gypt ;n an unknown period of antiquity f. Accord-
n° a" >ng t0 Jofephus, it was the capital of Melchifedek’s
kingdom, called Salem in the book of Genefis: and
the Arabians affert, that it was built in honour of Mel-
chifedek by 12 neighbouring kings; which when they
had done, he called it Jerufalem. We know nothing Jerufaleimj
of it with certainty, however, till the time of king ^
David, who took it from the Jebufites, and made it
the capital of his kingdom, which it ever after conti¬
nued to be. It was firft taken in the days of Je-
hoalh, by Hazael the king of Syria, who flew all the
nobility, but did not deftroy their city. It was af¬
terwards taken by Nebuchadnezzar king of Baby¬
lon, who deftroyed' it, and carried away the inhabi¬
tants. Seventy years after, permiflion was granted
by Cyrus king of Perfia to the Jews to rebuild their
city, which was done ; and it continued the capital of
Judsea, (though frequently fuffering much from the
Grecian monarchs of Syria and Egypt,) till the time
of Vefpafian emperor of Rome, by whofe fon Titus it
was totally deftroyed *. It was, however, rebuilt by » gee Jf-wjl
Adrian; and feemed likely to have recovered its for¬
mer grandeur, being furrounded with walls, and adorn¬
ed with feveral noble buildings; the Chriftians alfo be¬
ing permitted to fettle in it. But this was a fhort-
lived change; fo that when the emprefs Helena, mother
of Conftantine the Great, came to vifit this city, (he
found it in the moft forlorn and ruinous fituation. Ha¬
ving formed a defign of reftoring it to its ancient luftre,
flie caufed, with a great deal of coft and labour, all the
rubbilh that had been thrown upon thofe places where
our Saviour had fuffered, been buried, &c. to be re¬
moved. In doing this, they found the crofs on which
he died, as well as thofe of the two malefaftors who
fuffered with him; and, as the writers of thofe times
relate, difeovered by a miracle that which had borne
the Saviour of mankind. She then caufed a magnifi¬
cent church to be built, which inclofed as many of the
feenes of our Saviour’s fufferings as could convenient¬
ly be done, and adorned the city with feveral other
buildings. The emperor Julian is faid to have formed
a defign of rebuilding the temple of Jerufalem, and of
reftoring the Jewifti worftrip. This fcheme was con¬
trived on purpofe to give the lie to our Saviour’s pro¬
phecy concerning the temple and city of Jerufalem,
namely, that the firft (hould be totally deftroyed, with¬
out one (tone being left upon another ; and that Jeru¬
falem (hould be trodden down of the Gentiles till the
times of the Gentiles were fulfilled. In this attempt,
however, according to the accounts of the Chriftian
writers of that age, the emperor was fruftrated by an
earthquake and fiery eruption from the earth, which
totally deftroyed the work, confumed the materials
which had been collefted, and killed a great number
of the workmen.
This event hath been the fubjeft of much difpute.
Mr Warburton, who hath publilhed a treatifeexprefs-
ly on the truth of this faft, hath collefted the follow¬
ing teftimonies in favour of it. The firft is that of
Ammianus Marcellinus, who tells us, 44 Julian (ha¬
ving been already thrice conful) taking Salluft, pre-
feft of the feveral Gauls, for his colleague, entered a
fourth time on this high magiftracy ; and although
his fenfibility of the many and great events which
this year was likely to produce made him very
anxious for the future, yet he both pulhed on the va¬
rious and complicated preparatives for this expedition
with the utmoft application, and, having an eye in
every quarter, and being defirous to eternize his reign
by the greatnefs of his atchievements, he projefted to
rebuild..
J E R [ 3849 ] J E R
Jerufalem. rebuild at an immenfe expence the proud and magni¬
ficent ternpie of Jerufaletn; which, (after many com¬
bats, attended with much bloodfhed on both fides,
during the fiege by Vefpafian) was with great diffi¬
culty taken and deftroyed by Titus. He com¬
mitted the conduct of this affair to Alypius of
Antioch, who had formerly been lieutenant in Bri¬
tain. When therefore this Alypius had fet himfelf
to the vigorous execution of his charge, in which he
had all the affillance that the governor of the province
could afford him, horrible balls of fire breaking out
near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated at¬
tacks, rendered the place from time to time inacceffible
to the fcorched and blafted workmen ; and the victo¬
rious element continuing, in this manner, obftinately
and refolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a di-
ftance, Alypius thought beft to give over the enter-
prize.”
The next teftimony is that of Gregory Nazianzen.
Speaking of the emperor Julian, he fays, “ After
having run through a courfe of every other tyrannical
experiment againfl the faith, and upon trial defpifing
all of them as trifling and contemptible, he at laft
brought down the whole body of the Jews upon us;
whom, for their'ancient turn to -feditious novelties,
and an inveterate hatred of the Chriftian name, he
ehofe as the fitteft inflrument for his machinations.
Thefe, under a fhoV of great good-will, which hid
his fecret purpofe, he endeavoured to convince from
their facred books and traditions, which he took upon
him to interpret, that now was come the time fore¬
told, when they fhould return to their own land, re¬
build their temple, and reltore the law to its ancient
force and fplendor. When thefe things had been
thoroughly infinuated, and heartily entertained, (for
deceit finds eafy admittance when it flatters our paf-
fions), the Jews fet upon the work of rebuilding with
great attention, and pufhed on the projeft with the
utmoft labour and application. But when, now driven
from their work by a violent whirlwind and a fudden
earthquake, they fled together for refuge to a certain
neighbouring'church, (fome to deprecate the impend¬
ing mifehief; others, as is natural in fuch cafes, to
catch at any help that prefents itfelf; and others
again, inveloped in the crowd, were carried along
with the body of thofe who fled), there are who fay,
the church refufed them entrance ; and that when they
came to the doors which were wide open but a mo¬
ment before, they found them on a fudden clofed by
a fecret and invifible hand ; a hand accullomed to
work thefe wonders by the terror and confufion of the
impious, and for the fecurity and comfort of godly
men. This, however, is now invariably affirmed and
believed by all, that as they drove to force their way
in by violence, the fire which burlt from the founda¬
tions of the temple, met and flopped them. One
part it burnt and deftroyed, and another it defperate-
ly maimed, leaving them a living monument of God’s
commination and wrath againft finners. Thus the
affair paffed ; and, let no man continue incredulous
concerning this or the other miraculous works of
God. But ftill the thing moft wonderful and illuf-
trious was, a light which appeared in the heavens, of
a crofs within a circle. That name and figure which
impious men before effeemed fo. dilhonourable upon
earth, was now raifed on high, and equally objected Jerufalcm.
to the common view of all men; advanced by God
himfelf as the trophy of his victory over unbelievers;,
of all trophies the moft exalted and fublime. Nay
further, they who were prefent, and partakers of the
miracle we are now about to fpeak of, ftiew to this
very day the fign or figure of the crofs which was
then marked or impreffed upon their garments. For
at that time, as thefe men, (whether fuch as were of
us, or ftrangers) were (hewing thefe marks, or attend¬
ing to others who (hewed them, each prefently obferved
the wonder, either on himfelf or his neighbour; hav¬
ing a radiant mark on his body or on his garment, in
which there is fomething that, in art and elegance, ex¬
ceeded all painting or embroidery.”
Notwithftanding thefe teftimonies, however, this
fail hath been ftrenuoufly contefted by others; and
indeed it muft be owned that the teftimonies above
mentioned are by no means unexceptionable. In the
laft particularly, the propenfity to the marvellous is fo
exceedingly great, that every one muft at firft fight
be (truck with it. It is true indeed, the moft mira¬
culous part of it, as it feemed to be to Gregory,
namely, the appearance of erodes upon the garments
and bodies of fome of the people who were (truck,
may be explained upon a natural principle ; fince we
are affured that lightning will fometimes produce ef-
fedts of this kind * : but even this is nodecifive proof* SeeLighu
of the authenticity of the relation ; though it cannot
by any means diferedit it, as fome think. On the
whole, however, it is not a matter of any confequence
whether this event happened with the circumilances
abovementioned or not. If Julian did make any at¬
tempt to rebuild the temple, it is certain that fome¬
thing obftrudled the attempt, becaufe the temple was
never aftually rebuilt. If he made no fuch attempt,
the prophecy of our Saviour ftill holds good ; and it
furely cannot be thought to detradf from the merit of
a prophecy, that no body ever attempted to dude it,
or prove it to be a falfehood.
Jerufalem continued in the hands of the eaftern
emperors till the reign of the Caliph Omar, who reduced
it under his fubjedtion. The Saracens continued in
poffeffion of it till the year 1099, when it was taken
by the crufaders. They founded a new kingdom, of
which Jerufalem was the capital, which lafted 88 years
under nine kings. At laft this kingdom was utterly
ruined by Saladin; and though the Chriftians once
more got poffeffion of the city, they were again
obliged to relinquilh it. In 1217, the Saracens were
expelled by the Turks, who have ever fince continued
in poffeffion of it.
The city of Jerufalem, in its moft flour-iftiing date,
was divided into four parts, each inclofed with its own
walls ; viz. 1. The old city of Jebus, which ftood on
mount Zion, where the prophets dwelt, and where
David built a magnificent caftle and palace, which
became the refidence both of himfelf and fucceffors;
on which account it was emphatically called, the city
of David. 2. The lower city, called alfo the daugh¬
ter of Zion, being built after it ; on which ftood the
two magnificent palaces rvhich Solomon built for
himfelf and his queen ; that of the Maccabean princes ;.
and the (lately amphitheatre built by Herod, capable
of containing 8q,ooo fpe<ftators.; the ftrong citadel,
built:
J E R [ 3850 ] J E R
Jenifaiem. built by Antiochua, to command and overtop the
temple, but afterwards razed by Simon the Maccabee,
who recovered the city from the Syrians ; and laftly, a
fecond citadel, built by Herod, upon a high and craggy
rock, and called by him Antonia. 3. The new city,
moftly inhabited by tradefmen, artificers, and mer¬
chants ; and, 4. Mount Moriah, on which was built
the fo famed temple of Solomon, defcribed in the
iixth and feventh chapters of the fecond book of Kings;
and, fince then, that rebuilt by the Jews on their re¬
turn from Babylon, and afterwards built almoft anew
and greatly adorned and enriched by Herod.
Some idea of the magnificence of this temple may
be had from the following confiderations. 1. That
there were no lefs than 163,300 men employed in the
work. 2. That notwithftanding that prodigious num¬
ber of hands, it took up ftven whole years in build*
ing. 3. That the height of this building was 120
cubits, or 82 yards, rather more than lefs; and the
courts round it about half as high. 4. That the
front, on the eaft fide, was fuftained by ramparts of
fqnare done, of vaft bulk, and built up from the val¬
ley below, which laft was 300 cubits high, and be¬
ing added to that of the edifice amounted to 420
cubits; to which, if we add, 5. The height of the
principal tower above all the red, viz. 60, will bring
it to 480 cubits, which, reckoning at two feet to a
cubit will amount to 960 feet; but, according to the
length of that meafure, as others reckon it, viz. at two
feet and an half, it will amount to 1200 feet; a pro¬
digious height this from the ground, and fuch as
might well make Jofephus fay, that the very defign of
it was fufficient to have turned the brain of any but
Solomon. 6. Thefe ramparts, which were raifed in
this manner, to fill up the prodigious chafm made by
the deep valley below, and to make the area of a fuf¬
ficient breadth and length for the edifice, were 1000
cubits in length at the bottom, and 800 at the top,
and the breadth of them 100 more. 7. The huge
buttreffes which fupported the ramparts were of the
fame height, fquare at the top, and 50 cubits broad,
and jutted out 150 cubits at the bottom. 8. The
itones, of which they were built, were, according to
Jofephus, 40 cubits long, 12 thick, and 8 high, all
of marble, and fo exquifitely joined, that they feemed
one continued piece, or rather polifhed rock. 9. Ac¬
cording to the fame Jewith hiftorian, there were 1453
columns of Parian marble, and twice that number of
pilafters ; and of fuch thicknefs, that three men could
hardly embrace them, and their height and capitals
proportionable, and of the Corinthian order. But it
is likely Jofephus hath given us thefe two laft articles
from the temple of Herod, there being nothing like
them mentioned by the facred hiftorians, but a great
deal about the prodigious cedars of Lebanon ufed in
that noble edifice, the excellent workmanfhip of them
adapted to their feveral ends and defigns, together
with their gildings and other curious ornaments. The
only thing more we (hall venture to add is, what is
affirmed in Scripture, that all the materials of this
flupendous fabric were finiflied and adapted to their
feveral ends before they were brought to Jerufalem,
that is, the ftones in their quarries, and the cedars
in Lebanon; lo that their was no noife of ax, ham¬
mer, or any tool, heard in the rearing of it.
At prefent Jerufalem is called by the Turks Cud- Jerufalem.
fembaricy and Coudfheriff; and is reduced to a pooc 1
thinly-inhabited town, about three miles in circumfe¬
rence, fituated on a rocky mountain, furrounded on
all fides, except the north, with fteep afcents and deep
valleys; and thefe again environed with other hills,
at fome diftance from them. In the neighbourhood
of the city there grow fome corn, vines, olives, &c.
The (lately church erefted by the emprefs Helena,
on mount Cavalry, is ftill (landing. It is called the
church of the fepulchre; and is kept in good repair by
the generous offerings of a conftant ^concourfe of pil¬
grims, who annually refort to it, as well as by the
contributions of feveral Chriftian princes. The walls
of this church are of (tone, and the roof of cedar; the
ea(l end inclofes Mount Calvary, and the weft the holy
fepulchre : the former is covered with a noble cupola,
open at top, and fupported by 16 maffive columns.
Over the, high altar, at the eaft end, is another (late¬
ly dome. The nave of the church conftitutes the
choir; and in the infide-ifles are (hewn the places
where the moft remarkable circumftances of our Sa¬
viour’s paffion was tranfacled, together with the tombs
of Godfrey and Baldwin, the two firft Chriftian kings
of Jerufalem. In the chapel of the crucifixion, is
(hewn the very hole in the rock in which the crofs is
faid to have been fixed. The altar in this chapel hath
three erodes on it; and is richly adorned, particularly'
with four lamps of immenfe value that hang before it,
and are kept conftaqtly burning. At the weft end is
that of the fepulchre, which is hewn in that form out
of the folid rock, and hath a fmall dome fupported
by pillars of porphyry. The cloifter round the fe¬
pulchre is divided into fundry chapels, appropriated to
the feveral forts of Chriftians who refide there ; as
Greeks, Armenians, Maronites, Jacobite's, Copts, A-
byffines, Georgians, &c. and on the north-weft fide
of it are the apartments of the Latins, who have the
care of the church, and are forced to refide conftantly
in it; the Turks keeping the keys of it, and not dif¬
fering any of them to go out, but obliging them to
receive their provifions in at a wicket. At Eafter
there are fome grand ceremonies performed in the
church, reprefenting our Lord’s paffion, crucifixion,
death, and refurreftion, at which a vaft concourfe
of pilgrims commonly affift. For a particular ac¬
count of them, we refer the reader to doftors Shaw
and Pococke.
On Mount Moriah, on the fouth-eaft part of the
city, is an edifice called Solomon's Temple, (landing
on or near the fame fpot as the ancient ; but lyhen or
by whom eredted is uncertain. In the midft of it is a
Turkifti mofque, where the Jewifh fanctum fan&orum
is fuppofed to have flood. The building, which Dr Po¬
cocke thinks mud have been formerly a Chriftian
church, is held in the utmoft veneration by the Turks.
The city is now under the government of a fangiac,
who refides in a houfe faid to have been that of Pon¬
tius Pilate, over-againft the caftle of Antonia built
by Herod the Great. Many of the churches eredted
in memory of fome remarkable gofpel-tranfadlion, have
been fince converted into mofques ; into fome of which
money will procure admittance, but not into others.
Both the friars and other Chriftians are kept fo poor
by the tyranny of the government, that the chief fup-
port
J E R [ 3851 ] J E S
erufalem. port and trade of the place confifts in providing ftran-
gers with food and other accommodations, and felling
them beads, relics, and other trinkets, for which they
are obliged to pay confiderable fums to the fangiac, as
well as to his officers; and thofe are feldom fo well
contented with their ufual duties, but they frequently
extort fome frelh ones, efpecially from the Francifcans,
whofe convent is the common receptacle for all pil¬
grims, and for which they have confiderable allowan¬
ces from the pope, and other crowned heads, befides
the prefents which ftrangevs generally make them at
their departure. The molt remarkable antiquities in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem are, 1. The pools of
Bethefda and Gihon; the former 120 paces long, 40
broad, and at leaft eight deep, but now without wa¬
ter; and the old arches, which it ftill difcovers at the
weft, end, are quite dammed up : the other, which is
about a quarter of a mile without Betblehem-gate, is
a very (lately relic, 106 paces long, and 60 broad,
lined with a wall and plafter, and ftill well ftored with
water. 2. The tomb of the Virgin Mary, in the val¬
ley of Jehofhaphat, into which one defcends by a mag¬
nificent flight of 47 fteps. On the right hand as one
goes down, is alfo the fepulchre of St Ann the mo¬
ther, and on the left that of Jofeph the hufband, of
that virgin-mother: fome add likewife that of Jeho-
iakim her father. In all thefe are eredted altars for
prieftsof all forts to fay mafs, and the whole is cut in¬
to the folid rock. 3. The tomb of king Jehofhaphat,
cut likewife into the rock, and divided into feveral
apartments ; in one of which is his tomb, which is
adorned with a (lately portico and entablature over it.
4. That commonly called Abfalon?s pillar or place^ as
being generally fuppofed to be that which he is faid
to have ere&ed in his life-time to perpetuate his me¬
mory, as he had no male-iflue. The place, however,
both within and without, hath more the refemblance
of a fepulchre than any thing elfe : though we do not
read that he was buried there, neither do the people
here affirm that he was. There is a great heap of
ftones about it, which is continually increafing ; the
fuperftitious Jews and Turks always throwing fome as
theyr pafs, in token of their abhorrence of Abfalom’s
unnatural rebellion againftfo good and holy a parent.
The ftrudture itfelf is about 20 cubits fquare, and 60
high, rifing in a lofty fquare, adorned below with four
columns of the Ionic order, with their capitals, enta¬
blatures, &c. to each front. From the height of 20
to 40 cubits, it is fomewhat lefs, and quite plain, ex¬
cepting a fmall fillet at the upper end ; and from 40 to
the top it changes into a round, which grows gradual ¬
ly into a point, the whole cut out of the folid rock.
, There is a room within, confiderably^ higher than the
level of the ground without, on the fides of which are
niches, probably to receive coffins. 5. A little eaft-
ward of this is that called the tomb of Zechariak, the
fon of Barachiah, whom the Jews (lew between the
temple and the altar, as is commonly fuppofed. This
fabric is all cut out of the natural rock, 1 8 feet high,,
and as many fquare; and adorned with Ionic columns
on each front, cut out likewife of the fame rock, and
fupporting a cornice. The whole ends in a pointed
top, like a diamond. But the mod curious, grand,
and elaborate pieces, in this kind, are the grotts with¬
out the walls of Jerufalem, ftyled the royal fepulchre s ;
but of what kings is not agreed on. They confift of Jdi
a great number of apartments, fome of them fpacious, II
all cut out of the folid marble rock ; and may juftly ' Jefuits-
be pronounced a royal work, and one of the moft
noble, furprifing, and magnificent. For a particular
account of them we mull refer the reader, for want of
room, to Pococke’s Travels. In the neighbourhood
of Jerufalem is a fpot of ground, about 30 yards long
and 15 broad, now the burying-place of the Arme¬
nians,' which is (hewn as the Aceldama, or Field of
Blood, formerly the Potter’s Field, and fince ftyled
Campo Sanfto, or the Holy Field, purchafed with the
price of Judas’s treafon, for the burial of ftrangers. It
is walled round, to prevent the Turks abufing the bones
of Chriftians; and one half of it is taken up by a
building in the nature of a charnel-houfe. Befides the
above, a great many other antiquities in the city and
its environs are (hewn to ftrangers; there being fcarcc
any place or tranfaftion mentioned either in the Old or
New Teftament, but they (hew the very fpot of ground
where the one ttood, and the other was done ; not on¬
ly here, but all over Judaea.
JESI, an ancient town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the marca or march of Ancona,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, near
a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12. 20. N. Lat.
43- 5°-
JESSO, Jedso, or Tadfo, a large ifiand of Afia
to the north of Niphon, and faid to be governed by a
prince tributary to the empire of Japan ; but is very
little known to the Europeans, fo that nothing can be
faid with certainty concerning it.
JESSES, ribbons that hang down from garlands
or crowns in falconry ; alfo fhort (traps of leather fa¬
ttened to the hawk’s legs, and fo to the vervels.
JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus ; a famous reli¬
gious order of the RomKh church, founded by Ignatius t
Loyola. See Ignatius.—The plan which this fanatic Foundation
formed of its conftitution and laws was fuggefted, as he °f the or-
gave out, and as his followers ftill teach, by the immedi- der•
ate infpiration of heaven. But notwithttanding this high
retenfion, his defign met at firft with violent oppofition.
^he pope, to whom Loyola had applied for thefanc-
tion of his authority to confirm the inftitution, refer¬
red his petition to a committee of cardinals. They
reprefented the eftablifhment to be unneceffary as well
as dangerous, and Paul refufed to grant his approba¬
tion of it. At laft, Loyola removed all his fcruples
by an offer which it was impoffible for any pope to
refift. He propofed, that befides the three vows of
poverty, of chaftity, and of monadic obedience, which
are common to all the orders of regulars, the mem¬
bers of his fqciety fhould take a fourth vow of obe¬
dience to the pope, binding themfelves to gb whither-
foever he (hould command for the fervice of religion,
and without requiring any thing from the holy fee for
their fupport. At a time when the papal authority
had received fuch a (hock by the revolt of fo many na¬
tions from the Romifh church; at a time when every a,
part of the popifh fyftem was attacked with fo much Confirmed
violence and fuccefs, the acquifition of a body ofbyt!ie
men, thus peculiarly devoted to the fee of Rome, and ?opc’ ai?‘!
whom it might let in oppoiition to all its enemies, was motives,
an objefl of the higheft confequence. Paul inftantly
perceiving this, confirmed the inftitution of the Je-
fuits-^
.
J E S [ 3852 J J E S
Jefuits. -fults by his bull, granted the mod ample privileges to
th? members of the fociety, and appointed Loyola to
be the firft general of the order. The event hath ful¬
ly juftified Paul’s difcernment, in expe&ing fuch bene¬
ficial confequences to the fee of Rome from this infti-
tution. In lefs than half a century, the fociety ob¬
tained eftablifliments in every country that adhered to
•the Roman-catholic church : its power and wealth in-
creafed amazingly ; the number of its members be¬
came great; their chara&er as well as accomplilh-
ments were ftill greater; and the Jefuits were cele¬
brated by the friends and dreaded by the enemies of
the Romifh faith as the mod able and enterprifing or¬
der in the church.
The conditution and law's of the fociety were per-
fefted by Laynez and Aquaviva, the two generals
who fucceeded Loyola, men far fuperior to their ma¬
iler in abilities and in the fcience of government.
They framed that fydem of profound and artful po¬
licy which, dillinguifhes the order. The large infu-
iion of fanaticifm mingled with its regulation diould
be imputed to Loyola its founder. Many circum-
ilances concurred in giving a peculiarity of character
to the order of Jefuits, and in forming the members
of it not only to take greater part in the affairs of the
world than any other body of monks, but to acquire
3 fuperior influence in the condudl of them.
The objeft The primary objetl of ahnod all the monadic orders
of the or- js t0 feparate men from the world, and from any con-
der fwgu- cern jn jts affairs, In the folitude and filence of the
ar’ cloider, the monk is called to wmrk out his own fal-
vation by extraordinary a&s of mortification and pie¬
ty. He is dead to the world, and ought not to mingle
in its tranfa&ions. He can be of no benefit to man¬
kind but by his example and by his prayers. On the
contrary, the Jefuits are taught to confider themfelves
as formed for addion. They are chofen foldiers, bound
to exert themfelves continually in the fervice of God,
and of the pope his vicar on earth. Whatever tends
to indraft the ignorant, whatever can be of ufe to re¬
claim or to oppofe the enemies of the holy fee, is their
proper objeft. That they may have full leifure for
this adlive fervice, they are totally exempted from
thofe funftions the performance of which is the chief
bufinefs of other monks. They appear in no procef-
lions ; they praftife no rigorous auderities •, they do
not confume one half of their time in the repetition
of tedious offices: but they are required to attend to
all the tranfaftions of the world, on account of the
influence which thefe may have upon religion ; they
are direfted tpdudy the difpofitionsof perfons in high
rank, and to cultivate their friendffiip ; and by the
very conditution as well as genius of the order, a fpi-
rit of aftion and intrigue is infufed into all its mem-
4 bers.
Peculiar!- As the objeft of the fociety of Jefuits differed from
ties m its t|jat 0f the other monadic orders, the diverfity was
p0 no lefs in the form of its government. The other or¬
ders are to be confidered as voluntary affociations, in
which whatever affefts the whole body is regulated by
the common fuffrage of all its members. The execu¬
tive power is veded in the perfons placed at the head
of each convent or of the wrhole fociety ; the legifla-
tive authority refides in the community. Affairs of
moment, relating to particular convents, are determi¬
ned in conventual chapters ; fuch as refpeft the whole
order are confidered in general congregations. But 1
Loyola, full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which
he had derived from his military profeffion, appointed
that the government of his order fhould be purely mo¬
narchical. A general, chofen for life by deputies
from the feveral provinces, poffeffed power that was
fupreme and independent, extending to every perfon
and to every cafe. He, by his foie authority, nomi¬
nated provincials, reftors, and every other officer em¬
ployed in the government of the fociety, and could
remove them at pleafure. In him was vetted the fove-
reign adminiftration of the revenues and funds of the
order. Every member belonging to it was at his dif-
pofal; and by his uncontrolable mandate he could im-
pofe on them any talk, or employ them in what fer- s j
vice foever he pleafed. To his commands they were Power of?
required to yield not only outward obedience, but to
refign up to him the inclinations of their own wills
and the fentiments of their own underftandings. They
were to liften to his injunftions as if they had been ut¬
tered by Chrift himfelf. Under his direftion they
were to be mere paffive inftruments, like clay in the
hands of the potter, onlike dead carcafes incapable of
refiftance. Such a Angular form of policy could not
fail to imprefs its charafter on all the members of
the order, and to give a peculiar force to all its ope¬
rations. There is not, in the annals of mankind, any
example of fuch a perfeft defpotifm, exercifed not over
monks ffiut up in the cells of a convent, but over men i
diiperfed among all the nations of the earth.
As the conftitutions of the order veft in the general
fuch abfolute dominion over all its members, they care¬
fully provide for his being perfeftly informed with re¬
fpeft to the charafter and abilities of his fubjefts.
Every novice who offers himfelf as a candidate for en¬
tering into the order, is obliged to manifeft his con-
fcience to the fuperior, or a perfon appointed by him ;
and is required to confefs not only his tins and defefts,
but to difcover the inclinations, the paffions, and the
bent of his foul. This manifeftation muff be renewed
every fix months. The fociety, not fatisfied with pe¬
netrating in this manner into the innermoft receffes of
the heart, direfts each member to obferve the words
and actions of the novices : they are conftituted fpies !
upon their conduft, and are bound to difclofe every
thing of importance concerning them to the fuperior.
In order that this fcrutiny into their charafter may be
as complete as poffible, a long noviciate muff expire,
during which they pafs through the feveral gradations
of ranks in the fociety ; and they muff have attained ’
the full age of thirty-three years, before they can be
admitted to take the final vows, by which they become 'j
profefled members. By thefe various methods, the fupe-
riors, under whole immediate infpeftion the novices are
placed, acquire a thorough knowledge of their difpofi-
tions and talents. In order that the general, who is
the foul that animates and moves the whole fociety,
may have under his eye every thing neceffary to in¬
form or direft him, the provincials and heads of the
feveral houfes are obliged to tranfmit to him regular
and frequent reports concerning the members under
their infpeftion. In thefe they defcend into minute
details with refpeft to the charafter of each perfon,
his abilities natural or acquired, his temper, his expe¬
rience i
J E S [ 3853 ] J E S
Jcruits. Hence in affairs, and the particular department for
— which he is beft fitted. Thefe reports, when digefted
and arranged, are entered into regifters kept of pur-
pofe, that the general may, at one comprehenfive
view, furvey the ttate of the fociety in every corner of
the earth ; obferve the qualifications and talents of its
members ; and thus choofe, with perfedt information,
the inftruments which his abfolute power can employ
6 in any firvice for which he thinks meet to defline them,
•ogrefs of As it was the profeffed intention of the order of
e power Jefu;ts to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting
lence'of t^ie ^alvat,'on men, this engaged them of courfe in
e order, many a&ive funftions. From their firft inftifution,
they confidered the education of youth as their pecu¬
liar province ; they aimed at being fpiritual guides
and confeflbrs ; they preached frequently in order to
inftruft the people ; they fet out as miflionaries to
convert unbelieving nations. The novelty of the in-
ftitution, as well as the Angularity of its objedls, pro¬
cured the order many admirers and patrons. The go¬
vernors of the fociety bad the addrefs to avail them-
felves of every circumftance in its favour, and in a
fhort time the number as well as influence of its mem¬
bers increafed wonderfully. Before the expiration of
the fixteenth century, the Jefuits had obtained the
chief direftion of the education of youth in every ca¬
tholic country in Europe. They had become the con¬
feflbrs of almoft all its monarchs ; a function of no
fmall importance in any reign, but, under a weak
1 prince, fuperior even to that of minifter. They were
the fpiritual guides of almoft every perfon eminent for
rank or power. They poffeffed the higheft degree of
confidence and intereft with the papal court, as the
moft zealous and able champions for its authority.
The advantages which an aftive and enterprifing body
of men might derive from all thefe circumftances are
obvious. They formed the minds of men in their
youth. They retained an afcendant over them in their
advanced years. They poflefled, at different periods,
the direftion of the moft confiderable courts in Eu¬
rope. They mingled in all affairs. They took part
in every intrigue and revolution. The general, by
means of the extenfive intelligence which he received,
could regulate the operations of the order with the
moft perfect difcernment; and, by means of his abfo¬
lute power, could carry them on with the utmoft vi¬
gour and effeft.
;J Together with the power of the order, its wealth
alth. continued to increafe. Various expedients were devi-
fed for eluding the obligation of the vow of poverty.
The order acquired ample poffeffions in every catholic
country; and by the number as well as magnificence
of its public buildings, together with the value of its
property, moveable or real, it vied with the moft opu¬
lent of the monaftic fraternities. Befides the fources
of wealth common to all the regular clergy, the Je-
‘ fuits poffeffed one which was peculiar to themfelves.
Under pretext of promoting the fuccefs of their mif-
fions, and of facilitating the fupport of their mifllona-
ries, they obtained a fpecial licence from the court of
Rome to trade with the nations which they laboured
to convert. In confequence of this, they engaged in
an extenfive and lucrative commerce both in the Eaft
and Weft Indies. They opened warehoufes in differ¬
ent parts of Europe, in which they vended their com-
Vot. V.
modities. Not fatisfied with trade alone, they imf- Jefuhs.
tated the example of other commercial focieties, and '
aimed at obtaining fettlements. They acquired pof-
fefiion accordingly of a large and fertile province in
the fouthern continent of America, and reigned as
fovereigns over fome hundred thoufand fubje&s. - ?.
Unhappily for mankind, the vaft influence which *
the order of Jefuits acquired by all thefe different !i e(e on
means, has been often exerted with the moft pernicious c:vii fo-
effed. Such was the tendency of that difeipline ob- ciety.j
ferved by the fociety in forming its members, and
fuch the fundamental maxims in its conftitution, that
every Jefuit was taught to regard the intereft of the
order as the capital objed to which every c mfideration
was to be facrificed. This fpirit of attachment to
their order, the moft ardent perhaps that ever influen¬
ced any body of men, is the charad<yiftic principle of
the Jeluits, and ferves as a key to the genius of their
policy as well as the peculiarities in their fentiments
and condud.
As it was for the honour and advantage of the fo¬
ciety that its members ffiould poffefs an afcendant over
perfons in high rank or of great power; the defire of
acquiring and preferring fuch a diredion of their con¬
dud with greater facility, has led the Jefuits to pro¬
pagate a fyftem of relaxed and pliant morality, which
accommodates itfelf to the paflfions of men, which .
juftifies their vices, which tolerates their imperfec¬
tions, which authorifes almoft every adion that the
moft audacious or crafty politician would wifti to per¬
petrate.
As the profperity of the order was intimately con-
neded with the prefervation of the papal authority,
the Jefuits, influenced by the fame principle of at¬
tachment to the interefts of their fociety, have been
the moft zealous patrons of thofe dodrines which
tend to exalt ecclefiaftical power on the ruins of civil
government. They have attributed to the court of
Rome a jurifdidtion as extenfive and abfolute as was
claimed by the moft prefumptuous pontiffs in the dark
ages. They have contended for the entire independ¬
ence of ecclefiaftics on the civil magiftrates. They
have publilhed fuch tenets concerning the duty of op-
pofing princes who were enemies of the catholic faith
as countenanced the moft atrocious crimes, and tended
to diffolve all the ties which conned fubjeds with their
rulers.
As the order derived both reputation and authority
from the zeal with which it flood forth in defence of
the Romilh church againft the attacks of the reform¬
ers, its members, proud of this diftindion, have con¬
fidered it as their peculiar fundion to combat the opi¬
nions and to check the progrefs of the Proteftants.
They have made ufe of every art, and have employed
every weapon againft them. They have fet themfdves
in oppofition to every gentle or tolerating meafure in
their favour. They have inceffantly ftirred up againft:
them all the rage of ecclefiaftical and civil perfecution.
Monks of other denominations have indeed ventured
to teach the fame pernicious dodrines, and have held
opinions equally inconliftent with the order and hap-
pinefs.of civil fociety. But they, from reafons wh.ich
are obvious, have either delivered fuch opinions with
greater referve, or have propagated them with lefs
fuccefs. Whoever recolleds the events which have
21 Z happened
J E S [ 3S54 ] J E S
Jcfuits. happened in Europe during two centuries, will find
~ that the Jefuits may juftly be confidered as refponfible
for moft of the pernicious effefts arifing from that
corrupt and dangerous cafuiftry, from thofe extrava¬
gant tenets concerning ecclefiaftical power, and from
that intolerant fpirit, which have been the difgrace of
^ the church of Rome throughout that period, and which
Some ad- have brought fo many calamities upon civil fociety.
yantagesre- But, amidft many bad confequences flowing from
fultmg the inllitution of this order, mankind, it mult be ac-
fnftitutlon knowledged, have derived from it fome confiderable
of this advantages. As the Jefuits made the education of
order. youth one of their capital objefts, and as their firft
attempts to eitablifh colleges for the reception of ftu-
dents were violently oppofed by the univerlities in dif¬
ferent countries, it became necefiary for them, as the
moft effe&ual method of acquiring the public favour,
to furpafs their rivals in fcience and induftry. This
prompted them to cultivate the ftudy of ancient lite¬
rature with extraordinary ardour. This put them up¬
on various methods for facilitating the inftru&ion of
youth ; and, by the improvements which they made
in it, they have contributed fo much towards the pro-
grefs of polite learning, that on this account they have
merited well of fociety. Nor has the order of Jefuits
been fuccefsful only in teaching the elements of lite¬
rature ; it has produced likewife eminent mafters in
many branches of fcience, and can alone boaft of a
greater number of ingenious authors than all the other
religious fraternities taken together.
But it is in the new world that the Jefuits have ex¬
hibited the moft wonderful difplay of their abilities,
and have contributed moft effeftually to the benefit of
the human fpecies. The conquerors of that unfortu¬
nate quarter of the globe had nothing in view but to
10 plunder, to enflave, and to exterminate its inhabitants.
fnParaguay Je^uits ai°ne have made humanity the objeft of
S ^ their fettling there. About the beginning of the laft
century, they obtained admiflion into the fertile pro¬
vince of Paraguay, which ftretches acrofs the fouth-
ern continent of America, from the bottom of the
mountains of Potofi to the confines of the Spanifh
and Portuguefe fettlements on the banks of the river
de la Plata. They found the inhabitants in a ftate
little different from that which takes place among men
when they firft begin to unite together ; ftrangers to
the arts, fubfifting precarioufly by hunting or fiftiing,
and hardly acquainted with the firft principles of fub-
ordination and government. The Jefuits fet them-
felves to inftrudl and to civilize thefe favages. They
taught them to cultivate the ground, to rear tame ani¬
mals, and to build houfes. They brought them to
live together in villages. They trained them to arts
and manufa&ures. They made them tafte the fweets
of fociety, and accuftomed them to the blefiings of fe-
curity and order. Thefe people became the fubje&s
of their benefactors, who have governed them with a
tender attention, Vefembfing that with which a father
directs his children. RefpeCted and beloved almoft to
adoration, a few Jefuits prefided over fome hundred
thoufand Indians. They maintained a perfeft equa¬
lity among all the members of the community. Each
of them was obliged to labour, not for himfelf alone,
but for the public. . The produce of their fields, to¬
gether with the fruits of their induftry of every fpe¬
cies, were depofited in common ftorehoufes, from which
each individual received every thing neceffary for the Jeftn't*.
fupply of his wants. By this inftitution, almoft all 1
the pafiions which difturb the peace of fociety, and
render the members of it unhappy, were extinguifhed.
A few magiftrates, chofen by the Indians themfelves,
watched over the public tranquillity, and fecured obe¬
dience to the laws. The fanguinary punifliments fre¬
quent under other governments were unknown. An
admonition from a Jefuit, a flight mark of infamy,
or, on fome Angular occafion, afewlalhes with a whip,
were fufffcient to maintain good order among thefe in¬
nocent and happy people.
But, even in this meritorious effort of the Jefuits
for the good of mankind, the genius and fpirit of
their order have mingled and are difcernible. They ' . <
plainly aimed at eftablifhing in Paraguay an inde¬
pendent empire, fubjedt to the fociety alone, and
which, by the fuperior excellence of its conftitution
and police, could fcarcely have failed to extend its do¬
minion over all the fouthern continent of America.
With this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or
Portuguefe in the adjacent fettlements from acquiring
any dangerous influence over the people within the li¬
mits of the province fubjeft to the fociety, the Jefuits
endeavoured to infpire the Indians with hatred and
contempt of thefe nations. They cut off all inter-
courfe between their fubjedts and the Spanilh or Por¬
tuguefe fettlements. They prohibited any private tra¬
der of either nation from entering their territories.
When they were obliged to admit any perfon in a
public chara&er from the neighbouring governments,
they did not permit him to have any converfation with
their fubjedts ; and no Indian was allowed even to en¬
ter the houfe where thefe ftrangers refided, unlefs in.
the prefence of a Jefuit. In order to render any com¬
munication between them as difficult as poflible, they
induftrioufly avoided giving the Indians any know¬
ledge of the Spanifti or of any other European lan¬
guage ; but encouraged the different tribes which
they had civilized to acquire a certain dialedt of the
Indian tongue, and laboured to make that the univer-
fal language throughout their dominions. As all
thefe precautions, without military force, would have
been infufficient to have rendered their empire fecure
and permanent, they inftrudted their fubje&s in the
European arts of war. They formed them into bodies
of cavalry and infantry, completely armed and regu¬
larly difciplined. They provided a great train of ar¬
tillery, as well as magazines ftored with all the im¬
plements of war. Thus they eftabliflied an army fo
numerous and well-appointed, as to be formidable in
a country where a few fickly and ill-difciplined batta¬
lions compofed all the military force kept on foot by
the Spaniards or Portuguefe. u ,
Such were the laws, the policy, and the genius of Downfall1
this formidable order; of which, however, a Perfedf ;°nf
knowledge has only been attainable of late. Europe *)
had obferved, for two centuries, the ambition and
power of the order. But while it. felt many fatal ef¬
fects of thefe, it could not fully difcern the caufes to
which they were to be imputed. It was unacquainted
with many of the lingular regulations in the political
conftitution or government of the Jefuits, which form¬
ed the enterpriling fpirit of intrigue that diftinguilh-
ed its members, and elevated the body itfelf to fuch a
height of power. It was a fundamental maxim with
J E S [ 3855 ] T E S
^ Jefus. the Jefults, from their firft inftitution, not to publifh
the rules of their order. Thefe they kept concealed
as an impenetrable myftery. They never communi¬
cated them to ftrangers, nor even to the greater part
of their own members. They refufed to produce them
when required by courts of jultice; and, by a ftrange
folecifm in policy, the civilpower indifferent countries
authorifed or connived at the eftablifhment of an order
of men, whofe conftitution and laws were concealed
with a folicitude which alone was a good reafon for
having excluded them. During the profecutions late¬
ly carried on againft them in Portugal and France,
the Jefuits have been fo inconfiderate as to produce
the myfterious volumes of their inftitute. By the aid
of thefe authentic records, the principles of their go¬
vernment may be delineated, and the fources of their
power inveftigated with a degree of certainty and
precifion which, previous to that event, it was impof-
fible to attain.
The pernicious effe&s, however, of the fpirit and
conftitution of this order, rendered it early obnoxious
to fome of the principal powers in Europe, and gra¬
dually brought on its downfal. The emperor Charles V.
faw it expedient to check its progrefs in his domi¬
nions; it was expelled England, by proclamation
2 James I. in 1604; Venice, in 1606; Portugal, in
1759; France, in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767;
and totally fuppreffed and abolifhed by the late Pope
Clement XIV. in 1773.
JESUS the Son of Sirach, a native of Jerufalem,
compofed, about 200 B. C. the book of Ecclefiafticus,
called by the Greeks nava?s7@s “ replenifhed with vir¬
tue who alfo quote it under the title of the Wifdom
of Solomon the Son of Sirach. His grandfon, who was
alfo of the fame name, and a native of Jerufalem,
tranflated it from the Hebrew into Greek about
121 B. C. We have this Greek verfion, but the
Hebrew text is loft.
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and Saviour of
mankind, defcended from heaven, and took upon him
the human nature in Judaea, towards the conclufion of
the reign of Herod the Great, king of that country.
The place of his birth was Bethlehem, a flourifhing
city of Judah ; but the year in which he was born is
not precifely afcertained. The moft general opinion is,
that it happened about the year of Rome 748 or 749,
and about 18 months before the death of Herod. Four
infpired writers have tranfmitted to us an account of
the life of Jefus Chrift. They mention particularly
his birth, lineage, family, and parents; but fay very
little concerning his infancy and earlier youth. Herod
being informed that the Meffiah, or king of the Jews,
fo much fpoken of by the prophets, was now born,
' being afraid that hi’4 kingdom fhould now be taken
away, contrived how to deftroy his fuppofed rival:
but Chrift, being carried, while very young, into
Egypt, efcaped the cruelty of the tyrant; who, being
determined to make fure work, made a general maf-
fatre of the infants about Bethlehem, from the age of
two years and under.
After the death of Herod, our Saviour was brought
back to Judaea; but we are totally ignorant of what
his employment was during the interval between his
return thither, and the time of his entering upon
the miniftry. We know only, that when he was but
12 years of age, he difputed in the temple with the Jefxu.
molt learned of the Jewiih doctors; whom he furprifed
with his knowledge, and the anfwers he gave to their
queftions. After this, as the fcripture tells us, he
continued with his parents, and was fubjedt to them,
till he entered upon his miniftry. It is faid, indeed,
though upon no fure foundation, that during this pe¬
riod he followed the trade of his father, who was a
carpenter. In the 30th year of his age, he began his
public miniftry; to which the attention of the people
was drawn by the preaching of John, a prophet mira-
culpufly infpired of God to proclaim the exiftence of
the Saviour, as now defcended upon earth, and vifible
to the eyes of all; and by this prophet Chrift himfelf
was baptized in the waters of Jordan, that he might
not, in any point, negledl to anfwer the demands of
the Jewifh law.
It is not neceffary here to enter into a particular
detail of the life and adtions of Jefus Chrift. Every
one knows, that his life was one continued feene of
the moft perfedt fandtity, and the pureft and moft:
adtive virtue; not only without fpot, but alfo beyond
the reach of fufpicion. And it is alfo well known,
that by miracles of the moft ftupendous kind, and not
more ftupendous than falutary and beneficent, he dif-
piayed to the univerfe the truth of that religion which
he brought with him from above, and demonftrated
the reality of his divine commiffion in the moft illuf-
trious manner. For the propagation of his religion
through the country of Judaea, our Saviour chofe 12
apoftles; whom, however, he fent out only once, and
after their return kept them conftantly about his per-
fon. But,'befides thefe, he chofe other 70, whom he
difperfed throughout the country.
There have been many conjedtures concerning the
reafon why the number of apoftles was fixed at 12,
and that of the other teachers at 70. The firft, how¬
ever, was, according to our Saviour’s own wrords (Matt,
xix. 28.), an allufion to the 12 tribes of Ifrael, there¬
by intimating that he was the king of thefe 12 tribes;
and as the number of his other meffengers anfwers
evidently to that of the fenators who compofed the
Sanhedrim, there is a high degree of probability in
the conjedture of thofe who think that Chrift by this
number defigned to admonifti the Jews, that the au¬
thority of their Sanhedrim was now at an end, and
that all power with refpedl to religious matters was
veiled in him alone. His miniftry, however, was con¬
fined to the Jews ; nor, while he remained upon earth,
did he permit his apoftles or difciples to extend their
labours beyond this favoured nation. At the fame
time, if we confider the illuftrious adts of mercy and
benevolence that were performed by Chrift, it will be
natural to conclude, that his fame mult foon have
fpread abroad in other countries. Indeed this feems
probable from a paffage in fcripture, where we are
told that fome Greeks applied to the apoftle Philip in
order to fee Jefus. We le irn alio from authors of no
fmall note, that Abgarusf king of Edeffa, being feized ^ “ Ao~
with a fevere and dangerous illnefs, wrote to our Lord,J
imploring his affiltance; and that Jefus not only fent
him a gracious anfwer, but alfo accompanied it with
his pidlure, as a mark of his efteem for that pious
prince. Thefe letters are ftill extant; but by the ju¬
dicious part of mankind are univerfally looked upon
2 r Z 2 as
J E S [ 3856 ] JET
Jefus, as fpurious ; and indeed the late Mr Jones, in his
Jet. treat ife entitled A new and full method of fettling the
canonical authority of the New Tef ament, hath offered
reafons which feem almoft unanfwerable againft the
authenticity of the whole tranfaftion.
The preaching of our Saviour, and the numberlefs
miracles he performed, made fuch an impreflion on
the body of the Jewifh nation, that the chief- priefts
and leading men, jealous of his authority, and pro¬
voked at his reproaching them with their wicked lives,
formed a confpiracy againft him. For a confiderable
time their deiigns proved abortive; but at laft, Jefus,
knowing that he had fulfilled every purpofe for which
he came into the world, fuffered himfelf to be taken
through the treachery of one of his difciples, named
Judas Ifcariot, and was brought before the Sanhe¬
drim. In this affembly he was accufed of blafphemy;
and being afterwards brought before Pilate the Ro¬
man governor, where he was accufed of fedition, Pi¬
late was no fooner fat down to judge in this caufe,
than he received a meffage from his wife, defiring him
to have nothing to do with the affair, having that very
day had a frightful dream on account of our Saviour,
whom (he called that juft man. The governor, inti¬
midated by this meffage, and ftill more by the majefty
of our Saviour himfelf, and the evident falfehood of
the accufations brought againft him, was determined
if poffible to fave him. But the clamours of an en¬
raged populace, who at laft threatened to accufe Pi¬
late himfelf as a traitor to the Roman emperor, got
the better of his love of juftice, which indeed on other
occafions was not very fervent.
Our Saviour was now condemned by* his judge,
though contrary to the plaineft diftates of reafon and
juftice ; was executed on a crqfs between two thieves,
and very foon expired. Having continued three days
in a ftate of death, he rofe from the dead, and made
himfelf vifible to his difciples as formerly. He con-
verfed with them 40 days after his refurredtion, and
employed himfelf during that time in inftrufting them
more fully concerning the nature of his kingdom;
and having manifefted the certainty of his refurrec-
tion to as many witneffes as he thought proper, he
tvas, in the prefence of many of his difciples, taken
tip into heaven, there to remain till the end of the
world. See Christianity.
JET, in natural hiftory, a kind of foffile fubftance,
the chara&ers of which are thefe.—It is a folid, dry,
opaque, inflammable body, found in large detached
maffes of a fine and regular ftru&ure, having a grain
like that of wood, fplitting more eafily in an hori¬
zontal than in any other dire&ion ; very light, and
moderately hard; not fufible, but readily inflammable,
and burning a long time with a fine greenilh white
flame.
Jet is a fubftance concerning which many erroneous
opinions have been entertained, and which hath been
very little underftood, even in Britain, where the fineft
in the world is produced; having been ufually con¬
founded with a thing greatly inferior to it in value,
the common cannel-coal; fo that many believe there
is no other jet than that fubftance: they are, however,
eafily diflinguilhed from each other by the following
chara&ers. Jet is always found in detached mafl'es
lodged in other ftrata; but cannel-coal conftitutes
whole ftrata of itfelf. Jet has the grain-of wood, and Jet
fplits horizontally with much greater eafe than in any I!
other direiftion; cannel-coal has no particular direc- Jewel-
tion, and fplits any way with equal eafe. Jet is but
moderately hard; cannel-coal not lefs fo than many
ftones: jet, when fet on fire, flames a long time; can¬
nel-coal but a little while. Jet is found in Italy,
Germany, and the Eaft Indies; but nowhere in fuch
plenty as in England. It is very common in York-
fhire and the other northern counties, and is found in
many of the clay-pits about Loudon. By the an¬
cients it was ufed in medicine, and celebrated as an
emollient and difeutient; but the modern pradice takes
no notice of it.
l^-c-d’’Eau, a French term, frequently alfo ufed
with us, for a fountain that cafts up water to ii*con-
fiderable height in the air. See Hydrostatics,
n° 22.; and Iceland, n° 7, 8.
JETTY-head, a name ufually given, in the royal
dock yards, to that part of a wharf which proje&s
beyond the reft; but more particularly the front of a
wharf, whofe- fide forms one of the cheeks of a dry or
wet dock.
JEWEL, any precious ftone, or ornament befet
with them. See Diamond, Ruby, &c.
Jewel (John), a learned Englifh writer and bifhop,
was born in 1522, and educated at Oxford. In 1540
he proceeded A. B. became a noted tutor, and was
foon after chofen rhetoric le&urer in his college. In
February 1544, he commenced A. M. He had early
imbibed Proteftant principles, and inculcated the fame
to his pupils ; but this was carried on privately till
the acceffion of king Edward VI. in 1546, when he
made a public declaration of his faith, and entered
into a clofe friendfhip with Peter Martyr, who was
made profefibr of divinity at Oxford. In 1550, he
took the degree of B. D. and frequently preached be¬
fore the univerfity with great applaufe. At the fame
time- he preached and catechifed every other Sunday
at Sunningwell in Berkfhire, of which church he was
reftor. Upon the acceflion of queen Mary to the
crown in 1553, he was one of the firft who felt the
rage of the ftorm then railed againft the reformation;
for before any law was made, or order given by the
queen, he was expelled Corpus Chriili college by the
fellows, by their own private authority; but he con¬
tinued in Oxford, till he was called upon to fubferibe
to fome of the Popifh do&rines under the fevereft pe¬
nalties, which he fubmitted to. However, this did
not procure his fafety; for he was obliged to fly, and,
after encountering many difficulties, arrived at Franck-
fort, in the 2d year of queen Mary’s reign, where he
made a public recantation of his fubfeription to the
Popifti do&rines. Thence he went to Strafburg, and
afterwards to Zurich, where he attended Peter Mar¬
tyr, in whofe houfe he refided. He returned to Eng¬
land in 1558, after queen Mary’s death; and, in 1559,
was confecrated hilltop of Salifbury. This promotion
was given him as a reward for his great merit and
learning; and another atteftation of thefe was given
him by the univerfity of Oxford, who, in 1565, con¬
ferred on him in his abfence the degree of D. D. In
this charafter he attended the queen to Oxford the
following year, and prefided at the divinity-difputa-
tions held before her majefty on that occafion. He
JEW [ 3857 ] JEW
had before greatly diftinguidied himfelf by a fermon
preached at St Paul’s-crofs, prefently after he was
made a bifhop, wherein he gave a public challenge to
all the Roman-catholics in the world, to produce but
one clear and evident teftimony out of any father or
famous writer, who flourifhed within 600 years after
Chrift, for any one of the articles which the Roma-
nifts maintain againft the church of England ; and,
two years afterwards, he publilhed his famous apology
for this church. In the mean time, he gave a parti¬
cular attention to his diocefe; where he began in his
firft viiitation, and perfe&ed in his lad, fuch a refor¬
mation, not only in his cathedral and parochial
churches, but in all the churches of his jurifdi&ion, as
procured him and the whole order of Sifhops due re¬
verence and efteem. For he was a careful overlooker
and ftri& obferver, not only of all the flocks, but alfo of
the pallors, in his diocefe: and he watched fo narrowly
upon the proceedings of his chancellor and archdea¬
cons, and of his ftewards and receivers, that they had
no opportunities of being guilty of oppreffion, injuf-
tice, or extortion, nor of being a burthen to the peo¬
ple, or a fcandal to himfelf. To prevent thefe and
the like1 abufes, for which the ecclefiaftical courts are
often too juftly cenfured, he fat often in his confillory-
court, and fawthat all things were carried rightly there:
he alfo fat often as affiftant on the bench of civil juf-
tice, being himfelf a juftice of the peace. Amidft thefe
employments, however, the care of his health was too
much negledled; to which, indeed, his general courfe
of life was totally unfavourable. He rofe at four
o’clock in the morning; and, after prayers with his
family at five, and in the cathedral about fix, he was
fo fixed to his ftudies all the morning, that he could
not without great violence be drawn from them. After
dinner, his doors and ears were open to all fuitors;
and it was obferved of him as of Titus, that he never
fent any fad from him. Suitors being thus difmified,
he heard, with great impartiality and patience, fuch
caufes debated before him, as either devolved to him
as a judge, or were referred to him as an arbitrator;
and if he could fpare any time from thefe, he reckoned
it as clear gain to his ftudy. About nine at night he
called all his fervants to an account how they had fpent
the day, and then went to prayers with them. From
the chapel he withdrew again to his ftudy till near
midnight, and from thence to his bed; in which
when he was laid, the gentleman of his bed-chamber
read to him till he fell afleep. This watchful and la¬
borious life, without any recreation at all, except what
his neceffary refrdhment at meals and a very few hours
of reft afforded him, wafted his life too fall. He died
at Monkton-Farley, in 1571, in the 50th year of his
age. He wrote, 1. A view of a feditiotls bull fent
into England by pope Pius V. in 1569. 2. A trea-
tife on the Holy Scriptures. 3,. An expofition of St
Paul’s two epiftles to the Theffalonians. 4. A trea-
tife on the facrament. 5. An apology for the na¬
tional church. 6. Several fermons, controverfial trea-
tifes, and other works.
“ This excellent prelate (fays the rev. Mr Granger)
was one of the greateft champions of the reformed
religion, as he was to the church of England what
Bellarmine was to that of Rome. His admirable
Apology was tranflated from the Latin by Anne, the
fecond of the four learned daughters of Sir Anthony Jewel,
Coke, and mother of Sir Francis Bacon. It was pub- Jew?~
lilhed, as it came from her pen, in 1564, with the
approbation of the queen and the prelates. The fame
Apology was printed in Greek at Conftantinople,
under the diredlion of St Cyril the patriarch. His
Defence of his Apology, againft Harding and other
Popiih divines, was in fuch efteem, that queen Eliza¬
beth, king James I. king Charles I. and four fuc-
ceflive archbifhops, ordered it to be kept chained in all
parilh churches for public ufe.
jEWEL-iJ/ocA, in the fea-language, a name given
to two fmall blocks which are fufpended at the extre¬
mity of the main and fore-top-fail yards, by means of
an eye-bolt driven from without into the middle of
the yard-arm, parallel to its axis. The ufe of thtfe
blocks is, to retain the upper-part of the top maft
ftudding-fails beyond the fkirts of the top-fails, fo
that each of thofe fails may have its full force of ac¬
tion, which would be diminilhed by the encroachment
of the other over its furface. The haliards, by which
thofe ftudding-fails are hoifted, are accordingly paffed
through the jewel-blocks ; whence, communicating
with a block on the top-maft head, they lead down¬
wards to the top or decks, where they may be conve¬
niently hoifted. See Sail.
JEWS, a name derived from the patriarch Judahr.
and given to the defeendants of Abraham by his eldeft
fon Ifaac, who for a long time poffeffed the land of
Paleftine in Afia, and are now difperfed through all
nations in the world.
The hiftory of this people, as it is the moft Angular,
fo is it alfo the moft ancient in the world ; and the
greateft part being before the beginning of profane
hiftory, depends entirely on the authenticity of the
Old Teftament, where it is only to be found.—To
repeat here what is faid in the facred writings would
both be fuperfluous and tedious, as thofe writings are
in every perfons hands, and may be confulted at plea-
fure. It feems moft proper therefore to commence
the hiftory of the Jews from their return to Jerufalem
from Babylon, and the rebuilding of their city and
temple under Ezra and Nehemiah, when the feripture
leaves off any farther accounts, and profane hiftorians
begin to take notice of them. ,
Cyrus the Great, king of Ptrfia, having conquered Cyrus pub-
Babylon and almoft all the weftern parts of Afia, per- liftesade-
ceiving the defolate and ruinous condition in which fre?/or r£'
the province of Paleftine lay, formed a defign of re-
ftoring the Jews to their native country, and permit¬
ting them to rebuild Jerufalem andre eftablifh their wor-
fliip. For this purpofe he iffued out a decree in the
firft year of his reign, about 536 B. C. by which they
were allowed not only to return and rebuild their city,
but to carry along with them all the facred veffels
which Nebuchadnezzar had carried off, and engaged
to defray the expence of building the temple himfelf.
This offer was gladly embraced by the more zealous
Jews of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi;
but many more, being no doubt lefs fanguine about
their religion, chofe to ftay where they were.
In 534 B. C. the foundations of the temple were
laid, and matters feemed to go on profperoufly, when
the undertaking was fuddenly obftrufted by the Sa¬
maritans. Thefe came at firft expreffing an earned
defire
Jews.
J E W
defire to affift in the work, as they worfhipped the
'fame God with the Jews ; but the latter refufed their
affiltance, as they knew they were not true Ifraelites,
but the defcendants of thofe heathens who had been
transplanted into the country of the ten tribes after
their captivity by Shalmanezer. This refufal proved
the Source of all that bitter enmity which afterwards
took place between the Jews and Samaritans ; and
the immediate confequence was, that the latter made
[ 3858 1
JEW
fon thrown into the utmoft confternation, had re- Jews^
courfe toprayers ; and Jaddua is faid, by a divine re-
velation to have been commanded to go and meet 4
Alexander. He obeyed accordingly, and fet out on
his journey, dreffed in his pontifical robes, at the
head of all his priefts in their proper habits, and at; Alexander
tended by the reft of the people dreffed in white gar- die Great,
ments. Alexander is faid to have been feized with
fuch awful refpeft on feeing this venerable procefiion,
all the oppofition in their power to the going on of that he embraced the high-priett, and paid a kind of
the high-
the work. At laft, however, all obftacles were fur-
[e mounted, and the temple finifiied as related in the
d books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The laft of thefe
chiefs died about 409 B. C. after having reftored the
Jewifh worfhip to its original purity, and reformed a
number of abufes which took place immediately on its
commencement.
But though the Jews were now reftored to the free
exefcife of religion, they were neither a free nor a
powerful people as they had formerly been. They
were few in number, and their country only a pro-
vincg of Syria, fubjeft to the kings of Perfia. The
Syrian governors conferred the adminiftration of af¬
fairs upon the high-priefts; and their accepting this
office, andthus deviating from the law of Mofes, muft
be confidered as one of the chief caufes of the mif-
fortunes which immediately befel the people, becaufe
it made room for a fet of men who afpired at this
high office merely through ambition or avarice, with¬
out either zeal for religion, or love for their country.
It befides made the high-priefthood capable of being
difpofed of at the pleafure of the governors, whereas
the Mofaic inftitution had fixed it unalienably in the
family of Aaron.—Of the bad effe&s of this pra&ice
a fatal inftance happened in 373 B. C. Bagofes, go¬
vernor of Syria, having contrafted an intimate friend¬
ship with Jefiiua the brother of Johanan the high-
prieft, promifed to raife him to the pontifical office
a few years after his brother had been invefted with
it. Jcfhua came immediately to Jerufalem, and ac¬
quainted his brother with it. Their interview hap¬
pened in the inner court of the temple ; and a fcuffle
enfuing, Jeffiua was killed by his brother, and the
temple thus polluted in the moft Scandalous manner.
The confequence to the Jews was, that a heavy fine
was laid on the temple, which was not taken off till
Seven years after.
The firft public calamity which befel the Jews na¬
tion after their refloration from Babylon, happened
in the year 351 B. C. ; For having Some how or other
difobliged Darius Ochus king of Perfia, he befieged
and took Jericho, and carried off all the inhabitants
captives. From this time they continued faithful to
the Perfians, infomuch that they had almoft drawn
upon themfelves the difpleafure of Alexander the Great.
That monarch having refolved upon the fiegeof Tyre,
and being informed that the city was wholly Supplied
with provifions from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, Sent
to Jaddua, then high-prieft, to demand of him that
Supply which he had been accuftomed to pay to the
Perfians. The Jewiffi pontiff excufed himfelf on ac¬
count of his oath of fidelity to Darius; which fo pro¬
voked Alexander, that he had no Sooner completed
the reduction of Tyre than he marched againft Jeru¬
falem. The inhabitants then, being with good rea-
religious adoration to the name of God engraven
the front of his mitre. His followers being furprifed
at this unexpe&ed behaviour, the Macedonian mo¬
narch informed them, that he paid that refpedt not to
the prieft, but to his God, as an acknowledgment
for a vifion which he had been favoured with at
Dia ; where he had been promifed the conqueft of
Perfia, and encouraged in his expedition by a perfon
of much the fame afpedt and dreffed in the fame ha¬
bit with the pontiff before him. He afterwards ac¬
companied Jaddua into Jerufalem, where he offered
facrifices in the temple. The high-prieft fhewed him,
alfo the prophecies of Daniel, wherein the deftrudtion
of the Perfian empire by himfelf is plainly ferforth ;
in confequence of which the king went away highly
Satisfied, and at his departure alked the high-prieft
if there was nothing in which he could gratify him¬
felf or his people. Jaddua then tojd him, that, ac¬
cording to the Mofaic law, they neither Sawed nor
ploughed on the feventh year ; therefore would efteem
it an high favour if the king would be pleafed to re¬
mit their tribute in that year. To this requeft the
king readily yielded ; and having confirmed them in
the enjoyment of all their privileges, particularly that
of living under their own laws, he departed.
Whether this ftory deferves credit or not (for the
whole tranfa&ion is not without reafon called in que-
ftion by Some), it is certain that the Jews were much
favoured by Alexander ; but with him their good S
fortune feemed alfo to expire. The country of Judea jjatelof the
being Situated between Syria and Egypt, became fub- jews after
jeft to all the revolutions and wars which the ambi-Abxander’s
tious fucceffors of Alexander waged againft each other, death-
At firft it was given, together with Syria and Phe-
nicia, to Leomedon the Mitylenian one of Alexander’s
generals ; but he being foon after ftripped of the other
two by Ptolemy, Judea was next fummoned to yield
to the conqueror. The Jews Scrupled to break their
oath of fidelity to Leomedon ; and were of confe¬
quence invaded by Ptolemy at the head of a power¬
ful army. The open country was eafily reduced; but
the city being ftrongly fortified both by art and na¬
ture, threatened a ftrong refiftance. A fuperftitious
fear of breaking the fabbath, however, prevented the
befieged from making any defence on that day; of
which Ptolemy being informed, he caufed an affault
to be made on the fabbath, and eafily carried the
place. At firft he treated them with great feverity,
and carried 100,000 men of them into captivity; but
reflefting foon after on their known fidelity to their
conquerors, he reftored them to all the privileges
they had enjoyed under the Macedonians. Of the
captives he put fome into garrifons, and others he
fettled in the countries of Libya and Gyrene. From
thofe who fettled in the latter of thefe countries de¬
scended
Jews.
S Subdued b;
•Antiochus
tiie Great.
Dreadful
commo¬
tions.
JEW [ 3859 ] JEW
feended the Cyrenean Jews mentioned by the writers
' of the New Teftament.
Five years after Ptolemy had fubdned Judea, he
was forced to yield it to Antigonus, referving tohim-
felf only thecities of Ace, Samaria, Joppa, and Gaza;
and carrying off an immenfe booty, together with a
great number of captives, whom he fettled at Alexan¬
dria and endowed with confiderable privileges and im¬
munities.—Antigonus behaved in fuch a tyrannical
manner, that great numbers of his Jewilh fubje&s fled
into Egypt, and others put themfelves under the pro-
teftion of Seleucus, who alfo granted them confider¬
able privileges. Hence this nation came gradually
to be fpread over Syria, and Afia Minor; while Ju¬
dea feemed to be in danger of being depopulated, till
it was recovered by Ptolemy in 292. The affairs of
the Jews then took a more profperous turn, and
continued in a thriving way till the reign of Ptolemy
Philopator, when they were grievoufly opprefled by
the incurfions of the Samaritans, at the fame time
that Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, invaded Gali¬
lee. Ptolemy, however, marched againft Antiochus,
and defeated him ; after which, having gone to Jeru-
falem to offer facrifices, he ventured to profane the
temple itfelf by going into it. He penetrated thro’
the two outer courts ; but as he was about to enter
the fanftuary, he was ftruck with fuch dread and ter¬
ror that he fell down half-dead. A dreadful perfecu-
tion was then raifed againft the Jews, who had at¬
tempted to hinder him in his impious attempt; but
this perfecution was Hopped by a ftill more extraor¬
dinary accident related under the article Egypt,
n° 30. and the Jews again received into favour,
t About the year 204 B. C. the country of Judea was
fubdued by Antiochus the Great; and on this occa-
fion the loyalty of the Jews to the Egyptians failed
them, the whole nation readily fubmitting to the king
of Syria. This attachment fo pleafedthe Syrian mo¬
narch, that he fent a letter to his general, wherein he
acquainted him that he defigned to reftore Jerufalem
to its ancient fplendor, and to recal all the Jews that had
been driven out of it: that out of his Angular refpeft
to the temple of God, he granted them 20,000 pieces
of filver, towards the charges of the vidims, frankin-
cenfe, wine, and oil; 1400 meafures of fine wheat;
and 375 meafures of fait, towards their ufual oblations:
that the temple fhould be thoroughly repaired at his
coft; that they fhould enjoy the free exercife of their
religion ; and reftore the public fervice of the temple,
and the priefts, Levites, fingers,-&c. to their ufual func¬
tions : that no ftranger, or Jew that was unpurified,
fhould enter farther into the temple than was allowed
by their law; and that no fiefh of unclean beaits fhould
be brought into Jerufalem, not even their fkins: and
all thefe under the penalty of paying 3000 pieces of
filver into the treafury of the temple. He further
granted an exemption of taxes for three years to all
the difperfed Jews that fhould come within a limited
time to fettle in the metropolis; and that all who had
been fold for (laves within his dominions fhould be im-
naediately fet free.
This fudden profperity proved of no long duration.
About the year 176, a quarrel happened between
Onias at that time high prieft, and one Simon, gover¬
nor of the temple, which, was attended with the moft
fatal confequences. The caufes of this quarrel are un- Jews,
known. The event, however, was, that Simon finding *
he could not get the better of Onias, informed Apol¬
lonius governor of Cuelofyria and Paleftine, that there
was at that time in the temple an immenfe treafure,
which at his pleafure might be feized upon for the ufe
of the king of Syria. Of this the governor inftantly
fent intelligence to the king, who difpatched one He-
liodorus to take pofleflion of the fuppofed treafure.
This perfon, through a miraculous interpofition, as the
Jews pretend, failed in his attempt of entering the
temple; upon which Simon accufed the high-prieft to
the people, as the perfon who had invited Heliodorus
to Jerufalem. This produced a kind of civil war, in
which many fell on both Tides. At laft Onias having
complained to the king, Simon was banifhed ; but foon
after, Antiochus Epiphanes having afeended the throne
of Syria, Jafon, the high-prieft’s brother, taking ad¬
vantage of the neceflities of Antiochus, purchafed from
him the high-priefthood at the price of 350 talents,
and obtained an order that his brother fhould be fent
to Antioch, there to be confined for life.
Jafon’s next ftep was to purchafe liberty, at the price
of 150 talents more, to build a gymnafium at Jerufa¬
lem fimilar to thofe which were ufed in the Grecian
cities ; and to make as many Jews as he pleafed free
citizens of Antioch. By means of thefe powers he be¬
came very foon able to form a ftrong party in Judea ;
for his countrymen were exceedingly fond of the Gre¬
cian cuftoms, and the freedom of the city of Antioch g
was a very valuable privilege. From this time there- A general-
fore a general apoftacy took place ; the fervice of the apoftacy
temple was negle&ed, and Jafon abandoned himfelf13 es P ace’
without remorfe to all the impieties and abfurdities of
paganifm.
He did not, however, long enjoy his ill-acquired dig¬
nity. Having fent his brother Menelaus with the
ufual tribute to Antiochus, the former took the oppor¬
tunity of fupplanting Jafon in the fame manner that
he had fupplanted Onias. Having offered for the high-
priefthood 300 talents more than his brother had gi¬
ven, he eafily obtained it, and returned with his new
eommifiion to Jerufalem. He foau got himfelf a ftrong
party ; but Jafon proving too powerful, forced Mene¬
laus and his adherents to retire to Antioch. Here,
the better to gain their point, they acquainted Anti¬
ochus that they were determined to renounce their old
religion, and wholly conform themfelves to that of the
Greeks: which fo pleafed the tyrant, that he imme¬
diately gave them a force fufficient to drive Jafon out
of Jerufalem ; who thereupon took.refuge among the
Ammonites.
Menelaus being thus freed from hia rival, took care
to fulfil his promife to the king with regard to the a-
poftacy,but forgot to pay the money he had promifed.
At laft he wasfummoned to Antioch; and finding no¬
thing but the payment of the-promifed fum would do,
fent orders to his brother Lyfimachus to convey to him
as manyof the facred utenlils belonging to the temple as
could be fpared. As thefe were all of gold, the apo-
ftate foon raifed a fufficient fum from them, not only
to fatisfy the king, but alfo to bribe the courtiers in
his favour. But his brother Onias, who had been all
this time confined at Antioch', getting intelligence of
the facrilege, made fuch bitter complaints, that an m-
fum&ion
JEW [ 3860 ] JEW
Jews. furre&ion was ready to take place among the Jews at
* Antioch. Menelaus, in order to avoid the.impending
danger, bribed Andronicus, governor of the city, to
murder Onias. This produced the moll vehement
complaints as foon as Antiochus returned to the capi¬
tal, (he having been abfent for fome time in order to
quell an infurreftion in Cilicia); which at laft ended in
the death of Andronicus, who was executed by the
king’s order. By dint of money, however, Menelaus
ftill found means to keep up his credit; but was obli¬
ged to draw fuch large fums from Jerufalem, that the
inhabitants at lall maflacred his brother Lyfimachus,
whom he had left governor of the city in his abfence.
Antiochus foon after took a journey to Tyre ; upon
which the Jews fent deputies to him, both to juftify
the death of Lyfimachus, and to accufe Menelaus of
being the author of all the troubles which had hap¬
pened. The apoftate, however, was never at a lofs
while he could procure money. By means of this
powerful argument he pleaded his caufe fo effeftually,
that the deputies were not only call, but put to death;
and this unjuft fentence gave the traitor fuch a com¬
plete vidlory over all his enemies, that from thence¬
forth he commenced a downright tyrant. Jerufalem
was deftitute of prote&ors; and the fanhedrim, if there
were any zealous men left among them, were fo much
terrified, that they duril not oppofe him, though they
evidently faw that his defign was finally to eradicate
the religion and liberties of his country.
In the mean time, Antiochus was taken up with the
conqueft of Egypt, and a report was fome how or other
fpread that he had been killed at the fiege of Alexan¬
dria. At this news the Jews imprudently (hewed fome
figns of joy; and Jafon thinking this a proper oppor¬
tunity to regain his loft dignity, appeared before Je¬
rufalem at the head of about 1000 refolute men. The
gates were quickly opened to him by fome of his
friends in the city ; upon which Menelaus retired into
the citadel, and Jafon, minding nothing but his refent-
ment, committed the mod horrid butcheries. At laft
he was obliged to leave both the city and country, on
the news that Antiochus was coming with a powerful
army againft him; for that prince, highly provoked at
this rebellion, and efpecially at the rejoicings the Jews
had made on the report of his death, had actually re-
5 folved to punilh the city in the fevered manner. Ac-
Jerufalem cordingly, about 170 B. C. having made himfelf ma-
taken by fter of the city, he behaved with fuch cruelty, that
Antiochus wjthin three days they reckoned no fewer than 40,000
-pip anes. an£j as many fold for flaves. In the midft of
this dreadful calamity, the apoftate Menelaus found
means not only to preferve himfelf from the general
daughter, but even to regain the good graces of the
king, who, having by his means plundered the temple
of every thing valuable, returned to Antioch in a kind
of triumph. Before he departed, however, he put Ju¬
dea under the government of one Philip, a barbarous
Phrygian; Samaria under that of Andronicus, a per-
fon of a fimilar difpofition ; and left Menelaus, the
moft hateful of all the three, in poffeffion of the high-
priefthood.
10 Though the Jews fuffered exceedingly under thefe
flrous tyrannical governors, they were (fill referved for greater
cruelty. calamities. About 168 B. C. Antiochus having been
moft feverely mortified by the Romans, took it into
his head to wreck his vengeance on the unhappy Jews. Jewi,
For this purpofe he difpatched Apollonius at the head *
of 22,000 men, with orders to plunder all the cities of
Judea, to murder all the men, and fell the women and
children for flaves. Apollonius accordingly came with
his argiy, and to outward appearance with a peaceable
intention; neither was he fufpedted by the Jews, as he
was fuperintendant of the tribute in Paleftine. He
kept himfelf ina&ive till the next fabbath, when thfey
were all in a profound quiet ; and then, on a fudden,
commanded his men to arms. Some of them he fent
to the temple and fynagogues, with orders to cut in
pieces all whom they found there; whilft the reft go¬
ing through the ftreets of the city maflacred all that
came in their way; the*fuperftitious Jews not attemp¬
ting to make the leaft refiftance for fear of breaking
the Sabbath. He next ordered the city to be plun¬
dered and fet on fire, pulled down all their (lately
buildings, caufed the walls to be demoliftied, and car¬
ried away captive about 10,000 of thofe who had ]
efcaped the (laughter. From that time the fervice of The temple
the temple was totally abandoned ; that place having profaned,
been quite polluted, both with the blood of multitudes I
who had been killed, and in various other ways. The j; ^
Syrian troops built a large fortrefs on an eminence in lifljed.
the city of David; fortified it with a ftrong wall and
(lately towers, and put a garrifon in it to command the
temple over-againft which it was built, fo that the
foldiers could eafily fee and fally out upon all thofe
who attempted to come into the temple ; fo many of
whom were continually plundered and murdered by
them, that the reft, not daring to (lay any longer in
Jerufalem, fled for refuge to the neighbouring nations.
Antiochus, not yet fatiated with the blood of the
Jews, refolved either totally to abolifti their religion,
or deftroy their whole race. He therefore iflued out
a.decree that all nations within his dominions fhould
forfake their old religion and gods, and worfhip thofe
of the king under the moft fevere penalties. To make
his orders more effedlual, he fent overfeers into every
province to fee them ftri&ly put in execution; and as
he knew the Jews were the only people who would
difobey them, fpecial directions were given to have them
treated with the utmoft feverity. Atheneas, an old
and cruel minifter, well verfed in all the pagan rites,
was fent into Judea. He began by dedicating the
temple to Jupiter Olympius, and fetting up his llatue
on the altar of burnt-offerings. Another leffer altar was
raifed before it, on which they offered facrifices to that
falfe deity. All who refufed to come and worlhip this
idol were either maffacred, or put to fome cruel tortures
till they either complied or expired under the hands of
the executioners. At the fame time, altars, groves,
and ftatues, were’raifed every where through the coun¬
try, and the inhabitants compelled to worftiip them
under the fame fevere penalties; while it was inftant
death to obferve the fabbath, circumcifion, or any o-
ther inftitution of Mofes. .
At laft, when vaft numbers had been put to cruel Reftoredby
deaths, and many more had faved their lives by their Mattathias.
apoftacy, an eminent prieft, named Mattathias, began
to fignalize himfelf by his bravery and zeal for reli¬
gion. He had for fome time been obliged to retire to
Modin his native place, in order to avoid the perfecu-
tion which raged at Jerusalem. During his recefa
there.
JEW [ 3861 ] JEW
Jews.
I xploits of
s Idas Mac-
3 bxus.
there, Apelles, one of the king’s officers, came to oblige
"the inhabitants to comply with the abovementioned or¬
ders. By him Mattathias and his fons were addrefied in
the moft earneft manner, and had the mo ft ample' pro-
mifes made them of the king’s favour and protedion if
they would renounce their religion. But Mattathias an-
fwered, that though the whole Jewifh nation, and thfe
whole world, were to conform to the king’s edict, yet
both he and his fons would continue faithful to their
God to the laft minute of their lives. At the fame
time perceiving one of his countrymen juft going to
offer facrifices to an idol, he fell upon him and inftant-
!y killed him, agreeable to the law of Mofes in fuch
cafes. Upon this his fons, fired with the fame zeal,
killed the officer and his men ; overthrew the altar and
idol; and, running about the city, cried out, that thofe
who were zealous for the law of God fhould follow
them ; by which means they quickly faw themfelves at
the head of a numerous troop, with whom they foon
after withdrew into fame of the defarts of Judea. They
were followed by many others, fo that in a fhort time
they found themfelves in a condition to refift their
enemies; and having confidered the danger to which
they were expofed by their fcrupulous obfervance of
the Sabbath, they refolved to defend themfelves, in cafe
of an attack, upon that day as well as upon any other.
In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias finding that his
followers daily increafed in number, began to try his
ftrength by attacking the Syrians and apoftate Jews.
As many of thefe as he took he put to death, but
forced a much greater number to fly for refuge into
foreign countries; and having foon ftruck his enemies
with terror, he marched from city to city, overturned
the idolatrous altars, opened the Jewifh fynagogues,
made a diligent fearch after all the facred books, and
caufed frelh copies of them to be written; he alfo caufed
the reading of the Scriptures to be refumed, and all the
males born fince the perfecution to be circumcifed. In
all this he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that he had
extended his reformation through a confiderable part
of Judea within the fpace of one year; and would pro¬
bably have completed it, had he not been prevented
by death.
Mattathias was fucceeded by his fon Judas, furna-
med Maccabsuty the greateft uninfpired hero of whom
the Jews can boaft. His troops amounted to no more
than 6000 men; yet with thefe he quickly made him-
felf mailer of fome of the ftrongeft fortreffes of Judea,
and became terrible to the Syrians, Samaritans, and
apoftate Jews. In one year he defeated the Syrians in
five pitched battles, and drove them quite out of the
country; after which he purified the temple, and re-
ftored the true worlhip, which had been interrupted
for three years and a half. Only one obftacle now re¬
mained, viz. the Syrian garrifon abovementioned,
which had been placed over-againft the temple, and
which Judas could not at prefent reduce. In order to
prevent them from interrupting the worfhip, however,
he fortified the mountain on which the temple flood,
with an high wall and ftrong towers round about, lea-
ving a garrifon to defend it; making fome additional
fortifications at the fame time to Bethzura, a fortrefs
at about 20 miles diftance.
In the mean time Antiochus being on his return
from_an unfuccefsful expedition into Perfia, received
Vou V.
the difagreeable news that the Jews had all to a man Jews,
revolted, defeated his generals, driven their armies out ,—1
of Judea, and reftored their ancient worfhip. This
threw him into fuch a fury, that he commanded his
charioteer to drive with the utmoft fpeed, threatening
utterly to extirpate the Jewifh race, without leaving a
Angle perfon alive. Thefe words were fcarce uttered, I4
when he was feized with a violent pain in his bowels, Dreadful
which no remedy could cure or abate. But notwith- death of
ftanding this violent fhock, fuffering himfelf to be hur- Antiochus
ried away by the tranfports of his fury, he gave orders i'pip ancs*
for proceeding with the fame precipitation in his jour¬
ney. But while he was thus haftening forward, he fell
from his chariot, and was fo bruifed by the fall, that
his attendants were forced to put him into a litter.
Not being able to bear even the motion of the litter,
he was forced to halt at a town called Tab a on the
confines of Perfia and Babylonia. Here he kept his
bed, fuffering inexpreffible torments, occafioned chief¬
ly by the vermin which bred in his body, and the
flench, which made him infupportable even to himfelf.
But the torments of his mind, caufed by his reflefting
on the former adtions of his life, furpaffed by many
degrees thofe of his body. Polybius, who in his ac¬
count of this prince’s death agrees with the Jewifh hi-
llorians, tells us, that the uneafinefs of his mind grew
at laft to a conflant delirium or flate of madnefs, by
reafon of feveral fpedlres and apparitions of evil genii
or fpirits, which he imagined were continually re¬
proaching him with the many wicked adlions of which
he had been guilty. At laft, having languifhed for
fome time in this miferable condition, he expired, and
by his death freed the Jews from the moft inveterate
enemy they had ever known.
Notwithftanding the death of Antiochus, however,
the war was ftill carried on againft the Jews; but
through the valour and good condudl of Judas, the
Syrians were conftantly defeated, and in 163 B. C. a
peace was concluded upon terms very advantageous to
the Jewifh nation. This tranquillity, however, was
of no long continuance ; the Syrian generals renewed
their hoflilities, and were attended with the fame ill
fuccefs as before. Judas defeated them in five engage¬
ments; but in the fixth was abandoned by all his men
except 800, who, together with their chief, were flain
in the year 161 B. C.
The news of the death of Judas threw his country- Exploits of
men into the utmoft conflernatioti, and feemed to give Jonathan,
new life to all their enemies. He was fucceeded, how- Simon> and
ever, by his brother Jonathan; who conducted mat- yrcaB*
ters with no lefs prudence and fuccefs than Judas had
done, till he was treacheroufly feized and put to death
by Tryphon, a Syrian ufurper, who fhortly after mur¬
dered his own fovereign. The traitor immediately
prepared to invade Judea ; but found all his proje&s
frullrated by Simon, Jonathan’s brother. This pontiff
repaired all the fortreffes of Judea, and furnifhed
them with frefh garrifons, took Joppa and Gaza, and
drove out the Syrian garrifon from the fortrefs of Jeru-
falem; but was at laft treacheroufly murdered by a fon-
in-law named Ptolemy, about 135 B.C.
Simon was fucceeded by fon Hyrcan; who not only
fhook off the yoke of Syria, but conquered the Sama¬
ritans, demolifhed their capital city, and became ma¬
iler of all Paleftine, to which he added the provinces
22 A of
JEW [ 3862 ] JEW
XcW5- ■ of Samaria and Galilee; all which he enjoyed till with¬
in a year of his death, without the leaft difturbance
from without, or any internal difcord. His reign was
no lefs remarkable on the account of his great wifdom
and piety at home, than his conquefts abroad. He
was the firft fince the captivity who had aflumed the
royal title ; and he raifed the Jewilh nation to a greater
degree of fplendor than it had ever enjoyed fince that
time. The author of the fourth book of the Macca¬
bees alfo informs us, that in him three dignities were
centered which never met in any other perfon, namely,
the royal dignity, the high-priefthood, and the gift
of prophecy. But the infiances given of this laft
are very equivocal and fufpicious. The laft year
of his reign, however, was imbittered by a quarrel
with the pharifees; and which proceeded fuch a length
as was thought to have ftiortened his days. Hyrcan
had always been a great friend to that fed, and they
had hitherto enjoyed the moft honourable employments
in the ftate ; but at length one of them, named Elea-
zar, took it into his head to queftion Hyrcan’s legiti¬
macy, alleging, that his mother had formerly been a
Have, and confequently that die was incapable of en¬
joying the high-priefthood. This report was credited,
or pretended to be fo, by the whole fed; which irrita¬
ted the high-prieft to fuch a degree, that he joined the
fadducees, and could never afterwards be reconciled to
the pharifees, who therefore raifed all the troubles and
feditions they could during the ftiort time he lived.
Hyrcan died in 107 B. C. and was fucceeded by
his eldeft fon Ariftobulus, who conquered Iturea, but
proved a moft cruel and barbarous tyrant, polluting
his hands with the blood even of his mother and one
of his brothers, keeping the reft clofely confined du-
,5 ring his reign, which, however, was but fliort. He
Alexander was fucceeded in 105 by Alexander Jannaeus, the
Jannams, a greateft conqueror, next to king David, that ever fat
qucror°n" on throne. He was hated, however, by
the pharifees, and once in danger of being killed in a
tumult excited by them ; but having caufed his guards
to fall upon the mutinous mob, they killed 6000 of them,
and difperfed the reft. After this, finding it impof-
fible to remain in quiet in his own kingdom, he left Je-
rufalem, with a defign to apply himfelf wholly to the
extending of his conquefts ; but while he was bufied
in fubduing his foreign enemies, the pharifees raifed
a rebellion at home. This was quafhed in the year 86
B. C. and the rebels were treated in the moft inhuman
manner. The faction, however, was by this means fo
thoroughly quelled, that they never dared to lift up
their heads as long as he lived; and Alexander having
made feveral conquefts in Syria, died about 79 B. C.
Conteftsbe- The king left two fons, Hyrcanus and Ariflobulus;
tween his but bequeathed the government to his wife Alexan-
fons Hyr- ,3ra as long as fte Jived : but as he faw her greatly
C/triftobu- a^ra^» anc* not without reafon, of the refentment of
Ins, the pharifees, he defired his queen, juft before his
death, to fend for the principal leaders of that party,
and pretend to be entirely devoted to them ; in which
cafe, he affured her, that they would fupport her and
her fons after her in the peaceable poffeffion of the
government. With this advice the queen complied;
but found herfelf much embarrafled by the turbulent
pharifees, who, after feveral exorbitant demands, would
at laft be contented with nothing lefs than the total
extermination of their adverfaries the fadducees. As Jews,
the queen was unable to refill the ftrength of the pha*
rifaic fadlion, a moft cruel perfecution immediately
took place againft the fadducees, which continued for
four years ; until at laft, upon their earneft petition,
they were difperfed among the feveral garrifons of the
kingdom, in order to fecure them from the violence
of their enemies. A few years after this, being feized
with a dangerous ficknefs, heryoungeft fon Ariftobu¬
lus collefted a ftrong party in order to fecure the crown
to himfelf; but the queen, being difpleafed wfith his
conduit, appointed her other fon Hyrcanus, whom fhe
had before made high-prieft, to fucceed her alfo in the
royal dignity. Soon after this file expired, and left
her two fons competitors for the crown. The phari¬
fees raifed an army againft Aiiftobulus, which almoft
inftantly deferted to him, fo that Hyrcanus found
himfelf obliged to accept of peace upon any terms;
which, however, was not granted, till the latter had
abandoned all title both to the royal and pontifical
dignity, and contented himfelf with the enjoyment of
his peculiar patrimony as a private perfon. . ;
But this depofition did not extinguilh the party
of Hyrcanus. A new cabal was raifed by Antipa¬
ter an Idumsean profelyte, and father of Herod the
Great; who carried off Hyrcanus into Arabia, under
pretence that his life was in danger if he remained in
Judea. Here he applied to Aretas king of that
country, who undertook to reftore the depofed mo¬
narch; and for that purpofe invaded Judea, defeated
Ariftobulus, and kept him clofely befieged in Jerufa- ig
lem. The latter had recourfe to the Romans ; and The Ro- ’
having bribed Scaurus, one of their generals, he defeat- mans called;
ed Aretas with the lofs of 7000 of his men, and drove in hY Ari,|
him quite out of the country. The two brothers nextftobulu5' I
fent prelents to Pompey, at that time commander in
chief of all the Roman forces in the eaft, and whom
they made the arbitrator of their differences. But he,
fearing that Aiiftobulus, againft whom he intended to
declare, might obftrudl his intended expedition againft.
the Nabatheans, difmiffed them with a promife, that
as foon as he had fubdued Aretas, he would come in- <
to Judea and decide their controverfy.
This delay gave fuch offence to Ariftobulus, that he
fuddenly departed'for Judea without even taking leave
of the Roman general, who on his part was no lefs
offended at this want of refpefl. The confequence
was, that Pompey entered Judea with thofe troops
with which he had defigned to a£l againft the Naba-
thjeans, and fummoned Ariftobulus to appear before * |
him. The Jewifh prince would gladly have been ex-
cufed ; but was forced by his own people to comply
with Pompey’s fummons, to avoid a war with that ge¬
neral. He came accordingly more than once or twice
to him, and was difmifled with great promifes and
marks of friendfhip. But at laft Pompey infifted, that
he fhould deliver into his hands all the fortified places
he poffeffed ; which let Ariftobulus plainly fee that he
was in the intereft of his brother, and upon this he
fled to Jerufalem with a defign to oppofe the Romans
to the utmoft of his power. He was quickly followed
by Pompey; and to prevent hoftilities was at laft for¬
ced to go and throw himfelf at the feet of the haugh¬
ty Roman, and to promife him a confiderable fum of
money as the reward of his forbearance. This fub-
miflioa
JEW [ .3863 ] JEW
i| Jews, million was accepted; but Gabinius, being fent with
" feme troops to receive the ftipulated fum, was repul-
fed by the garrifon of Jerufalem, who fhut the gates
againft him, and refufed to fulfil the agreement. This
difappointment fo exafperated Pompey, that he im-
I9 mediately marched with his whole army againft the city.
11 Jerufalem The Roman general firft fent propofals of peace ;
iaken by but finding the Jews refolved to ftand out to the laft,
poxnpey. began the fiege in form. As the place was ftrotig-
ly fortified both by nature and art, he might have
found it very difficult to accbmplifli hisdefign, had not
the Jews been fuddenly feized with a qualm of con-
fcience refpe£ling the obfervance of the fabbath-day.
From the time of the Maccabees they bad made no
fcruple of taking up arms againft an offending enemy
on the fabbath ; but now they difeovered, that tho’it
was lawful on that day to ftand on their defence in cafe
they were a&ually attacked, yet it was unlawful to do
any thing towards the preventing of thofe preparatives
which the enemy made towards fuch future afiaults.
As therefore they never moved an hand to hinder the
erefl-ion of mounds and batteries, or the making of
breaches in their walls on the fabbath, the befiegers
at laft made fuch a confiderable breach on that day,
that the garrifon could no longer refift them. The city
was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C. 12,000 of
the inhabitants were flaughtered, and many more died
by their own hands ; while the priefts, who were offer¬
ing up the ufual prayers and facrifices in the temple,
Ichofe rather to be butchered along with their brethren,
than fuffer divine fervice to be one moment interrup¬
ted. At laft, after the Romans had fatiated their
cruelty with the death of a vaft number of the inha¬
bitants, Hyrcanus was reftored to the pontifical dig¬
nity with the title of prince; but forbid to affume the
title of king, to wear a diadem, or to extend his terri¬
tories beyond the limits of Judea. To prevent future
revolts, the walls were pulled down ; and Scaurus was
left governor with a fufficient force. But before he de¬
parted, the Roman general gave the Jews a ftill great¬
er offence than almoft any thing he had hitherto done;
and that was by entering into the moft facred receffes
of the temple, where he took a view of the golden
table, candleftick, cer.fers, lamps, and all the other
facred veffels; buf out of refpedl to the Deity, forbore
to touch any of them, and when he came out com¬
manded the priefts immediately to purify the temple
according to cuftom.
Pompey having thus fubdued the Jewifti nation, fet
out for Rome, carrying along with him Ariftobulus
and his two fons Alexander and Antigonus, as cap¬
tives to adorn his future triumph. Ariftobulus himfelf
and his fon Antigonus wereled in triumph; but Alexan¬
der found means to efcape into Judea, where he raifed an
arm^of 10,000 foot and 150ohorfe, and began to fortify
feveral ftrong holds, from whence he made incurfions
into the neighbouring country. As for Hyrcanus, he
bad no fooner found himfelf freed from his rival bro¬
ther, than he relapfed into his former indolence, lea¬
ving the care of all his affairs to Antipater, .who, like
a true politician, failed not to turn the weaknefs of the
prince to his own advantage and the aggrandizing of
his family. He forefaw, however, that he could not
eafily compafs his ends, unlefs he ingratiated himfelf
with the Romans; and therefore fpared neither pains nor
coft to gain their favour. Scaurus foon after received Jews,
from him a fupply of corn and other provifions, with- ~ '
out w'hich his army, which he had led againft the me¬
tropolis of Arabia, would have been in danger of pe¬
ri filing ; and after this, he prevailed on the king to-
pay 300 talents to the Romans, to prevent them from
ravaging his country. Hyrcanus was now in no con¬
dition to face his enemy Alexander; and therefore had
again recourfe to the Romans, Antipater at the fame
time fending as many troops as he could fpare to join
them. Alexander ventured a battle; but was defeat¬
ed with confiderable lofs, and befieged in a ftrong fort-
refs named Alexandrian. Here he would have been
forced to furrender; but his mother, partly by her ad-
drefs, and partly by the fervices fhe found means to do
the Roman general, prevailed upon him to grant her
fon a pardon for what was paft. The fortreffes were
then demolifiied, that they might not give occafion to
frefti revolts; Hyrcanus was again reftored to the pon- to
tifical dignity ; and the province was divided into five Jewifh go-
feveral diftrifls, in each of which a feparate court of v®rnment
judicature w'as ere&ed. The firft of thefe was at Je-
rufalem, the fecond at Gadara, the third at Amath, atiftocracy.
the fourth at Jericho, and the fifth at Sephoris in Ga¬
lilee. Thus was the government changed from a mo¬
narchy to an ariftocracy, and the Jews now fell under
a fet of domineering lords.
Soon after this, Ariftobulus found means to efcape
from his confinement at Rome, and raifed new troubles
in Judea, but was again defeated and taken prifoner:
his fon alfo renewed his attempts; but was in like man¬
ner defeated, with the lofs of near 10,000 of his follow¬
ers ; after which Gabinius, having fettled the affairs of
Judea to Antipater’s mind, refigned the government of
his province to Craffus. The only tranfaftion during
his government was his plundering the temple of all its
money and facred utenfils, amounting in the whole to
10,000 Attic talents, /. e. above two millions of our
money. After this facrilege, Craffus fet out on his
expedition againft Parthia, where he periftied ; and his
death was by the Jews interpreted as a divine judg¬
ment for his impiety.
The war between Caffar and Pompey afforded the jews fa-
Jews fome refpite, and likewife an opportunity of in- voured by
gratiating themfelves with the former, which the poli- Csfar-
tic Antipater readily embraced. His fervices were re¬
warded by the emperor. He confirmed Hyrcanus in
his priefthood, added to it the principality of Judea to
be entailed on his pofterity for ever, and reftored the
Jewifh nation to their ancient rights and privileges;
ordering at the fame time a pillar to be eredted, where¬
on all thefe grants, and his own decree, fliould be en¬
graved, which was accordingly done ; and foon after,
when Csefar himfelf came into Judea, he granted liber¬
ty alfo to fortify the city, and rebuild the wall which
had been deraolifiled by Pompey.
During the lifetime of Caefar, the Jews were fo
highly favoured, th-at they could fcarcely be faid to feel
the Roman yoke. After his death, however, the na¬
tion fell into great diforders; which were not finally
quelled, till Herod, who was created king of Judea by 2S
Marc Anthony in 40 B. C. was fully eftablilhed on the Herod
throne by the taking of Jerufalem by his allies the raifed to
Romans in 37 B. C. The immediate confequence oft£j^oJewi^
this was another cruel pillage and maffacre : then fol- * r°ne‘
22 A 2 lowed
JEW [ 3864 ] JEW
Jews, lowed the death of Antigonus the fon of Ariftobulus,
who had for three years maintained his ground againtt
Herod, put to death his brother Phafael, and cut off
Hyrcanus’s ears, in order the more efFe&ually to inca¬
pacitate him for the high-priefthood.
His tyranny The Jews gained but little by this change of ma-
and cruelty, fters. The new king proved one of the greateft tyrants
mentioned in hiftory. He began his reign with a cruel
perfecution of thofe who had ftded with his rival An¬
tigonus ; great numbers of whom he put to death, fei-
zing and confifcating their effe&s for his own ufe.
Nay, fuch was his jealoufy in this laft refpedt, that he
caufed guards to be placed at the city-gates, in order
to watch the bodies of thofe of the Antigonian fac¬
tion who were carried out to be buried, left fome
of their riches fhouljl be carried along with them.
His jealoufy next prompted him to decoy Hyrcanus,
the baniihed pontiff, from Parthia, where he had taken
refuge, that he might put him to death, tho’ contrary
to his moil folemn promifes. His cruelty then fell upon
his own family. He had married Mariamne, the daugh¬
ter of Hyrcanus ; whofe brother, Ariftobulus, a young
prince of great hopes, was made high-prieft at the in-
terceffion of his mother Alexandra. But the tyrant,
confcious that Ariftobulus had a better right to the
kingdom than himfelf, caufed him foon after to be
drowned in a bath. The next vi&im was his beloved
queen Mariamne herfelf. Herod had been fummoned
to appear firft before Marc Anthony, and then before
Auguftus, in order to clear himfelf from fome crimes
laid to his charge. As he was, however, doubtful of
the event, be left orders, that in cafe he was condem¬
ned, Mariamne fhould be put to death. This, toge¬
ther with the death of her father and brother, gave
her fuch an averfion for him, that flic (hewed it on
all occafions. By this condudl the tyrant’s refentment
was at laft fo much inflamed, that having got her
falfely accufed of infidelity, (he was condemned to die,
and executed accordingly. She fuffered with great
refolution ; but with her ended all the happinefs of her
hufhand. His love for Mariamne increafed fo much
after her death, that for fome time he appeared like
one quite diftra&ed. His remorfe, however, did not
get the better of his cruelty. The death of Mariamne
was foon followed by that of her mother Alexandra,
and this by the execution of feveral other perfons who
had joined with her in an attempt to fecure the king¬
dom to the fous of the deceafed queen.
Herod, having now freed himfelf from the greateft
part of his fuppofed enemies, began to (hew a greater
contempt for the Jewifh ceremonies than formerly; and
introduced'a number of heathenifli games, which made
him odious to his fubjedls. Ten bold fellows at laft
took it into their heads to enter the theatre where the
tyrant was celebrating fome games, with daggers con¬
cealed under their clothes, in order to (tab him or fome
of his retinue. In cafe they (hould mifearry in the at¬
tempt, they had the defperate fatisfadlion to think,
that, if they periftied, the tyrant would be rendered
ftill more odious by the punifliment inflidled on them.
They were not miftaken : for Herod being informed
of their defign by one of his fpies, and caufing the
aflaflins to be put to a moft excruciating death, the
people were fo much exafperated againft the informer,
that they cut and tore him to pieces, and caft his flefh
to the dogs. Herod tried in vain to difeover the au- Jews, t
thors of this affront; but at laft having caufed fome  
women to be put to the rack, he extorted from them
the names of the principal perfons concerned, whom he
caufed immediately to be put to death with their fa¬
milies. This produced fuch difturbances, that, ap¬
prehending nothing lefs than a general revolt, he fet
about fortifying Jerufalem with feveral additional
works, rebuilding Samaria, and putting garrifons into
feveral fortrefles in Judea. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, Herod had (hortly after an opportunity of re¬
gaining the affe&ions of h^ fubjedls in fome mea-
fure, by his generofity to them during a famine ; but
as he foon relapfed into his former cruelty, their love
was again turned into hatred, which continued till his
death.
Herod now, about 23 B. C. began to adorn his Rebuilds |
cities with many (lately buildings. The moft re- the temple,
markable and magnificent of them all, however, was
the temple at Jerufalem, which he is faid to have
raifed to a higher pitch of grandeur than even Solomon
himfelf had done. Ten thoufand artificers were im¬
mediately fet to work, under the diredlion of jooo
priefts, the bed (killed in carving, mafonry, &c. all of
whom were kept in conftant pay. A thoufand carts
were employed in fetching materials; and fuch a num¬
ber of other hands were employed, that every thing
was got ready within the fpace of two years. After
this they fet about pulling down the old building,
and rearing up the new one with the fame expedition;
fo that the holy place, or temple properly fo called,
was finiftied in a year and an half; during which we
are told that it never rained in the day-time, but only
in the night. The remainder was finiflied in fome-
what more than eight years. The temple, properly
fo called, or holy place, was but 60 cubits high, and
as many in breadth ; but in the front he added two
wings or (boulders which projedled 20 cubits more on
each fide, and which in all made a front of 120 cubits
in length, and as many in height; with agate 70
cubits high and 20 in breadth, but‘open and without
any doors. The (tones were white marble, 25 cubits
in length, 12 in height, and nine in breadth, all
wrought and polilhed with exquifite beauty; the
whole refembling a (lately palacd, whofe middle being
confiderably raifed above the extremities of each face,
made it afford a beautiful vifta at a great diftance,
to thofe who came to the metropolis. Inftead of
doors, the gates clofed with very coftly veils, enriched
with a variety of flowering of gold, (ilver, purple, and
every thing that was rich and curious; and on each
fide of the gates were planted two (lately columns,
from whofe cornices hung golden feftoons and vines,
with their clufters of grapes, leaves, &c. curioufly
wrought. The fuperftruCture, however, which was
probably reared on the old foundation without fuffi-
cient additions, proved too heavy, and funk down
about 20 cubits ; fo that its height was reduced to
100. This foundation was of an aftonifhing ftrength
and height, of which an account is given under the
article Jerusalem. The platform was a regular
fquare of a (lade or furloijg on each fide. Each front
of the fquare had a fpacious gate or entrance, en¬
riched with fuitable ornaments; but that on the weft
had four gates, one of which led to the palace,
another
JEW [ 3865 ] JEW
4jews. another to the city, and the two others to the fuburbs
] and fields. This inclofure was furrounded on the
outfide with a ftrong and high wall of large ftones,
I well cemented; and on the infide, had on each front a
ftately piazza or gallery, fupported by columns of fuch
a bignefs, that three men could but juft embrace them,
their circumference being about 27 feet. There were
in all 162 of them, which fupported a cedar cieling
of excellent workmanfhip, and formed three galleries,
the middlemoft of which was the largeft and higheft,
it being 45 feet in breadth and loo in height, where¬
as thofe on each fide were but 30 feet wide and 50 in
height.
The piazzas and court were paved with marble of
various colours; and, at a fmall diftance from the gal-
B leries, was a fecond inclofure, furrounded with a flight
of beautiful marble rails, with ftately columns at pro¬
per diftances, on which were engraven certain admo-
Initions in Greek and Latin, to forbid ftrangefs, and
thofe Jews that were not purified, to proceed farther
under pain of death. This inclofure had but one gate
on the eaft fide ; none on the weft ; but on the north
)and fouth it had three, placed at equal diftances from
each other.
|i A third inclofure furrounded the temple properly fo
called, and the altar of burnt-offerings ; and made
what they called the court of the Hebrews, or Ifraelites.
It was fquare like the reft: but the wall on the outfide
was furrounded by a flight of 14 fteps, which hid a
confiderable part of it ; and on the top was a terrace,
of about 12 cubits in breadth, which went quite round
the whole cindhire. The eaft fide had but one gate ;
the weft none; and the north and fouth four, at equal
diftances. Each gate was afcended by five fteps more,
before one could reach the level of the inward court;
fo that the wall which inclofed it appeared within to
be but 25 cubits high, though confiderably higher
on the outfide. On the infide of each of thofe gates
were raifed a couple of fpacious fquare chambers, in
form of a pavilion, 30 cubits wide and 40 in height,
each fupported by columns of 12 cubits in circumfe-
I» rehce.
This inclofure had likewife a double flight of gal¬
leries on the infide, fupported by a double row of co¬
lumns ; but the weftern fide was only one continued
wall, without-gates or galleries. The women had
likewife their particular courts feparate from that of
the men, and one of the gates on the north and fouth
leading to it.
The altar of burnt-offerings was likewife high and
fpacious, being 40 cubits in breadth, and 15 in height.
The afcent to it was, according to the Mofaic law,
fmooth, and without fteps; and the altar of unhewn
flones. It was furrounded, at a convenient diftance,
with a low wall or rail, which divided the court of
the priefts from that of the lay Ifraelites ; fo that
thefe laft were allowed to come thus far to bring their
offerings and facrifices; though none but the priefts
were allowed to come within that inclofure.
Herod caufed a new dedication of this temple
to be performed with the utmoft magnificence
and prefented to it many rich trophies of his.
former vi&ories, after the cuftom of the Jewifti
ssonarchs.
This, and many other magnificent works, however, Jews,
did not divert the king’s attention from his ufual jea- ’
loufies and cruelty. His fifter Salome, and one of his
fons named Antipater, taking advantage of this difpo-
fition, prompted him to murder his two fons by Ma-
riamne, named Alexander and Arijlobulus, who had
been educated at the court of Auguftus in Italy, and
were juftly admired by all who faw them. His cruelty
foon after, broke out in an impotent attempt to deftroy
the Saviour of the world, but which was attended with
no other confequence than the deftruftion of 2000 in¬
nocent children of his own fubjefts. His mifery was
almoft brought to its fummit by the difeovery of
Antipater’s defigns againft bimfelf; who was accor¬
dingly tried and condemned for treafon. Something
ftill more dreadful, however, yet awaited him; be was
feized with a moft loathfome and incurable difeafe, in
in which he was tormented with intolerable pains, fo
that his life became a burden. At laft he died, to the His death.'
great joy of the Jews, five days after he had put Anti¬
pater to death, and after having divided his kingdom
among his fons in the following manner.—Archelaus
had Judea; Antipas, or Herod, was tetrarch of Galilee
and Perea; and Philip had the regions of Trachonitis,
Gaulon, Batanea, and Panias, which he eredled like¬
wife into a tetrarchy. To his fifter Salome he gave
50,000 pieces of money, together with the cities of
Jamnia, Azotus, and Phafaelis; befides fome confide¬
rable legacies to his other relations.
The cruelty of this monfter accompanied him to
his grave; nay, he in a manner carried it beyond the
grave. Being well apprifed that the Jews would re¬
joice at being freed from fuch a tyrant, he bethought
himfelf of the fbllowing infernal ftratagem to damp
their mirth. A few days before his death, he fum-
moned all the heads of the Jews to repair to Jericho
under pain of death; and, on their arrival, ordered
them all to be ftiut up in the circus, giving at the
fame time ftrift orders to his fifter Salome and her
hufband to have all the prifoners butchered as foon as
his breath was gone out. “ By this means, (faid he,)
I fliall not only damp the people’s joy, but fecure a real
mourning at my death.” Thefe cruel orders, how¬
ever, were not put in execution. Immediately after
the king’s death, Salome went to the Hippodrome,
where the heads of the Jews were detained, caufed the
gates to be flung open, and declared to them, that
now the king had no farther occafion for their attend¬
ance, and that they might depart to their refpeftive
homes; after which, and not.till then, the news of the
king’s death was publiftied. Tumults, feditions, and
infurredlions, quickly followed. , - Archelaus was op-^ew divi-
pofed by his brethren, and obliged to appear at Rome fion of the
before Auguftus, to whom many complaints were lt'ngcloiT>
brought againft him. After hearing both parties, ky Al1*
the emperor made the following divifion of the king-®
dom: Archelaus had one-half, under the title of
ethnarch, or governor of a nation ;. together with a
promife that he fliould have the title of king, as foon
as he ftrewed himfelf worthy of it. This ethnarchy
contained Judaea Propria, Idumea, and Samaria: but
this laft was exempted from one-fourth of the taxes
paid by the reft, on account of the peaceable beha¬
viour of the inhabitants during the late tumults. The
remainder;
JEW [ 3866 ] JEW
Jews. remainder was divided between Philip and Herod;
   the former of whom had Trachonitis, Batanea, and
Auranitis, together with a fmall part of Galilee; the
latter had the reft of Galilee, and the countries be¬
yond the Jordan. Salome had half a million of filver,
together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus, Phafaelis,
and Afcalon.
For fome years Archelaus enjoyed his government
in peace; but at laft, both Jews and Samaritans, tired
out with his tyrannical behaviour, joined in a petition
to Auguftus againft him. The emperor immediately
fummoned him to Rome, where, having heard his ac-
j17. cufation and defence, he baniftied him to the city of
banilhedT Vienne in Dauphiny, and confifcated all his effe&s.
and a Ro- Judea being by this fentence reduced to a Roman
man gover- province, was ordered to be taxed; and Cyrenius the
110.r apr governor of Syria, a man of confular dignity, was
over Ju- fent thither to fee it put in execution: which having
ilsa. done, and fold the palaces of Archelaus, and feized
upon all his treafure, he returned to Antioch, lea¬
ving the Jews in no fmall ferment on account of this
new tax.
Thus were the feeds of diflenfion fown between the
Jews and Romans, which ended in the moft lament¬
able cataftrophe of the former. The Jews, always
impatient of a foreign yoke, knew from their prophe¬
cies, that the time was now come when the Meffiah
fhould appear. Of confequence, as they expefted him
to be a great and powerful warrior, their rebellious and
feditious fpirit was heightened to the greateft degree ;
and they imagined they had nothing to do but take
up arms, and vi&ory would immediately declare on
their fide. From this time, therefore, the country
was never quiet; and the infatuated people, while
they rejetted the true Meffiah, gave themfelves up to
the direftion of every impoftor who chofe to lead
them to their own deftruftion. The governors ap¬
pointed by the Romans were alfo frequently changed,
but feldom for the better. About the 16th year of
Chrift, Pontius Pilate was appointed governor; the
whole of whofe adminiftration, according to Jofephus,
was one continued fcene of venality, rapine, tyranny,
and every wicked attion; of racking and putting in¬
nocent men to death, untried and uncondemned; and
of every kind of favage cruelty. Such a governor was
but ill calculated to appeafe the ferments occafioned
by the late tax. Indeed Pilate was fo far from at¬
tempting this, that he greatly inflamed them by taking
every occalion of introducing his ftandards with ima¬
ges and pittures, confecrated ffiields, &c. into their
city; and at laft attempting to drain the treafury of
the temple, under pretence of bringing an aquedutt
into Jerufalem. The moft remarkable tranfattion of
his government, however, was his condemnation of
Jesus Christ: feven years after w’hich he was removed
ag from Judaea; and in a Ihort time Agrippa the grand-
Agrippa fon of Herod the Great, was promoted by Cains to
made king. tije regal dignity. He did not, however, long enjoy
this honour; for, on his coming into Judaea, having
railed a perfecution againft the Chriftians, and blaf-
phemoufly fuffering himfelf to be ftyled a God by
fome deputies from Tyre and Sidon, he was miracu-
loufly ftruck with a difeafe, which foon put an end to
his life. The facred hiftorian tells us, that he was
eaten of worms ; and Jofephos, that he was feized Jew*,
with moft violent pains in his heart and bowels ; fo ——“
that he could not but reflett on the bafenefs of thofe
flatterers, who had but lately complimented him with
a kind of divine immortality, that was now about to
expire in all the torments and agonies of a miferable
mortal. 2!) |
On the death of Agrippa, Jodasa was once more The king-
reduced to a province of the Roman empire, and had dora again
new governors appointed over it. Thefe were Venti- re£ucc<1
dius, Felix, Feftus, Albinus, and Geffius Florus. pro^jl^J
Under their government the Jewifti affairs went on
from bad to worfe; the*country fwarmed with robbers
and affaffins; the latter committing every-where the
moft unheard-of cruelties under the pretence of reli¬
gion ; and about 64 A. C. were joined by 18,000
workmen, who had been employed in further repair¬
ing and beautifying the temple. About this time
alfo, Geffius Florus, the laft and worft governor the
Jews ever had, was fent into the country. Jofephus
feems at a lofs for words to defcribe him by, or a
monfter to compare him to. His rapines, cruelties,
conniving for large fums with the banditti, and, in a
word, his whole behaviour, were fo open and bare¬
faced, that he was looked upon by the Jews more like
a bloody executioner fent to butcher, than a magi-
ftrate to govern them. In this diftratted ftate of the
country, many of the inhabitants forfook it to feek
for an afylum fomewhere elfe ; while thofe who re¬
mained, applied themfelves to Ceftius Gallus, governor
of Syria, who was at Jerufalem at the paffover; be-
feeching him to pity their unhappy ftate, and free
them from the tyranny of a man who had totally
ruined their country. Fionas, who was prefent when
thefe complaints were brought againft him, made a
mere jeft of them; and Ceftius, inftead of making a
ftritt inquiry into his condutt, difmiffed the Jews with
a general promife that the governor (hould behave
better for the future; and fet himfelf about computing
the number of Jews at that time in Jerufalem, by the
number of lambs offered at that feftival, that he
might fend an account of the whole to Nero. By his
computation, there were at that time in Jerufalem
2,556,000; tho’ Jofephus thinks they rather amounted
to 3,000,000. 30
In the year 67 began ihe fatal war with the Romans, Caufe of
which was ended only by the deftruttion of Jerufalem. ^
The immediate caufe was the decifion of a conteft ^aer Ro.
with the Syrians concerning the city of Caefarea. The mans.
Jews maintained that this city belonged to them, be-
caufe it had been built by Herod; and the Syrians
pretended that it had always been reckoned a Greek
city, fince even that monarch had reared temples and
ftatues in it. The conteft at laft came to fuch an
height, that both parties took up arms againft each
other. Felix put an end to it for a time, by fending
fome of the chiefs of each nation to.Rome, to plead
their caufe before the emperor, where it hung in fu-
fpenfe till this time, when Nero decided it againff the
Jews. No fooner was this decifion made public, than
the Jews in all parts of the country flew to arms;
and, tho’ they were every-where the fufferers, yet,
from this fatal period, their rage never abated. No¬
thing was now to be heard of but robberies, murders.
JEW [ 3867 ] J E W
ifjjjews. and every kind of cruelty. Cities and villages were
filled with dead bodies of all ages, even fucking babes.
J! 3t‘ The Jews, -On their part, fpared neither Syrians nor
filjly. Romans, where they got the better of them; and this
iflacred, proved the deftru&ion of great numbers of their peace¬
ful brethren: 20,000 were mallacred at Casfarea,
50,000 at Alexandria, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 3,500
at Jerufalem.
A great number of affaflins, in the mean time, ha¬
ving joined the fa&ious Jews in Jerufalem, they beat
the Romans out of Antonia, a fortrefs adjoining to
the temple, and another called Majfada; and likewife
out of the towers called Phafael and Mariamne, kill¬
ing all who oppofed them. The Romans were at
laft reduced to fuch ftraits, that they capitulated on
the Angle condition that their lives fliould be fpared;
notwithftanding which, they were all maffacred by
the furious zealots: and this treachery was foon re¬
venged on the faithful Jews of Scythopolis. Thefe
had offered to affift in reducing their faftious bre¬
thren ; but, their fincerity being fufpe&ed by the
townfmen, they obliged them to retire into a neigh¬
bouring wood, where, on the third night, they were
maffacred to the number of 13,000, and all their
wealth carried off. The rebels, in the mean time,
croffed the Jordan, and took the fortreffes of Machaeron
and Cyprus; which laft they razed to the ground,
after having put all the Romans to the fword.—
hey de- This brought Ceftius Gallus, the Syrian governor,
at Ceftius into Judaea with all his forces; but the Jews, partly
alius. jjy treachery and partly by force, got the better of
him, and drove him out of the country with the lofs
of 5000 men.
All this time fuch dreadful diffenfions reigned a-
mong the Jews, that great numbers of the better fort,
forefeeing the fad effefts of the refentment of the Ro¬
mans, left the city as men do a finking veffel ; and
the Chriftians, mindful of their Saviour’s prediction,
retired to Pella, a city on the other fide of Jordan,
whither the war did not reach. Miferable was the
fate of fuch as either could not, or would not, leave
33 that devoted city. Vefpafian was now ordered to
:fpafian leave Greece where he was at that time, and to march
nt agajnft with all fpeed into Judea. He did fb accordingly at
em‘ the head of a powerful army, ordering his fon Titus
in the mean time to bring two more legions from A-
lexandria ; but before he could reach that country, the
Jews had tyvice attempted to take the city of Alcalon,
and were each time repulfed with the lofs of 10,000
of their number. In the beginning of the year 68, Vef¬
pafian entered. Galilee at the head of an army of 60,000
men all completely armed and excellently difeiplined.
He firft took and burnt Gadara : then helaidfiege to
Jotapa, and took it after a ftout refiftance ; at which
he was fo provoked, that he caufed every one of the
Jews to be maffacred or carried into captivity, not
one being left to carry the dreadful news to their
brethren. Forty thoufand perifhed on this occafion ;
only 1200 were made prifoners, among whom was
Jofephus the Jewifh hiftorian. Japha next fhared the
fame fate, after an obftinate fiege ; all the men being
maffacred, and the women and children carried into
captivity. A week after this the Samaritans, who
had affembled on Mount Gerizzim, were almoft all put
to, the fword, or perifhed. Joppa fell the next vi&im
to the Roman vengeance. It had been formerly laid Jews-
wafte by Ceftius ; but w-as now repeopled and fort!-
fied by the feditious Jews who infefted the country.
It was takermby ftorm, and fhared the fame fate with
the reft. Four thoufand Jews attempted to efcape, by
taking to their (hips; but were driven back by a fud-
den tempeft, and all of them were drowned or put to
the fword. Tarichea and Tiberias were next taken,
but part of their inhabitants were fpared on account
of their peaceable difpofitions. Then followed the
fieges of Gamala, Gifchala, and Itabyr. The firft
was taken by ftorm, with a dreadful daughter of
the Jews; the laft by ftratagem. The inhabitants
of Gifchala were inclineable to furrender : but a fedi¬
tious Jew of that town, named John, the fon of Levi,
head of the fa&ion, and a vile fellow, oppofed it ;
and, having the mob at his beck, overawed the whole
city. On the fabbath he begged of Titus to forbear
hoftilities till to-morrow, and then he would accept
his offer; but inftead of that, hefted to Jerufalem
with as many as would follow him. The Romans, as
foon as they were informed of his flight, purfued, and
killed 6000 of his followers on the road, and brought
back near 3000 women and children prifoners. The
inhabitants then furrendered to Titus, and only the
factious were puniftied; and this completed the re-
duflion of Galilee. ^
The Jewiftt nation by this time was divided into Different
two very oppofite parties : the one forefeeing that faftions
this war, if continued, muft end in the total ruin ofamongtii;:
their co-untry, were for putting an end to it by fub- •'ews‘
mitting to the Romans; the other, which was the
remains of the faction of Judas Gaulonites, breathed
nothing but war and confufion, and oppofed all peace¬
able meafures with invincible obftinacy. This laft,
which was by far the moft numerous and powerful,
confifted of men of the vileft and moft profligate cha¬
racters that can be paralleled.in hiftory. They were
proud, ambitious, cruel, rapacious, and committed
the moft horrid and unnatural crimes under the mafic
of religion. They affirmed every where, that it was
offering the greateft difhonour to God to fubmit to
any earthly potentate ; much lefs to Romans and to
heathens. This, they faid, was the only motive that
induced them to take up arms, and to bind themfelves
under the ftri&eft obligations not to lay them down
till they had either totally extirpated all foreign au¬
thority, or periftied in the attempt.—This dreadful
diffenfion was not confined to Jerufalem, but had in-
fe&ed all the cities, towns, and villages, of Paleftine.
Even houfes and families were fo divided againft each
other,, that, as our Saviour had exprefly foretold, a
man’s greateft enemies were often thofe of his own
family and. houfehold. In (hort, if we may believe
Jofephus, the zealots aCled more like incarnate devils
than like men who had any fenfe of humanity left
them.—This obliged the contrary party likewife to
rife up in arms in their own.defence againft thofe mif-
creants; from whom, however, they fuffered much
more than they did even from the exafperated Ro- 3S'
mans.—The zealots began their outrages by murder-
ing all that oppofed them in the countries round about. ‘ ezeao /
Then they entered Jerufalem ; but met with a ftout
oppofition from the other party headed by Ananus,
who had lately been high-prieft. A fierce engage¬
ment.
JEW [ 3868 ] JEW
Jews, ment eafued between them; and the zealots were dri-
‘ “ ven Into the inner cindlure of the temple, where they
were clofely befieged. John of Gifchala above men-
» tioned, who had pretended to fide witlrthe peaceable
party, was then fent with terms of accommodation ;
but, inftead of advifing the befieged to accept of them,
he perfuaded them ftill to hold out, and call the Idu-
means to their affiftance. They did fo, and procured
20,000 of them to come to their relief; but thefe new
allies were tefufed admittance into the city. On that
night, however, there happened fuch a violent ftorm,
accompanied with thunder, lightning, and an earth¬
quake, that the zealots from within the inner court
fawed the bolts and hinges of the temple-gates with¬
out being heard, forced the guards of the befiegers,
{allied into the city, and let in the Idumeans. The
city was inllantly filled with butcheries of the molt
horrid kind. Barely to put any of the oppofite party
to death, was thought too mild a punilhment ; they
they mull have the pleafure of murdering them by
inches : fo that they made it now their diverfion to
put them to the moll exquifite tortures that could be
invented ; nor could they be prevailed upon to dif-
patch them till the violence of their torments had ren¬
dered them quite incapable of feeling them. In this
manner perilhed 12*000 perfons of noble extraftion,
and in the flower of their age ; till at laft the Idu¬
means complained fo much againll the putting fuch
numbers to death, that the zealots thought proper to
ereft a kind of tribunal, which, however, was intended
not for judgment, but condemnation ; for the judges
having once acquitted a perfon who was manifeltly
innocent, the zealots not only murdered him in the
temple, but depofed the new-created judges as per-
ibns unfit for their office.
The zealots, after having exterminated all thofe of
any charadler or dillindlion, began next to wreak
their vengeance on the common people. This obli¬
ged many of the Jews to forfake Jerufalem, and take
refuge with the Romans, though the attempt was
very hazardous; for the zealots had all the avenues
well guarded, and failed not to put to death fuch as
fell into their hands. Vefpafian in the mean time
ftaid at Csefarea an idle fpeftator of their outrages;
well knowing that the zealots were fighting for him,
and that the ftrength of the Jewilh nation was gra¬
dually wafting away. Every thing fucceeded to his
35 wilh. The zealots, after having maffacred or driven
They turn away the oppofite party, turned their arms againft
their arms cach 0thcr. A party was formed againft John, under
other e*C1°ne Simon who had his head-quarters at the fortrefs
of Maffada. This new mifereant plundered, burned,
and maflacred, wherever he came, carrying the fpoil
into the fortrefs above-mentioned. To increafe his
party, he caufed a proclamation to be publilhed, by
which he promifed liberty to the flaves, and propor¬
tionable encouragement to the freemen who joined
him. This ftratagem had the defired effedl, and he
foon faw himfelf at the head of h confiderable army.
Not thinking himfelf, however, as yet mafter of force
fufficient to befiege Jerufalem, he invaded Idumea
with 20,000 men. Thd Idumeans oppofed him with
25,000; and a (harp engagement enfued, in which
neither party was viftorious. But Simon, foon after,
having corrupted the Idumean general, got their army
delivered up to him. By this means he eafily be-
came mafter of the country; where he committed fuch
cruelties, that the miferable inhabitants abandoned it
to feek for flicker in Jerufalem.
In the city, matters went in the fame way. John
tyrannized in fuch a manner, that the Idumeans re¬
volted, killed a great number of his men, plundered
his palace, and forced him to retire into the temple.
In the mean time the people, having taken a notion
that he would fally out in the night and fet fire to
the city, called a council, in which it was refolved to
admit Simon with his troops, in order to oppofe John
and his zealots. Simon’s firlt attempt againlthis rival,
however, was ineffeftual, and he was obliged to con¬
tent himfelf with befieging the zealots in the temple.
In the mean time the miferies of the city were in-
creafedby the darting up of a third party headed by
one Eleazar, who feized on the court of the priefts,
and kept John confined within that of the Ifraelites.
Eleazar kept the avenues fo well guarded, that none
were admitted to come into that part of the temple
but thofe who came thither to offer facrifices ; and it
was by thefe offerings chiefly that he maintained him¬
felf and his men. John by this means found himfelf
hemmed in between two powerful enemies, Simon be¬
low, and Eleazar above. He defended himfelf, how¬
ever, againft them both with great refolution; and
when the city was invefted by the Romans, having
pretended to come to an agreement with his rivals,
he found means totally to cut off or force Eleazar’s
men to fubmit to him, fo that the factions were again
reduced to two. 3g
The Romans, in the year 72, began to advance to- The Ro-|
wards the capital. In their way they deflroyed many mans ad- ]
thoufands, wafting the country as they went along;'anc^ .“M
and in the year 73 arrived before the walls of Jerufa- ,'eru a
lem, under Titus afterwards emperor. As he was a
man of an exceedingly merciful difpofition, and greatly
defired to fpare the city, he immediately fent offers of
peace ; but thefe were rejedted with contempt, and he
himfelf put in great danger of his life, fo that he refolved
to begin the fiege in form. In the mean time, Simon
and John renewed their hoftilities with greater fury
than ever. John now held the whole temple, fome of
the out-parts of it, and the valley of Cedron. Simon
had the whole city to range in ; in fome parts of which
John had made fuch devaftations, that they ferved
them for a field of battle, from which they fallied
unanimoufly againfl the common enemy whenever oc-
cafion ferved j after which they returned to their ufual
hoftilities, turning their arms againft each other, as
if they had fworn to make their ruin more eafy to the
Romans. Thefe drew ftill nearer to the walls, having
with great labour and pains levelled all the ground be¬
tween Scopas and them, by pulling dpwn all the
houfes and hedges, cutting down the trees, and even
cleaving the rocks that flood in their way, from Sco¬
pas to the tomb of Herod, and Bethara or the pool
of ferpents ; in which work fo many hands were em¬
ployed, that they finifhed it in four days.
Whilft this was doing, Titus fent the befieged fome offers^f ;
offers of peace ; and Jofephus was pitchpd upon to be peace rc-
the meffenger of them : but they were reje&ed with I
indignation. He fent a fecond time Nicanor and Jo¬
fephus with frefti offers, and the former received a
wound
. ■ . ■
JEW [ 3869 ] JEW
rtfews. wound in his flioulder; upon which Titus refolved to
' ' " begin the aflault in good earned, and ordered his men
p to rafe the fuburbs, cut down all the trees, and ufe
1 t fiege the materials to raife platforms againft the wall. Every
I ried on thing was now carried on with invincible ardour ; the
i hvigour. Romans began to play their engines againft the city
with all their might. The Jews had likewife their
machines upon the walls, which they plied with un¬
common fury: they had taken them lately from Ce-
ftius ; but were fo ignorant in their ufe, that they did
little execution with them, till they were better in-
ftru&ed by fome Roman deferters: till then, their
chief fuccefs was rather owing to their frequent fallies;
but the Roman legions, who had all their towers and
machines before them, made terrible havock. The leaft
ftones they threw were near 100 weight ; and thefe
they could throw the length of a quarter of a mile a-
gainft the city, and with fuch a force, that they could
do mifchief on thofe that ftood at fome diftance be¬
hind them. Titus had reared three towers 50 cubits
high ; one of which happening to fall in the middle of
the night, greatly alarmed the Roman camp, who im-
' mediately ran to arms at the noife of it; but Titus,
upon knowing the caufe, difmified them, and caufed
it to be fet up again. Thefe towers, being plaited
with iron, the Jews tried in vain to fet fire to them,
but were at length forced to retire out of the reach of
their (hot; by which the battering-rams were now at
full liberty to play againft the wall. A breach was
foon made in it, at which the Romans entered ; and
the Jews, abandoning this laft inclofure, retired be¬
hind the next. This happened about the 28th ofA-
pril, a fortnight after the beginning of the fiege.
John defended the temple and the caftle of Anto¬
nia, and Simon the reft of the city. Titus marched
clofe to the feeond wall, and plied his battering-rams
fo furioufly, that one of the towers, which looked to¬
wards the north, gave a prodigious ftiake. The men
who were in it, made a fignal to the Romans, as if
they would furrender ; and, at the fame time, fent Si¬
mon word to be ready to give them a warm recep¬
tion. Titus, having difcovered their ftratagem, plied
his work more furioufiy, whilft the Jews that were in
the tower fet it on fire, and flung themfelves into the
flames. The tower being fallen, gave them an en¬
trance into the fecond inclofure, five days after gain¬
ing the firft ; and Titus, who wras bent on faving the
city, would not fuffer any part of the wall or ftreets
to be demoliftied ; which left the breach and lanes fo
narrow, that when his men were furioufly repulfed by
Simon, they had not room enough to make a quick
retreat, fo that there was a number of them killed in
it. This overfight was quickly reftified ; and the
attack renewed with fuch vigour, that the place was
39 carried four days after their firft repulfe.
Amine and q-'jjg fam;ne} raging in a terrible manner in the city,
I eciT,Cein was ^oon f°^OWC(^ by a peftilence; and as thefe two
y‘ dreadful judgments increafed, fo did the rage of the
fa&ious, who, by their inteftine feuds, had deftroyed
fuch quantities of provifion, that they were forced to
prey upon the people with the moft unheard-of cruel¬
ty. They forced their houfes; and, if they found any
vi&uals in them, they butchered them for not appri-
fing them of it; and, if they found nothing but bare
walls, which was almoft every where the cafe, they
Vol. V.
put them to the moft fevere tortures, under pretence
that they had fome provifion concealed. “ I Ihould
(fays Jofephus) undertake an impoflible talk, were I
to enter into a detail of all the cruelties of thofe im¬
pious wretches ; it will be fuflicient to fay, that I do
not think, that fince the creation any city ever fuffer-
ed fuch dreadful calamities, or abounded with men fo
fertile in all kind of wickednefs.’*
Titus, who knew their miferable condition, and was
ftill willing to fpare them, gave them four days to
cool; during which he caufed his army to be mufter-
ed, and provifions to be diftributed to them in fight of 49
the Jews, who flocked upon the walls to fee it. Jo- Offers of
fephus was fent to fpeak to them afrefti, and to exhort ^ce rciec'
them not to run themfelves into an inevitable ruin by
obftinately perfifting in the defence of a place which
could hold out but a very little while, and which the
Romans looked upon already as their own. But this
ftubborn people, after many bitter inve&ives, began
to dart their arrows at him ; at which, not at all dif-
couraged, he went on with greater vehemence: but
all the effedt it wrought on them was, that it pre¬
vailed on great numbers to fteal away privately to the
Romans, whilft the reft became only the more defpe-
rate and refolute to hold out to the laft, in fpite of Ti¬
tus’s merciful offers.
To haften therefore their deftined ruin, he caufed
the city to be furrounded with a ftrong wall, to pre¬
vent either their receiving any fuccours or provifion
from abroad, or their efcaping his refentment by
flight. This wall, which was near 40 ftades or five
miles in circuit, was yet carried on with fuch fpeed,
and by fo many hands, that it was finiftied in three
days; by which one may guefs at the ardour of the
befiegers to make themfelves matters of the city.
There was now nothing to be feen thro’ the ftreets
of Jerufalem, but heaps of dead bodies rotting above
ground, walking flceletons, and dying wretches. As
many as were caught by the Romans in their fallies,
Titus caufed to be crucified in fight of the town, to in-
jedl a terror among the reft : but the zealots gave it
out, that they were thofe who fled to him for protect
tion ; which when Titus underftood, he fent a prifoner
with his hands cut off to undeceive, and affure them,
that he fpared all that voluntarily came over to him ;
which encouraged great numbers to accept his offers,
tho’ the avenues were clofely guarded by the fa&ious,
who put all to death who were caught going on that
errand. A greater ipifchief than that was, that even
thofe who efcaped fafe to the Roman camp were mi-
ferably butchered by the foldiers, from a notion which,
thefe had taken that they had fwallowed great quan¬
tities of gold ; infomuch that two thoufand of them
were ripped up in one night, to come at their fuppo-
fed trealure. When Titus was apprifed of this barbari¬
ty, he would have condemned all thofe butchering
wretches to death ; but they proved fo numerous, that
he was forced to fpare them, and contented himfelf
with fending a proclamation thro’ his camp, that as
many as ftiould be fufpedled thenceforward of that hor¬
rid villany, ftiould be put to immediate death : yet
did not this deter many of them from it, only they
did it more privately than before; fo greedy were they
of that bewitching metal. All this while the defe&ion
increafed ftill more thro’ the inhumanity of the fa&ion
22 B with-
J E S [ 3870 ] JET
Jews, within, who made the miferies and dying groans of
— - tj,ejr ftarv;ng brethren the fubjefl of their cruel mirth,
and carried their barbarity even to the fheathing of
their fwords in fport in thofe poor wretches, under pre¬
tence of trying their fharpnefs.
When they found therefore, that neither their guards
nor feverities could prevent the people’s flight, they
had recourfe to another ftratagem equally impious and
cruel; which was, to hire a pack of vile pretenders to
prophecy, to go about and encourage the defpairing
remains of the people to expect a fpeedy and miracu¬
lous deliverance ; and this impofture proved a greater
expedient with that infatuated nation, than their other
4, precautions.
Miferahle Nothing could be more dreadful than the famiflied
c°n^ltion condition to which they were now reduced. The poor,
o t eJews-having nothing to truft to hut the Romans mercy or
a fpeedy death, ran all hazards to get out of the city ;
and if in their flight, and wandering out for herbs or
any other fuftenance, they fell into the hands of any of
Titus’s parties fent about to guard the avenues, they
were unmercifully fcourged and crucified if they made
the leaft refiftance. The rich within the walls were
now forced, tho’ in the mod private manner, to give
half, or all they were worth, for a meafure of wheat,
and the middling fort for one of barley. This they
were forced to convey into fome private place in their
houfes, and to feed upon it as it was, without daring
to pound or grind it, much lefs to boil or bake it, left
the noife or fmell fhould draw the rapacious zealots to
come and tear it from them. Not that thefe were re¬
duced to any real want of provifions, but they had a
double end in this barbarous plunder; to wit, the ftar-
4t ving what they cruelly ftyled all ufelefs perfons, and
A mother the keeping their own ftores in referve. It was upon
eats her ^{g facj an(j pinching jun&ure, that an unhappy mo-
own cud. tber was reduced to the extremity of butchering and
eating her own child.
When this news was fpread thro’ the city, the hor¬
ror and confternation were as univerfal as they were
inexprefiible. It was then that they began to think
thcmfelves forfaken by the Divine Providence, and to
expeft the moft terrible effefts of his anger againft the
poor remains of their nation ; infomuch that they be-
43 gan to envy thofe that had periflied before them, and
Titus to wilh their turn might come before the fad expe&ed
fwears the cataftrophe. Their fears were but too juft; finceTi-
oTthechv tus’ at t^ie very hearing of this inhuman deed,
' fwore the total extirpation of city and people. “ Since,
(faid he,) they have fo often refufed my proffers of
pardon, and have preferred war to peace, rebellion to
obedience, and famine, fuch a dreadful one efpecially,
to plenty, I am determined to bury that curfed me¬
tropolis under its ruins, that the fun may never ftioot
his beams on a city where the mothers feed on the fleih
of their children, and the fathers, no lefs guilty than
they, choofe to drive them to fuch extremities, rather
than lay down their arms.”
This dreadful aftion happened about the end of Ju¬
ly, by which time the Romans, having purfued their
attacks with freih vigour, made themfelves mafters of
the fortrefs Antonia ; which obliged the Jews to fet
fire to thofe ftately galleries which joined it to the
temple, left they fhould afford an eafy paffage to the
befiegers into this laft. About the fame time Titusr
with much difficulty, got materials for railing new Jews,
mounds and terraces, in order to haften the fiege, and *
fave, if poffible, the fad remains of that once glorious
ftru&ure ; but his pity proved ftill worfe and worfe
bellowed on thofe obftinate wretches, who only be¬
came the more furious and defperate by it. Titus at
length caufed fire to be fet to the gates, after having
had a very bloody encounter, in which his men were
repulfed with lofs. The Jews were fo terrified at it,
that they fuffered themfelves to be devoured by the
flames, without attempting either to extinguifh them,
or fave themfelves. All this while Jofephus did
not. ceafe exhorting the infatuated people to furren-
der* to reprefent to them the dreadful confequen-
ces of an obftinate refiftance, and to affure them that
it was out of mere compaffion to them that he
thus hazarded his own life to . fave theirs: he recei¬
ved one day fuch a wound in his head by a ftone from
the battlements, as laid him for dead on the ground.
The Jews fallied out immediately, to have feizedon his
body; but the Romans proved too quick and ftrong
for them, and carried him off. 44
By this time the two faflions within, but efpecially Joi n pin
that of John, having plundered rich and poor of all dcrs the
they had, fell alfo on the treafury of the temple, temi,*e‘ j
whence John took a great quantity of golden u-
tenfils, together with . thofe1 magnificent gifts which
had been prefented to that facred platje by the
Jewifh kingsv by jAuguflus, Liyia, and many other
foreign princes, and melted Ithem all to his own ufe.
The repofitories of the facred oil which was.to main¬
tain the lamps, and of the wine which.was referved
to accompany therufual facrifices, were likewife fejzed
upon, and turned into common ufe; and the laft of
this to fuch excels, as to make himfelf and his party
drunk with it. All this while,. not only the zealots,
but many of the people, were .ftill under, fuch an infa¬
tuation, 'that tho’ the fortrefs Antonia was loft, and
nothing left but the temple, which the Romans were
preparing to batter down, jfet they could not perfuade
themfelves, that God. would fuffer that holy place to be
taken by heathens, and were ftill expelling fome fud-
den and miraculous deliverance. Even that vile mon-
fter John, who commanded there, either feemed con¬
fident of it, or elfe endeavoured to make them tbinkhim
fo. For, when Jofephus was fent for the laft time to
upbraid his obftinately expofing. that facred building,
and the miferable remains of God’s people, to fudden
and fure deftrn&ion, he only anfvvered him with the
bittereft inve&ives; adding, that he was defending the
Lord’s vineyard, which he was fure could not be taken
by any human force. Jofephus in vain reminded him
of the many ways by which he had polluted both city
and temple ; and in particular of the feas of blood
which he caufed to be fhed in both thofe facred places,
and which, he affured him from the old prophecies,
were a certain fign and forerunner of their fpeedy fur-
render and deftrudtion. John remained as inflexible
as if all the prophets had affured him of a deliverance;
till at length Titus, forefeeing the inevitable ruin of
that ftately edifice, which he was ftill extremely.de-
firous to fave, vouchfafed even himfelf to fpeak to
them, and to perfuade them to funender.; But the
faftious, looking upon this condefcenfion as the ef-
feds of his fear rather than generofity, only grew the
more
;
JEW [ 3871 ] JEW
7. Jews.
inlice ii:
i[|j(tupted.
W 4«
he gates
' the
mple fet
[i fire.
more furious upon it, and forced him at laft to come
~ to thofe extremities, which he had hitherto endeavour¬
ed to avoid*. That his army, which was to attack the
temple, might have the freer paffage towards it thro’
the caflle Antonia, he caufed a confiderable part of
the wall to be pulled down, and levelled; which pro¬
ved fo very ftrong, that it took him up feven whole
days, by which time they were far advanced in the
month of July.
It was on the 17th day of that month, as all Jofe-
n* phus’s copies have it, that the daily facrifice ceafed for
the firll time fince its Telloratton by the brave Judas
Maccabeus, there being no proper perfon left in the
temple to offer it up. Titus caufed the factious to be
feverely upbraided for it; exhorted John to fet up
whom he would to perform that office, rather than fuf-
fer the fervice of God to be fet afule ; and then chal¬
lenged him and his party to come out of the temple,
and fight on a more proper ground, and thereby fave
that facred edifice from the fury of the Roman troops.
When nothing could prevail on them, they began to
fet fire again to the,gallery which yielded a communi¬
cation between the temple and the caftle Antonia. The
Jews had already burnt about 20 cubits of it in length;
but this fecond blaze, which was likewife encouraged
by the befieged, confumed about 14 more; after
which, they beat down what remained Handing. On
the 27th of July, the Jews, having filled part of the
weftern portico with combuftible matter, made a kind
of flight; upon which, fome of the forwardeft of the
Romans having fealedup to the top, the Jews fet fire
to it, which flamed with fuch fudden fury, that many
of the former were confumed in it, and the reft, ven¬
turing to jump down from the battlements, were, all
but one, crulhed to death.
On the very next day, Titus having fet fire to the
north gallery, which indofed the outer court of the
temple, from fort Antonia to the valley of Cedron, got
an eafy admittance into it, and forced the befieged in¬
to that of the priefts. He tried in vain fix days to bat¬
ter down one of the galleries of that precinft with an
helepolis : he was forced to mount his battering-rams
on the terrace, which was raifed by this time; and yet
the ftrength of this wall was fuch, that it eluded the
force of thefe alfo, tho’ others of his troops were bufy
in tapping it. When they found that neither rams nor
tapping could gain gain ground, they bethought them-
felves of fealing ; but were vigoroufly repulfed in the
attempt, with the lofs of fome ftandards, and a num¬
ber of men. When Titus therefore found, that his
defire of faving that building was like to coft fo many
lives, he fet fire to the gates, which, being plated
with filver, burnt all that night, whilft the metal dropt
down in the melting. The flame foon communicated
itfelf to the porticoes and galleries; which the befieged
beheld without offering to flop it, but contented them-
felves with fending whole vollies of impotent curfes
againft the Romans. This was done on the eighth of
Auguft; and, on the next day, Titus, having given
orders to extinguifh the fire, called a council, to de¬
termine whether the remainder of the temple fhould
be faved or demoliftted. That general was Hill for
the former, and moft of the reft declared for the lat¬
ter ; alleging, that it was no longer a temple, but a
feene of war and daughter, and that the Jews would
never be at reft as long as any part of it was left Jews.
Handing: but when they found Titus ftifly bent on
preferving fo noble an edifice, againft which, he told
them, he could have no quarrel, they all came over to
his mind. The next day, Auguft the 10th, was
therefore determined for a general afiault: and the
night before the Jews made two defperate fallies on
the Romans ; in the laft of which, thefe, being time¬
ly fuccoured by Titus, beat them back into their in-
clofure.
But whether this laft Jewrfh effort exafperated the
befiegers, or, which is more likely, as Jofephus thinks,
pufhed by the hand of Providence, one of the Roman
foldiers, of his own accord, took up a blazing fire¬
brand, and, getting on his comrade’s (houlders, threw
it into one of the apartments that furronnded the fanc-
tuary, thro’ a window. This immediately fet the
whole north-fide in a flame up to the third ftory, on
the fame fatal day and month in which it had been
formerly burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. Titus, who was
gone to reft himfelf a while in his pavilion, was awaked
at the noife, and ran immediately to give orders to
have the fire extinguifhed. He called, prayed, threat¬
ened, and even caned his men, but in vain ; the con-
fufion was fo great, and the foldiers fo obftinately bent
upon deftroying all that was left, that he was neither
heard nor minded. Thofe that flocked thither from
the camp, inftead of obeying his orders, were bufy,
either in killing the Jews, or in increafing the flames.
When Titus obferved that all his endeavours were
vain, he entered into the fan&uary and the moft ho¬
ly place, in which he found ftill fuch fumptuous uten-
fils and other riches as even exceeded all that had
been told him of it. Out of the former he faved the
golden candleftick, the table of Ihew-bread, the altar
of perfumes, all of pure gold, and the book or volume
of the law, wrapped up in a rich gold tiffue: but in
the latter he found no utenfils, becaufe, in all proba¬
bility, they had not made a frefti ark, fince that of So¬
lomon had been loft. Upon his coming out of that
facred place, fome other foldiers fet fire to it, and obli¬
ged thofe that had (laid behind to come out; they all
fell foul on the plunder of it, tearing even the gold
plating off the gates and timber-work, and carried off
all the coftly utenfils, robes, &c. they found, info-
much that there was not one of them who did not en¬
rich himfelf by it.
An horrid maffacre followed foon after, in which aA
great many thoufands periflied ; fome by the flames, maflacre.
others by the fall from the battlements, and a grea¬
ter number by the enemy’s fword, which deftroy-
ed all it met with, without diftin&ion of age, fex,
or quality. Among them were upwards of 6000 per-
fons who had been feduced thither by a falfe pro¬
phet, who promifed them, that they fhould find a
fpeedy and miraculous relief there on that very day.
Some of them remained five whole days on the top of
the walls, and afterwards threw themfelves on the gene¬
ral’s mercy; but were anfwered that they had outftaid
the time, and were led to execution. The Romans car¬
ried their fury to the burning of all the treafure-hou-
fes of the place, tho’ they were full of the richeft fur¬
niture, plate, veftments, and other things of value,
which had been laid up in thofe places for fecurity.
In a word, they did not ceafe burning and butchering,
22 B 2 till
J E S
till they had deftroyed all, except two of the temple-
gates, and that part of the court which was deltined
for the women.
In the mean time the feditious made fuch a vigo¬
rous pu(h, that they efcaped the fury of the Romans,
at leaft for the prefent, and retired into the city. But
here they found all the avenues fo well guarded, that
there was no poflibility left for them to get out; which
obliged them to fecure themfelves as well as they
could on the fouth-fide of it, from whence Simon, and
John of Gifchala, fent to defire a parley with Titus.
They were anfwered, that though they bad been the
caufe of all this bloodihed and ruin, yet they firould
have their lives fpared, if they laid down their arms,
and furrendered themfelves prifoners. To this they
replied, that they had engaged themfelves, by the
mod folerftn oaths, never to furrender ; and therefore,
only begged leave to retire into the mountains with
their wives and children : which infolence fo exafpe-
rated the Roman general, that he caufed an herald to
bid them ftaod to their defence ; for that not one of
them fhould be fpared, fince they had rejedled his laft
offers of pardon. Immediately after this, he aban¬
doned the city to the fury of the foldiers, who fell
forthwith on plundering, fetting fire every wdiere, and
murdering all that fell into their hands; whilft the
factious, who were left, went and fortified themfelves
in the royal palace, where they killed 8000 Jews, who
had taken refuge there.
[ 3872 ]
J E S
caves, woods, wilderneffes, common-fewers, &c. of
whom no computation could be made. Whilft the
foldiers were ftill bufy in burning the remains of the
city, and vifiting all the hiding-places, where they
killed numbers of poor creatures who had endeavoured
to evade their cruelty, the two grand rebels Simon S'n
and John were found, and referved for the triumph of Johntake|
the conqueror. John, being pinched with hunger,
foon came out; and having begged his life, obtained
it; but was condemned to perpetual imprifonment.
Simon, whofe retreat had been better ftored, held out
till the end of October. The two chiefs, with 700
of the handfomeit Jewifh captives, were made to at¬
tend the triumphal chariot; after which Simon was
dragged through the ftreets with a rope about his
neck, feverely fcourged, and then put to death ; and
John was fent into perpetual imprifonment.—Three
caftles ftill remained untaken, namely, Herodion, Ma-
chaeron, and Maffada. The two former capitulated;
but Maffada held out. The place was exceedingly Defperate
ftrong both by nature and art, well ftored with all end ?f the
kinds of provifions, and defended by a numerous gar-
rifon of zealots, at the head of whom was one Elea-
zar, the grandfon of Judas Gaulonites, formerly men¬
tioned. The Roman general having in vain tried his
engines and battering-rams againft it, bethought him-
felf of furrounding it with a high and ftrong wall,
and then ordered the gates to be fet on fire. The
wind pufhed the flames fo fiercely againft the Jews,
In the mean time, great preparations were making that Eleazar in defpair perfuaded them firft to kill
for a vigorous attack on the upper city, efpecialiy on
the royal palace; and this took them up from the
20th of Auguft to the 7th of September, during
which time great numbers came and made their fub-
mifiion to Titus. The warlike engines then played fo
furioufly on the fadfious, that they were taken with a
fudden panic ; and, inftead of fleeing into the towers
of Hippicos, Phafael, or Mariamne, which were yet
untaken and fo ftrong, that nothing but famine could
have reduced them, they ran like madmen towards Si-
loah, with a defign to have attacked the wall of cir-
cumvallation, and to have efcaped out of the city ;
but, being there repulfed, they were forced to go and
hide themfelves in the public finks and common few-
their wives and children, and then to choofe ten men
by lot, who fhould kill all the reft ; and laftly one out
of the furviving ten to difpatch them and himfelf;
only this laft man was ordered to fet fire to the place
before he put an end to his own life. All this was
accordingly done ; and on the morrow, when the Ro¬
mans were preparing to fcale the walls, they were
greatly furprifed neither to fee nor hear any thing
move. On this they made fuch an hideous outcry,
that two women, who had concealed themfelves in an
aquedutft, came forth and acquainted them with the
defperate cataftrophe of the befieged.
Thus ended the Jewiftr nation and worfhip ; nor State of the'
have they ever fince been able to regain the fmalleft Jews fine# |
footing in the country of Judea, nor indeed in any
ers, fome one way and fome another. All whom the ^ ^
Romans could find were put to the fword, and the ci- other country on earth, though there is fcarce any part
ty was fet on fire. This was on the eighth of Sep- of the globe where they are not to be found. They if
tember, when the city was taken and entered by Ti- continue their vain expeftations of a Mefiiah to deli-
~ ver them from the low eftate into which they are fal¬
len ; and, notwithftanding their repeated difappoint-
ments, there are few who can ever be perfuaded to
embrace Chriftianity. Their ceremonies and religious
worfhip ought to be taken from the law of Mofes ;
but they have added a multitude of abfurdities not
worth the inquiring after. In many countries, and in
different ages, they have been terribly maffacred, and
in general have been better treated by the Mahome¬
tans and Pagans than by Chriftians. Since the revi¬
val of arts and learning, however, they have fejt the
benefit of that increafe of humanity which hath taken
He would have put an end to the maffacre ; but
his men killed all, except the moft vigorous, whom
they fhut up in the porch of the women, juft mention¬
ed. Pronto, who had the care of them, referved the
youngeft and moft beautiful for Titus’s triumph ;
and fent all that were above feventeen years of age in¬
to Egypt, to be employed in fome public works there;
and a great number of others were fent into feveral ci¬
ties of Syria, and other provinces, to be expofed on
the public theatres, to exhibit fights, or be devoured
by wild beafts. The number of thofe prifoners a-
mounted to 97,000, befides about 11,000 more, who
were either ftarved thro’ negleft, or ftarved themfelves place ;almoft all over the globe. It is faid, that in
through fullennefs and defpair.—The whole number of
Jews who perifhed in this war is computed at upwards
of 1,400,000.
Befides thefe, however, a vaft number perifhed in
this country the life of a Jew was formerly at the dif-
pofal of the chief lord where they lived, and likewife
all his goods. Now, however, the cafe is altered,
and they enjoy the proteftion of government. A Jew
may
JEW [ 3859 ] JEW
may be a witnefs by our law, being fworn on the Old
Teftament, and taking the oaths of allegiance.
Jew’s Ears, in botany. See Tremella.
JEZIDES, among the Mahometans; a term of fi-
milar import with heretics among Chriftians.
The Jezides are a numerous fe£t inhabiting Turky
and Perfia, fo called from their head Jezid, an Ara¬
bian prince, who flew the fons of Ali, Mahomet’s fa¬
ther-in-law ; for which reafon he is reckoned a parri¬
cide, and his followers heretics. There are about
20,000 Jezides in Turky and Perfia ; who are of two
forts, black and white. The white are clad like
Turks; and diltinguifhed only by their (hirts, which
are not flit at the neck like thofe of others, but have
only a round hole to thruft their heads through. This
is in memory of a golden ring, or circle of light,
which defcended from heaven upon the neck of their
cheq, the head of their religion, after his undergoing
a fail of forty days. The black Jezides, though mar¬
ried, are the monks or religious of the order; and
thefe are called Fakirs.
The Turks exaft exceflive taxes from the Jezides,
•who hate the Turks as their mortal enemies; and
when, in their wrath, they curfe any creature, they
call it muffiilman : but they are great lovers of the
Chriftians, being more fond of Jefus Chrift than of
Mahomet, and are never circumcifed but when they
are forced to it. They are extremely ignorant, and
believe both the bible and the koran without reading
either of them : they make vows and pilgrimages, but
have no places of religious worfliip.
All the adoration they pay to God confifts of fome
fongs in honour of Jefus Chrift, the virgin, Mofes,
and fometimes Mahomet; and it is a principal point
of their religion never to fpeak ill of the devil, left he
fliould refent the injury, if ever he (hould come to be in
favour with God again, which they think poffible ;
whenever they fpeak of him, they call him the angel
Peacock. They bury their dead in the firft place they
come at, rejoicing as at a feftival, and celebrating the
entry of the deceafed into heaven. They go in com¬
panies like the Arabians, and change their habitations
every fifteen days. When they get wine, they drink
it to excefs; and it is faid, that they fometimes do
this with a religious purpofe, calling it the blood of
Chrift. They buy their wives ; and the market-price
is two hundred crowns for all women, handfome or
not, without diftinftion,
JEZRAEL, or Jezreel, a town in the north
of Samaria, towards mount Carmel, where flood a
palace of the kings of Ifrael, 1 Kings xxi. 18. On
the borders of Galilee (Jortiua xix.) faid to be one of
the towns of Iffachar.—The valley of Jezreel (Judges
vi. 17.) was fituated to the north of the town, run¬
ning from weft to eaft for ten miles, between two
mountains ; the one to the north, commonly called
Herman, near mount Tabor; the other Gilboa: in
breadth two miles.
IF, an ifland of France, in Provence, and the moft
eaftern of the three before the harbour of Marfeilles.
It is very well fortified, and its port one of the beft
in the Mediterranean.
IGIS, a town of the country of the Grifons, in
Caddea, with a magnificent caftle, in which is a cabi¬
net of curiofities, and a handfome library; 23 miles
fouth-weft of Choira, and 23 fouth of Claris. E. Ion. Igkw,
9. o. N. lat. 49. 10. Ig"atltis-
IGLAW, a confiderable and populous town of
Germany, in Moravia, where they have a manufa&ory
of good cloth, and excellent beer. It is feated on
the river Igla, 40 miles weft of Brin, and 80 fouth-
Caft of Prague. E. long. 15. 5. N. lat. 49. 10.
IGNATIUS Loyola, (canonized), the founder
of the well-known order of the Jesuits, was born at
the caftle of Loyola, in Bifcay, 1491 ; and became
firft page to Ferdinand V. king of Spain, and then an
officer in his army. In this laft capacity, hefignalized
himfelf by his valour : and was wounded in both legs
atthefiegeof Pompeluna, in 1521. To this circum-
ftance the Jefuits owe their origin ; for, while he was
under cure of his wound, a Life of the faints was put
into his hands, which determined him to forfake the
military for the ecclefiaftical profeflion. His firft de¬
vout exercife was to dedicate himfelf to the bleffed
virgin as her knight: he then went a pilgrimage to
the Holy Land ; and on his return to Europe, he
continued his theological ftudies in the univerfities of
Spain, though he was then 33 years of age. After
this he went to Paris; and in France laid the founda¬
tion of this new order, the inftitutes of which he pre-
fented to Pope Paul III. who made many objections
to them, but at Aft confirmed the inftitution in
1540. The founder died in 1555, and left hisdifci-
ples two famous books; 1. Spiritual exercifes ; 2. Con-
ftitutions or rules of the order. But it muft be re¬
membered, that though thefe avowed inftitutes con¬
tain many privileges obnoxious to the welfare of fo-
ciety, the moft diabolical are contained in the private
rules intitled Moni'ta fecreta, which were not difeo-
vered till towards the clofe of the laft century; and
moft writers attribute thefe, and even the conftitutions,
to Laynez, the fecond general of the order.
Ignatius (St), furnamed Thecphrafus, one of the
apoftolical fathers of the church, was born in Syria,
and educated under the apoftle and evangelift St John,
and intimately acquainted with fome other of the
apoftles, efpecially St Peter and St Paul. Being
fully inftrufted in the do&rines of Chriftianity, he
was, for his eminent parts and piety, ordained by
St John, and confirmed, about the year 67, bifiiop of
Antioch, by thofe two apoftles, who firft planted
Ghriftianity in that city, where the difciples aifo were
firft called Chrifians. Antioch was then not only the
metropolis of Syria, but a city the moft famous and
renowned of any in the eaft, and the ancient feat of
the Roman emperors, as well as of their viceroys and
governors. In this important feat he continued to fit
fomewhat above 40 years, both, an honour and fafe-
gnard of the Chriftian religion, till the year 107,.
when Trajan the emperor, flufhed with a vidory which
he had lately obtained over the Scythians and Daci,
about the ninth year of his reign, came to Antioch to
make preparations for a war againft the Parthians and
Armenians. He entered the city with the pomp and
folemnities of a triumph; and, as his firft care ufually
was about the concernments of religion, he began pre-
fently to inquire into that affair. Chriftianity had by
this time made fuch a prog refs, that the Romans .grew
jealous and uneafy at it. This prince, therefore, had
already commenced a perfecution againft the Chrilli-
I G N [ 3874 ] I G N
Ignatius. ans Jn other parts of the empire, which he now re-
Solved to carry on here. However, as he was natu¬
rally of a mild difpofnion, tho* he ordered the laws to
be put in force againft them if convi&ed, yet he for¬
bad them to be fought after.
In this (late of affairs, Ignatius, thinking it more
prudent to go himfelf than flay to be fent for, of his
own accord prefented himfelf to the emperor, and, it is
faid, there paffed a long and particular difcourfe be¬
tween them, wherein the emperor expreffing a furprife
how he dared to tranfgrefs the laws, the bidiop took
the opportunity to affert his own innocency, and to ex¬
plain and vindicate his faith with freedom. The iffue of
this was, that he was caff into prifon, and this fentence
paffed upon him, That, being incurably over-run with
fuperftition, he ffiould be carried bound by foldiers to
Rome, and there thrown as a prey to wild beafts.
He was firft conduced to Seleucia, a port of Syria,
at about 16 miles diftance, the place where Paul and
Barnabas fet fail for Cyprus. Arriving at Smyrna in
Ionia, he went to vifit Polycarp bifhop of that place,
and was hinifelf vifited by the clergy of the Aftan
churches round the country. In return for that kind-
nefs, he wrote letters to feveral churches, as the Ephe-
lians, Magnefians, and Trallians, befides the Romans,
for their inftru&ion and eftabli{hment in the faith; one
pf thefe was addreffed to the Chriftians at Rome, to
acquaint them with his prefent ftate, and paffionate de-
fire not to be hindered in that courfe of martyrdom
which he was now haftening to accompliffi.
His guard, a little impatient of their ftay, fet fail
with him for Troas, a noted city of the leffer Phry¬
gia, not far from the ruins of old Troy; where, at his
arrival, he was much refrelhed with the news he re¬
ceived of the perfecution ceafing in the church of An¬
tioch : hither alfo feveral churches fent their meffen-
gers to pay their refpefts to him ; and hence too he
difpatched two epiftles, oqe to the church of Philadel¬
phia, and the other to that of Smyrna; and, together
with this laft, as Eufebius relates, he wrote privately
to Polycarp, recommending to him the care and infpec-
tion of the church of Antioch.
From Troas they failed to Neapolis, a maritime
town in Macedonia; thence to Philippi, a Roman
colony, where they were entertained with all imagin¬
able kindnefs and courtefy, and conduced forwards
on their journey, palling on foot through Macedonia
and Epirus, till they came to Epidanium, a city of
Dalmatia; where again taking Ihipping, they failed
through the Adriatic, and arrived at Rhegium, a port-
town in Italy; dire&ing their courfe thence through
the Tyrrhenian fea to Puteoli, whence Ignatius de-
fired to proceed by land, ambitious to trace the fame
way by which St Paul went to Rome: but this wilh
was not complied with ; and, after a ftay of 24 hours,
a profperous wind quickly carried them to the Roman
port, the great harbour and ftation for their navy,
built near Oftia, at the mouth of the Tyber, about 16
miles from Rome; whither the martyr longed to come,
as much defirous to be at the end of his race, as his
keepers, weary of their voyage, were to be at the end
of their journey.
The Chiiftians at Rome, daily expefling his ar¬
rival, were come out to meet and entertain him, and
accordingly received him with a mixture of joy Ignatius,
and forrow; but when fome of them intimated, that '———
poffibly the populace might be taken off from defiring
bis death, he expreffed a pious indignation, intreating
them to caff no rubs in his way, nor do any thing that
might hinder him, now he was haftening to his crown.
There are many fuch expreflions as this in his epiftle
to the Romans, which plainly Ihew that he was highly
ambitious of the crown of martyrdom. Yet it does
not appear that he rafhly fought or provoked danger.
Among other exprelfions of his ardor for fuffering, he
faid, that the wild beafts had feared and refufed to
touch fome that had been thrown to them, which he
hoped would not happen to him. Being conduced
to Rome, he was prefented to the praefeft, and the
emperor’s letters probably delivered concerning him.
The interval before his martyrdom was fpent in pray¬
ers for the peace and profperity of the church. That
his punifhment might be the more pompous and
public, one of their folemn feftivals, the time of their
Saturnalia, and that part of it when they celebrated
their Sigillaria, was pitched on for his execution; at
which time it was their cuftom to entertain the people
with the bloody conflidls of gladiators, and the hunt¬
ing and fighting with wild beafts. Accordingly, on
the 13th kal. January, /. e. December 20. he was
brought out into the amphitheatre, and the lions be¬
ing let loofe upon him, quickly difpatched their
meal, leaving nothing but a few of the hardeft of
his bones. Thefe remains were gathered up by
two deacons who had been the companions of his
journey; and being tranfported to Antioch, were in¬
terred in the cemetery, without the gate that leads to
Daphne; whence, by the command of the emperor
Theodofius, they were removed with great pomp and
folemnity to the Tycheon, a temple within the city,
dedicated to the public genius of it, but now confe-
crated to the memory of the martyr.
St Ignatius ftands at the head of thofe Antenicene
fathers, who have occafionally delivered their opinions
in defence of the true divinity of Chrift, whom hejcalls
the Son of God, and his eternal Word. He is alfo reck¬
oned the great champion of the doftrine of the epif-
copal order, as diftinft and fuperior to that of prieft
and deacon. And one, the moft important, ufe of his
writings refpe&s the authenticity of the holy Scrip¬
tures, which he frequently alludes to, in the very ex-
preffions as theyftand at this day.—Archbiihop Uih-
er’s edition of his works printed in 1647, is thought
the beft; yet there is a freiher edition extant at Am-
fterdam, where, befide the beft notes, there are the
differtations of Uiher and Pearfon.
St Ignatius’/ Bean, the feed of a fruit of the gourd
kind. The beft account of the plant that has yet ap¬
peared, is that fent by father Camelli to Ray and Pe-
tiver, and publilhed in the philofophical tranfa&ions
for the year 1699 : he obferves, that it grows in the
Philippine iflands, and winds itfelf about the tailed
trees to the top ; that it has large, ribbed, bitter leaves,
a flower like that of the pomegranate, and a fruit lar¬
ger than a melon. Some refemble the fruit to a pome¬
granate, probably from mifapplying Camelli’s words.
The fruit is covered with a thin, gloffy, blackifh,
green, and as it were marbled-fliell, under which is
lodged
I G N [ 3875 ] .1 I i'.
lodged another of a ftony hardnefs : within this is con- which it is reduced to afhes. Vitrification next fol- Tgnorannis
tained a foft, yellow, bitterifh pulp, in which lie the lows; and laftly, the fubftance is totally diffipated in .J
feeds or beans, to the number commonly of 24, each vapour. All thefe effedls, however, depend on the —
covered with a filvery down. - prefence of the air; for in vacuo the phlogifton of any
The fame gentleman gives an account of the virtues fubftance cannot be diffipated. Neither can a body
attributed to thefe feeds by the Indians; but expe- which is totally deftitute of phlogifton be ignited in
rience has (hewn that they are dangerous. Konig re- fuch a manner as thofe which are not deprived of it:
lates, that a perfon, by drinking fome of a fpirituous for as long as the phlogifton remains, the heat is kept
tindureof them inftead of aqua vitas, was thrown into up in the body by the action of the external air upon
ftrong convulfions; and Dr Grim, that a dram of the it; but when the phlogifton is totally gone, the air
feed in fubftance occafioned, for a time, a total depri- always deftroys, inftead of augmenting the heat. Phi-
vation of the fenfes. Others mention violent vomitings lofophers have therefore been greatly embarrafted in
and purgings from its ufe. Neumann hath obferved in- explaining the phenomena of ignition. It hath been
termitting fevers removed by drinking, on the ap- found a matter of no fmall difficulty to determine how
proach of a paroxyfm, an infufion of fome grains of far the air, and how far the phlogifton, is concerned
the bean made in carduus water: We are not, how- in this operation ; but as thefe inquiries cannot be
ever from hence to look upon this medicine as an uni- entered into without firft determining the nature of the
verfal febrifuge, or to ufe it indiferiminately. , Phlogiston, we muft refer to that article for an ac-
Thefe beans (for fo cuftom requires that we ftiould count of the different theories of ignition,
call them) are about thefizeof a moderately large nut- IGNORAMUS, inEnglifti law, a phrafe which fig-
meg; in figure fomewhat roundifti, but extremely ir- nifies “ We are ignorant.” This is ufed, when the grand
regular, fcarctly any two being entirely alike, full of jury impanelled on the inquifition of criminal caufes
unequal depreffions and prominences ; in colour, ex- rejeift the evidence as too weak to make good the pre-
ternally yellowifti brown, but when the outer (kin is fentment or indi&ment brought againft a perfon, fo
taken off, of a blackilh brown, and in part quite as to bring him upon his trial by a petty jury ; in
blackifti; in confidence hard and compact as horn, fo which cafe they indorfe this word on the back of the
as not to be reducible into a powdery form but by cut- bill of indi&ment. In confequence of this, all further
ting or rafping : for all their hardnefs, however, they proceedings againft the party accufed are flopped, and
are not proof againft worms. When frefti, they the fuppofed offender is delivered without further an-
have fomewhat of a mu(ky fmell, which by age is loft: fwer.
their tafte is very bitter, refembled by fome to that of IGNORANCE, the privation or abfence of know-
centaury. ledge. The caufes of ignorance, according to Locke,
Four drams of thefe beans, boiled in water, gave are chiefly thefe three. 1. Want of ideas. 2. Want
juft two drams of gummy extraft ; after which, re&i- of a difcoverable connexion between the ideas we
fled fpir.it of wine fcarcely took up half a grain. Half have. 3. Want of tracing and examining our ideas,
an ounce, treated firft with fpirit, gave two fcruples See Metaphysics, n° 195—205.
and a half of a gummy one. The fpirituous extra& Ignorance, or miftake, in law, a defied! of will,
made at firft is of a yellowifti colour, and the watery whereby a perfon is excufed/rom the guilt of a crime,
greenifti. They are both bitter : the fpirituous im- when, intending to do a lawful aft, he does that which
preffes at firft a very agreeable bitternefs, fomewhat is unlawful. For here the deed and the will afting
like that of peach-kernels ; which going off, leaves in feparately, there is not that conjunftion between them
the month a ftrong bitter. The diftilled liquors have which is neceffary to form a criminal aft. But this
no tafte or fmell. muft be an ignorance or miftake of faft, and not an
IGNAVUS, the Sloth, in zoology. SeeBRADYPus. error in point of law. As if a man intending to kill
IGNIS-fatuus, a kind of light, fuppofed to be of a thief or houfe-breaker in his own houfe, by miftake
an eleftric nature, appearing frequently in mines, kills one of his own family, this is do criminal aftion :
marftiy places, and near ftagnating waters. It was but if a man thinks he has a right to kill a perfon
formerly thought, and is ftill by the fuperftitious excommunicated or outlawed wherever he meets him,
believed, to have fomething ominous in its nature, and does fo ; this is wilful murder. For a miftake in
and to prefage death and other misfortunes. There point of law, which every perfon of diferetion not
have been inftances of people being decoyed by thefe only may, but is bound and prefumed to know, is, in
lights into marftiy places, where they have periftitd ;■ criminal cafes, no fort of defence. Ignorantia juri<
whence the names of Ignis-fatuus, Will-'with-a-wi/p, quod quifque tenetur feire, neminem excufat, is as well
and Jack-with-a-lanthorn, as if this appearance was the maxim of our own law as it was.of the Roman,
an evil fpirit which took delight in doing mifehief of IGUANA, in zoology, a fpecies of Lacerta.
that kind. For a further account of the nature and IHOR, Johor, or Jor, a town of Afia, in Ma-
properties of the ignis-fatuus, fee the articles Light lacca, and capital of a province of the fame name in
and Meteor. the peninfula beyond the Ganges. It was taken by
IGNITION, properly fignifies the fetting fire to the Portuguefe in 1603, who deftroyed it, and car-
any fubftance; but the fenfe is commonly reftrained ried off the cannon ; but it has fince been rebuilt, and
to that kind of burning which is not accompanied is now in poffcffion of the Dutch. E. Long. 93. 55,
with flame, fuch as that of charcoal, cinders, metals,. N. Lat, 1. 15.
(tones, and other felid fubftances. JIB, the foremoft fail of a (hip, being a large ftay-
The eft’efts of ignition are firft to diffipate what is fail extended from the outer end of the bowfprit pro-
called the phlogifton of the ignited fubftance, after longed by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top-maft-
head.
I L A
[ 3876 1 I L E
J'fr. head. See Sail.
II The jib is a fail of great command with any fide-
a~ wind, but efpecially when the fiiip is clofe-hauled, or
has the wind upon her beam; and its effort in cajling
the fiiip, or turning her head to leeward, is very
powerful, and of great utility, particularly when the
fiiip is working through a narrow channel.
Jib-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of
the bowfprit, parallel to its length, and ferving to
extend the bottom of the jib, and the (lay of the fore¬
top-gallant mad. This boom, which is nothing more
than a continuation of the bowfprit forward, to which
it may be confidered as a top-maft, is ufually attached
to the bowfprit by means of two large boom-irons,
or by one boom-iron, and a cap on the outer end of
the bowfprit; or, finally, by the cap without, and a
ftrong ladling •. ithin, indead of a boom-iron, which
is generally the method of fecuring it in fmall mer-
chant-diips. It may therefore be drawn in upon the
bowfprit as occafion requires; which is ufually prac-
tifed when the fhip enters a harbour, where it might
very foon be broke or carried away, by the ve/fels
which are moored therein, or palling by under fail.
JIG. See Music, n° 252.
JIN. See Genii.
IKENILD street, one of the four famous ways
•which the Romans made in England, called Stratum
Iccnorum, becaufe it began in the country of the Iceni,
who inhabited Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgediire.
ILA, or Isla, one of the wedern ides of Scotland,
lying to the wed of Jura, from which it is feparated
by a narrow channel. It extends 24 miles in length
from north to fouth, and is 18 in breadth from eaft
to wed. On the ead fide, it is full of mountains co¬
vered with heath ; to the fouthward, the land is tole¬
rably well cultivated. In fome parts the inhabitants
have found great plenty of limedone, and lead-mines
are worked in three different places. The only har¬
bour in Ida is at Lochdale, near the north end of the
idand. Here are feveral rivers and lakes well dored
with trout, eels, and falmon. In the centre is Loch
Tmlagan, about three miles in circuit, with the little
ide of that name in the middle. Here the great Mac¬
donald, lord of the ides, once refided in all the pomp
of royalty ; but his palaces and offices are now in
ruins. Here he held his fupreme court of judicature,
confiding of fourteen judges, to which there was an
appeal from all the leffer tribunals. Indead of a
throne, Macdonald dood on a done feven feet
fquare, in which there was an impreffion made to
receive his feet; here he was crowned and anointed by
the bifhop of Argyle and feven inferior prieds, in pre¬
fence of the chieftains, to whom he took a folemn oath,
importing, that he would maintain their rights and
poififfions, and do judice to all his vaffals. There are
feveral forts built on the ides in fredi-water lakes, and
divers caverns in different parts of the ifiand, which
have been ufed occafionally as places of drength. The
air of Ida is not fo falubrious as that of Jura, becaufe
it is more low and marfhy; neverthelefs, the people
enjoy a good (bare of health : they are all Protettants,
and have a variety of churches and chapels. The pro¬
perty of the idand is at prefent veded in Campbell of
Shawfield. On the coad of Ila are feveral fmall ides,
fuch as Texa, Ouerfa, and Nave; nay, the natives
pretend that there is an idand four miles in length a- llchefl
bout 30 leagues to the fouth-wed of Ida. They fay, (1
it was difcovered by the mader of an Englifh (hip, who ,le3t
found it a low flat, covered with long grafs, and wa¬
tered by a river, on the ead fide of which he faw great
heaps of fiflt bones. A great number of feals lay balk¬
ing on the rocks, and the cliffs were covered with fea-
fowl. Finding many planks and boards which the fea
had cad on the fliore, he ordered his men to raife a
pile about two dories, as a land-mark for mariners.
After his departure, the inhabitants of Collonfay, in
fair weather, difcerned from the top of an eminence
an objeft which they fuppofed to be land; which, how¬
ever, vaniflied, by next winter, when in all probability
the pile was blown down by a dorm.
ILCHESTER, a town of Somerfetdiire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Yeovil. It is a place of great
antiquity, as appears by the Roman coins, which are
fometimes dug up. It once had 16 churches, but now
has only two. It is a corporation, and fends two mem¬
bers to parliament; here the county-gaol is kept.
W. Long. 2.45. N. Lat. 51. 5.
ILERDA, (anc. geog.) the capital of the Ili-
gertes; fituated on an eminence between the rivers Si-
coris and Cinga; an unhappy city, often befieged, and
often taken, becaufe lying expofed to the incurfions
from Gaul; and under Gallienus it was dedroyed by
the Germans. Now Lerida, in Catalonia, on the river
Segra.
ILEX, the Holm, or Holly-tree, a genus of the
tetragynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants.
There are feveral fpecies of this genus; but the mod
remarkable is the aquifolium, or common holly. Of
this there are a great number of varieties with variega¬
ted leaves, which are propagated by the nurfery-gar-
deners for fale, and fome years pad were in very great
edeem, but at prefent are but little regarded, the old
tade of filling gardens with {horn evergreens being
pretty well aboliflied ; however, in the difpofition of
clumps, or rather plantations, of evergreen trees and
(hrtibs, a few of the mod lively colours may be admit¬
ted, which will have a good effe& in the winter-feafon,
if they are properly difpofed.
The bed of thefe varieties are the painted lady holly,
Britidi holly, Bradley’s bed holly, phyllis or cream-
holly, milkmaid holly, Pritchet’s bed holly, gold-
edged hedgehog holly, Cheyney’s holly, glory-of the-
wed holly, Broaderick’s holly, Partridge’s holly, Here-
fordfhire white holly, Blind’s cream holly, Longdaff’s
holly, Eales’s holly, filver-edged hedgehog holly. All
thefe variegaties are propagated by budding or graft¬
ing them upon (locks of the common green holly :
there is alfo a variety of the common holly with fmooth
leaves ; but this is frequently found intermixed with
the prickly-leaved on the fame tree, and often on the
fame branch there are both forts of leaves.
The common holly grows naturally in woods and fo-
reds in many parts of England, where it rifesfrom 20
to 30 feet high, and fometimes more, but their ordi¬
nary height is not above 2j feet: the (lem by age be¬
comes large, and is covered with a greyifli fmooth bark;
and thofe trees which are not lopped or browfed by
cattle, are commonly furniffied with branches the great-
ed part of their length, fo form a fort of cone ; the
branches
I L E [ 3877 1 1 L L
tlie branches are garnifhed with oblong oval leaves, of
a lucid green on their upper furface, but are pale on
their tinder, having a ftrong midrib : the edges are in¬
dented and waved, with fharp thorns terminating each
of the points, fo that fome of the thorns are railed up¬
ward, and others are bent downward, and being very
.ftiff they are troublefome to handle. The leaves are
placed alternate on every fide of the branches; and from
the bafe of their footllalks come out the flowers in
clutters, Handing on very fhort footftafks ; each of
thefe fuftain five, fix, or more flowers. They are of
a dirty white, and appear in May; but are fucceeded
by roundiih berries, which turn to a beautiful red a-
bout Michaelmas, and continue on the trees, if they
are not dellroyed, till after Chriftmas.
The common holly is a very beautiful tree in winter;
therefore dtferves a place in all plantations of evergreen
trees and (hrubs, where its Ihining leaves and red ber¬
ries make a fine variety ; and if a few of the bell varie¬
gated kinds are properly intermixed, they will enliven
the fcene. It fs propagated by feeds, which never
come up the firfl: year, but lie in the ground as the
haws do ; therefore the berries fhould be buried in the
ground one year, and then taken up and fown at Mi¬
chaelmas, upon a bed expofed only to the morning
fun ; the following fpring the plants will appear, w'hich
mutt: be kept clean from weeds ; and if the fpring
fliould prove dry, it will be of great fervice to the
plants if they are watered once a-week ; but they mutt;
not have it oftener, nor in too great quantity, for too
much moifture is very injurious to thefe plants when
young. In this feed-bed the plants may remain two
years; and then (hould be tranfplanted in the autumn,
into beds at about fix inches afunder, where they may
Hand two years longer; during which time they mutt
be conflantly kept clean from weeds, and if the plants
have thriven well, they will be ftrong enough to tranf-
plant where they are defigned to remain : for when
they are tranfplanted at that age, there will be lefs
danger of their failing, and they will grow to a larger
fize than thofe which are removed when they are much
larger; but if the ground is not ready to receive them
at that time, they Ihould be tranfplanted into a nur-
lery in rows at two feet diftance, and one foot afunder
in the rows, in which place the plants may remain two
years longer; and if they are defigned to be grafted or
budded with any of the variegated kinds, that fliould be
performed after the plants have grown one year in the
nurfery: but the plants fo budded or grafted fhould
continue two years after in the nurfery, that they may-
make good flioots before they are removed ; though
the plain ones fhould not (land longer than two years
in the nurfery, becaufe when they are older they do
not tranfplant fo well. The beft time for removing
hollies is in the autumn, efpecially in dry land ; but
where the foil is cold and moift, they may be tranfplant¬
ed with great fafety in the fpring, if the plants are
not too old, or have not flood long unremoved, for
if they have, there is- great doubt of their growing
when removed.
Ufes. Sheep in the winter are fed with croppings
of holly. Birds eat the berries. The bark ferment¬
ed and afterwards waftied from the woody fibres, makes
the common bird-lime. The plant makes an impenetrable
fence, and bears cropping; however, it is not found in
Vox. V.
all refpe&s to anfwer for this purpofe equally well with
the hawthorn. The wood is ufed in fineering, and is
fometimes ftained black to imitate ebony. Handles for
knives and cogs for mill-wheels are made of it. It is
alfo made into hones for whetting of razors. Mr Mil¬
ler fays, he has feen the floor of a room laid with
compartments of holly and mahogany, which had a
very pretty effedl.
ILFRACOMB, a town of Devonfhire, feated on
the Severn fea, almoft oppofite to Swanfea in Glamor¬
gan fir ire, with a good harbour. W. Long. 4. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 15.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem, the firfl;
and fineft: of thofe compofed by Homer.
The poet’s defign in the Iliad was to fhew the
Greeks, who were divided into feveral little ftates, how
much it was their intereft to preferve a harmony and
good underftanding among themfelves : for which end
he fets before them the calamities that befel their an-
ceftors from the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunder-
ftanding with Agamemnon ; and the advantages that
afterwards accrued to them from their union. The
iliad is divided into 24 books or rhapfodies, which are
marked with the letters of the alphabet.
ILIUM, Ilion, or Ilios, (ane. geog.) a name for
the city of Troy, but molt commonly ufed by the
poets, and dittinguifhed by the epithet Fetus; at a
greater diftance from the fea than what was afterwards
called Ilium Novum, and thought' to be the llienfmm
Pagus of Strabo. New or modern Ilium was a village
nearer the fea, with a temple of Minerva ; where A-
lexander, after the battle of Granicus, offered gifts,
and called it a city, which he ordered to be enlarged.
His orders were executed by Lyfimaehus, who en-
conapaffed it with a wall of 40 ftadia. It was after¬
wards adorned by the Romans, who granted it immu¬
nities as to their mother-city. From this city the /-
lias of Homer takes its name, containing an account
of the war carried on between the Greeks and Trojan?
on account of the rape of Helen; a variety of difafters
being the confequence, gave rife to the proverb Iliai
Malorum.
ILKUCH, a royal town of Poland, in the palati¬
nate of Cracow, remarkable for its filver-mines mixed
with lead. It is feated in. a barren and mountainous
country, in E. Long. 20. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.
ILLECEBRUM, in botany* a genus pf the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There arc feveral fpecies, of which the moft
remarkable are the paronychia and the capitatum. Both
thefe have trailing (talks near two feet long, which
fpread on the ground, garnifhed with fmall leaves like
thofe of knot-grafs. The heads-of the flowers come
out from the joints of the (talks, having neat filvery
braftea furrounding them, which make a pretty ap¬
pearance, Their flowers appear in June, and there is
generally a fucceffion of them for at leaft two months;
and when the autumn proves warm, they will ripen
their feeds in October. They are propagated by feeds
which (hould be fown in a bed of light .earth in the
beginning of April: the plants will come up in May;,
when they (hould be kept clean from weeds till they
are fit to remove. Some (hould be planted in fmall
pots, and the reft in a warm border, obferving to wa*
ter and (hade them till they have taken new rooti
22 C Thefe
Ilfracomb
H
Illecebrum.
Illenois
Illumi¬
nating.
ILL [ 3878 ] IMA
Thefe plants are foraetimes killed in fevere winters;
for which reafon it is diretted to plant fome of them
in pots, that they may be flickered during that feafon.
ILLENOIS, a people of North America, inhabi¬
ting a country lying near a large lake of the fame
name, (called alfo Michigan), formed by the river St
Laurence. The country is fertile; and the people
plant Indian corn, on which they chiefly fubfift. They
are civil, a£ive, lively, and robuft ; and are much lefs
cruel in their difpofitions than the other Indian na¬
tions. They are, however, faidto be. great libertines,
and to marry a number of wives ; but fome of their
villages have embraced Chriftianity.
ILLICIUM, a genus of the oftagynia order,' be¬
longing to the dodecandria clafs of plants. There is
only one fpecies, viz. the anifatum, a native of the
woods of China and Japan. It rifes with an ere&
branched ftem to the height of a cherry-tree ; and is
covered with an afli-coloured bark, under which is an¬
other bark that is green, flefliy, fomewhat mucous,
and of an aromatic tafte, combined with a fmall degree
of aflringency. The wood is hard and brittle ; the
pith fmall in quantity, fungous, and of a green her¬
baceous colour. The leaves refemble thofe of laurel;
the flowers, in fome fort, thofe of narcilfus. Thefe
laft generally ftand Angle, are of a pale white, and
conflft of 16 petals, which differ in their form. The
extremity of the flower-ftalk being continued into the
germen, or feed-bud of the flower, forms eight con¬
joined capfules, or one deeply divided into eight parts.
Of thefe capfules, fome frequently decay ; the reft in-
clofe each a Angle feed, fomewhat refembling that of
palma chrifti, and which, when the hardiflt corticle
that clofely covers and involves it is broken, exhibits
a kernel that is white, flefliy, foft, and of a vajsid
tafte. The bonzes, or priefts of China and Japan, in-
fufe into the inhabitants a fuperftitious belief, that the
gods are delighted with the prefence of this tree.
Hence, they generally place before their idols gar¬
lands and bundles made of the branches. A Amilar
opinion theBramins inculcate into thelndians, of the Ma-
labar-flg, orJicuf religiofa. The bark of the anife-tree,
reduced to powder, and equally burnt, the public watch¬
men in Japan, by a very curious contrivance defcribed
by Kempfer, render ufeful in the meafuring of time
during the darknefs of the night. The fame powder
is frequently burnt in brazen vefiels on the Japanefe
altars, as incenfe is in other countries, from a belief that
the idols in whofe honour the ceremony is performed
are greatly refrefhed with the agreeable fragrancy of
its odour. It is remarkable, that a branch of this
tree being added to a deco&ion of the poifonous fffh,
termed by the Dutch de opblafer, (a Aflt the moft de¬
licate,if the poifonous matter be flrft properly expelled),
increafes its noxious quality, and exafperates thepoifon
to an aftoniftiing degree of a&ivity and power.
ILLUMINATING, a kind of miniature-painting
much praflifed in Britain about the 12th and 13th cen¬
turies, and of which many curious fpecimens are ftill
remaining, particularly in the Harleian colleftion.
From this word is derived the modern one of limning.
It was chiefly ufed as we ufe copperplates, in illuftra-
ting and adorning the bible and other books. This
art was much praftifed by the clergy, and even by
fome in the higheft ftations in the church. “ The fa¬
mous Ofmund (fays Bromton), who was confecrated bi- Illyncmn,
fhop of Salifbury A. D. 1076, did not difdain to II *
fpend fome part of his time in writing, binding, and
illuminating books.” Mr Strutt hath given the pub¬
lic an opportunity of forming fome judgment of the
degree of delicacy and art with which thefe illumina¬
tions were executed, by publifliing prints of a prodi¬
gious number of them, in his Regal and ecclefiajlical
antiquities of England, and View oj the cufioms, he. of
England. In the flrft of thefe works we are prefented
with the genuine portraits, in miniature, of all the
kings, and feveral of the queens, of England, from Ed¬
ward the Confeflbr to Henry VII. moftly in their
crowms and royal robes, together with the portraits of
many other eminent perfons of both fexes.
The illuminators and painters of this period feem to
have been in pofiefiion of a conflderable number of co¬
louring materials, and to have known the arts of pre¬
paring and mixing them, fo as to form a great varie¬
ty of colours. In the fpecimens of their miniature-
paintings that are ftill extant, we perceive not only
the five primary colours, but alfo various combinations
of them. There is even fome appearance, that they
were not ignorant of the art of painting in oil, from
the following precept of Henry III. “ Pay out of
our treafury, to Odo the goldfmith, and Edward his
fon, one hundred and feventeen fhillings and ten pence,
for oil, varnifh, and colours bought, and pi&ures
made, in the chamber of our queen at Weftminfter,
between the oftaves of the Holy Trinity, in the twen¬
ty-third year of our reign, and the feaft of St Barna¬
bas the apoftle, in the fame year, which is fifteen
days.” This was a confiderable fum (equal in quan¬
tity of filver to 17 pounds 14 fhillings of our money,
and in efficacy to 88 pounds) to be expended in paint¬
ing one chamber in fo fhort a time.
ILLYRICA, (anc. geog.) a country extending
from the Adriatic to Pannonia. Its boundaries are
varioufly affigned. Pliny makes it extend in length
from the river Arfia to the Drinius, thus including Li-
burnia to the weft, and Dalmatia to the eaft ; which
is alfo the opinion of Ptolemy, who fettles its limits
from mount Scardus and the Upper Mcefia on theeaft
to Iftria in the weft. The country is now called Scla-
vonia.
ILLYRIUS, (Matthias, Flaccus, or Francowitz),
one of the moft learned divines of the Augfburgh con-
feffion, born in Iftria, anciently called 7//yr;V«, in 1520.
He is faid to have been a man of vaft genius, extenfive
learning, of great zeal againft Popery ; but of fuch a
reftlefs and paffionate temper, as overbalanced all his
good qualities, and occafioned much difturbance in the
Proteftant church. He publifhed a great number of
books, and died in 1575.
IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial repre-
fentation or fimilitude of fome perfon or thing, ufed
either by way of decoration and ornament, or as an
objeft of religious worfhip and adoration ; in which
laft fenfe, it is ufed indifferently with the word Idol.
Image, in optics, a figure in the form of any ob-
jeift, made by the rays of light iffuing from the feveral
points of it, and meeting in fo many other points, ci¬
ther at the bottom of the eye, or on any other ground,
or in any tranfparent medium, where there is no fur-
face to refleft them. Thus we are faid to fee all ob-
jedls
I M 1 [ 3879 ] I M I
.OTagina- je£ts by means of their images formed in the eye.
oil tion IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the
limitation mind, whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things
T communicated to it by the outward organs of fenfe.
See Metaphysics; and Morals, n°i84.
Force «/'Imagination. See Monster.
IMAN, a name applied by the Mahometans to him
who is head of the congregations in their mofques;
and, by way of eminence, to him who has .the fu-
preme authority both in refpefl to fpirituals and tem¬
porals.
IMAUS, (anc. geog.), the largeft mountain of A-
fia, (Strabo); and a part of Taurus, (Pliny); from
which the whole of India runs off into a vaft plain, re-
fembling Egypt. It extends far and wide through
Scythia, as far as to the Mare GJaciale, dividing it
into the Hither or Scythia intra Imaum, and into the
Farther or Scythia extra Imaum, (Ptolemy); and al-
fo ftretching out along the north of India to the eaftern
ocean, feparates it from Scythia. It had various
names according to the different countries it ran
through : Poftellus thinks it is the Sephar of Scrip¬
ture.
IMBECILLITY, a languid, infirm ftate of bo¬
dy, which, being greatly impaired, is not able to
I perform its ufual exercifes and fun&ions.
IMBIBING, the a&ion of a dry porous body,
that abforbs or takes up a moift or fluid one : thus,
fugar imbibes water ; a fpunge, the moifture of the
i air, &c.
IMBRICATED, among botanifts. See Bota¬
ny, p.1298, n°142.
IMITATION, derived from the Latin imitare, to
reprefsnt, or repeat, a found or aftion, either exa&ly,
or nearly in the fame manner, as they were originally
exhibited.
Imitation, in mufic, admits of two different fenfes.
Sound and motion are either capable of imitating them-
i felves by a repetition of their own particular modes;
or of imitating other obje&s of a nobler and more ab-
itraded nature. Nothing perhaps is fo purely men-
Ilal, nothing fo remote from external fenfe, as not to
be imitable by mufic. But as the defeription of this
in M. Rouffeau, article Imitation, is nobly animated,
and comprehends all that is neceffary to be faid. on the
fubjeft, we tranflate it as follows.
“ Dramatic or theatrical mufic (fays he), contri¬
butes to imitation no lefs than painting or poetry: it
is in this common principle that we muff inveftigate
both the origin and the final caufe of all the fine arts;
ta Beaux as M. le Batteaux has ffiown f. But this imitation is
■u-ts reduits not eqUal]y extenfive in all the imitative arts. What-
« »» mcme t J . . r . ~ ,r . . ,
Oi\nciy(. ever the imagination can repreient to nielt is in the
department of poetry. Painting, which does not pre-
fent its piftures to the imagination immediately, but
to externa] fenfe and to one fenfe alone, paints only
fuch objeits as are difcoverable by fight. Mufic might
appear fubjefted to the fame limits with refpeft to the
ear; yet it is capable of painting every thing, even
fuch images as are objefts of ocular perception alone*:
by a magic almoft inconceivable, it feems to transform
the ears into eyes, and endow them with the double
fimftion of perceiving vifible objefls, by the mediums
;i of their own; and it is the greateft miracle of an art,
which can only aft by motion, that it can make that
very motion reprefent abfolute quiefcence. Night, Imitaticn.
fleep, filence, folitude, are the noble efforts, the grand
images, reprefented by a pifturefque mufic. We know
that noife can produce the fame effeft with filence,
and filence the fame effeft with noife; as when one
fleeps at a lefture infipidly and monotonically de¬
livered, but wakes the inftant when it ends. But
mufic afts more intimately upon our fpirits, in exci¬
ting by one fenfe difpofitions fimilar to thofe which
we find excited by another; and, as the relation be¬
tween thefe images cannot be fenfible unlefs the im-
preffion be ftrong, painting, when divefted of this e-
nergy, cannot reftore to mufic that affiftance in imita¬
tions which flic borrows from it. Though all nature
fhould be afleep, he who contemplates her does
not fleep ; and the art of the mufician confifts in
fubftituting, for this image of infenfibility in the ob-
jeft, thofe emotions whicTi its prefence excites in the
heart of the contemplator. He not only ferments and
agitates the ocean, animates the flame to conflagra¬
tion, makes the fountain murmur in his harmony, calls
the rattling (hower from heaven, andfwells the torrent
to refiftlefs rage; but he paints the horrors of a bound-
lefs and frightful defart, involves the fubterraneous
dungeon in tenfold gloom, foothes the tempeft, tran¬
quillizes the difturbed elements, and from the orcheftra
diffufes a recent fragrance through imaginary groves;
nay, he excites in the foul the fame emotions which
we feel from the immediate perception and full influ ¬
ence of thefe objefts.”
Under the vtox<\ Harmony, Rouffeau has faid, that no
afliftance can be drawn from thence, no original prin¬
ciple which leads to mufical imitation; fince there can¬
not be any relation between chords and the objefts
which the compofer would paint, or the paflions which
he would exprefs. In the article Melody, he ima¬
gines he has difeovered that principle of imitation
which harmony cannot yield, and what refources of
nature are employed by mufic in reprefenting thefe
objefts and thefe paflions.
It is hoped, however, that, in our article oIMelody,
we have fhown upon what principle mufical imitation
may be compatible with harmony; though we admit,
that from melody it derives its molt powerful energy,
and its moft attractive graces. Yet we muft either be
deceived beyond all poflibility of cure, or we have felt
the power of imitative harmony in a high degree. We
are certain that the fury, the impetuolity, the rapid
viciflitudes, of a battle, may be fuccefsfully and vividly
reprefented in harmony. We have participated the
exultation and triumph of a conqueft, infpired by the
found of a full chorus. We have felt all the folemnity
and grandeur of devotion from the flow movement, the
deep chords, the fwelling harmony, of a fentimental
compofition played upon the organ. Nor do we ima¬
gine harmony lefs capable of repvefenting the tender
deprefiion, the fluftuating and tremulous agitation, of
grief. As this kind of imitation is the nobleft effort
of mufic, it is aftonifhing that it fliould have been over¬
looked by M. D’Alembert. He has indeed apologi¬
zed, by informing us, that his treatife is merely ele¬
mentary: but we are uncertain how far this apology
ought to be regarded as fuflicient, when it is at the
fame time confidered, that he has given an account of
imitation in its-mechanical, or what Rouffeau calls its
22 C 2 tech--
I M M [ 3880 ] IMP
5mmaculate technical, fenfe; which, however, to prevent ambigu-
II . ity, we fhould rather choofe to call viymefis, or ana-
mmunity. cepijan0jl^ ^0 Roufleau’s account of the word in this
acceptation, we return.
“ Imitation (fays he), in its technical fenfe, is a
reiteration of the fame air, or of one which is iimilar,
in fcveral parts where it is repeated by one after the
other, either in unifon, or at the diftance of a fourth,
a fifth, a third, or any other interval whatever. The
imitation may be happily enough purfued even though
feveral notes fhould be changed; provided the fame air
may always be recognized, and that the compofer does
not deviate from the laws of proper modulation. Fre¬
quently, in order to render the imitation more fen-
lible, it is preceded by a general reft, or by long notes
which feem to obliterate the impreffion formerly made
by the air till it is renewed with greater force and vi¬
vacity by the commencement of the imitation. The
imitation may be treated as the compofer choofes; it
may be abandoned, refumed, or another begun at plea-
fure; in a word, its rules are as much relaxed as thofe
of the fugue are fevere: for this reafon, it is defpifed
by the molt eminent matters; and every imitation of
this kind too much affefted, almoft always betrays a
novice in compofition.”
IMMACULATE, fomething without ftain, chiefly
applied to the conception of the holy virgin. See Con¬
ception Immaculate.
IMMATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or
that is pure fpirit: thus God, angels, and the human
foul, are immaterial beings.
IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing
an effeft without the intervention of external means ;
thus we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a me¬
diate or remote one.
IMMENSITY, an unlimited extenfion, or which
no finite and determinate fpace, repeated everfo often,
can equal.
IMMER, the moft eafterly ifland of all the New
Hebrides in the South Sea. It lies about four leagues
from Tavna, and feems to be about five leagues in cir¬
cumference ; it is of a confiderable height, with a flat-
top.
IMMERSION, that a<tt by which any thing is plun¬
ged into water or other fluid.
It is ufed in chemittry for a fpecies of calcination,
when any body is immerfed in a fluid to be corroded:
or it is a fpecies of lotion; as when a fubftance is plun¬
ged into any fluid, in order to deprive it of a bad qua¬
lity, or communicate to it a good one.
Immersion, in aftronomy, is when a ftar or planet
is fo near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that
we cannot fee it; being, as it were, inveloped and hid
in the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes the be¬
ginning of an eclipfe of the moon, or that moment
when the moon begins to be darkened, and to enter in¬
to the fhadow of the earth.
IMMORTAL, that which will laft to all eternity,
as having in it no principle of alteration or corruption:
thus God and the human foul are immortal. See Soul.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from fome
office, duty, or impofition, as an exemption from tolls,
&c.
Immunity is more particularly underftood of the li¬
berties granted to cities and communities.
IMOLA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the ImchNj
church, and in Romagna, with a biftiop’s fee. It is II. !
a very handfome populous place; and is feated on the IniP3t,!-'ns-
river Santerno, in E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 44. 28.
IMPALE, in heraldry, is to conjoin two coats of
arms pale-wife. Women impale their coats of arms
with thofe of their hufbaiids. See Heraldry, p. 3589,
Sbto.
To impale cities, camps, fortifications, &c. is to
inclofe them with pallifadoes.
To Impale, or Empale, fignifies alfo to put to
death by fpitting on a ftake fixed upright.
IMPALPABLE, that whofe parts are fo extreme¬
ly minute, that they cannot be diftinguifhed by the
fenfes, particularly by that of feeling.
IMPANATION, a term ufed by divines to fignify
the opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eu-
charitt, who believe that the fpecies of bread and wine
remain together with the body of our Saviour after
confecration.
IMPANNELLING, in law, fignifies the writing
down or entering into a parchment, lift, or fchedule,
the names of a jury fummoned by the iheriff to appear
for fuch public fervices as juries are employed in.
IMPARLANCE, in law, a petition in court for a
day to confider or advife what anfwer the defendant
fhall make to the plaintiff’s a&ion ; and is the conti¬
nuance of the caufe till another day, or a longer time
given by the court.
IMPA STATION, the mixtion of various materials
of different colours and confiftencies, baked or bound
together with fome cement, and hardened either by the
air or by fire.
IMPATIENS, touch-me-not, and a
genus of the monogamia order, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The noli-me-tangere, or common yel¬
low balfamine, is a native of Britain, but is cultivated
in many gardens for curiofity. It hath a fibrous root,
an upright, jointed, fucculent, ftalk, about x 8 inches
high, with alternate oval leaves; and, from the axillas of
the ftalks, long, flender, branching footftalks, each
fuftaining many yellow flowers; fucceeded by taper
capfules, that burft open and dart forth their feeds
with great velocity, whence its name. 2. The balfa-
mina, or balfam, is a native of India. It hath a fi¬
brous root, an upright, thick, fucculent ftalk, branch¬
ing all around a foot and an half or two feet high ;
with long, fpear-lhaped, fa wed leaves, the upperones al¬
ternate ; and from the joints of the ftalk and branches
clutters of fhort foot-ftalks, each fuftaining one large
irregular flower, of different colours in the varieties;
flowering from June or July till September.
Culture. The firft fpecies is very hardy, and will
grow freely from the feeds in any common border;
but the fecond requires artificial warmth. The feeds
will indeed grow in the full ground, but rarely before
the month of May; and more freely then, if covered
with a hand-glafs, &c. But the plants raifed by ar¬
tificial heat will flower five or fix weeks fooner than
thofe raifed in the natural ground. The feeds ought
therefore always to be fowed on a hotbed in March or
April, and the plants continued therein till June, and
if the frames be deep they will then be drawn up to
the length of two or three feet; after which they may
IMP i s88i 1 IMP
impeach- be planted in pots, which muft likewife be continued
aliment jn the hot-bed till the plants have taken frefti root,
lin erfeft IMPEACHMENT, an accufation and profrcu-
tion for treafon and other crimes and mifdemeanours.
Any member of the lower houfe of parliament may
impeach any one belonging either to that body, or
to the houfe of lords. The method of proceeding is
to exhibit articles on the behalf of the commons, by
w hom managers are appointed to make good their
charge. Thefe articles are carried to the lords, by
whom every perfon impeached by-the commons is al¬
ways tried; and if they find him guilty, no pardon
under the great feal can be pleaded to fuch an im¬
peachment. 12 Will. III. cap. ii.
IMPENETRABILITY, in philofophy, that pro-
perty of body, whereby it cannot be pierced by
another: thus, a body which fo fills a fpace as to
exclude all others, is faid to be impenetrable.
IMPERATIVE, one of the moods of a verb, ufed
when we would command, intreat, or advife : thns,
go read, take pity, be advifed, are imperatives in our
language. But in the learnecf languages, this mood
has a peculiar termination to diftinguifii it from others,
as i, or ito, “ go /ege, or legito, “ read,” Sec. and not
only fo, but the termination varies, according as you
addrefs one or more perfons, as audi and audite;
IKKV(1u, OCKKlW, «XUs7mC-«V, SiC.
IMPERATOR, in Roman antiquity, a title of
honour conferred on vi&orious generals by their ar¬
mies, and afterwards confirmed by the fenate.
IMPERATORIA, masterwort ; a genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants.—There is but one fpecies, viz. the oftruthium,
a native of the Auftrian and Styrian Alps, and other
mountainous places of Italy. Mr Lightfoot alfo in¬
forms us, that he has found it in feveral places on the
banks of the Clyde in Scotland; but whether indige¬
nous or not, is uncertain. The root is as thick as a
man’s thumb, running obliquely in the ground ; it is
flefhy, aromatic, and has a ftrong acrid tafte, biting
the tongue like pellitory of Spain : the leaves arife
immediately from the root ; they have long foot-ftalks,
dividing into three very (hort ones at the top, each
fuftaining a trilobate leaf, indented on the border.
The footftalks are deeply channelled, and, when
broken, emit a rank odour. The flower-ftalks rife
about two feet high, dividing into two or three
branches, each being terminated by a pretty large
umbel of white flowers whofe petals are fplit; thefe
are fucceeded by oval comprefled feeds, fomewhat like
thofe of dill, but larger.—The plant is cultivated in
gardens for the fake of its roots, which are ufed in me¬
dicine. It may be propagated either by feeds, or by
parting the roots in autumn. They thrive beft in a
lhady fituation.—The root has a flavour fimilar to
that of angelica, and is efteemed a good fudorific.
There are inftances of its having cured the ague when
the bark had failed. It fliould be dug up in winter,
and a ftrong infufion made in wine.
IMPERFECT, fomething that is defeftive, or that
wants fome of the properties found in other beings of
the fame kind.
Imperfect Tenfe, in grammar, a tenfe that de¬
notes fome preterite cafe, or denotes the thing to be
at that time prefent and not quite finilhed ; as fcri-
bebam, “ I was writing.” Imperial
IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor, II
or empire. See Emperor, and Empire.—Thus we In|P)“rta*
fay, his imperial majelly, the imperial crown, impe 
rial arms, &c.
Imperial Crown. See Heraldry, p. 3606.
Imperial Chamber, is a fovereign court, etlablilhed
for the affairs of the immediate itates of the empire.
See Chamber.
Imperial Cities, in Germany, are thofe which own
no other head but the emperor.
Thefe are a kind of little commonwealths ; the chief
magiftrate whereof does homage to the emperor,'
but in other refpe&s, and in the adminiftration ofju-
ftice, is fovereign.
Imperial cities have a right of coining money, and
of keeping forces and fortified places. Their deputies
affilt at the imperial diets, where they are divided
into two branches, that of the Rhine, and that of
Suabia. There were formerly 22 in the former, and
37 in the latter ; but there are now only 48 in all.
Imperial Diet, is an affembly or convention of all
the Hates of the empire. See Diet.
IMPERIALI (John Baptift), a celebrated phy-
fician of Vicenza, where he was born in 1568. He
compofed feveral efieemed works both in profe and
verfe, written in good Latin ; and died in 1623.
IMPERSONAL verb, in grammar, a verb to
which the nominative of any certain perfon cannot be
prefixed ; ,or, as others define it, a verb deftitute of
the two firft and primary perfons, as decet, opportet, &c.
The imperfonal verbs of the aftive voice end in t, and
thofe of the pafiive in tur ; they are conjugated thro*
the third perfon Angular of almoft; all the tenfes and
moods : they want the imperative, inftead of which
we ufe the prefent of the fubjun&ive ; aspacniteat, pug-
netur, &c. nor, but a few excepted, are they to be met
with in the fupines, participles, or gerunds.
IMPERVIOUS, a thing not to be pervaded or
paffed through, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its
pores, or the particular configuration of its parts.
IMPETUS, in mechanics, the force with which
one body ftrikes or impells another.
IMPLICATION, in law, is where fomething is
implied that is not expreffed by the parties themfelves
in their deeds, contracts, or agreements.
To IMPLY, or carry, in Muftc. Thefe we have
ufed as fynonimous terms in that article. They are
intended to fignify thofe founds, which ought to be
the proper concomitants of any note, whether by its
own nature, or by its pofition in artificial harmony.
Thus every note, confidered as an independent found,
may be faid to carry or imply its natural harmonics,
that is to fay, its oftave, its twelfth, and its feven-
teenth ; or, when reduced, its eight, its fifth, and its
third. But the fame found when confidered as conili-
tuting any part of harmony, is fubje£ted to other laws
and different limitations. It can then only be faid to
carry or imply fuch fimple founds, or complications of
found, as the preceding and fubfequent chords admit
or require. For thefe the laws of melody and har¬
mony mull be confulted. See Melody, and Har¬
mony.
IMPORTATION in commerce, the bringing
merchandize into a kingdom from foreign countries;
IMP [ 3882 ] IMP
Iraporta- in contradiftinftion to exportation. See Exporta-
tloll‘ TION.
We fhall here give fome of the principal laws relat-
ting to the importation of goods into this kingdom.
Goods imported without entry or paying cuftoms,
are forfeited; and the lord-treafurer, the barons of
the exchequer, or chief magiftrates of the place where
the offence was committed, or next adjoining to it,
may grant a warrant to any perfon, who, with the
affiltance of a conftable, may break open doors, chefts,
&c. and take thence any prohibited or unaccuftomed
goods; but this is to be done within one month after
the offence was committed. But if falfe information
is given, the perfon wrongfully accufed may recover
coils and damages.
No fhip or veffel arriving from beyond fea is to be
above three days in failing from Gravefend to the
place of difcharge on the river Thames, unlefs hin¬
dered by contrary winds or other impediment. And
no fhip bound for the port of London is to touch or
ftay at any place adjoining to any fhore, between
Gravefend and Chelter-quay. True entries ^e to be
made of all fuch (hips lading, upon oath of the mafter
or purfer for that voyage; alfo where /he took in her
lading, where fhe was built, how manned, who were
the owners, and who the maftcr during the voyage.
In all out-ports, fhips are to come dire&ly to the
place of unlading, and make true entries as aforefaid,
upon penalty of the forfeiture of look
After any fhip is cleared, and the watchmen and
tidefmen difcharged from their attendance, if there be
found on board any concealed goods that have not
paid the duty inwards, the mafter, or other perfon
taking charge of the fhip, {hall forfeit 100 1.
Porters, carmen, watermen, &c. affifting in land¬
ing unaccuftomed goods, {hall on convi&ion, for the
fir ft offence, be committed to the next jail till they
find fecurity for their good behaviour; and for their
fecond offence they are to be committed to prifon for
two months, without bail or mainprize, or till they
are difcharged by the court of exchequer, or each of
them pay 5 1. to the fheriff of the county.
No merchant-denizen fhall cover a ftranger’s goods,
but fhall, by himfelf or agent, fign one of his bills of
every entry, with the mark, number, and contents of
every parcel of goods, without which no entry fhall
pafs. And no children of aliens under the age of 21
years, fhall have entry made in their names, nor be
permitted to trade.
Merchants, trading into the port of London, fhall
have free liberty to lade and unlade their goods at any
of the lawful quays between the tower and London-
bridge, from fun-rifing to fun-fetting, from Septem¬
ber 10. to March 10. ; and between fix o’clock in the
morning and fix in the evening, from March 10. to
September 10.; giving notice thereof to the refpedtive
officers appointed to attend the lading and unlading
of goods. And fuch officers as fhall refufe to be pre-
fent fhall forfeit 5 1. for every default.
To prevent combination between importers, and
feizers of goods unlawfully imported or exported, none
fhall feize them but the officers of the cuftoms, orfiich
as fhall be authorifed fo to do by the lord-treafurer,
undcr-treafurer, or a fpecial commiffion from his ma-
jefty under the great privy-feah
If any feizer of prohibited or unaccuftomed goods Importa*%
does not make due profecution thereof, it is lawful for ti<?11 If
the cuftom-houfe officers, or others deputed thereto, toIm JenCg
make feizure of fuch goods; and they fhall be, in law,  
adjudged the firft true informers and feizers, and have
the benefit thereof, notwithftanding any law and flatute
to the contrary.
All foreign goods permitted to be landed by bills
at fight, bills at view or fufferance, fhall be landed at
the moft convenient quays and wharfs, as the officers
of the cuftoms fhall diretl; and there, or at the king’s
ftore-houfe of the refpe&ive ports, fhall be meafured,
weighed, numbered, &c. by the officers appointed, who
fhall perfect the entry, and fubferibe their names to it,
and the next day make their report to the cuftomer,
colle&or, or comptroller; or, in default thereof, fhall
forfeit 100I.
Any merchant who (hall import goods, fhall have
liberty to break bulk in any lawful port or quay, the
mafter or purfer firft making oath of the true con¬
tents of the {hip’s lading. No Englifh merchant fhall
put on fhore in Scotland or Ireland, any merchandize
of the growth or produce of any of his majefty’s
plantations, unlefs the fame have been firft landed in
England, Wales, or Berwick, and paid the.duties
with which they are chargeable, under the penalty of
forfeiting the fhip and goods, three-fourths to the
king, and one-fourth to the informer or him that fhall
fue for the fame: but if a (hip be difabled, or driven
into any port of Ireland, and unable to proceed on
her voyage, her goods may be put on fliore, under
the hands of the principal officers of the cuftoms there
refiding, till the goods can be put on board fome
other veffel, to be tranfported to fome part of England
or Wales.
Natives of England or Ireland may import into
England, direftly from Ireland, any hemp, flax,
thread, yarn and linen, of the growth and manufac¬
ture of Ireland, cuftom-free ; the chief officer fo im¬
porting bringing a certificate from the chief office in
Ireland, expreffing the particulars of the goods, with
the names and places of abode of the exporters
thence, and of fuch as have fworn that the faid goods
are bona fide of the growth and manufacture of that
kingdom, and who they are configned to in England;
and the chief officer fhall make oath, that the faid
goods are the fame that are on board by virtue of that
certificate.
IMPOST, in law, fignifies in general a tribute or
cuftom, but is more particularly applied to fignify that
tax which the crown receives for merchandizes im¬
ported into any port or haven.
IMPOSTHUME, in forgery, &c. See Abscess.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, de¬
notes want of ftrength, power, or means, to perform
any thing.
Divines and philofophers diftinguifh two forts of
impotency; natural, and moral. The firft is a want
of fome phyfical principle, neceffary to an aftion; or
where a being is abfolutely defective, or not free and
at liberty to aCt: The fecond only imports a great dif¬
ficulty; as a ftrong habit to the contrary, a violent
paffion, or the like.
Impotency is more particularly ufed for a natural
Inability to coition. Impotence with refped to men
IMP [ 3883 ] IMP
l( nprtgna- is the fame as fterility in women; that is, an inability
ii tion 0f propagating the fpecies. There are many caufes
1 reffine *mPotence > as» a natural defedi in the organs of
 _JL generation, which feldom admits of a cure: accidents,
or difeafes; and in fuch cafes the impotence may, or
may not, be remedied, according as thefe are curable
or otherwife.—The moft common caufes are, early and
immoderate venery, or the venereal difeafe. We have
Jnliances, however, of urifitnefs for generation in men
by an impediment to the eje&ion of the femen in coi¬
tion, from a wrong dire&ion which the orifice at the
vsrumontanum got, whereby the feed was thrown up
I into the bladder. M. Petit cured one patient under
fuch a difficulty of emiflion, by making an incifion like
to that commonly made in the great operation for the
ftone.
IMPREGNATION, the getting a female with
child. See Pregnancy.
The term impregnation is alfo ufed, in pharmacy,
for communicating the virtues of one medicine to ano¬
ther, whether by mixture, codtion, digeftion, &c.
IMPRESSING seamen. ’ The power of impref-
fing fea-faring men for the fea-fervice by the king’s
commiflion, has been a matter of fome difpute, and
fubmitted to with great reludlance; though it hath
very clearly and learnedly been fhewn by Sir Michael
Fotter, that the pradlice of impreffing, and granting
powers to the admiralty for that purpofe, is of very
ancient date, and hath been uniformly continued by a
regular feries of precedents to the prefent time:
whence he concludes it to be part of the common law.
The difficulty arifes from hence, that no ftatutehas ex-
prefsly declared this power to be in the crown, though
many of them very ftrongly imply it. The ftatute
2 Ric. II. c. 4. fpeaks of mariners being arrefted and
retained for the king’s fervice, as of a thing well
known, and pradlifed without difpute; and provides a
remedy againft their running away. By a later fta¬
tute, if any waterman, whoufes the river Thames, fhall
hide himfelf during the execution of any commiffion of
preffingfor the king’s fervice, he is liable to heavy penal¬
ties. By another, (5 Eliz. c. 5.) -no fifhennan fhall be
taken by the queen’s commiffion to ferve as a mariner;
but the commiffion fball be firft brought to two juftices
of the peace, inhabiting near the fea-coaft where the
mariners are to be taken, to the intent that the juftices
may choofe out and return fuch a number of able-bodied
men, as in the commiffion are contained, to ferve her
majefty. And, by others, efpecial proteftions are al¬
lowed to feamen in particular circumftances, to pre¬
vent them from being imprefled. Ferrymen are alfo faid
to be privileged from being imprefled, at common law.
All which do moft evidently imply a power of im¬
preffing to refide fomevvhere ; and, if any where, it
muft, from the fpirit of our conftitution, as well as from
the frequent mention of the king’s commiffion, refide
in the crown alone.—After all, however, this method
of manning the navy is to be confidered as only de-
fenfible from public neceffity, to which all private con-
fiderations muft give way.
The following perfons are exempted from being im-
preffed : Apprentices for three years; the mafter,mate,
and carpenter, and one man for every ico tons, of
vefiels employed in the coal-trade ; all under 18 years
of age, and above 55; foreigners in merchant-fhips
and privateers; landmen betaking themfelves to fea for Impreffion
two years; feamen in the Greenland fifhery, and har- II
pooners, employed, during the interval of the filhing
feafon, in the coal-trade, and giving fecurity to go to .
the fifhing next feafon.
IMPRESSION is applied to the fpecies of objedls
which are fuppofed to make fome mark or impreffion
on the fenfes, the mind, and the memory. The Peri¬
patetics aflert, that bodies emit fpecies refembling
them, which,are conveyed to the common fenforiuvi,
and they are rendered intelligible by the aftive in-
telleft; and, when thus fpiritualized, are called ex-
prejfions, or exprefs fpecies, as being expreffed from the
others.
Impression alfo denotes the edition of a book, re
garding the mechanical part only; whereas edition,
befides this, takes in the care of the editor, who cor-
reded or augmented the copy, adding notes, &c. to
render the work more ufeful.
IMPRISONMENT, the (late of a perfon re-
ftrained of his liberty, and detained under the cuftody
of another.
No perfon is to be imprifoned but as the law direds,
either by the command or order of a court of record, or
by lawful warrant; or the king’s procefs, on which
one may be lawfully detained. And at common law,
a perfon could not be imprifoned unlefs he were guilty
of fome force and violence, for which his body was
fubjed to imprifonment, as one of the higheft execu¬
tions. Where the law gives power to iroprifon, in
fuch cafe it is juftifiable, provided he that does it in
purfuance of a ftatute, exadly purfues the ftatute in
the manner of doing it; for otherwife it will be deemed
falfe imprifonment, and of confeqnence it is unjuftifi-
able. Every warrant of commitment for imprifoning
a perfon, ought to run, “ Till delivered by due courfe
of law,” and not “ Until farther order;” which has
been held ill: and thus it alfo is, where one is impri¬
foned on a warrant not mentioning any caufe for which
he is committed. See Arrest and Commitment.
Falfe Imprisonment. Every confinement of the
perfon is an imprifonment, whether it be in a common
prifon, or in a private houfe, or in the flocks, or even
by forcibly detaining one in the public ftreets. Un¬
lawful or falfe imprifonment, confifts in fuch confine¬
ment or detention without fufficient authority: which
authority may arife either from fome procefs from the
courts of juftice; or from fome warrant from a legal
power to commit, under his hand and fea), and ex¬
prefling the caufe of fuch commitment; or from fome
other fpecial caufe warranted, for the neceffity of the
thing, either by common law, or ad of parliament;
fuch as the arrefting of a felon by a private perfon
without warrant, the imprefling of mariners for the
public fervice, or the apprehending of waggoners for
milbehaviour in the public highways. Falfe impri¬
fonment alfo may arife by executing a lawful warrant
or procefs at an unlawful time, as on a Sunday; or in
a place privileged from arrefts, as in the verge of the
king’s court. This is the injury. The remedy is of
two forts; the one removing the injury, the other ma¬
king fatisfattion for it.
The means of removing the adual injury of falfe im¬
prifonment, are four-fold, 1. By writ of Mainprize.
2. By writ DeOsno et Atia. 3. By writ Homine
Replegiando,
I M P [ 3884 ] IMP
Impromptu4. By writ of Habeas Corpus. See
II . thofe articles.
mpunty‘ The fatisfattory remedy for this injury of falfe im-
prifonment, is by an action of trefpafs. vi et armis,
ufually called an aclion of falfe i.iprifonment; which is
•generally, and almoft unavoidably, accompanied with
a charge of affault and battery alfo: and therein the
party {hall recover damages for the injuries he has re¬
ceived; and alfo the defendant is, as for all other in¬
juries committed with force, or vi et armis, liable to
pay a fine to the king for the violation of the public
peace.
IMPROMPTU, or Infromptu, a Latin word
frequently ufed among the French, and fometimes
in Englifh, to-fignify a piece made off-hand, or ex¬
tempore, without any previous meditation, by mere
force and vivacity of imagination. Many authors
pique themfelves on their impromptu's, which yet were
done at kifure and in cold blood.
IMPROBATION, in Scots law, the name of a
afticn brought for felting any deed or writing afide
upon the head of forgery.
‘ IMPROPRIATION, in ecclefiaftical law. See
ApFROP'-IAUON.
IMPURITY, in the law of Mofes, is any legal de¬
filement. Of thefe there were feveral forts. Some were
voluntary, as the touching a dead body, or any animal
that died of itfelf, or any creature that was efteemed
unclean; or the touching things holy, by one who was
rot clean, or was not a priert ; the touching one who
had a leprofy, one who had a gonorrhoea, or who was
polluted by a dead carcafe, &c. Sometimes thefe im¬
purities were Involuntary; as when any one inadver¬
tently touched bones, or a fepulchre, or any thing pol¬
luted ; or fell into fuch difeafes as pollute, as the le¬
profy, &c.
The beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touch¬
ed any thing unclean, contrafted alfo a kind of impu¬
rity, and in fome cafes communicated it to others.
Thefe legal pollutions were generally removed by
bathing, and laded no longer than the evening. The
perfon polluted plunged over head in the water, and
either had his clothes on when he did fo, or wafhed
himfelf and his clothes feparately. Other pollutions
continued feven days, as that which was contra&ed by
touching a dead body. That of women in their month¬
ly courfes lafted till this was over with them. Other
impurities lafted 40 or 50 days; as that of women
' who were lately delivered, who were unclean 40 days
after the birth of a boy, and 50 after the birth of a
girl. Others again lafted till the perfon was cured.
Many of thefe pollutions were expiated by facrifices;
and others by a certain water or lye, made with the
afhes of a red heifer, facrificed on the great day of ex¬
piation. When the leper was cured, he went to the
temple, and offered a facrifice of two birds, one of
which was killed and the other fet at liberty. He who
had touched a dead body, or had been prefent at a fu¬
neral, was to be purified with the water of expiation,
and this upon pain of death. The woman who had
been delivered, offered a turtle and a lamb for her ex¬
piation; or if fhe was poor, two turtles or two young
pigeons.
Thefe impurities, which the law of Mofes has ex-
prefied with the greateft accuracy and care, were only
figures of other more important impurities, fuch as the Imputa ion i
fins and iniquities committed againft God, or faults II,
committed againft our neighbour. The faints and pro- Inarchin2*
phets of the Old Teftament were fenfible of this; and
our Saviour, in the gofpel,has ftrongly inculcated, that
they are not outward and corporeal pollutions which
render us unacceptable to God, but fuch inward pol¬
lutions as infed the foul, and are violations of juftice,
truth, and charity.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging fome-
thing to the account of one, which belonged to ano¬
ther: thus, the affertors of original fin maintain, that
Adam’s fin is imputed to all his pofterity.
In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of
Chrift are imputed to true believers.
INACCESSIBLE, fomething that cannot become
at, or approached, by reafon of intervening obftacles,
as a river, rock, &c. It is chiefly ufed in fpeakiug of
heights and diftances. See Geometry.
INACHUS, founder of the kingdom of Argos,
1856 B. C. See Argos.
INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally
alienated or made over to another: thus the dominions
of the king, the revenues of the church, the eftates of
a minor, &c. are inalienable, other wife than with a
referve of the right of redemption.
INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul,
or that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the ftate
of the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to reple¬
tion.
INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of
grafting, commonly called grafting hy approach; and is
ufed when the ftock intended to graft on, and the tree
from which the graft is to be taken, ftand fo near, or
can be brought fo near, that they may be joined to¬
gether. The branch to be inarched is to be fitted to
that part of the ftock where it is to be joined ; the
rind and wood are to be paired away on one fide for i
the length of three inches, and the ftock or branch
where the graft is to be united muft be ferved in the
fame manner, fo that the two may join equally, and the
fap meet. A little tongue is then to be cut upwards
in the graft, and a notch made in the ftock to admit
it; fo that, when they are joined, the tongue will pre¬
vent their flipping, and the graft will more clofely
unite to the ftock. Having thus brought them ex-
adtly together, they muft be lied with fome bafs, or
worfted, or other fdft tying; and then the place muft
be covered with fome grafting clay, to prevent the air
from drying the wound, and the wet from rotting the
ftock. A ftake muft be fixed in the ground, to which
both the ftock and the graft muft be tied to prevent
the winds from difplacing them. When they have re¬
mained in this ftate for four months, they will be fuf-
ficiently united, and the graft may then be cut off
from the mother-tree, obferving to flope it clofe to the
ftock; and at this time there fliould be freflt clay laid
all round the part. This operation ftiould be perform¬
ed in April or May, that the graft may be parfeftly
united to the ftock before the enfuing winter.
Inarching is chiefly pradlifed upon oranges,
myrtles, jeffamines, walnuts, firs, and fome other trees
which do not fucceed well in the common way of graft¬
ing. But it is a wrong pra&ice when orange-trees ars
dc*
INC [ 3885 ] INC
Mnaiigura- defigned to grow large, for thefe are feldom long-lived
I tl°n after the operation.
Ilccenfe INAUGURATION, the coronation of an empe-
I' ' ror or king, or the confecration of a prelate : fo call¬
ed from the ceremonies ufed by the Romans, When
they were received into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given by the natives of
Peru to their kings and the princes of the blood. Pe¬
dro de Cieca, in his Chronicle of Peru, gives the ori¬
gin of theincas; and fays, that that country was, for
a long time, the theatre of all manner of crimes, of
war, diffention, and the moft dreadful diforders, till at
laft two brothers appeared, one of whom was called
Mangocapa; of this perfon, the Peruvians relate ma¬
ny wonderful ftories. He built the city of Cufco,
made laws, eftablifhed%rdtr and harmony by his wife
regulations; and he and his defendants took the name
of inca, which fignifies king or great lord. Thefe in-
cas became fo powerful, that they rendered themfelves
mafters of all the country from Pafto to Chili, and from
the river Maule on the fouth to the river Augafmago
on the north ; thefe two rivers forming the bounds
of their empire, which extended above thirteen hun¬
dred leagues in length. This they erijoyed till the di-
vifions between inca Guafcar and Atabalipa ; which
the Spaniards laying hold of,' made themfelves ma¬
fters of the country, and deftroyed the empire of the
incas. See Peru.
INCAMERATION, a term ufed in the chancery
of Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other
rights, to the pope’s domain.
INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, ac¬
companied with a formula of words, and fuppofed to
be capable of raifing devils, fpirits, &c. See Charm,
&c.
INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two
kinds: 1. The want of a difpenfation for age in a mi¬
nor, for legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this
renders the provifion of a benefice void in its original.
2. Crimes and heinous offences, which annul provifions
at firft valid.
INCARNATION, in theology the aft where¬
by the fecond Perfon of the Holy^Trinity aflumed
the human nature, viz. a true body and reafonable
foul, in order to accomplifti the redemption of fallen
“ mankind.
INCARNATIVES, in furgery, medicines which
afiift nature in filling up wounds or ulcers with fitffi;
or rather remove the obftruftions thereto.
INCENSE, or Frankincense, in the materia me-
dica, &e. a dry refinous fubftance, known among au¬
thors by the names thus and olibanum.
Incenfe is a rich perfume, with which the Pagans,
and the Roman-Catholics ftill, perfume their temples,
altars, &c.- The word comes from the Latin in-
cenfum, q. d. burnt; as taking the effeft for the thing
I itfelf.
The burning of incenfe made part of the daily fer-
vice of the ancient Jewifti church. The priefts drew
lots to know who ihculd offer it: the deftined perfon
took a large filver dilh, in which was a cenfer full of
incenfe ; and being accompanied by another pried
carrying fome live coals from the altar, went into the
temple. There, in order to give notice to the peo¬
ple, they ftruck upon an inftrument of brafs placed
Von. V.
between the temple and the altar; and being returned Ineeft
to the altar, he who brought the fire left it there, and II .
went away. Then the offerer of incenfe having faid Inc ‘nation.
a prayer or two, waited the fignal, which was the
burning of the holocauft ; immediately upon which he
fet fire to the incenfe, the whole multitude continuing
all the time in prayer. The quantity of incenfe offered
each day, was half a pound in the morning, and as
much at night.
One reafon of this continual burning of incenfe might
be, that the multitude of viftims that were continually
offered up, would have made the temple fmell like a
flaughter-houfe, and confequently have infpired the
comers rather with difguft and averfion, than awe and
reverence, had it not been overpowered by the agree¬
able fragrance of thofe perfumes.
INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between
perfons who are related in a degree wherein marriage
is prohibited by the law of the country.
Some are of opinion, that marriage ought to be
permitted between kinsfolks, to the end that the af-
feftion fo neceffary in marriage might be heightened
by this double tie : yet the rules of the church have
formerly extended this prohibition even to the feventh
degree ; but time has now brought it down to the third
or fourth degree.
Moft nations look on inceft with horror, Perfia and
Egypt alone excepted. In the hiftory of the ancient
kings of thofe countries we meet with inftances of the
brother’s marrying the fifter ; the reafon was, becaufe
they thought it too mean to join in alliance with their
own fubjefts, and ftill more fo to have married into
any foreign family.
Ince;st Spiritual, a crime committed in like man¬
ner between perfons who have a fpiritual alliance by
means of baptifm or confirmation.
Spiritual inceft is alfo underftood of a vicar, or other
beneficiary, who enjoys both the mother and daughter;
that is, bolds two benefices, the one whereof depends
upon the collation of the other.
Such a fpiritual-inceft renders both the one and the
other of thefe benefices vacant.
INCH, a well-known meafure of length ; being the
twelfth part of afoot, and equal to three barley-corns
in length.
Inch of Candle, (fale by). See Candle.
INCHANTMENT. See Witchcraft.
INCIDENCE, denotes the direftion in which one
body flrikes on another. See Optics and Mecha¬
nics.
Angle of Incidence. See Angle.
INCIDENT diligence, in Scots law, a warrant
granted by a lord ordinary in the court of feffion, for
citing witneffes for proving any point, or for produc¬
tion of any writing neceffary for preparing the caufe
for a final determination, or before it goes to a gene¬
ral proof. •
INCISIVE, an appellation given to whatever cuts
or divides : thus, the foreteeth are called dentes inci/i-
vi, or cutters ; and medicines of an attenuating na¬
ture, incidents, or incifive medicines.
INCLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, is a word frequently ufed by
mathematicians, and fignifies the mutual approach,
tendency, or leaning of two lines or two planes to-
2 2 D wards
Inclined
II
Incus.
INC [ 3886 ] I N D
wards each other, fo as to make an angle.
INCLINED plane, in mechanics, one that
.makes an oblique angle with the horizon. See Me¬
chanics.
INCOGNITO, or incog, is applied to a perfon
who is in any place where he would not be known :
but it is more particularly applied to princes, or great
men, who enter towns, o,r walk the itreets, without
their ordinary train or the ufual marks of their diitinc-
tion and quality.
INCOMBUSTIBLE, fomething that cannot be
burnt, or confumed by fire. See Asbestos.
INCOMMENSURABLE, a term in geometry,
ufed where two lines, when compared to each other,
have no common meafure, how fmall foever, that will
exadtly meafure them both. And in general, two
quantities are faid to be incommenfurable, when no
third quantity can be found that is an aliquot part of
both.
Incommensurable Numbers, are fuch as have no
common divifor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMPATIBLE, that which cannot fubfift with
another without deftroying it: thus cold and heat are
incompatible in the fame fubjeA, the ftrongeft overco¬
ming and expelling the weakeft.
INCORPORATION, in pharmacy, is much the
fame as impaftation, being a reduction of dry fubftan-
ces to the confiftence of a pafte, by the admixture of
fame fluid : thus pills, boles, troches, and plafters,
are made by incorporation. Another incorporation is
when things of different confiftencies are by digeftion
reduced to one common confiftence.
Incorporation, ox Body-Corporate. See Corpo¬
ration.
INCRASSATING, in pharmacy, &c. the ren¬
dering of fluids thicker by the mixture of other fub-
flances lefs fluid, or by the evaporation of the thinner
parts.
INCUBATION, the aftion of a hen, or other
fowl, brooding on her eggs. See Hatching.
INCUBUS, Night-Mare, a difeafe confiding in
an oppreffion of the breaft, fo very violent, that the
patient cannot fpeak or even breathe. The word is
derived from the Latin incubare, to “ lie down” on
any thing and prefs it: the Greeks call it
q. d. faltator, “ leaper,” or one that rufheth on a
perfon.
In this difeafe the fenfes are not quite loft, but
drowned and aftonifhed, as is the underftanding and
imagination ; fo that the patient feems to think fome
huge weight thrown on him, ready to ftrangle him.
Children are very liable to this diftemper; fo are fat
people, and men of much ftudy and application of
mind; by reafon the ftomach in all thefe finds fome
difficulty in digeftion. See [Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine-
Incumbent, a clerk or minifter who is refident on
his benifice*; he is called incumbent, becaufe he does,
or at leaft ought to bend his whole ftudy to difeharge
the cure of his church.
INCURVATION of the Rays of Light, their
bending out of a re&ilinear ftfaight courfe, occafioned
by refra&ion. See Optics.
INCUS, in anatomy, a bone of the internal ear,
fomewhat refembling one of the anterior dentes mo-
lares. See Anatomy, n° 405. e.
INDEFEASIBLE, a term in law for what can¬
not be defeated or made void ; as an indefeafible eftate
of inheritance, &c.
Indefeasible Right to the Throne. See Heredi¬
tary Right.
INDEFINITE, that which has no certain bounds,
or to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Indefinite, in grammar, is underftood of nouns,
pronouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are
left in an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed
to any particular time, thing, or other circumftance.
INDELIBLE, fomething that cannot be cancelled
or effaced.
INDEMNITY, in law, the faving harmlefs; or a
writing to fecure one from all damage and danger that
may enfue from any aft.
INDENTED, in heraldry, is when the outline of
an ordinary is notched like the teeth of a faw.
INDEPENDENTS, a feft of Proteftants in Bri¬
tain and Holland, fo called from their independency
on other churches, and their maintaining, that each
church or congregation has fufficient power to aft and
perform every thing relating to religious government
within itfelf, and is no way fubjeft or accountable to
other churches or their deputies.
They therefore difallow parochial and provincial
fubordination, and form all their congregations upon
a fcheme of co-ordinancy. But though they do not
think it neceffary to affemble fynods, yet if any be
held, they look upon their refolutions as prudential
counfels, but not as decifions to which they are obli¬
ged to conform.
The prefent Independents differ from the Prefbyte-
rians only in their church-government; in being gene¬
rally more attached to the doftrines diftinguifhed by
the term orthodoxy, fuch as original fin, eleftion, re¬
probation, &c.; and in adminiftring the Lord’s Sup¬
per at the clofe of the afternoon’s fervice. See Pres¬
byterians.
The feveral fefts of Baptifts are all Independents
with refpeft to church-government; and, like them,
adminifter the Ij»rd’s Supper in the evening ; where¬
as the Prefbyterians adminifter it after the forenoon’s
fervice. See Anabaptists.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation
given to whatever is not certain, fixed, and limited j
in which fenfe it is the fame with indefinite.
INDEX, in arithmetic and algebra, fliewsto what
power any quantity is involved, and is otherwife call¬
ed its ex/w/e;*/. See Algebra, n° 9.
Expurgatory Index, a catalogue of prohibited books
in the church of Rome.
The firft catalogues of this kind were made by the
inquifitors; and thefe were afterwards approved of by
the council of Trent, after fome alteration was made
in them by way of retrenchment or addition. Thus
an index of heretical books being formed, it was con¬
firmed by a bull of Clement VIII. in 1595, and print¬
ed with feveral introduftory rules ; by the fourth of
which, the ufe of the feriptures in the vulgar tongue
if forbidden to all perfons without a particular licence;
and by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no book ftiall
be printed at Rome, without the approbation of the
Pope’s vicar,, or fome perfon delegated by the Pope ;
nor
I N D [ 3887 1 I N D
fc: | India nor in any other places, unlefs allowed by the bilhop
! r. II of the diocefe, or fome perfon deputed by him, or by
3 ^ 1<^ment,the inquifitor of heretical pravity.
The Trent index being thus publifhed, Philip II.
of Spain ordered another to be printed at Antwerp,
in 1571, with confiderable enlargements. Another
1 index was publilhed in Spain in 1584 ; a copy of which
was fnatched out of the fire when the Englifh plun¬
dered Cadiz. Afterwards there were feveral expurga¬
tory indexes printed at Rome and Naples, and parti¬
cularly in Spain.
INDIA proper, or Hither India, a large pe-
ninfula in Afia, bounded on the north by Ufbec Tar¬
tary and Thibet; on the eaft, by another part of Thi¬
bet, the kingdom of Afem, Ava, and Pegu ; on the
fouth, by the bay of Bengal and the Indian ocean ; and
by the fame ocean and Perfiai on the weft ; fituated
between 66° andg2° of eaft longitude, and between
70 and 40° of north latitude: being about 2000 miles
in length from north to fouth, and 1500 miles in
breadth from eaft to weft where broadeft ; though the
fouthern part of the peninfula is not 300 miles broad.
All the country within thefe limits is either fubjeft or
tributary to the great Mogul. It is frequently called
Indoftan; a name fuppofed to be derived from the ri-
I ver Indus, on its weftern frontiers: it is alfo called
the Meguljian, from the imperial family now upon the
throne, who trace their pedigree from Tamerlane, a
Mogul Tartar. See Moguls.
India beyond the Ganges, is a country bounded by
Thibet and Boutan on the north ; by China, Ton-
quin, and Cochin-China, on the eaft ; by the Indian
Ocean, on the fouth ; and by the hither India, the bay
of Bengal, and the ftraits of Malacca, on the weft : it
is fituated between 920 and 104° of eaft longitude, and
between the equator and 30° degrees of north lati¬
tude : being near 2000 miles in length from north to
fouth, but of a very unequal breadth ; in which limits
are comprehended the kingdoms of Afem, Ava, Pegu,
Laos, Siam, Cambodia, and Malacca, governed by
as many Indian princes ; only the Dutch have ufurped
the dominion of Malacca.
Indian SeeCoccuLus.
Indian 7ai. See Ink.
INDICATION, in phyfic, whatever ferves to di-
" reft the phyfician how to adl.
INDICATIVE, in grammar, the firft mood or
manner of conjugating a verb, by which we fimply
affirm, deny, or alk fomething : as, amant, they love;
non amant, they do not love ; amantne ? do they
I love ?
INDICTION, in chronology, a cycle of 15
years. See Cycle.
INDICTMENT, in law, one of the modes of pro-
fecuting an offender. See Prosecution.
Ill Englilh law, it is a written accufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to,
p/ucfy?. and prefented upon oath by, a grand jury. To this
Comment, the ffieriff of every county is bound to return to
every feffion of the peace, and every commiffion of
oyer and terminer, and of general gaol-delivery, twen¬
ty-four good and lawful men of the county, fome out
of every hundred, to inquire, prefent, do, and exe¬
cute all thofe things, which on the part of our lord
the king (hall then and there be commanded them.
They ought to be freeholders; but to what amount is Tndiftment.
uncertain: which feems to bt cafus omijfus, and as ~
proper to be fupplied by the legiflature as the quali¬
fications of the petit jury ; which were formerly equal¬
ly vague and uncertain, but are now fettled by feveral
adtsof parliament. However, they are ufually gentle¬
men of the belt figure in the county. As many as
appear upon this pannel, are fworn upon the grand
jury, to the amount of twelve at the leaft, and not
more than twenty-three ; that twelve may be a majo¬
rity. Which number, as well as the conftitution it-
felf, we find exa&ly defcribed fo early as the laws of
King Ethelred : Exeant feniores duodecim thani, et Wilk. LL.
prafeiius cum eis, et jurent fuper fanctuarium quod
eis inmanus datur, quod nolint ullum innocentem accu- II7*
fare, nec aliquem noxium celare. In the time of King
Richard I. (according to Hoveden), the procefs of
ele&ing the grand jury, ordained by that prince, was
as follows: Four knights were to be taken from the
county at large, who chofe two more out of every
hundred; which tw’o affociated to themfelvesten other
principal freemen, and thole twelve were to anfwer
concerning all particulars relating to their own diftrift.
This number was probably found too large and in¬
convenient ; but the traces of this inftitution (till re¬
main, in that fome of the jury muft be fummoned out
of every hundred. This grand jury are previoufly in-
ftru&ed in the articles of their inquiry, by a charge
from the judge who prefides upon the bench. They
then withdraw to fit and receive indiiSments, which
are preferred to them in the name of the king, but at
the fuit of any private profecutor; and they are only
to hear evidence on behalf of the profecution : for the
finding of an indiftment is only in the nature of an
inquiry or accufation, which is afterwards to be tried
and determined ; and the grand jury are only to in¬
quire upon their oaths, whether there be fufficient
caufe to call upon the party to anfwer it. A grand
jury, however, ought to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the truth of an indiftment, fo far as their evidence
goes ; and not to reft fatisfied merely with remote
probabilities: a doQrine that might be applied to
very oppreffive purpofes.
The grand jury are fworn to inquire only for the
body of the county, procorpore comitatus\ and there¬
fore they cannot regularly inquire of a fa& done out
that county for which they are fworn, unlefs particu¬
larly enabled by aft of parliament. And to fo high
a nicety was this matter anciently carried, that where
a man was wounded in one county, and died in ano¬
ther, the offender was at common law indiftable in
neither, becaufe no complete aft of felony was done
in any one of them : but by ftatute 2 and 3 Ed. VI.
c. 24. he is now indiftable in the county where the
party died. And, by ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 21. if
the ftroke or poifoning be in Ehgland, and the death
upon the fea or out of England, or vice verfa, the of¬
fenders, and their acceffories, may be indifted in the
county where either the death, poifoning, or ftroke,
(hall happen. And fo in fome other cafes ; as, par¬
ticularly, where treafon is committed out of the realm,
it may be inquired of in any county within the realm,
as the king (hall direft, in purfuance of ftatutes
26 Hen. VIII. c. 13. 33.; Hen. VIII. c. 23. 35. ;
Hen. VIII. c. 2. 5. 6.; Edw. VI. c. 11. And
22 D 2 counterfeiters,
V
I N D [ 3888 ] I N D
Tndiflment. counterfeiters, wafliers, or miniflrers, of the current
coin, together with all manner of felons and their ac-
ceffories, may, by ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 6. (con¬
firmed and explained by 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26.
§ 75. 76.) be indifted and tried for thofe offences, if
committed in any part of Wales, before the juitices of
gaol-delivery and of the peace, in the next adjoining
county of England, where the king’s writ runneth :
that is, at prefent in the county of Hereford or Salop ;
and not, as it fhould feem, in the county of Chelter
or Monmouth : the one being a county palatine where
the king’s writ did not run ; and the other a part of
Wales, in 26 Hen. VIII. Murders alfo, whether
committed in England or in foreign parts, may, by
virtue of the ftatue 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23. be inquired
of and tried by the king’s fpecial commiffion in any
{hire or place in the kingdom. By ftatute 10 and 11
W. III. c. 25. all robberies, and other capital crimes,
committed in Newfoundland, may be inquired of and
tried in any county in England. Offences againft the
black a&, 9 Geo. I. c. 22. may be inquired of and
tried in any county of England, at the option of the
profecutor. So felonies in deftroying turnpikes, or
works upon navigable rivers, credited by authority of
parliament, may, by ftatutes 8 Geo. II. c. 20. and
13 Geo. III. c. 84. be inquired of and tried in any ad¬
jacent county. By ftatute 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plun¬
dering orftealing from any veffel in diftrefs or wieck-
ed, or breaking any fhip contrary to 12 Ann. ft. 2.
c. l8. may be profecuted either in the county where
the fadt is committed, or in any county next adjoin¬
ing ; and if committed in Wales, then in the next ad¬
joining Englifh county : by which is underftood to be
meant, fuch Englifh county as, by the ftatute 26
Hen. VIII, above mentioned, had before a concur¬
rent jurifdidfion of felonies committed in Wales. Fe¬
lonies committed out of the realm, in burning or de¬
ftroying the king’s fhips, magazines, or ftores, may,
by ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 24. be inquired of and
tried in any county of England, or in the place where
the offence is committed. By ftatute 13 Geo. III.
c‘. 63. mifdemeanors committed in India may be tried
upon information or indidfment in the court of king’s-
bench in England; and a mode is marked out for ex¬
amining witneffes by commiffion, and tranfmitting
their depofitions to the court. But, in general, all
offences muft be inquired into, as well as tried, in the
county where the fadt is committed. Yet if larciny
be committed in one county, and the goods carried
into another, the offender may be indidted in either;
for the offence is complete in both. Or he may be
indidted in England for larciny in Scotland, and
carrying the goods with him into England, or vice
verfa; or for receiving in one part of the united
kingdom goods that have been ftolen in another. But
for robbery, burglary,* and the like, he can only be
indidted where the fadt was adtually committed: for
though the carrying away and keeping of the goods
is a continuation of the original taking, and is there¬
fore larciny in the fecond county, yet it is not a rob¬
bery or burglary in that jurifdidtjon. And if a perfon
be indidted in one coutity for larciny of goods origi¬
nally taken in another, and be thereof convidted, or
Hands mute, he fhall not be admitted to his clergy ;
provided the original taking be attended with fuch
circumftances as would have oufted him of his clergy Indiftmen
by virtue of any ftatute made previous to the year
1691.
When the grand jury have heard the evidence, if
they think it a groundlefs accufation, they ufed for¬
merly to endorfe on the back of the bill, Ignoramus ;
or, We know nothing of it: intimating, that though
the fadts might poffibly be true, that truth did not
appear to them. But now they affert in Englifti more
abfolutely, Not a true bill; or (which is the better
way) Not found: and then the party is difcharged
without farther anfwer. But a frelh bill may after¬
wards be preferred to a fubfequent grand jury. If
they are fatisfied of the truth of the accufation, they
then endorfe upon it, “A true billanciently, Billa
vera. The indidlment is then faid to be found, and
the party Hands indidted. But to find a bill, there
muft at leaft twelve of the jury agree : for fo tender is
the law of England of the lives of the fubjedts, that
no man can be convidted at the fuit of the king of any
capital offence, unlefs by the unanimous voice of
twenty-four of his equals and neighbours ; that is, by
twelve at leaft of ihe grand jury, in the firft place, af-
fenting to the accufation ; and afterwards by the whole
petit jury, of twelve more, finding him guilty upon
his trial. But if twelve of the grand jury affent, it is
a good prefentment, though fome of the reft difagree.
And the indidlment, when fo found, is publicly deli¬
vered into court,
Indidtments muft have a precife and fufficient cer¬
tainty. By ftatute 1 Hen. V. c. 5. all indidtments
muft fet forth the Chriftian name, firname, and addi¬
tion of the Hate and degree,, myftery, town, or place,
and the county of the offender ; and all this to identify
his perfon. The time and place are alfo to be afcer-
tained, by naming the day and townfhip in which the
fadt was committed : though a miftake in thefe points
is in general not held to be material, provided the
time be laid previous to the finding of the indidtment,
and the place to be within the jurifdidtion of the court;
unlefs where the place is laid, not merely as a venue,
but as part of the defcription of the fadt. But
fometimes the time may be very material, where there
is any limitation in point of time affigned for the pro-
facution of offenders; as by the ftatute 7 Will. III.
c. 3. which enadts, that no profecution fhall be had
for any of the treafons or mifprifions therein mention¬
ed, (except an affaffination defigned or attempted on
the perfon of the king), unlefs the bill of indidtment
be found within three years after the offence commit¬
ted: and, in cafe of murder, the time of the death
muft, be laid within a year and a day after the mortal
ftroke was given. The offence itfelf muft alfo be fet
forth with clearnefs and certainty ; and in fome crimes
paiticular words of art rcuft be ufed, which are fo ap¬
propriated by the law to exprtfs the precife idea which
it entertains of the offence, that no other words, how¬
ever fynonimous they may feem, are capable of doing
it. Thus, in treafon, the fadts muft be laid to be done
“ treafonably, and againft his allegiance anciently,
proditori'e et contraligeantia fuee debitum elfe the in¬
didtment is void. In indidtments for murder, it is
neceffary to fay that the party indidted “murdered,”
not “ killed” or “ flew',” the other; which, till the
late ftatute, wasexpreffed in Latin by the word mur-
drdvit.
I N D [ 3889 ] I N D
foment d/avit. In all indi&ments for felonies, tlie adverb
II “ felonioufly,” felonice, muft be ufed ; and for burg-
°ofera' laries alfo, burglariter, or, in Englifb, “ burglariouny:”
and all thefe to ascertain the intent. In rapes, the
word rapuit, or “ ravilhed,” is neceflary, and muft
not be exprefled by any periphrafis, in order to render
the crime certain. So in larcinies alfo, the words fe¬
lonice cepit et afportavit, “ felonioufly took or carried
away,” are neceflary to every indictment; for thefe
only can^xprefs the very offence. Alfo, in indictments
for murder, the length and depth of the wound ftiould
in general be expreffed, in order that it may appear to
the court to have been of a mortal nature: but if it
goes through the body, then its dimenfions are imma¬
terial ; for that is apparently fufficient to have been
the caufe of the death. Alfo, where a limb, or the
like, is abfolutely cut off, there fuch defcription is
impofiible. Laftly, in indi&ments, the value of the
thing which is the fubjeft or inftrument of the offence,
muft fometimes be expreffed. In indi&ments for lar¬
cinies this is neceffary, that it may appear whether it
be grand or petit larciny; and whether intitled or not
to the benefit of clergy. In homicides of all forts it is
neceffary ; as the weapon with which it is committed
is forfeited to the king as a deodand. For the manner
of procefs upon an indiftment, fee Process.
Indictment, in Scots law, the name of the fum
mons, or libel, upon which criminals are cited before
the court of jufticiary to (land trial. See Law,
t Part III. n° clxxxvi. 44.
Plea to Indictment. See Plea.
INDIES, Eaft and Weft. See India, and
America.
INDIGESTION, in medicine, a crudity, or want
of due coftion, either in the food, an humour of the
body, or an excrement. See Anorexia, Apepsia,
and (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave to
fome of their gods.—There are various opinions about
the fignification of this word ; fome maintaining it
was given to all the gods in general; others only
to the femi-gods, or great men deified. Others fay,
it was given to fuch gods as were originally of the
country, or rather fuch as were the gods of the coun¬
try that bore this name. Others, again, hold that it
was afcribed to fuch gods as were patrons and pro-
teftors of particular cities.
INDIGO, a dye prepared from the leaves and
fmall branches of the Indigofera Tinttoria. See In-
DIGOFERA.
INDIGOFERA, the indigo plant; a genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
of plants.—There are five fpecies; the moft remark¬
able of which is the tinftoria, a native of the warm
parts of Afia, Africa, and America, and from which
the Indigo dye is made. The root of this plant is
three or four lines thick, and more than a foot long,
of a faint fmell fomething like parfley. From this
root iffues a Angle ftem nearly of the fame thicknefs,
about two feet high, ftraight, hard, ahnoft woody,
covered with a bark flightly fplit, of a grey alh-colour
towards the bottom, green in the middle, reddifli at
the extremity, and without appearance of pith in the
infide. The leaves, ranged in pairs around the ftalk,
are of an oval form, fmooth, foft to the touch, fur¬
rowed above, of a deep green on the under-fide, and Indigofen.
connected by a very Ihort peduncle. From about one- ~
third of the ftem to the extremity there are ears that
are loaded with very fmall flowers from a dozen to 15,
but deftitute of fmell. The piftil, which is in the
midft of each flower, changes into a pod, in which the
feeds are inclofed.
This plant requires a fmooth rich foil, well tilled,
and not too-dry. The feed of it, which, as to figure
and colour, refemblcs gun-powder, is fowed in little
furrows that are about the breadth of the hoe, two
or three inches deep, at a foot’s diftance from each
other, and in as ftraight a line as poffible. Continual
attention is required to pluck up the weeds, which
would foon choak the plant. Though it may be
fown in all feafons, the fpring is commonly preferred.
Moifture caufes this plant to ftioot above the furface
in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of two
months. When it begins to flower, it is cut with
pruning-knives; and cut again at the end of every fix
weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lafts about
two years, after which term it degenerates; it is then
plucked up, and planted afrefh. As this plant foon
exhaufts the foil, becaufe it does not abforba fufficient
quantity of air and dew to moiften the earth, it is of
advantage to the planter to have a vaft fpace which
may remain covered with trees, till it becomes necef¬
fary to fell them in order to make room for the
indigo-
indigo is diftinguiftied into two kinds, the true and
the bajlard. Though the firft is fold at a higher
price on account of its fuperiority, it is ufually advan¬
tageous to cultivate the other, becaufe it is heavier.
The firft will grow in many different foils; the fecond-
fucceeds beft in thofe which are moft expofed to the
rain. Both are liable to great accidents. Sometimes
the plant becomes dry, and is deftroyed by an infeft
frequently found on it; at other times, the leaves,
which are the valuable part of the plant, are devoured
in the fpace of 24 hours by caterpillars. This laft
misfortune, which is but too common, has given oc-
cafion to the faying, “ that the planters of indigo
go to bed rich, and rife in the morning totally
ruined.”
This produdlion ought to be gathered in with great
precaution, for fear of making the farina that lies on
the leaves, and is very valuable, fall off by ftiaking it.
When gathered, it is thrown into the fteeping-vat, which
is a large tub filled with water. Here ic undergoes a
fermentation, which in 24 hours at furtheft is com¬
pleted. A cock is then turned, to let the water run
into the fecond tub, called the mortar or pounding tub*
The fteeping-vat is then cleaned out, that frefti plants
may be thrown in ; and thus the work is continued
without interruption.
The water which has run into the pounding-tub is
found impregnated with a very fubtile earth, which
alone conftitutes the dregs or blue fubftance that is
the objedl of this procefs, and which muft be feparated
from the ufelefa fait of the plant, becaufe this makes
the dregs-fwim on the furface. To effeft this, the
water is forcibly agitated with wooden buckets, that
are full of holes and fixed to a long handle. This
part of the procefs requires the greateft precautions;
If the agitation be difcontinued too foon, the part
that
I N D [ 3890 ] I N D
Indigofera that la ufed in dying, not being fufficiently feparated
Indofta ^rom ^a't’ wou^ ke loft. If, on the other hand,
n 0 an‘ the dye were to be agitated too long after the com¬
plete feparation, the parts would be brought together
again, and form a new combination; and the fait re¬
adying on the dregs, would excite a fecond fermenta¬
tion, that would alter the dye, fpoil its colour, and
make what is called burnt indigo. Thefe accidents
are prevented by a clofe attention to the leaft altera¬
tions that the dye undergoes, and by the precaution
which the workmen take to draw out a little of it
from time to time in a clean vefiel. When they per¬
ceive that the coloured particles colled! by feparating
from the reft of the liquor, they leave off fhaking the
buckets, in order to allow time to the blue dregs to
precipitate to the bottom of the tub, where they
are left to fettle till the water is quite clear.—
Holes made in the tub, at different heights, are
then opened one after another, and this ufelefs water
is let out.
The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having
acquired the confiftence of a thick muddy liquid,
cocks are then opened, which draw it off into the
fettler. After it is ftill more cleared of much fuper-
Jfluous water in this third and laft tub, it is drained
into facks; from whence, when water no longer filters
through the cloth, this matter, now become of a thicker
confiftence, is put into chefts, where it entirely lofes
its moifture. At the end of three months the indigo
is fit for fale.
It is ufed, in wafhing, to give a blueilh colour to
linen : painters alfo employ it in their water-colours;
and dyers cannot make fine blue without indigo.
The ancients procured it from the Eaft-Indies; in
modern times, it has been tranfplanted into America.
The cultivation of it, fucceffively attempted at diffe¬
rent places, appears to be fixed at Carolina, St. Do¬
mingo, and Mexico. That which is known under the
name of Guatimala indigo, from whence it comes, is
the moft perfeft of all.
INDIVIDUAL, a particular being of anyfpecies,
or that which cannot be divided into two or more be¬
ings equal or alike.
The ufual divifion in logic is made into genera, or
into genus's; thofe genera into fpecies; and thofe fpe-
eies into individuals.
INDIVISIBLE, among metaphyficians.—A thing
is faid to be abfolutely indivijible, that is a Ample be¬
ing, and confifts of no parts into which it may be di¬
vided. Thus, God is indiviftble in all refpe&s; as is
alfo the human mind; not having cxtenfion, or other
properties of body.
Indivisibles, in geometry, the elements or prin¬
ciples into which any body or figure may be ultimately
refolved; which elements are fuppofed to be infinitely
fmall: thus, a line may be faid to confift of points, a
furface of parallel lines, and a folid of parallel and
fimilar furfaces.
INDORSEMENT, in law, any thing written on the
back of a deed ; as a receipt for money reeived.
There is likewife an indorfement, by way of affign-
ment, on bills of exchange and notes of hand; which
is done by writing a perfon’s name on the back
thereof.
INDOSTAN, proper India, or the Empire of
, the Great Mogul; a country of Afia, bounded on the Indorf
weft by Perfia, on the fouth by the weftern peninfula II
of India, on the eaft by the eaftern peninfula, and Indu^|
on the north by feveral kingdoms of Independent 1
Tartary, and comprehending a confiderable part of
the ancient India; more, indeed, than the ancient
Greeks and Romans ever had any diftinA know¬
ledge of.
The period in which the country of Indoftan was
originally peopled is now totally unknown. The
averfion which the Indians themfelves have to dif-»
cover their hiftory to foreigners, has involved it in
deep obfeurity; and what can be eolleAed from
the hiftorians of Greece and Rome, does little more
than let us know that fuch a people as the Indians
exifted in their days. The only light we have to di-
re& us on this obfeure fubjeft, is derived from an hifto-
rical poem founded upon fa&, and tranflated into the
Perfian language in the reign of Mohammed Akbar,
who died in the 1605th'year of the Chriftian sera;
and even this account is exceedingly barren of inte-
refting particulars: fo that, till the time of the inva-
fion of the Moguls, the hiftory of Indoftan affords no¬
thing either inftruAing or amufing; for which reafon,
it more properly comes under the articles Mogul, and
Mogul’s Empire.
In almoft all ages, the inhabitants of this country
have been remarkable for their riches, their floth,
and their effeminacy; which have rendered them a
prey to many barbarous invaders, who in their
turn have degenerated and been fubdued by others.
Their floth and effeminacy feems in a great meafure
to be owing to their fyftem of religion ; though no
doubt fame natural caufes, fuch as the climate, &c.
alfo concur. The Indians are direfled by their reli¬
gion to efteem abfolute ina&ivity or idlenefs the fum-
mit of all earthly, and indeed heavenly happinefs;
fince, according to them, their great god Brama him-
felf hath been eternally doing nothing, and will con¬
tinue to eternity in the fame ftate of ina&ivity. In
confequence of this principle, they carry their ina&i-
vity to a furprizing and almoft incredible height;
they yield to every oppreffor, and fuffer themfelves to
be tyrannized over by foreign as well as domeftic
defpots.—A great part of the country is now fubjeA
to'the Englifh Eaft-India Company : but for a full
account of the extent of their jurifdi&ion, as well as
the difpofitions, manners, cuftoms, &c. of the inhabi¬
tants, fee the articles abovementioned; alfo Brama,
Brachman, and Bramin.
INDUCTION. See Logic, n® 98, 99; and Ora¬
tory, n° 32.
Induction, in law, is putting a clerk or clergy¬
man in poffeffion of a benefice or living to which he
is collated or prefented. See the article Parson.—
Indu&ion is performed by a mandate from the bilhop
to the arch-deacon, who ufually iffues out a precept
to other clergymen to perform it for him. It is
done by .giving the clerk corporal poffeflion of the
church, as by holding the ring of the door, tolling a
bell, or the like ; and is a form required by law, with
intent to give all the pariftiioners due notice, and fuf-
ficient certainty of their new minifter, to whom their
tythes are to be paid. This therefore is the invefti-
ture of the temporal part of the benefice, as inftitu-
hi N D
ition is of the fpiritual. And when
prefented, inftituted, and indu&ed into a re&ory, he
is then, and not before, in full and complete poflef-
fion; and is called in law perfona imperfonata, or par-
fon imparfonee.
INDULGENCES, in the Romifh church, are a
remiffion of the punifiunent due to fins, granted by
the church, and fuppofed to fave the finner from Pur¬
gatory.
According to the do&rine of the Romith church,
•all the good works of the faints over and above thofe
which were neceflary towards their own juftification,
are depofited, together with the infinite merits of Jefus
Chrift, in one inexhauftable treafury. The keys of this
were committed to St Peter, and to his fucceffors the
1 popes, who may open it at pleafure, and’ by tranf-
ferring a portion of this fuperabundant merit to any
particular perfon, for a fum of money, may convey
to him either the pardon of his own fins, or a releafe
for any one in whom he is interefted, from the pains
of Purgatory. Such indulgences were firft invented
in the nth century, by Urban II. as a recompenfe
for thofe who went in perfon upon the glorious enter-
prize of conquering the Holy Land. They were af-
[ 3891 ] INF
clerk is thus indulgence, his foul may reft fecure with refpe& to
its falvation. The fouls confined in purgatory, for
whofe redemption indulgences are purchafed, as foon_
as the money tinkles in the cheft, inftantly efcape from
that place of torment, and afcend into heaven. That
the efficacy of indulgences was fo great, that the moft
heinous fins, even if one fliould violate (which was
impolfible) the mother of God, would be remitted
and expiated by them, and the perfon be freed both
from punifhment and guilt. That this was the un-
fpeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to
himfelf. That the crofs eredled by the preachers of
indulgences was equally efficacious with the crofs of
Chrift itfelf. “ Lo! the heavens are open; if you
enter not now, when will you enter ? For twelve pence
you may redeem the foul of your father out of pur¬
gatory ; and are you fo ungrateful, that.you will not
refeue your parent from torment ? If you had but one
coat, you ought to ftrip yourfelf inftantly, and fell it,
in order to purchafe fuch benefits,” &c.
It was this great abufe of indulgences that contri¬
buted not a little to the firft reformation of reliigon
in Germany, where Martin Luther began firft to de¬
claim againft the preachers of indulgences, and after-
terwards granted to thofe who hired a foldier for that wards againft indulgences themfelves: but fince that
lertfon's gences was as follows. “ May our Lord Jefus
larles V. Chrift have mercy upon thee, and abfolve thee by the
‘ u‘ merits of his moft holy paffion. And I, by his au¬
thority, that of his bleffed apoftles Peter and Paul, and
of the moft holy Pope, granted and committed to me in
thefe parts, do abfolve thee, firft, from all ecclefiaftical
cenfures, in whatever manner they have been incurred ;
then from all thy fins, tranfgreffions, and exceffes,
how enormous foever they may be, even from fuch as
purpofe; and in procefs of time were beftowed on
fuch as gave money for accomplilhing any pious work
enjoined by the Pope.
The power of granting indulgences has been greatly
abufed in the church of Rome. Pope Leo X. in
order to carry on the magnificent ftrufture of St Pe¬
ter’s at Rome, publilhed indulgences, and a plenary
remiffion to all fuch as ftiould contribute money to¬
wards it. Finding the projeft take, he granted to
Albert eledtor of Mentz, and archbiftiop of Magde¬
burg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and
the neighbouring parts, and farmed out thofe of other
countries to the higheft bidders ; who, to make the beft
time the popes have been more fparing in the exercife
of this power: however, they ftill carry on a great
trade with them to the Indies, where they are pur¬
chafed at two rials a-piece, and fometimes more.
The pope likewife grants indulgences to perfons at
the point of death ; that is, he grants them, by a brief,
power to choofe what confeffor they pleafe, who is
authorized thereby to abfolve them from all their fins
in general.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of
prefenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by
the pope. Of this kind is the indult of kings and fo-
_ vereign princes in the Romifh communion, and that
of their bargain, procured the ableft preachers to cry of the parliament of Paris granted by feveral popes,
up the value of the ware. The form of thefe indul- By the concordat for the abolition of the pragmatic
fandtion, made between Francis I. and Leo X.
1516, the French king has the power of nominating
to bifiioprics, and other confiftorial benefices, within
his realm. At the fame time, by a particular bull, the
pope granted him the privilege of nominating, to the
churches of Britany and Provence. In 1648 pope
Alexander VIII. and in 1668 Clement IX. granted
the king an indult for the bifiioprics of Metz, Toul,
and Verdun, which had been yielded to him by the
are referved for the cognizance of the holy fee, and treaty of Munfter ; and in 1668 the fame pope Clement
as far as the keys of the holy church extend: I remit
to you all punifiiment which you deferve in Purgatory
on their account; and I reftore you to the holy facra-
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and
to that innocence and purity which you poffefled at
baptifm ; fo that when you die, the gates of punifli
IX. granted him an indult for the benefices in the coun¬
ties of Roufillon, Artois, and the Netherlands. The
cardinals likewife have an indult granted them by a-
greement between pope Paul IV. and the facred col¬
lege in 1555, which is always confirmed by the popes
at the time of their eleftion. By this treaty the Gar¬
ment {hall be {hut, and the gates of the paradife of dinals have the free difpofal of all the benefices depend-
delight fhall be opened: and if you fhall not die at ing on them, and are empowered likewife to beftow -
prefent, this grace {hall remain in full force when you
are at the point of death. In the name of the Father,
and of the Sdn, and of the Holy Ghoft.”
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences,
deferibed their benefits and the neceffity of purchafing
them, are fo extravagant, that they appear almoft in¬
credible. If any man (faid they) purchafes letters of
benefice in camtnendam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, or cuftom, paid to the
king of Spain for all fuch commodities as are imported
from the Weft Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, a large river of Afia, which rifes in the
mountains which feparate Tartary from India, and
difeharges itfelf into the Indian ocean.
INERTIA
Inertia
'(I
Infant.
INF [ 3892
INERTIA of Matter, in philofophy, is defined
by Sir Ifaac Newton to be a paffive principle by which
. bodies perfift in their motion or reft, receive motion
in proportion to the force impreffing it, and refill as
much as they are refifted. It is alfo defined by the
fame author to be a power implanted in all matter,
whereby it refifts any change endeavoured to be made
in its ftate. See Mechanics.
IN ESSE is applied to things which are a£tually
exifting.
Authors make a difference between a thing in ejfe,
and a thing/'« pojfe: a thing that is not, but may be,
they fay is poffe, or potentia ; but a thing apparent
and vilible, they fay is in ejfe, that is, has a real be¬
ing eo injlanti, whereas the other is cafual, and at bell
but a poffibility.
INFALLIBLE, fomething that cannot err, or be
deceived.
One of the great controverfies between the Prote-
ftants and Papifts, is the infallibility which the latter
attribute to the pope; though-, in fa£l, they them-
fdves are not agreed on that head, feme placing this
pretended infallibility in the pope and a general council.
INFAMY, in law, is a term which extends to
forgery, perjury, grofs cheats, &c. by which a perfon
is rendered incapable of being a witnefs or juror, even
though he is pardoned for his crimes.
INFANCY, the firft part of life.—Fred. Hoffman
fays, that the human fpecies are infants until they
begin to talk, and children to the age of puberty—
Anatomy difeovers to us, that during infancy there is
much imperfe&ion in the human frame; e. g. its parts
are difproportioned, and its organs incapable of thofe
funftions which in future life they are defigned to per-
] INF
1. In criminal matters. The law of England does
in fome cafes privilege an infant under the age of 21, ~
as to common mifdemeanours ; fo as to efcape fine,
imprifonment, and the like : and particularly in the
cafes of omiffion, as not repairing a bridge, or a high
way, and other fimilar offences; for not having the
command of his fortune till the age of 21, he wants
the capacity to do thofe things which the law re¬
quires. But where there is any notorious breach of
the peace, a riot, battery, or the like, (which in- B
fants when full-grown are at leaft as liable as others Cl
to commit) ; for thofe, an infant above the age of 14
is equally liable to fuffer, as a perfon of the full age
of 2 1.
With regard to capital crimes, the law is ftill more
minute and circumfptdl; drftinguifhing with greater
nicety the feveral degrees of age and diferetion. By
the ancient Saxon law, the age of twelve years was
eftablilhed for the age of poflible diferetion, when firft
the underftanding might open : and from' thence till
the offender was 14, it was at as pubertati proxima,
in which he might, or might not, be guilty of a
crime, according to his natural capacity or incapaci¬
ty. This was the dubious ftage of diferetion : but,
under twelve, it was held, that he could not be guil¬
ty in will, neither after fourteen could be fuppofed in¬
nocent, of any capital crime which he in faft commit¬
ted. But by the law, as it now Hands, and has ftood at
leaft ever fince the time of Edward III. the capacity
of doing ill, or contradling guilt, is not fo much mea-
fured by years and days, as by the ftrength of the de¬
linquent’s underftanding and judgment. For one lad
of 11 years old may have as much cunning as another
of 14; and in thefe cafes our maxim is, that malitia
form. The head is larger in proportion to the bulk fupplet atatem. Under feven years^of age, indeed,!
of the body than that of an adult. The liver and infant cannot be guilty of felony ; for then a felonious
pancreas are much larger in proportion than in ad¬
vanced life ; their fecretions arc more in quantity allb.
The bile is very inert; the heart is (Longer and larger
than in future life ; the quantity of blood fent through
the heart of an infant, in a given time, is alfo more
in proportion than in adults. Though thefe circum-
ftances have their important ufefulnefs, yet the imper-
fe&ion attending them fubje&s this age to many in¬
juries and dangers from which a more pei fe£l ftate is
exempted. Dr Percival obferves, in his EJfays Med. and
Exp. that of all the children who are born alive, two
thirds do not live to be two years old.
Infants have a larger proportion of brain than adults,
hence are more fubjedl to nervous diforders; and hence
the diagnoftics of difeafes are in many refpe&s obfeure
or uncertain, as particularly thofe taken from the pulfe,
which, from the irritability of the tender bodies of in¬
fants, is fuddenly affeded by a variety of accidents
too numerous, and feemingly too trivial to gain our
attention. However, no very great embarraffment
arifes to thepraditioner from hence ; for the difordtrs
in this ftate are generally acute, lefs complicated
than thofe in adults, and are more eafily discovered
than is generally apprehended.—See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
INFANT, denotes a young child. See Infancy.
Infant, in law, is a perfon under 21 years of age ;
whofe capacities, incapacities, and privileges, are va¬
rious.
diferetion is almoft an impoffibility in nature: but at
eight years old, he may be guilty of felony. Alfo, un¬
der 14, though an infant (hall be prima facie adjud¬
ged to be doli incapax; yet if it appear to the court
and jury, that he was doli capax, and could difeern
between good and evil, he may be convi&ed and fuf¬
fer death. Thus a girl of 13 has been burnt for kill¬
ing her miftrefs: and one boy of ten, and another of
nine years old, who had killed their companions, have
been fentenced to death, and he of ten years adlually
hanged ; becaufe it appeared upon their trials, that
the one hid himfelf, and the other hid the body he had
killed ; which hiding manifefted a confcioufnefs of
guilt, and a diferefion to difeern between good and
evil. And there was an inftance in the laft century,
where a boy -of eight years old was tried at Abingdon
for firing two barns ; and, it appearing that he had
malice, revenge, and cunning, he was found guilty,
condemned, and hanged accordingly. Thus alfo, in
very modern times, a boy of ten years old was convic¬
ted on his own confeffion of murdering his bedfellow;
there appearing in his whole behaviour plain tokens of
a mifehievous diferetion ; and, as the fparing this
boy merely on account of his tender years might be of
dangerous confequence to the public, by propagating
a notion that children might commit fuch atrocious
crimes with impunity, it was unanimoufly agreed by
all the judges, that he was a proper fubjeft of capital
puniftiment. But, in all fuch cafes, the evidence of
that
INF [ 3893 j I N F
Infant, that malice, which is to ftipply age, ought to be
ftrong and clear beyond all doubt and contradiftion.
2. In civil matters. The ages of male and female are
different for different purpofes. A male at 12 years old
may take the oath of allegiance ; at 14 is at the years
of difcretion, and therefore may confent or difagree to
marriage, may choofe his guardian, and, if his difcre¬
tion be actually proved, may make his teftament of his
pcrfonal eftate; at 17 maybe an executor; and at 21
is at his own difpofal, and may aliene his lands, goods,
and chattels. A female alfo at feven years of age may
be betrothed or given in marriage; at nine is entitled
to dower; at 12 is at years of maturity, and therefore
may confent or difagree to marriage, and, if proved
to have fufficient difcretion, may bequeath her perfonal
eftate; at 14 is at years of legal difcretion, and may
choofe a guardian ; at 17 may be executrix; and at 21
maydifpofe of herfelf and her lands. So that full age
in male or female is 21 years, which age is completed
on the day preceding the anniverfary of a perfon’s
birth; who till that time is an infant, and fo ftyled in
* law. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women
were never of age, but fubjeft to perpetual guardian-
fhip, unlefs when married, nifi convtnljfent in manum
viri: and, when that perpetual tutelage wore away in
procefs of time, we find that, in females as well as
males, full age was not till 25 years.' Thus by the
conftitution of different kingdoms, this period, which
is merely arbitrary, and juris pojitivi, is fixed at dif¬
ferent times. Scotland agrees with England in this
point; (both probably copying from the old Saxon
conftitutions on the continent, which extended the age
of minority ad annum vigejimutn primum, et eo ufqtxe
juvenes fub tutelam reponunt) : but in Naples perlons
are of full age at 18; in France, with regard to mar¬
riage, not till 30; and in Holland at 25.
The very difabilities of infants are privileges ; in
order to fecure them from hurting themfelves by their
own improvident afts. An infant cannot be fued but
under the prote&ion, and joining the name, of his
guardian ; for he is to defend him againft all attacks
as well by law as otherwife: but he may fue either by
his guardian, or prochein amy, his next friend who is
not his guardian. This prochein aniy may be any per-
fon who will undertake the infant’s caufe; and it fre¬
quently happens, that an infant, by his prochein amyt
inftitutes a fuit in equity againft a fraudulent guardian.
With regard to eftates and civil property, an infant
hath many privileges. In general, an infant fhall lofe
nothing by nonclaim, or negledt of demanding his
right; nor fhall any other laches or negligence be im¬
puted to an infant, except in fome very particular cafes.
It is generally true, that an infant can neither aliene
Lis lands, nor do any legal a<ft, nor make a deed, nor
indeed any manner of contraft, that will bind him.
But ftill to all thefe rules there are fome exceptions:
part of which were juft now mentioned in reckoning
up the different capacities which they affume at di jpr-
ent ages: and there are others, a few of which it may
not be improper to recite, as a general fpecimen of the
whole. And, firft, it is true, that infants cannot aliene
their eftates: but infant-truftees, or mortgagees, are
enabled to convey, under the direftion of the court of
chancery or exchequer, or other courts of equity, the
eilates they hold in truft or mortgage, to fueh perfon
Vol. V.
as the court iltall appoint. Alfo it is generally true, Infant;
that an infant can do no legal aft: yet an infant, who jnfJua((.
has an advowfon, may prefent to the benefice when it   a
becomes void. For the law in this cafe difpenfes with
one rule, in order to maintain others of far greater
confequence: it permits an infant to prefent a clerk
(who, if unfit, may be rejefled by the bifliop), rather
than either fuffer the church to be unferved till he
comes of age, or permit the infant to be debarred of
his right by lapfe to the bifhop. An infant may alfo
purchafe lands, but his purchafe is incomplete : for,
when he comes to age, he may either agree or difagree
to it, as he thinks prudent or proper, without alleging
any reafon; and fo may his heirs after him, if he dies
without having completed his agreement. It is, far¬
ther, generally true, that an infant, under 2 r, can make
no deed but what is afterwards voidable: yet in fome
cafes he may bind himfelf apprentice by deed indented
or indentures, for feven years; and he may by deed or
will appoint a guardian to his children, if he has any.
Laftly, it is generally true, that an infant can make
no other contraft that will bind him: yet he may bind
himfelf to pay for his neceflary meat, drink, apparel,
phyfic, and fuch other neceflaries; and likewife for his
good teaching and inftruftion, whereby he may profit
himfelf afterwards.
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the Tons and daugh¬
ters of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the
eldeft; the princes being called infantes^ and the prin-
cefles infantas.
INFANTRY, in military affairs, the whole body
of foot-foldiers, whether independent companies or re¬
giments.—The word takes its origin from one of the
infantas of Spain, who, finding that the army com¬
manded by the king her father had been defeated by
the Moors, afiembled a body of foot-foldiers, and with
them engaged and totally routed the enemy. In me¬
mory of this event, and to diftinguifh the foot-foldiers,
who were not before held in much confideration, they
received the name of infantry.
Heavy-armed Infantry, among the ancients, were
fuch as wore a complete fuit of armour, and engaged
with broad fhields and long fpears. They were the
flower and ftrength of the Grecian armies, and had
the higheft rank of military honour.
Light-Armed Infantry, among the ancients, were
defigned for fkirmifkes, and for fighting at a diftance.
Their weapons were arrows, darts, or flings.
LAght Infantry, among the moderns, have only
been in ufe fince the year 1656. They have no camp-
equipage to cany, and their arms and accoutre¬
ments are much lighter than thofe of the infantry.
Light infantry are the eyes of a general, and the gi¬
vers of fleep and fafety to an army. Wherever there
is found light cavalry, there fhould be light infantry.
They fhould be accuftomed to the pace of four miles
an hour, as their ufual marching'pace, and to be able
to march at five miles an hour upon all particular oc-
cafions. Moft of the powers on the continent have
light infantry.
INFATUATE, to prepoflefs any one in favour of
fome perfon or thing that does not deferve it, fo far as
that he cannot eafily be difabufed.—The word infa¬
tuate comes from the Latin fatuus, “ fool;” of fari,
“ to fpeak out,” which is borrowed from the Greek
InfefHon wlience which fignifies the fame with votes
Infi fi *n Latin, or/re/^ in Engiifh ; and the reafon is, be-
I N F [ 3894 ] INF
any quantity increafes or decreafes, is fuppofed to be Infinity |
infinitely fmall; and is generally exprefied by two or I) *
caufe their prophets or priefts ufed to be feized with a more terms, fome of which are infinitely lefs than the n ornu‘ :
kind of madnefs or folly, when they began to make reft, wdiich being negle&ed as of no importance, the .
their predi&ions, or deliver oracles.  :~r— * c : " J J:rr- '
The Romans called thofe perfons infatuatiy who
fancied they had feen vifions, or imagined the god
Faunus, whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to
them. r
INFECTION, among phyficians. See Conta¬
gion,
remaining terms form what is called the difference of
the propofed quantity. The terms that are neglected
in this manner, as infinitely lefs than the other terms
of the element, are the very fame which arife in confe-
quence of the acceleration, or retardation, of the ge¬
nerating motion, during the infinitely fmall time in
which the element is generated; fo that the remaining
INFEFTMENT, in Scots law, the folemnity of terms exprefs the elements that would have been pro-
the delivery of an heritable fubjeft to the purchafer.
INFIBULATION, in furgery, an operation which
is the reverfe of circumcifion; for it confines the pre¬
puce fo over the glans penis, that it cannot be drawn
back. The operation is thus performed. Extend the
Ikin which is above the glans, and with ink mark the
part on each fide through which the perforation is to
be made; then let it retraft itfelf. If the marks recur
upon the glans, too much of the Ikin hath been taken
up, and the marks muft be made nearer to the end of
the prepuce, but only fo as that they may not return
upon the glans, and thus the feat of the fibula is deter-
duced in that time, if the generating motion had con¬
tinued uniform : therefore thofe differences are accu¬
rately in the fame ratio to each other as the generating
motions or fluxions. And hence, though in this me¬
thod infinitefimal parts of the elements are negleiffed,
the conclufions are accurately true without even an in¬
finitely fmall error, and agree precifely with thofe that
are deduced by the method by fluxions #.
"INFINITY. See Metaphysics, n° 66—69.
INFIRMARY, a kind of hofpital, where the weak
and fickly are properly taken care of.
INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies
mined. Then a needle, armed with a waxed thread, which difpofesthem to kindle or catch fire. See Fire,
is paffed through, and moved backward and forward Flame, Phlogiston, &c.
every day, until a cicatrix is formed. After this the
fibula is fixed.
Thus the ancient Romans were ufed to preferve their
finging boys from all premature and prepofterous ideal
venery, and fo preferve their voices longer. The fibula
feems to have been a kind of ring.
INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor
end: in which fenfe God alone is infinite.
Infinite is alfo ufed to fignify that which has had a
beginning, but will have no end, as angels and human
fouls. This makes what the fchoolmen call infinitum
a parte pofi; as, on the contrary, by infinitum a parte
ante, they mean that which has an end but had no be¬
ginning.
Infinite Quantities. The very idea of magnitudes
infinitely great, or fuch as exceed any afiignable quan¬
tities, does include a negation of limits ; yet if we
nearly examine this notion, we (hall find that fuch mag¬
nitudes are not equal among themfelves, but that there
are really, befides infinite length and infinite area, three
feveral forts of infinite folidity; all of which are quan¬
titates fui generis, and that thofe of each fpecies are
in given proportions.
Infinite length, or a line infinitely long, is to be
confidered either as beginning at a point, and fo infi¬
nitely extended one way, or elfe both wrays from the
fame point; in which cafe the one, which is a begin¬
ning infinity, is the one half of the whole, which is
the fum of the beginning and ceafing infinity; or, as
may be faid, of infinity a parte ante and a parte poji,
which is analogous to eternity in time and duration, in
which there is always as much to follow as is pall, from
any point or moment of time ; nor doth the addition
«r fubdudlion of finite length, or fpace of time, alter
the cafe either in infinity or eternity, fince both the one miflion of the offence.
INFLAMMATION, in medicine and furgery, a
rednefs and fwelling of any part of the body, attend¬
ed with heat, pain, and fymptoms of fever. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
Inflammation of Oils by concentrated Acids. See
Chemistry, n° 219.
INFLECTED rays. See Infiefted Rays.
INFLECTION, or o/" In flection, in the
higher geometry, is a point where a curve begins to
bend a contrary way.
Inflection, in grammar, the variation of nouns
and verbs, by declenfion and conjugation.
INFLUENCE, a quality fuppofed to flow from
the heavenly bodies, either with their light or heat;
to which aftrologers idly afcribe all fublynary events.
INFORMATION, in law, is nearly the fame in
the crown-office, as what in other courts is called a de¬
claration. See Prosecution.
Informations are of two forts; firft, thofe which
are partly at the fuit of the king, and partly at that
of a fubjed ; and fecondly, fuch as are only in the
name of the king. The former are ufually brought
upon penal ftatutes, which inflidl a penalty upon con-
vi6tion of the offender, one part to the ufe of the king,
and another to the ufe of the informer. By the
ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 5. no profecution upon any pe¬
nal ftatute, the fuit and benefit whereof are limited
in part to the king and in part to the profecu-
tor, can be brought by any common informer af¬
ter one year is expired fince the commiffion of the
offence; nor on behalf of the crown, after the lapfe
of two years longer; nor, where the forfeiture is ori¬
ginally given only to the king, can fuch profecution
be had after the expiration of two years from the com-
pr the other cannot be any part of the whole.
INFINITESIMALS, among mathematicians, are
defined to be infinitely fmall quantities.
In the method of iafinitefimals, the element, by which
The informations that are exhibited in the name of
the king alone, are alfo of two kinds: firft, thofe
which are truly and properly his own fuits, and filed
ex officio by his own immediate officer, the attorney-
S-*
nforma-
fion
‘li
INF [ 3895 ] I N G
general: lecondly, thofe in which, though the king
is the nominal profecutor, yet it is at the relation of
fome private perfon or common informer; and they are
filed by the king’s coroner and attorney in the court
of king’s bench, ufually called the mafter of the crown*
office, who is for this purpofe the (landing officer of the
public. The obje&s of the king’s own profecutions,
filed <?x officio, by his own attorney-general, are pro¬
perly fuch enormous mifdemeanors, as peculiarly tend
to difturb or endanger his government, or to moled or
affront him in the i^gular difcharge of his royal func¬
tions. For offences fo high and dangerous, in the pu-
nilhing or preventing of which a moment’s delay would
be fatal, the law has given to the crown the power of
an immediate profecution, without waiting for any
previous application to any other tribunal: which
power, thus neceffary, not only to the eafe and fafety,
but even to the very exidence, of the executive magi-
drate, was originally referved in the great plan of the
Englifh conditution ; wherein provifion is wifely made
for the due pr«fervation of all its parts. The objefts
of the other fpecies of informations, filed by the ma-
der of the crown-office upon the complaint or relation
of a private fubjefl, are any grofs and notorious mifde¬
meanors, riots, batteries, libels, and other immorali¬
ties of an atrocious kind, not peculiarly tending todi-
durb the government (for thofe are left to the care of
the attorney-general), but which, on account of their
magnitude or pernicious example, deferve the mod
public animadverfion. And when an information is
filed, either thus, or by the attorney-general ex of¬
ficio, it mud be tried by a petit jury of the county
where the offence arifes: after which, if the defendant
be found guilty, he mud refort to the court for his
punifhment. See a hidory and vindication of this
made of profecution in the work quoted on the margin,
vol. iv. p. 309,— 312.
INFRACTION, a term chiefly ufed to fignify the
violation of a treaty.
INFRA-scapularis, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
I'nm&.-Spinatus, in anatomy. See Anatomy, ibid.
INFULA, in antiquity, a broad kind of fillet,
made of white wool, which the prieds ufed to tie round
their heads.
1NFUNDIBULIFORM, in botany, an appella¬
tion given to fuch monopetalous or one-leaved flowers
as referable a funnel in fhape, or which have a narrow
tube at one end, and gradually widen towards the limb
or mouth.
INFUSION, in chemidry, taken in its mod ge¬
neral fenfe, confids in placing compound bodies in a
liquor intended to be impregnated with fome of their
principles, either without heat, or with a heat lefs than
that of the boiling liquor.
From this definition we may fee that infufon is one
of the principal operations of the analyfis by men-
druums, in the fame manner in which decoftion is,
of which infufion may be confidered as the fird de-
gree.
Infufqn may may be made in watery, fpirituous,
oily, acid, or alkaline liquors, according to the nature
of the matters to be infufed, and of the principles in¬
tended to be extra&ed. It is neverthelefs pradtifed
upon vegetable matters only; and almod always for
the preparation of remedies, which are alfo called in-
fufions.
Aromatic plants, and other odoriferous vegetable
matters, are generally infufed, when their odoriferous
principle is to be preferved, in which their virtue con-
fifls, and which is at the fame time fo volatile as toise
diffipated and lod by the heat of ebullition. To pre-
ferve dill better thefe volatile principles, the fmalleit
heat requifite for the extradtion ought to be em¬
ployed ; and thefe inf fans ought to be made in
matraffes, or other vefl'els, which may be exadly
clofed.
The principles extradled by infufton are different
according to the mendruum employed. Pure water
may be impregnated with the odoriferous principle,
or fpiritus reftor, with faline, faponaceous, mucilagi¬
nous, extradtive principles. Spirit of wine diffolves
the fpiritus reflor, the effential oils, thofe refinous
matters the bafe of which is an oil of the nature of
effential oils, and the greated part of the faponaceous
extradtive matter. Thofe infufions made by fpirit of
wine are particularly called tinflures, efpecially in
pharmacy. Oils diffolve the fpiritus reftor, and any
oily matter. Acids and alkalis diffolve the earthy
fubdances of vegetables, and almod all their other
principles: but they difguife them, alter them, and
change confiderably their virtues by the combination.
They are therefore not much ufed for thefe kinds of
extradtions.
INGELSHEIM, a towm of Germany, in the pa¬
latinate of the Rhine, remarkable for having been the
refidence of the emperors; feated on the river Salva,
on an eminence, from whence there is a charming pro-
fpedt. E. Long. 8.5. N. Lat. 49.58.
INGENUOUS, in a general fenfe, fignifies opent
fair, and candid.
Ingenuous, (ingenuus,) in Roman antiquity, an
appellation given to perfons born of free parents, who
had nevet been (laves : for the children of the liberti,
or perfons who had obtained their liberty, were called
libertini, not: ingenui; this appellation of ingenuus
being referved for their children, or the third genera¬
tion.
INGLUVIES, the crop or craw of granivorous
birds, ferving for the immediate reception of the food,
where it is macerated for fome time, before it is tranf-
mitted to the true fiomach.
INGOLSTADT, a handfome town of Germany,
and the fironged in Bavaria, with a famous uni-
verfity, and a handfome church. The houfes are
built with done, and the dreets large. It is feated
on the Danube, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat.
48. 42.
INGOT, a mafs of gold, or filver, melted
down, and cad in a mould, but not coined or
wrought.
INGRAFTING, in gardening. See Graft -
JNG.
INGRESS, in adronomy, fignifies the fun’s enter¬
ing the fird fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns,
efpecially Aries.
INGRIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, lying
on the gulph of Finland, being about 1.30 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth. It abounds in game and
fifh; and here are a great number of elks, which come
22 E 2 in
Infnfion
Ingria
I N G [ 3896 ] I N H
i.'.groffcr jn troops from Finland in the fpring and autumn. It
!i was conquered by the czar Peter the Great, and Pe-
.Vgulphns, terfhurgh is the capital town. It is bounded by the
~ river Nieva, and the gulph of Finland, on the north;
hy Great Novogorod, on the call and fouth; and by
.Livonia, on the weft.
INGROSSER, one who buys up great quantities
of any commodity, before it comes to market, in order
to raife the price.
INGUEN, in anatomy, the fame with what is other-
wife called groin, or pubes.
INGULPHUS, abbot of Croyland, and author of
the hiftory of that abbey, was born in London about
A. D. 1030. He received the firft part of his edu¬
cation at Weftminfter; and when he viiked his father,
who belonged to the court of Edward the Confeflbr,
he was fo fortunate as to engage the attention of queen
Edgitha. That amiable and learned princefs took a
pleafure in examining our young fcholar on his pro-
grets in grammar, and in difputing with him in logic;
nor did fhe ever difmifs him without fome prefent as a
mark of her approbation. From Weftmintter he went
to Oxford, where he applied to the ftudy of rhetoric,
and of the Ariftotelian philofophy, in which he made
greater proficiency than many of his contemporaries.
When he was about 21 years of age, he was intro¬
duced to William duke of Normandy, (who vifited
the court of England, A. D. 1051,) and made himfelf
fo agreeable to that prince, that he appointed him his
fecretary, and carried him with him into his own do¬
minions. In a little time he became the prime fa¬
vourite of his prince, and the difpenfer of all prefer¬
ments, humbling fome, and exalting others, at his
pleafure; in which difficult ftation, he confefleth, he
did not behave with a proper degree of modefty and
prudence. This excited the envy and hatred of many
of the courtiers; to avoid the effe&s of which, he ob¬
tained leave from the duke to go in pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, which was then become faftiionable.
With a company of 30 horfemen, he joined Sigfrid
duke of Menlz, who, with many German nobles, bi-
Jhops, clergy, and others, was preparing for a pilgri¬
mage to Jerusalem. When they were all united, they
formed a company of no fewer than 7000 pilgrims.
In their way they fpent fome time at Conftantinople,
performing their devotions in the feveral churches.
In their paffage through Lycia, they were attacked by
a tribe of Arabs, who killed and wounded many of
them, and plundered them of a prodigious mafs of
money. Thofe who efcaped from this difafter, at
length reached Jerufalem, vifited all the holy places,
and bedewed the ruins of many churches with their
tears, giving money for their reparation. They in¬
tended to have bathed in Jordan ; but being prevented
by the roving Arabs, they embarked on board a Ge-
noefe fleet at Joppa, and landed at Brundufium, from
whence they travelled through Apulia to Rome. Ha-
ving gone through a long courfe of devotions in this
city, at the feveral places diftinguifhed for their fanc-
tity, they feparated, and every one made the heft of
his way into his own country. When Ingulph and
his company reached.Normandy, they were reduced
to 20 half-ftarved wretches, without money, cloaths, or
horfes: -A faithful pi&ure of the foolifti dilaftrous
journeys into the Holy Land, fo common in thofe
times. Ingulph was now fo much difguftecl with the hihalcri
world, that he refolved to forfake it, and became a
monk in the abbey of Fontenelle in Normandy; in ''tioni
which, after fome years, he was advanced to the office  
of prior. When his old mafter was preparing for his
expedition into England, A. D. 1066, he was fent by
his abbot, with 100 merks in money, and 12 young
men, nobly mounted and completely armed, as a pre¬
fent from their abbey. Ingulph having found a fa¬
vourable opportunity, prefented his men and money
to his prince, who received him very gracioufly; fome
part of the former alfedtion for him reviving in his
bofom. In confequence of this he raifed him to the
government of the rich abbey of Croyland in Lincoln-
fhire, A. D. 1076, in which he fpent the laft 34. years
of his life, governing that fociety with great prudence,
and protefting their pofieffions from the rapacity of
the neighbouring barons by the favour of his royal
mafter. The lovers of Englifti hiftory and antiquities
are much indebted, to this learned abbot, for his ex¬
cellent hiftory of the abbey of Croyjand, from itj
foundation, A. D. 664, to A. D. 1091, into which
he hath introduced much of the general hiftory of the
kingdom, with a variety of curious anecdotes that are
nowhere elfe to be found. Ingulph died of the gout,
at his abbey, A. D. 1109, in the 79th year of
his age.
INHALER, in medicine, a machine for breathing-
in warm fteams into the lungs, recommended by Mr
Mudge in the cure of the catarrhous cough. The
body of the inftrument holds about a pint; and the
handle, which is fixed to the fide of it, is hollow. In
the lower part of the veflel, where it is foldered to the
handle, is a hole, by means of which, and three others
on the upper-part of the handle, the water, when it is
poured into the inhaler, will rife to the fame level in
both. To the middle of the cover a flexible tube
about five or fix inches long is fixed, with a mouth-piece
of wood or ivory. Underneath the cover there is a
valve fixed, which opens and ftiuts the communication
between the upper and internal part of the inhaler
and the external air. When the mouth is applied to
the end of the tube in the aft of infpiration, the air
rufhes into the handle, and up through the body of
warm water, and the lungs become, confequentlj-y
filled with hot vapours. In exfpiration, the mouth
being ftill fixed to the tube, the breath, together
with the fteam on the furface of the wafer in the
inhaler, is forced up through the valve in the co¬
ver. In this manner, therefore, the whole aft of
refpiration is performed through the inhaler, with¬
out the neceffity, in the aft of exfpiration, of ei¬
ther breathing through the nofe, or removing the
pipe from the mouth. See (the Index fubjointd to)
Medicine.
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or intereft
in lands, invefted in a perfon and his heirs. See
Descent.
INHIBITION, in Scots law, a diligence obtained
at the fuit of a creditor againft his debtor, prohi¬
biting him from felling or contrafting debts upon
his eftate to the creditor’s prejudice.
INHUMATION, in chemiftry, a method of di-
gefting fubftances, by burying the veflel in which
they are contained in horfe-dung or earth.
I N J [ 3897 ] . 1 N J.
je&ion. INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid “All thefe different forts of pipes are commonly Injection
■ medicines into the body by means of a fyringe, tube, made of brafs.
clyfter-pipe, or the like. “ The liquors thrown into the veffels with a defign to
Anatomical Injection, the filling the veffels of a fill the fmall capillary tubes, are either fuch as will in¬
human, or other animal body, with fome coloured, corporate W'ith water, or fuch as are oily; both kinds
fubftance, in order to make theirfigures and ramifica- have their advantages and inconveniencies, which I
tions vifible. The beft account of the method of (hall mention in treating of each, and lhall conclude with
inje&ing the veffels of animals, is that by the late- that which I have found by experience to fucceed beft.
Dr Monro, publifhed in the Medial Effays, vol. i. “ All the different kinds of glue, or ichthyocolla,
p. 79. fyths, common glue, Sec. diffolved and pretty much
“The inftrument w'ith which the liquor is com- diluted, mix ealily with the animal-fluids, which is of
monly thrown into the veffels is a tight eafy going
fyringe of brafs, to which feveral fhort pipes are
fitted, and can be fixed by ferews, the other extre¬
mities of thefe pipes being of different diameters
without any ferew, that they may Aide into other pipes,
which are fo exaftly adapted to them at one end, that
when they are preffed a little together, nothing can
pafs between them : and becaufe their cohefion is not
fo great as to refift the pulhing force of the injedlion,
which would drive off this fecond pipe, and fpoil the
whole operation ; therefore the extremity of this fe¬
cond fort of pipes* which receives the firft kind, is
formed on the outfide into a fquare, bounded behind
and before by a rifing circle, which hinders the key
that, clofely grafps the fquare part from Aiding back¬
wards or forwards; or a bar of brafs mull ftand out
from each fide of it to be held with the fingers. The
other extremity of each of thefe fecond fort of pipes
is of different diameter; and near it a circular notch,
capable of allowing a thread to be funk into it, is
formed ; by this, the thread tying the veffel at which
the injeftion is to be made, will not be allowed to
Aide off.
“ Befides this form deferibed, common to all this fe¬
cond fort of pipes, we ought to have fome of the lar¬
ger ones, with an additional mechanifm, for particu¬
lar purpofes ; as, for inftance, when the larger veflels
are injedfted, the pipe faftened into the veffel ought ei¬
ther to have a valve or a flop-cock, that may be turn¬
ed at pleafure, to hinder any thing to get out from
the veffel by the pipe ; otherwife, as the inje&ion, in
fuch a cafe, takes time to coagulate, the people em¬
ployed in making the inje&ion muft either continue
all that while in the fame pofture ; or, if the fyringe
is too foon taken off, the injefted liquor runs out, and
the larger veffels are emptied. When the fyringe is
not large enough to hold at once all the liquor necef-
fary to fill the veflels, there is a neceflity of filling it
again. If, in order to do this, the fyringe was to be
taken off from the pipe fixed in the veffel, fome of the
inje&ion would be loft, and what was expofed to the
air would cool and harden ; therefore fome of the pipes
ought to have a refie&ed curve tube coming out of
their fide, with a valve fo difpofed, that no liquor
can come from the ftraight pipe into the crooked one,
but, on the contrary, may be allowed to pafs from the
crooked to the ftraight one : the inje&or then, taking
care to keep the extremity of the refle&ed pipe im-
merfed in the liquor to be injefted, may, as foon as he
has puftied out the firft fyringeful, fill it again by
only drawing back the fucker; and, repeating this
quickly, will be able to throw feveral fyringefuls into
the veflels.
great advantage, and will pafs into very fmall veffels-
of a well-chofen and prepared fubjeift, and often an-
fwer the intention fufficiently, where the defign is on¬
ly to prepare fome very fine membrane, on which no
veffels can be expe&ed to be feen fo large as the eye
can difeover whether the tranfverfe fe&ions of the vef¬
fels would be circular, or if their fides are collapfed.
But when the larger veflels are alfo to be prepared,
there is a manifeft difadvantage to the ufefulnefs and
beauty of the preparation ; for if nothing but the glu¬
tinous liquor is injected, one cannot keep a fubj’ect fo-
long as the glue takes of becoming firm ; and there¬
fore, in differing the inje&ed part, feveral veffels will
probably be cut and emptied. To prevent this, one
may indeed either foak the part well in alcohol, which
coagulates the glue; but then it becomes fo brittle,
that the leaft handling makes it crack ; and if the pre¬
paration is to be kept, the larger veffels appear quite
flirivelled, when the watery part of the injeflion is
evaporated : or the efflux of the inje&ion may be pre¬
vented, by carefully tying every veffel before we are
obliged to cut it; ftill, however, that does not hin¬
der the veflels to contraift when the glue is drying.
If, to obviate thefe difficulties, the glutinous liquot*
fhould firft be inje&ed in fuch quantity as the capilla¬
ry veffels will contain, and the common oily or waxy
injection is pufhed in afterwards to keep the larger vef¬
fels diftended, the wax is very apt to harden before it
has run far enough ; the two forts of liquors never mifs
to mix irregularly, and the whole appears interrupted
and broken by their foon feparatiug from each other
which is ftill more remarkable afterwards, when the
watery particles are evaporated.
“ Spirits of wine coloured mixes with water and oils,
and fo far is proper to fill the very fmafler veffels with :
but, on the other hand, it coagulates any of our li¬
quors it meets, which fometimes block.up the veflels
fo much, that no more inje&ion will pafs ; then it
fcarce will fufpend fome of the powders that prove the
moft durable colours; and as it entirely evaporates,
the veffcls muft become very fmall; and the fmall
quantity of powder left, having nothing to ferve for
connefting its particles together, generally is feen fo
interrupted, that the fmall ramifications of veffels ra¬
ther have the appearances of random fcratches of a
pencil, than of regular continued Canals.
“Melted tallow, with a little mixture of oil of tur‘
pentine, may fometimes be made to fill very fmall vef¬
fels, and keeps the larger ones at a full ftretch ; but
where any quantity of the animal liquors are ftill in
the veflels, it is liable to (top too foon, and never can.
be introduced into numbers of veffels which other li¬
quors enter y and it is fo brittle,, that very little hand-
Inje&ion.
I N J
ling makes it crack, and thereby renders the prepara-
"tion very ugly (a).
“ The method I have always fucceeded beft with, in
making what may be called fubtile or fine injettions,
is, firft to throw in coloured oil of turpentine, in fuch
a quantity as might fill the very fmall vefiels; and,
immediately after, to pulh the common coarfe injec¬
tion into the larger ones. The oil is fubtile enough
to enter rather fmaller capillary tubes than any colour¬
ing can ; its refinous parts, which remain after the
fpiritous are evaporated, give a fufficient adhefion to
the particles of the fubftance with which it is colour¬
ed, to keep them from feparating, and it intimately
incorporates with the coarfer inje&ion ; by which, if
the inje&ion is rightly managed, it is impoffible for
the fharpeft eye to difcover that two forts have been
made ufe of (b.)
“ All the liquors with which the veffels of animals are
artificially filled, having very faint, and near the fame
colours, would not at all appear in the very fmall vef¬
fels, becaufe of their becoming entirely diaphanous,
v/ithout a mixture of fome fubltance to impart its co¬
lour to them ; and where feveral forts of even the lar-
er vefiels of any part were filled, one fort could not
e diftinguifiied from another, unlefs the colour of
each was different; which has likewife a good effedt
in making preparations more beautiful. Wherefore
anatomifts have made ufe of a variety of fuch fubflan-
ces, according to their different fancies or intentions ;
fuch as gamboge, faffron, ink, burnt ivory, &c. which
can be eafily procured from painters. My defign be¬
ing only to confider thofe that are fit to be mixed
with the injefting liquors propofed to fill capillary
veffels, which is fcarce ever to be done in any other,
except the branches of the arteries and of fome veins,
I fhall confine myfelf to the common colours employed
to thefe laft named two forts of veffels, which colours
are red, green, and fometimes blue, without men¬
tioning the others which require very little choice.
“ Anatomifls have, I imagine, propofed to imitate
the natural colours of the arteries and veins in a living
creature, by filling the arteries with a red fubftance,
and the veins with a blue or green : from which, how¬
ever, there are other advantages, fuch as the ftrong
refledtion which fuch bodies make of the rays of light,
and the unaptnefs moft fuch bodies have to tranfmit
thefe fame rays, without at lead a confiderable re-
fledtion of the rays peculiar to themfelves ; or, in other
words, their unfitnefs to become completely peUncid ;
without which, the very fine vefiels, after being in-
jedted, would Hill be imperceptible. The animal or ve¬
getable fubftances made ufe of for colouring injedlions,
fuch as chochineal, laque, rad. anchttfie, brazil-wood,
indigo, &c. have all one general fault of being liable
to run into little knots which flop fome of the veffels ;
their colour fades fooner when kept dry; they more
eafily yield their tindture when the parts are preferved
in a liquor; and rats, mice, and infedts, will take
I N J
them for food : for which reafons, though I have fre- Ii jetHo
quently fucceeded in injedting them, I rather prefer  
the mineral kind, fuch as minium or vermilion for
red; of which this laft is, in my opinion, the beft,
becaufe it gives the brighteft colour, and is common¬
ly to be bought finely levigated. The green-coloured
powder generally ufed is verdigreafe; but I rather
chufe that preparation of it called difiilled verdigreafe;
becaufe its colour is brighter, and it does not fo often
run into fmall knots as the common verdigreafe, but
difiblves in the oily liquors.
“ The method of preparing the injedlion compofed
of thefe materials, is to take, for the fine one, a pound
of clear oil of turpentine, which is gradually poured
on three ounces of vermilion, or diftilled verdigreafe
finely powdered, or rather well levigated by grinding
on marble; ftir them well with a fmall wooden fpatu-
la till they are exadtly mixed, then ftrain all through
a fine linen rag. The feparation of the groffer par¬
ticles is, however, rather better made, by pouring
fome ounces of the oil upon the powder, and, after
ftirring them together ftrongly, flop rubbing with the
fpatula for a fecond or fo, and pour off into a clean
veffel the oil with the vermilion or verdigreafe fuf-
pended in it; and continue this fort of operation till
you obferve no more of the powder come off; and all
that remains is granulated. The coarfer injedion is
thus prepared : Take tallow, i pound: wax, bleached
white, 5 ounces ; fallad oil, 3 ounces; melt them in
a Ikillet put over a lamp; then add Venice turpentine,
2 ounces; and as foon as this is diffolved, gradually
fprinkle in of vermilion or verdigreafe prepared, 3
ounces ; then pafs all through a clean, dry, warmed
linen-cloth, to feparate all the groffer particles ; and,
when you defign to make it run far into the veffels,
fome oil of turpentine may be added immediately be¬
fore it is ufed.
“ The next thing to be confidered, and indeed what
chiefly contributes to the fuccefs of inje&ions, is the
choice and preparation'~of the fubjed whofe veffels are
to be filled.
“ In chafing a fit fubjed, take thefe few general
rules: 1. The younger the creature to be injeded is,
the injedion will, cxteris paribus, go fartheft, and
vice verfia. 2. The more the creature’s fluids have
been diffolved and exhaufted in life, the fuccefs of the
operation will be greater. 3. The lefs folid the part
defigned to be injeded is, the more veffels will be fill¬
ed. 4. The more membranous and tranfparent parts
are, the injedion Ihows better ; whereas, in the fo¬
lid very hard parts of a rigid old creature, that has
died with its veffels full of thick ftrong blood, it is
fcarce poffible to injed great numbers of fmall vef¬
fels.
“ Therefore, in preparing a fubjed for injeding,
th^ principal things to be aimed at are, To diffolve
the fluids, empty the veffels of them, relax the folids,
and prevent the injedion’s coagulating too foon. To
an-
(a) Rigierus [introdutt. in notitiarn rerum natur. &c. 4/0, Hagae, 1743, titul. Balfamum) gives Ruyfch’s
method of injeding and preferving animals, which, he fays, Mr Blumentroft, prefident of the Peterfburgh aca¬
demy, aflured him was copied from the receipt given in Ruyfch’s own hand-writing to the Czar. According to
this receipt, melted tallow, coloured with vermilion, to which, in the fummer, a little white wax was added, was
Ruyfch’s injeding ceracea materies.
(b) Mr Ranby’s injeding matter, as publilhed by Dr Hales, (Hatnajl. Ex. 21.), is white rofin and tallow, of each
two ounces, melted and (trained through linen'; to which was added three ounces of vermilion, or finely ground in¬
digo, which was firft well rubbed with eight ounces of turpentine varnifli.
[ 3898 ]
I N J
jetfion. anfwer all thefe intentions, authors have propofed to
injeft tepid or warm water by the arteries, till it re¬
turns clear and untinged by the veins, and the vef-
fels are thereby fo emptied of blood, that all the parts
appear white; after which, they pufh out the water
by forcing in air; and, laftly, by preffing with their
hands, they fqueeze the air alfo out. After this pre¬
paration, one can indeed injeft very fubtilely ; but
generally there are inconveniencies attend it. For in all
the parts where there is a remarkable tunica cellulofa,
it never mifles to be full of the water, which is apt to
fpoil any parts defigned to be preferved either wet or
dry; and fome particles of the water feldom mifs to
be mixed in the larger as well as fmaller veffels with
the oily injedfion, and make it appear difcontinued
and broken : wherefore it is much better to let this
injedlion of water alone, if it can be poffibly avoided,
and rather to macerate the body or part to be in-
jefted aconfiderable time in water, made fo warm (c)
as one can hold his hand eafily in it; taking care to
keep it of an equal warmth all the time, by taking
out fome of the water as it cools, and pouring in hot
water in its place; by which the veffels will be fuf-
ficiently foftened and relaxed, the blood will be melt¬
ed down, and the inje&ion can be in nor danger of
hardening too foon ; whereas, if the water is too hot,
the vefftls (hrink, and the blood coagulates. From
time to time we fqueeze out the liquids as much as
poffible at the cut veffel by which the injection is to
be thrown in (d). The time this maceration is to be
continued, is always in proportion to the age of the
fubjedt, the bulk and thicknefs of what we defign to
injedt, and the quantity of blood we obferve in the
veffels, which can only be learned by experience ; at
leaft, however, care ought to be taken, that the
whole fubjedt, or part macerated, is perfedtly well
warmed all through ; and that we continue the pref-
fure with our hands, till no more blood can be brought
away, whatever pofition we put the fubjedl in.
When the fyringe, injedlions, and fubjedt, are all
in readinefs, one of the fecond fort of pipes is chofen,
as near to the diameter of the veffel by which the in-
jedtion is to be thrown as poffible ; for if the pipe is
too large, it is almoft needlefs to tell it cannot be in¬
troduced. If the pipe is much fmaller than the vef¬
fel, it is fcarce poffible to tie them fo firmly together,
but, by the wrinkling of the coats of the veffel, fome
fmall paffage will be left, by which part of the in¬
jedlion will fpring back on the injedlor,. in the time of
the operation, and the neareft veffels remain afterwards
undiftended, by the lofs of the quantity that oozes
out. Having chofen a fit pipe, it is introduced at the
cut orifice of the veffel, or at an incifion made in the
fide of it; and then a waxed thread being brought
round the veffel, as near to its coats as poffible, by the
help of a needle, or a flexible eyed probe, the fur-
geon’s knot is made with the thread, and it is drawn
as firmly as the thread can allow ; taking care that it
1 N j
fhall be funk into the circular notch of the pipe all Tnjeftiom
round, otherwife it will very eafily Aide off, and the
pipe will be brought out probably in the time of the
operation, which ruins it.
“ If there have been large veffels cut, which com¬
municate with the veffels you defign to injedt, or if
there are any others proceeding from the fame trunk,
which you do not refolve to fill, let them be all care¬
fully now tied up, to fave the injedled liquor, and
make the operation fucceed better in the view you then
have?
“ When all this is done, both forts of injedlions
are to be warmed over a lamp, taking care to ftir them-
conftantly, left the colouring powder fall to the bottom
and burn (e). The oil of turpentine needs be made no
warmer than will allow the finger to remain in it, if the
fubjedt has been previoufly well warmed in water; when
the maceration has not been made, the oil ought to be
fcalding hot, that it may warm all the parts which are
defigned to beinjedted. Thecoarfe injedlion ought to
be brought near to a boiling. In the mean time, ha¬
ving wrapt feveral folds of linen round the parts of the
fyringe which the operator is to grip, and fecured
the linen with thread, the fyringe is to be made very
hot by fucking boiling water feveral times up (f), and
the pipe within the veffel is to be warmed by applying
a fpongedipped in boiling water to it (g).
“ After all is ready, the fyringe being cleared of
the water, the injedlor fills it with the finer injedlion;
and then introducing the pipe of the fyringe into that,
in the veffel, he preffes them together, and either with
one hand holds this lad pipe firm, with the other grips
the fyringe, and with his bread pulhes the fucker ; or,
giving the pipe in the veffel to be held by an affiftant,
in any of the ways mentioned in the defcription of thefe
forts of pipes, he grips the fyringe with one hand, and
pufhes the fucker with the other, and confequently
throws in the injedlion, which ought to be done flow-
ly, and with no great force, but proportioned to the
length and bulk of the part to be injedled and ftrength
of the veffels. The quantity of this fine injedlion to
be thrown in is much to be learned by ufe. The only
rule I could ever fix to myfelf in this matter, was to
continue puffing till I was fenfible of a ftop which
would require a eonfiderable force to overcome. But
this will not hold where all the branches of any veffel
are not injedled;. as for inftance, when the veffels of
the thorax only are to be injedled : for the aorta bears
too great a proportion to the branches fent from it,
and therefore lefs fine injedlion is requifite here. As
foon as that ftop is felt, the fucker of the fyringe is to
be drawn back, that the neareft large veffels may be
emptied. Then the fyringe is taken off, emptied of
the fine injedlion, and filled with the coarfer, which
is to be-puffed into the veffels quickly and forcibly,
having always regard to the ftrength and firmnefs of
the veffels, bulk, &c. of the part. Continue to thruft
the fucker, till a full ftop, or a fort of puff back¬
wards,.
(cj Ruyfch orders a previous maceration for a day or two in cold water; which muft have a better effedl in melt¬
ing the blood than warm water has.
(o) When Ruyfch intended to injedt the whole body, he put one pipe upwards, and another downwards, in the
defcending aorta.
(e) Ruyfch melts his tallow by the heat of warm water, into which he puts the veffel containing the injedlion.
( f) He warms his fyringe by laying it on hot coals.
(g) He warms his pipe, by putting the body, after the pipe is fixed in the veffel, into hot water. When this is
to be done, a cork ought to be put into the pipe, to prevent the water getting into the veffd that is to be injedted.
[ 3899 ]
I N J [ 3900 ] INJ
fnjury, wards is felt, when you mud beware of thrufting any
Ink~ more, otherwifeTome of the veffds will be burfted,?.nd
the whole, or a confiderable (hare of the preparation
you defigned, will be fpoiled by the extravafation ;
but rather immediately ftop the pipe by the turn-cock,
and take out the fyringe to clean it, and allow fuffi-
cient time for the coarfe inje&ion to coagulate fully,
before any part is difledled. Ruyfch, immediately af¬
ter throwing in the injeftion, put the body into cold
water, and ftirred it continually for fome time, to pre¬
vent the vermilion to feparate from the tallow. •
INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, re¬
putation, or goods. See Assault.
INK, a black liquor ufed in writing, generally
made of an infufion of galls, copperas, and gum-ara¬
bic.
The properties which this liquid ought to have, are,
1. To flow freely from the pen, and fink a little into
the paper, that the writing be not eafily difcharged.
2. A very deep black colour, which fhould be as deep
at firft as at any time afterwards. 3. Durability, fo
that the writing may not be fubjeft to decay by age.
4. Ink fliould be deilimte of any corrofive quality,
that it may not deftroy the paper, or go through it
in fuch a manner as to render the writing illegible.
No kind of ink, however, hath yet appeared which is
poflefled of all thefe qualities. The ink ufed by the
ancients was pofTeffed of the fecond, third, and fourth
qualities above-mentioned, but wanted the firft. Dr
Lewis hath difcovered its compofition from fome paf-
fages in ancient authors. “ Pliny and Vitruvius, (fays
he), exprefsly mention the preparation of foot, or what
we now call lamp-black, and the compoiition of wri¬
ting-ink from lamp-black and gum. Diofcorides is
more particular, fetting down the proportions of the
two ingredients, viz. three ounces of the foot to one
of the gum. It feems the mixture was formed into cakes
or rolls; which being dried in the fun, were occafion-
ally tempered with water, as the cakes of Indian ink
are among us for painting.”
In Mr Delaval’s Treatife on Colours, p. 37. he ac¬
quaints us, that with an infufion of galls and iron fi¬
lings, he had not only made an exceedingly black and
durable ink, but by its means, without the addition of
any acid, dyed filk and woollen cloth of a good and
lafting black. This kind of ink, however, tho’ the
colour is far fuperior to that of any other, hath the in¬
convenience of being very eafily difcharged, cither by
the fmalleft quantity of any acid, or even by fimple
water; becaufe it doth not penetrate the paper in fuch
a manner as is neceffary to preferveit from the inftan-
taneous aftion of the acid or of the water. Du¬
ring the a&ion of the infufion of galls upon the
iron in making this kind of ink, a very confiderable
effervefcence takes place, and a quantity of air is
difcharged, the nature of which hath not yet been ex¬
amined.
The materials ufually employed for the making of
ink are, common green vitriol, or copperas, and galls;
but almoft all of them are deficient in durability, which
is a property of fuch importance, that Dr Lewis hath
thought the fubjeft of ink-making notunworthy of his
attention. From experiments made by that author,
he infers, that the decay of inks is chiefly owing to a
defiiecncyof galls; that the galls are the moft perifti-
able ingredient, the quantity of thefe, which gives
the greateft blacknefs at firft, (which is about equal
parts with the vitriol), being infufficient to maintain the
colour: that for a durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much lefs than three times that of the vitriol;
that it cannot be much greater, without lefiening the
blacknefs of the ink: that by diminifhing the quantity of
water, the ink was rendered blacker and more durable;
thatdiftilled water, rain water, and hard fpring-water,
had the fame effeds: that white-wine produced a deep •
er black colour than water ; that the colour produced
by vinegar was deeper than that by wine ; that proof-
fpirit extrafted only a reddifh brown tinge : that the
laft-mentioned tinfture funk into, and fpread upon,
the paper ; and hence the impropriety of adding fpt-
rit of wine to ink, as is frequently dire&ed, to prevent
tnouldinefs or freezing : that other aftringents, as oak-
bark, biftort, floe-bark, &c. were not fo effe&ual as
alls, nor gave fo good a black, the colour produced
y moft of thefe, excepting oak-bark, being greenifh :
that the juice of floes did not produce a black coloitt
with martial vitriol; but that, neverthelcfs, the wri¬
ting made with it became black, and was found to be
more durable than common ink : that inks made with
faturated folutions of iron in nitrous, marine, or acetous
acids, in tartar, or in lemon-juice, were much inferior
to the ink made with martial vitriol: that the co¬
lour of ink was depraved by adding quickliane, which
was done with an intention of deftroying any fupera-
bundant acid which might be fuppofed to be the caufe
of the lofs of the colour of ink : that the bed method
of preventing the effefts of this fuperabundant acid is
probably by adding pieces of iron to engage it; and
that this conjefture was confirmed by an inftance the
author had heard, of the great durability of the co¬
lour of an ink in which pieces of iron had been long
immerfed : and laftly, that a decoftion of logwood
ufed inftead of water, fenfibly improved both the beau¬
ty and deepnefs of the black, without difpofing it to
fade. The fame author obferves, that the addition of
gum-arabic is not only ufeful.by keeping the colour¬
ing matter fufpended in the fluid, butalfo by prevent¬
ing the ink from fpreading, by which means a greater
quantity of it is collefted on each ftroke of the pen.
Sugar, which is fometimes added to ink, was found
to be much lefs effeftual than gums, and to have the
inconvenience of preventing the drying of the ink.
The colour of ink is found to be greatly injured by
keeping the ink in vefiels made of copper or of lead,
and probably of any other metal, excepting iron, which
the vitriolic acid can diflblve.
The foregoing experiments point out for the beft
proportions of the ingredients for ink, One part
of green vitriol, one part of powdered logwood,
and three parts of powdered galls. The beft men-
ftruum appears to be vinegar or white-wine, though
for common ufe water is fufficient. If the ink
be required to be of a full colour, a quart, or at
moft three pints, of liquor, may be allowed to three
ounces of galls, and to one ounce of each of the other
two ingredients. Half an ounce of gum may be added
to each pint of the liquor. The ingredients may be
all put together at once in a convenient veffel, and well
fnaken four or five times each day. In 10 or 12 days
the ink will be fit for ufe, though it will improve by
INK [ 3901 ] INK
Ink. remaining longer on the ingredients. Or it may be
made more expeditioufly,by adding the gum and vitriol
to a deco&ion of galls and logwood in the menftruum.
To the ink, after it has been feparated from the fecu-
lencies, fome coarfe powder of galls, from which the
fine duft has been lifted, together with one or two
pieces of iron, may be added, by which its durability
will be fecured.
In fome attempts made by the Do&or to endow wri¬
ting ink with the great durability of that of the an¬
cients, as well as the properties which it hath at pre-
fent, he firft thought of uling animal-glues, and then
of oily matters. “ I mixed both lamp-black (fays
he) and ivory-black with folution of gum arabic, made
of fuch confidence as juft to flow fufficiently from the
pen. The liquors wrote of a fine black colour; but
when dry, part of the colour could be rubbed off,
efpecially in moift weather, and a pencil dipped in
water walhed it away entirely.
“ I tried folutions of the animal-glues, with the
fame event. IGnglafs or filh-glue being the moft dif¬
ficultly diflbluble of thefe kinds of bodies, I made a
decoftion of it in water, of fuch ftrength, that the li¬
quor concreted into a jelly before it was quite cold:
with this jelly, kept fluid by fufficient heat, I mixed
fome ivory-black: charafters drawn with this mix¬
ture on paper bore rubbing much better than the
others, but were difcharged without much difficulty
by a wet pencil.
“ It was now fufpefled, that the colour could not
be fufficiently fixed on paper without an oily cement.
As oils themfelves are made mifcible with watery fluids
by the intervention of gum, I mixed fome of the fofter
printers varnilh, after-mentioned, with about half its
weight of a thick mucilage of gum arabic, working
them well together in a mortar, till they united into
a fmooth uniform mafs: this was beaten with lamp¬
black, and fome water added by little and little, the
rubbing being continued till the mixture was diluted
to a due confiftence for writing. It wrote freely, and
of a full brownifh-black colour : the chara&ers could
not be difcharged by rubbing, but water wafhedthem
out, though not near fo readily as any of the foregoing.
Inftead of the printers varniih or boiled oil, I mixed
raw linfeed oil in the fame manner with mucilage and
lamp-black ; and on diluting the mixture with water,
obtained an ink not greatly different from the other.
“ Though thefe oily mixtures anfwered better than
thofe with Ample gums or glues, it was apprehended
that their being difchargeable by w^ater would render
them unfit for the purpofes intended. The only way
of obviating this imperfe&ion appeared to be, by u-
fing a paper which fhould admit the black liquid to
fink a little into its fubftance. Accordingly I took
fome of the more finking kinds of paper, and common
paper made damp as for printing ; and had the fatif-
fadion to find, that neither the oily nor the fimple
gummy mixtures fpread upon them fo much as might
have been expeded, and that the charaders were as
fixed as could be defired, for they could not be wafhed
out without rubbing off part of the fubftance of the
paper itfelf.
“ All thefe inks muft be now and then ftirred or
lhaken during the time of ufe, to mix up the black
powder, which fettles by degrees to the bottom : thofe
Voi . V.
with oil mull be well fhaken alfo, though not ufed,
once a-day, or at leaft once in three or four days, to
keep the oil united with the water and gum; for if
once the oil feparates, which it is apt to do by (land¬
ing at reft far fome days, it can no longer be mixed
with the thin fluid by any agitation. But though
this imperfed union of the ingredients renders thefe
inks lefs fit for general ufe than thofe commonly em¬
ployed, 1 apprehend there are many occafions in
which thefe kinds of inconveniences will not be thought
to counterbalance the advantage of having writings
which we may be affured will be as lading as the paper
they are written upon. And indeed the inconvenience
may be in a great meafure obviated by ufing cotton
in the ink-ftand, which, imbibing the fluid, prevents
the feparation of the black powder diffufed through it.
“ All the inks, however, made on the principle
we are now fpeaking of, can be difcharged by waftt-
ing, unlefs the paper admits them to fink into its fub¬
ftance. The ancients were not infenfible of this im-
perfedion; and fometimes endeavoured to obviate it,
according to Pliny, by ufing vinegar, inftead of water,
for tempering the mixture of lamp-black and gum.
I tried vinegar, and found it to be of fome advantage,
not as giving any improvement to the cement, but by-
promoting the finking of the matter into the paper.
As this waffling out of the ink may be prevented, by
ufing a kind of paper eafy enough to be procured, it
is fcarcely to be confidered as an imperfedion ; and
indeed, on other kinds of paper, it is an imperfedion
only fo far as it may give occafion to fraud, for none
of thefe inks are in danger of being otherwife dif¬
charged than by defign. The vitriolic inks them¬
felves, and thofe of printed books and copperplates,
are all difchargeablc; nor can it be expeded of the
ink-maker to render writings fecure from frauds.
“ But a further improvement may yet be made,
namely, that of uniting the ancient and modern inks
together ; or ufing the common vitriolic ink inftead of
water, for tempering the ancient mixture of gum and
lamp-black. By this method it (hould feem that the
writings would have all the .durability of thofe of for¬
mer times, with all the advantage that refults from
the vitriolic ink fixing itfelf in the paper. Even where
the common vitriolic mixture is depended on for the
ink, it may in many cafes be improved by a fmall
addition of the ancient compofition, or of the com¬
mon Indian ink which anfwers the fame purpofet
when the vitriolic ink is dilute, and flows fo pale from
the pen, that the fine ftrokes, on firft writing, are
fcarcely vifible, the addition of a little Indian ink is
the readied means of giving it the due blacknefs.
By this admixture it may be prefumed alfo that the
vitriolic ink will be made more durable, the Indian
ink in fome meafure covering it, and defending it from
the a£lion of the air. In all cafes, where Indian ink
or other fitnilar compofitions are employed, cotton
(hould be ufed in the ink-ftand, as already mentioned,
to prevent the fettling of the black powder.”
Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours,
brought from China and other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, fometimes in large rolls, but more commonly in
fmall quadrangular cakes, and generally marked with
Chinefe charafters. Dr Lewis, from experiments
made on this fubllance, hath ihewn that it is compofed
22 F of
INK [ 3902 ] INK
of fine lamp-black and animal-glue : and accordingly,
for the preparation of it, he defires us to mix the lamp ¬
black with as much melted glue as is fufficient to give
it a tenacity proper for being made into cakes ; and
thefe when dry, he tells us, anfvvered as well as thofe
imported from the Eaft Indies, both with regard to
the colour, and the freedom of working. Ivory-black,
and other charcoal-blacks, levigated to a great degree
of finenefs, anfwered as well as the lamp-black; but
in the ftate in which ivory-black is commonly fold, it
proved much too gritty, and feparated too haftily
from the water.
Printing Ink, is totally different from Indian ink,
or that made ufe of in writing. It is an oily compo-
fition, of the confiftence of an ointment: the me¬
thod of preparing it was long kept a fecret by thofe
whofe employment it was to make it, and who were in-
terefted in concealing it; and even yet is but imperfe&ly
known. The properties of good printing-ink are,
to work clean and eafily, without daubing the types,
or tearing the paper ; to have a fine black colour ; to
waflr eafily off the types; to dry foon ; and to preferve
its colour, without turning brown. This laft, which
is a moft neceffary property, is effe&ually obtained by
fetting fire to the oil with which the printing ink is
made for a few moments, and then extinguifhing it by
covering the veffel (a). It is made to wafh eafily off
the types, by ufing foap as an ingredient; and its work¬
ing clean depends on its having a proper degree of
ftrength, which is given by a certain addition of rofin.
A good deal, however, depends on the proportion of
the ingredients to each other ; for if too much foap
is added, the ink will work very foul, and daub the
types to a great degree. The fame thing will happen
from ufing too much black, at the fame time that
both the foap and black hinder the ink from drying ;
while too much oil and rofin tear the paper, and hin¬
der it from walking off.—The following receipt has
been found to make printing ink of a tolerable good
quality. “ Take a Scots pint of linfeed oil, and fet it
over a pretty brifk fire in an iron or copper veffel ca¬
pable of holding three or four times as much. When
it boils ftrongly, and emits a thick fmoke, kindle it
with a piece of paper, and immediately take the vef¬
fel off the fire. Let the oil burn for about a minute ;
then extinguifh it by covering the veffel; after it has
grown pretty cool, add two pounds of black rofin,
and one pound of hard foap cut into thin flices. If
the oil is very hot when the foap is added, almoft the
whole mixture will run over the veffel. The mixture
is then to be fet again over the fire ; and when the
ingredients are thoroughly melted, a pound of lamp¬
black, previoufly put through a lawn fieve, is to be
ftirred into it. The whole ought then to be ground
on a marble (tone, or in a mill like the levigating mill
defcribed under the article Chemistry, n° 97.”
Though the above receipt is greatly fuperior to
any that hath been hitherto publifhed, all of which
are capitally deficient in not mentioning the necef-
fary ingredients of rofin and foap ; yet it muff be ac¬
knowledged, that ink made in this manner is inferior
in point of colour, and is likewife more apt to daub
the types and make an indiftinft impreflion, than fuch
as is prepared by fome of thofe who make the manu-
faAure of this commodity their employment ; fo that
either a variation in the proportion of the ingredients,
a nicety in the mixture, or fome additional ingredient,
feems neceffary to bring it to the requifite perfe&ion.
Ink for the Rolling Prefs, is made of linfeed oil
burnt in the fame manner as that for common printing-
ink, and then mixed with Francfort-black, and finely
round. There are no certain proportions which can
e determined in this kind of ink ; every workman
adding oil or black to his ink, as he thinks proper,
in order to make it fuit his own tafte.—Some, how¬
ever, mix a portion of common boiled oil which has
never been burnt: but this muff neceffarily be a bad
praAice, as fuch oil is apt to go through the paper ;
a fault very common in prints, efpecially if the paper
is not very thick. No foap is added ; becaufe the ink
is not cleared off from the copperplates with alkaline
ley as in common printing, but with a brufh dipped
in oil.
Ink is alfo an appellation given to any coloured
liquor, ufed in writing, whether red, yellow, green,
&c. Many different kinds of thefe inks may be
prepared by the dire&ions given under the article
Colour-making, which it would be fuperfluous here
to repeat.
Sympathetic Ink, a liquor with which a perfon
may write, and yet nothing appear on the paper after
it is dry, till fome other means are ufed, fuch as
holding the paper to the fire, rubbing it over with
fome other liquor, &c.
Thefe kinds of ink may be divided into feven claffes,
and that with refpeA to the means ufed to make them
vifible; viz. I. Such as become invifible by palling
another liquor over them, or by expofing them to the
vapour of that liquor. 2. Thofe that do not appear
fo long as they are kept clofe, but foon become vifible
on being expofed to the air. 3. Such as appear by
ftrewing or fifting fome very fine powder of any co¬
lour over them. 4. Thofe which become vifible by
being expofed to the fire. 5. Such as become vifible
by heat, but difappear again by cold or the moiffure
of the air. 6. Thofe which become vifible by being
wetted with water. 7. Such as appear of various co¬
lours, red, yellow, blue, &c.
I. The firft clafs contains four kinds of ink, viz,
folutions of lead, bifmutb, gold, and green vitriol. The
firft two become vifible in the fame manner, viz. by
the contaA of fulphureous liquids or fumes. For the
firft, a folution of common fugar-of-lead in water will
anfwer as well as more troublefome preparations. If
you write with this folution with a clean pen, ths
writing when dry will be totally invifible: but if it be
wetted with a folution of hepar fulphuris, or of orpiment,
diffolved by means of quick-lime ; or if it be expofed
to the ftrong vapours of thefe folutions, but efpecially
to the vapour of volatile tin&ure of fulphur; the wri¬
ting will appear of a brown colour, more or lefs deep
according to the ftrength of the fulphureous fume.
By the fame means, what is wrote with the folution
of bifmuth in fpirit of nitre will appear of a deep
black.
The fympathetic ink prepared from gold, depends
on
(a) This is mentioned by Dr Lewis in his Philofophical Commerce of Arts ; but he feems not to have been SC*
quainted with the method of giving it the other necefl'ary properties-
INK [ 3903 ] I N L
on the property by which that metal precipitates from are dried alum, fugar-of-lead, vitriol, &c. We have Inland,
its folvent on the addition of a folution of tin. If therefore only to write with a flrong folution of thefe lnn-
you write with a folution of gold in aqua regia, and falls upon paper, and the chara&ers will be invifible
let the paper dry gently in the fhade, nothing will ap- when dry; but when we apply water, the fraall por-
pear for the firlt feven or eight hours. Dip a pencil tion of dried fait cannot again be diflblved in the
or a fmall fine fponge in the folution of tin, and draw- water. Hence the infoluble part becomes vifible
ing it lightly over the invifible charafters, they will on the paper, and (hews the chara&ers wrote in whiter
immediately appear, of a purple colour. grey> brown, or any other colour which the precipitate
Charafters wrote with a folution of green vitriol alfumes.
carefully depurated, will likewife be invifible when VII. Chara&ers may be made to appear of a fine
the paper is dry ; but if wetted with an infufion of crimfon, purple, or yellow, by writing on paper with
galls, they will immediately appear as if wrote with folution of tin in aqua regia, and then palling over it
common ink. If, inftead of this infufion, a folution a pencil dipt in adecoAion of cochineal, Brazil-wood,
of the phlogifticated alkali, impregnated with the co- logwood, yellow-wood, &c.—For an account of the
louring matter Prufiian blue is made up of, the writing nature of all thefe fympathetic inks, however, and the
will appear of a very deep blue. principles on which they are made, fee the articles
II. To the fecond clafs belong the folutions of all Chemistry and Colour-making,
thofe metals which are apt to attraft phlogifton from INLAND, a name for any part of a country at a
the air, fuch as lead, bifmuth, filver, &c. The fym- diltance from the fea.
pathetic ink of gold already mentioned belongs alfo to Inland Navigation. See Canal.
this clafs; for if the charafters wrote with it are long Inland Trade, that kind of trade carried on be-
expofed to the air, they become by degrees of a deep tween the different parts of the fame kingdom,
violet colour, nearly approaching to black. In like whether over land, or by means of inland naviga-
manner, charadlers wrote with a folution of filver in tion.
aqua fortis are invifible when newdy dried, but being INN, a place appointed for the entertainment and
expofed to the fun, appear of a grey colour like flate. relief of travellers.
To this clafs alfo belong folutions of lead in vinegar; Inns are licenfed and regulated by juftices of the
copper in aqua fortis; tin in aqua regia; emery, and peace, who oblige the landlord to enter into recogni-
fome kinds of pyrites, in fpirit of fait; mercury, in aqua zances for keeping good order. If a perfon who keeps
fortis; or iron, in vinegar. Each of thefe has a par- a common inn, refufes to receive a traveller into his
ticular colour when expofed to the air; but they have houfe as a gueft, or to find him viftuals and lodging
the difagreeable property of corroding the paper, fo on his tendering a reafonable price for them, he is
that after fome time the chara&ers appear like holes liable to an a£lion of damages, and may be indi&ed siadji.
cut out of the paper. and fined at the king’s fuit. The rates of all commo- Comment,
III. The third clafs of fympathetic inks contains dities fold by inn-keepers, according to our ancient
fuch liquids as have fome kind of glutinous vifeofity, laws, may be afleffed: and inn-keepers not felling
and at the fame time are long a drying ; by which their hay, oats, beans, &c. and all manner of viftuals
means, though the eye cannot difeern the charafters at reafonable prices, without taking any thing for lit-
wrote with them upon paper, the powders ftrewed ter, maybe fined and imprifoned, &c. by 21 Jac. I. c. 2.r.
upon them immediately adhere, and thus make the Where an inn-keeper harbours thieves, perfons of in¬
writing become vifible. Of this kind are urine, milk, famous chara&er, or fuffers any diforders in his houfe,
the juices of fome vegetables, w^eak folutions of the or fets up a new inn where there is no need of one, to
deliquefeent falls, &c. to the hindrance of ancient and well-governed inns,
IV. This clafs, comprehending all thofe that.be- he is indidtable and fineable; and by ftatute, fuch inn
come vifible by being expofed to the fire, is very ex- may be fuppreffed. Adtion upon the cafe lies againft
tenfive, as it contains all thofe colonrltfs liquids in any inn-keeper, if a theft be committed on his gueft;
which the matter diffolved is capable of being re- by a fervant of the inn, or any other perfon not be-
duced, or of reducing the paper, into a fort of charcoal longing to the gueft; though it is otherwife where
by a fmall heat. A very eafily procured ink of this the gueft is not a traveller, but one of the fame town
kind is oil of vitriol diluted with as much water as or village, for there the inn-keeper is not chargeable;
will prevent it from corroding the paper. Letters nor is the matter of a private tavern anfwerable for a
wrote with this fluid are perfetfly invifible when dry, robbery committed on his gueft: it is faid, that even
but inftantly appear as black as if wrote with the tho’ the travelling gueft does not deliver his goods, &c.
fineft ink on being held near the fire. Juice of le- into the inn-keeper’s poffeflQon, yet if they are ftolen,
mons or onions, a folution of fal-ammoniac, green vi- he is chargeable. An inn-keeper is not anfwerable
triol, &c. will anfwer the fame purpofe, though not fo for any thing out of his inn, but only for fuch as are
eafily, or with fo little heat. within it; yet, where he of his own accord puts the
V. The fifth clafs comprehends only folutions of gueft’s horfe to grafs, and the horfe is ftolen, he is
Regulus of Cobalt in fpirit of fait; for the properties anfwerable, he not having the gueft’s orders for put-
of which, fee Chemistry, n° 259. ting fuch horfe to grafs. The inn-keeper may juftify
VI. This clafs comprehends fuch inks as become the flopping of the horfe, or other thing of his gueft,
vifible when charadters wrote with them are wetted for his reckoning, and may detain the fame till it be
with water. They are made of all fuch fubftances as paid. Where a perfon brings his horfe to an inn, and
depofit a copious fediment when mixed with water, leaves him in the ftable, the inn-keeper may detain
diflblving only imperfedtly in that fluid. Of this kind him till fuch time as the owner pays for his keeping r
22 F 2 and
Inflate
I!
Innocent’s
INN [3
and if the horfe eats out as much as he is worth, after
a reafonable appraifetnent made, he may fell the horfe
^_and pay himfelf: but when a gueft brings feveral
horfes to an inn, and afterwards takes them ail away
except one, this horfe fo left may not be fold for pay¬
ment of the debt for the others; for every horfe is to
be fold, only to make fatisfa&ion for tvhat is due for
his own meat.
Inns of Court, are colleges in London, for the ftudy
of the laws of England, with all conveniencies for the
lodging and entertainment of the profefibrs and flu-
dents.
In thefe colleges, there are not only fuch (Indents
as fludy the laws of this kingdom, in order to render
themfelves capable of pradlifing in the courts of law
at Weftminfter; but alfp fuch other gentlemen of for¬
tune as apply themfelves to this ftudy, in order to
know and vindicate their rights, and to render them¬
felves more ferviceable to their country.
Our inns of court, which are numerous, and juftly
famed for the production of men of learning, are go¬
verned by matters, principals, benchers, ftewards, and
other officers; and have public halls for exercifes,
readings, &c. which the ftudents are obliged to attend
and perform for a certain number of years, before they
can be admitted to plead at the bar. Thefe focieties
have not, however, any judicial authority over their
members; but inftead of this, they have certain orders
among themfelves, which have, by confent, the force
of laws: for lighter offences, perfons are only txcom-
moned, or put out of commons; for greater, they lofe
their chambers, and are expelled the college: and
when once expelled out of one fociety, they are never
received by any of the othefs. The gentlemen in
thefe focieties may be divided into benchers, outer-
barrifters, inner-barrifters, and ftudents.
The four principal inns of court are the Inner-
temple, Middle-temple, Lincoln’s-inn, and Gray’s-
inn; the other inns are the two Serjeant’s-inns; and
the others, which are lefs confiderable, are Cliffbrd’s-
inn, Symond’s-inn, Clement’s-inn, Lion’s-inn, Furni-
val’s-inn, Staple’s-inn, Thavie’s-inn, Barnard’s-inn,
and New-inn. Thefe are moftly taken up by attor¬
neys, follicitors, &c.; but they belong to the inns of
court, who fend yearly fame of their barrifters to read
to them.
INNATE ideas, thofe fuppofed to be ftamped on
the mind, from the firfl moment of its exiftence, and
which it conflantly brings into the world with it: a
doftrine which Mr Locke has taken great pains to
refute.
INNERKEITHING. See Inverkeithing.
INNERLOCHY, or Fort-William, a fortrefs
lately erefted in the Highlands of Scotland, at the
mouth of a large lake in the county of Lochabcr,
28 miles S. W. of Lochnefs, and 100 N. W. of Edin¬
burgh. W. Long. 5. 15. N. Lat. 56. 55.
INNISKILLING, a ftrong town of Ireland, in
the county of Fermanagh, and province of Ulfter.
The inhabitants diftinguifhed themfelves in favour of
king William foon after the revolution, againft king
James’s party. It is feated between two lakes, in
W. Long. 5. 50.- N. Lat. 54. 20.
INNOCENT’S day, a feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on December 28th, in memory of
934 ] I N O
the maflacre of the innocent children by the commandInnomimti.
of Herod king of Judasa. See Jesus Chriji; andInQculation'
jEws,n°24. pat.a/r. The Greek church in their kalendar,
and the Abyffinians of Ethiopia in their offices, com¬
memorate 14,000 infants on this occafion.
INNOMINATA ossa, in anatomy. See there,
n° 38. a, b.
INOCULATION, or budding, in gardening, is
commonly pradlifed upon all forts of ftone-fruit ; as
nedlarines, peaches, apricots, plumbs, cherries, as
alfo upon oranges and jafmines: and indeed this is
preferable to any fort of grafting for moft forts of
fruit. The method of performing it is as follows:
You muft be provided with a fharp pen-knife with a
flat haft, which is to raife the bark of the flock to
admit the bud ; and fome found bafs-mat, which
fhould be foaked in water, to increafe its ftrength, and
render it more pliable: then having taken off the cut¬
tings from the trees you would propagate, you muft
choofe a fmooth part of the flock, about five or fix
inches above the furface of the ground, if defigned for
dwarfs; but if for flandards, they fhould be budded
fix feet above-ground. Then with your knife make
an horizontal cut acrofs the rind of the flock, and
from the middle of that cut make a flit downwards,
two inches in length, that it may be in the form of a
T; but you muft be careful not to cut too deep, left
you wound the flock: then having cut off the leaf
from the bud, leaving the foot-ftalk remaining, you
fhould make a crofs cut, about half an inch below the
eye, and with your knife flit off the bud, with part of
the wood to it: this done, you mufl with your knife
pull off that part of the wood which was taken with
the bud, obferving whether the eye of the bud be left
to it or not; for all thofe buds which lofe their eyes
in dripping, are good for nothing: then having gently
raifed the bark of the dock with the flat haft of your
pen-knife clear to the wood, tbrufl the bud therein,
obferving to place it fmooth between the rind and
wood of the flock, cutting off any part of the rind
belonging to the bud, that may be too long for the
flit made in the flock ; and fo having exadlly fitted
the bud to the flock, tie them clofely round with bafs-
mat, beginning at the under-part of the flit, and fo
proceeding to the top, taking care not to bind round
the eye of the bud, which fhould be left open.
When your buds have been innoculated three weeks
or a month, thofe which are frefh and plump you may
be fure are joined ; and at this time you fhould loofen
the bandage, which if it be not done in time, will in¬
jure if not deftroy the bud. The March following
cut off the flock (loping, about three inches above the
bud, and to what is left fatten the (hoot which pro¬
ceeds from the bud : but this mufl continue no longer
than one year; after which the flock muft be cut off
clofe above the bud. The time for innoculating is
from the middle of June to the middle of Auguft :
but the moft general rule is, when you obferve the
buds formed at the extremity of the fame year’s fhoot,
which is a fign of their having finifhed their fpring
growth. The firft fort commonly inoculated is the
apricot; and the lafl the orange-tree, which fhould
never be done till the latter end of Augufl. And in
doing this work, you fhould always make choice of
cloudy weather; for if it be done in the middle of the
day,
I N [ 39°5 ] INS
iai)fiiofcu- day, when the weather is hot, the (hoots will perfpire
Station fG faft, as to leave the buds deftitute of moilture.
fif Jj. , Inoculation, in medicine, the art of tranfplant-
"cq'11"t'on• ing the fmall-pox from one perfon to another, by im-
if" pregnating the blood of the found perfon with the
variolous matter from a puftnle taken from the other.
See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
INOSCULATION, in anatomy. See Anasto¬
mosis.
INPROMPTU, or Impromptu. See Impromptu.
INQUEST, in Scots law, the fame with Tory.
INQUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tri¬
bunal in feveral Roman Catholic countries, ere&ed
by the popes for the examination and punifhment of
heretics.
This court was founded in the twelfth century by
father Dominic and his followers, who were fent by
pope Innocent III. with orders to excite the Catholic
princes and people to extirpate heretics, to fearch into
their number and quality, and to tranfmit a faithful
account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called
inquijitors ; and this gave birth to the formidable tri¬
bunal of the inquifition, which was received in all I-
taly, and the dominions of Spain, except the kingdom
of Naples and the Low Countries.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of herefy,
Judaifm, Mahometanifm, Sodomy, and polygamy;
and the people (land in fo much fear of it, that parents
deliver up their children, hufbands their wives, and
mailers their fervants, to its officers, without daring
ij in the leaft to murmur. The prifoners are kept for a
long time, till they themfelves turn their own accu-
fers, and declare the caufe of their imprifonment ; for
they are neither told their crime, nor confronted with
witnefies. As fuon as they are imprifoned, their
friends go into mourning, and fpeak of them as dead,
! not daring to folicit their pardon, left they (hould be
brought in as accomplices. When there is no (hadow
of proof againft the pretended criminal, he is difchar-
ged, after fuffering the moft cruel tortures, a tedious
and dreadful imprifonment, and the lofs of the great-
eft part of his effefts. The fentence againft the pri¬
foners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary
folemnity. In Portugal, they ere£t a theatre capable of
holding 3000 perfons; in which they place a rich al¬
tar, and raife feats on each fide in the form of an
amphitheatre. There the prifoners are placed; and
over-againft them is a high chair, whither they are
called, one by one, to hear their doom, from one of
the inquifitors.
Thefe unhappy people know what they are to fuf-
fer, by the cloaths they wear that day. Thofe who
appear in their own cloaths, are difcharged upon pay¬
ment of a fine : thofe who have a fanto benito, or
(trait yellow coat without fleeves, charged with St
Andrew’s crofs, have their lives, but forfeit all their
efftfls: thofe who have the refemblance of flames,
made of red ferge, fewed upon their fanto benito, with¬
out any crofs, are pardofled, but threatened to be
burnt if ever they relapfe: but thofe who, befides
■ thefe flames, have on their fanto benito their own pic¬
ture, furrounded with figures of devils, are condemned
to expire in the flames. The inquifitors, who are ec-
clefiaftics, do not pronounce the fentence of death ;
but form and read an aft, in which they fay, that
the criminal being convifted of fuch a crime, by his Inlcribedt
own confefiion, is with much reluftance delivered to ^
the fecular power to be puniftied according to his de- D c s‘
merits: and this writing they give to the feven judges
who attend at the right fide of the altar, who imme¬
diately pafs fentence. For the conclufion of this hor¬
rid fcene, fee Act 0/*Faith.
INSCRIBED, in geometry. A figure is faid to
be infcribed in another, when all its angles touch the
fide or planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, a title or writing carved, en¬
graved, or affixed to any thing, to give a more di-
ilinft knowledge of it, or to tranfmit Tome important
truth to pofterity.
The infcriptions mentioned by Herodotus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, fufficiently (hew that this was the firft
method of conveying inftruftion to mankind, and
tranfmitting the knowledge of hiftory and fciences to
pofterity : thus the ancients engraved upon pillars both,
the principles of fciences, and the hiftory of the world.
Pififtratus carved precepts of hufbandry on pillars of
(lone; and the treaties of confederacy between the
Romans and Jews, were engraved on plates of brafs.
Hence, antiquarians have been very curious in exa¬
mining the infcriptions on ancient ruins, coins, me¬
dals, &c.
ydcademy ^Inscriptions. See Academy.
INSECTS, insecta, in natural hiftory, a fmaller
fort of animals, commonly fuppofed to be exfangui-
ous; and diftinguifhed by certain incifures, cuttings,
or indentings in their bodies. The word is originally
Latin, formed of in, and feco, “ I cutthe reafon
of which is, that in fome of this tribe, as ants, the
body feems to be cut or divided into two ; orbecaufe
the bodies of many, as worms, caterpillars, &c. are
compofed of divers circles, or rings, which are a fort
of incifurse.
By fome natural hiftorians, this clafs of animals is
confidered as the moft imperfeft of any, while others
prefer them to the larger animals. One mark of their
imperfeftion is faid to be, that many of them can live
a long time, though deprived of thofe organs which
are neceflary to life in the higher ranks of nature.
Many of them are furniflied with lungs and an heart,,
like the nobler animals •, yet the caterpillar continues
to live, though its heart and lungs, which is often
the cafe, are entirely eaten away.—It is not, how¬
ever, from their conformation alone that infefts are
inferior to other animals, but from their inftinfts alfo...
It is true, that the ant and the bee prefent us with
ftriking inftances of affiduity ; yet even thefe are in¬
ferior to the marks of fagacity difplayed by the larger
animals. A bee taken from the fwarm is totally help-
lefs and inaftive, incapable of giving the fmalleft va¬
riation to its inftinfts. It has but one fingle
method of operating; and if put from that, it can
turn to no other. In the purfuits of the hound, there
is fomething like choice; but in the labours of the
bee, the whole appears like necelfity and compulfion.
—AH other animals are capable of fome degree of e-
ducation • their inftinfts may befuppreffed or altered;
the dog may be taught to fetch and carry, the bird
to whiftle a tune, and the ferpent to dance: but the
infeft has only one invariable method of operating;,
no arts can turn it from its inftinfts 5 and indeed its
life
INS [ 3906 ] INS
infers. Ufe ;s too fliort for inftrudion, as a fingle feafon often
terminates its exiftence.—Their amazing number is
alfo an imperfeflion. It is a rule that obtains through
all nature, that the nobler animals are flowly produced,
and that nature a£ts with a kind of dignified oecono-
my ; but the meaner births are lavifhed in profufion,
and thoufands are brought forth merely to fupply the
neceffities of the more favourite part of the creation.
Of all produ&ions in nature, infefts are by far the moft
numerous. The vegetables which cover the furface of
the earth bear no proportion to the multitudes of in¬
fers ; and though, at firft fight, herbs of the field
feem to be the parts of organized nature produced in
the greateft abundance, yet, upon more minute in-
fpe&ion, we find every plant fupporting a mixture of
fcarce perceptible creatures, that fill up the compafs
of youth, vigour, and age, in the fpace of a few days
exiftence.—In Lapland, and fome parts of America,
the infers are fo numerous, that if a candle is lighted
they fwarm about it in fuch multitudes, that it is in-
ilantly extinguifhed by them ; and in thefe parts of
the world, the miferable inhabitants are forced to
fmear their bodies and faces with tar, or fome other
unftuous compofition, to protedl them from the dings
of their minute enemies.
On the other hand, Swammerdam argues for the
perfeftion of infefts in the following manner. “ After
an attentive examination (fays he) of the nature and
anatomy of the fmalleft as well as the largeft animals,
I cannot help allowing the leaft an equal, or perhaps
a fuperior, degree of dignity. If, while we difleft
with care the larger animals, we are filled with won¬
der at the elegant difpofition of their parts, to what
an height is our aftonifhment raifed, when wedifcover
all thefe parts arranged, in the leaft, in the fame re¬
gular manner ! Notwithftanding the fmallnefs of ants,
nothing hinders our preferring them to the largeft:
animals, if we confider either their unwearied dili¬
gence, their wonderful ftrength, or their inimitable
propenfity to labour. Their amazing love to their
young is ftill more unparalleled among the larger
claffes. They not only daily carry them to fuch places
as may afford them food ; but if by accident they are
killed, and even cut into pieces, they will with the
utmoft tendernefs carry them away piecemeal in their
arms. Who can fhew fuch an example among the
larger animals which are dignified with the title of per-
fett ? Who can find an inftance in any other creature
that can come in competition with this i”
On this difpute it is only neceffary to obferve, that
the wifdom of the Creator is fo confpicuous in all his
works, and fuch furprifing art is difcovered in the me-
chanifm of the body of every creature, that it is very
difficult, if not impoffible, to fay where it is moft, and
where it is leaft, to be obferved.—The nature and pro¬
perties of infe&s are certainly very wonderful. Many
particulars relating to them may be found under diffe¬
rent articles of this work ; but thofe who defire to fee
this fubjeft treated in a full and ample manner, muft
have recourfe to the works of Reaumur and Swammer¬
dam.
Of the Kinds ^Insects, and where the Colletlorfcr
the Cabinet may find them. Infefts in general are
known to moft people, the fyftematic diftin&ions but
to few ; nor have we any Englifh names for the greateft
part of them. The general denominations of beetles,
butterflies, moths, flies, bees, wafps, and a few other ~
common names, are all that our language fupplies. It
would, therefore, be in vain to anumerate the im-
menfe variety of genera and fpecies to any perfon un-
flcilled in the fcience of entomology : we may, how-
ever, give diredions under general names where to find
each kind.
The clafs of infe&s is divided by Linnteus into fe-
ven orders. See Zoology.
I. The Coleoptera, (from xaxtor, a Jheath, and
a wing,) are foch in feds as have cruftaceous
elytra or fhells, which fljut together, and form a lon¬
gitudinal future down the back of the infed; as the
beetle, {buprefiris ignita,) rr. Many of them (as cuv 1
ihe fcarabaut or chaffer, dennefies or leather-eater, * '
hi/ler or mimick-beetle, Jlaphylinus or rove-beetle, &C.) j
are found in and under the dung of animals, efpecially
of cows, horfes, and flieep. Some (as lucanus or flag- L , , i
beetle, cerambyx or capricorn beetle, derm files, &c.) n^Ws,
are found in rotten and half-decayed wood, and under W Trau.’i
the decayed bark of trees. Others (as hifler, JilphaComPanioa>\
or carrion• beetle, Jlaphylinus, &c.) on the carcafes ofp-&c-
animals that have been dead four or five days; on moift
bones that have been gnawed by dogs or other ani¬
mals ; on flowers having a fetid fmell; and on feveral
kinds of fungous fubftances, particularly the rotten
and moft (linking. Others (as by rr hits, curculio or wee¬
vil, bruchus or feed-beetle, &c.) may be found in a
morning about the bottoms" of perpendicular rocks
and fand-banks, and alfo upon the flowers of trees
and herbaceous plants. Many kinds (as gyrinus or
whirl-beetle, dytifeus or water-beetle, &c.) may be
caught in rivers, lakes, and (landing pools, by means
of a thread-net, with fmall mefties, on a round wire-
hoop, fixed at the end of a long pole. In the middle
of the day, when the fun (hines hot, fome (as the coc-
cinella or lady-fly, buprefilis or burn-cow, chryfomela
or golden honey-beetle, cantharis or foft-winged-
beetle, elater or fpring-beetle, or clipt-wing-
ed beetle, &c.) are to be feen on plants and flowers,
blighted trees and (hrubs. Others (as lampyris or
glow-worm, &c.) frequent moift meadows, and are bed
difcovered at night, by the (hining light which they
emit. A great variety fit clofe on the leaves of plants,
particularly of the burdock, elecampa ne, coltsfoot, dock,
thiftle, and the like, (as the cajfida or tortoife-beetle,
&c.) ; or feed on different kinds of tender herbs (as the
vieloe or blifter-beetle.) Numbers (as the tenebrio or
(linking-beetle,) may be foundin houfes, dark cellars,
damp pits, caves, and fubterraneous paffages; or on
umbelliferous flowers, (as the cerarnbyx, ptinus, See.);
or on the trunks as well as on the leaves of trees, in tim¬
ber-yards, and in the holes of decayed wood. Some
(as the leptura or wood-beetle, cicindela or gloffy-
beetle, &c.) inhabit wild commons, the margins of
pools, marfties, and rivulets; and are likewife feen
creeping on flags, reeds, and all kinds of water-
plants. Multitudes (as ihecarabus or ground-beetle)
live under (tones, mofs, rubbifh, and wrecks near the
(bores of lakes and rivers. Thefe are found alfo in
bogs, marfties, moift places, pits, holes of the earth,
and on ftems of trees ; and in an evening they crawl
plentifully along path-ways after a (hower of rain.
Some (as the forficula or earwig) may be difcovered
Irrfefls*
I N S
Infcfb. in the hollow ftems of decayed umbelliferous plants,
and on many forts of flowers and fruits.
II. Hemiftera, (from half, and wTsfov, a
‘wing,') have their upper wings ufually half cruftaceo.us
and half membranaceous, not divided by a longitudi¬
nal future, but incumbent on each other; as the ci-
mex, fig. 12. Some of thefe (as the blatta or cock¬
roach) are found about bake-houfes, &c. ; others
(as the mantis or camel-cricket, gryllus or locuft, ful-
gora, cicada, or flea-locuft, cimex or bug, &c.) on
grafs, and all kinds of field-herbage. Some (as note-
netta or boat-fly, nepa or water-fcorpion, &c.) frequent
rivers, lakes, and Handing pools.
III. Lepidoptera, (from fcale, and
a iving,) are infe&s having four wings, covered with
fine fcales in the form of powder or meal; as in the
butlerfiy, (papilioantiopa,) fig. 13. In the day, when
the fun is warm, butterflies are feen on many forts
of trees, (hrubs, plants, and flowers. Moths may
be feen in the day-time, fitting on pales, walls, trunks
of trees, in fhades, out-houfes, dry holes, and crevi¬
ces ; on fine evenings, they fly about the places they
inhabit in the day-time : feme (as the fphinx or hawk-
moth,) are feen flying in the day-time over the flow¬
ers of honey-fuckles and other plants with tubular
flowers. Infedts of this fpecies feldom fit to feed,
but continue vibrating on the wing, while they thruft:
the tongue or probofeis into the flowers.
IV. Neuroptera, (from v£ufov, a nerve, and
a ruing,) have four membranous tranfparent naked
wings, generally like network; as in the panorpa coa,
fig. 14. Of thefe, fome (as the myrmeleon, hemerobius
or pearl-fly, raphidia or camel-fly, &c.) are found in
woods, hedges, meadows, fand-banks, walls, pales,
fruits, and umbelliferous flowers. Others (as libellula
or dragon-fly, ephemera or may-fly, phryganea or
fpring-fly, &c.) fly about lakes and rivers in the
day.
V. Hymenoptera, (from a membrane, and
a ruing), are infe&s with four membranous
wings, tail furnifhed with a fling ; as in the tenthredo,
fig. 15. Thefe, including wafps, bees, &c. frequent
hedges, fhrubs, flowers, and fruits.
VI. Diptera, (from‘fv", £w<?, and *•%<>»> a ruing,)
are fuch as have only two wings, and poifers ; as in
the fly, fig. 16. Flies of various kinds conftitute this
clafs; of which fome (as cejlras or gad-fly, mufea or
fly, tabanus or whame,) fly about the tops of trees,
little bills, horfes, cows, fheep, ditches, dunghills,
and every oflenfive object. Others (as tipula, conops,
afilus or wafp-fly, &c.) are found on all forts of flow¬
ers, particularly thofe of a fetid fine]].
VII. Aptera (from «, without, and^sjov, truing,
Infeds having no wings. This laft divifion contains
fcorpions, fpiders, crabs, lobfters, &c.
Of Catching and Preferring Insectsfor Colic Cions. In
the following dire&ions, we fhall relate the methods
of killing them the moft readily, and with the leaft
pain, as the purfuit of this part of natural hiftory hath
been often branded with cruelty; and however reafonably
the naturalift may exculpate himfelf by pleading the
propriety of fubmitting to an evil which leads to ufe-
ful difeoveries, yet for wanton cruelty there never can
be a juft pretext:
y—The poor beetle that we tread uponj,
I N S
In corp’ral fufferance feels a pang as great
As when a giant dies.
j. The firft clafs, confifting of beetles (coleopteha), are
hard-winged. Many kinds fly about in the day, others
in the evening, fome at night only. They may be
caught with a gauze-net, or a pair of forceps covered
with-^auze. When they are taken, flick a pin thro9
the middle of one of the hard wings, and pafs it thro*
the body. They may be killed inftantly, by immer-
fion in hot water, as well as in fpirit of wine ; then
flick them on a piece of cork, and afterwards careful¬
ly place their legs in a creeping pofition, and let
them continue expofed to the air until all the moifture
is evaporated from their bodies. Beetles may alfo be
preferved in fpirit of wine, brandy, or rum, clofely
corked up.
2. Infedts of the fecond clafs (hemiptera) may be
killed in the fame manner as beetles, and likewife by
means of a drop of the etherial oil of turpentine ap¬
plied to the head ; or in the manner to be deferibed un¬
der the next clafs for killing mqths.
3. The divifion of butterflies and moths, (lepidopte-
ra), as well as all flies within membranaceous wings,
fhould be catched with a gauze net, or a pair of
gauze forceps: when taken in the forceps, run a pin
through the thorax or fhoulders, between the fore-
wings. After this is done, take the pin by the head,
and remove the forceps, and with the other hand pinch
the breaft of the infeft, and it will immediately die:
the wings of butterflies Ihould be expanded, and kept
fo by the preflure of fmall flips of paper for a day or
two. Moths expand their wings when at reft, and
they will naturally take that pofition.
The larger kinds of thefe infe£ls will not fo readily
expire by this method, as by flicking them upon the
bottom of a cork exaftly fitted to the mouth of a
bottle, into which a little i'ulphur had been put, and by
gradually heating the bottle, till an exhalation of the
fulphur take place, when the infe& inftantly dies, with¬
out injuring its colours or plumage.
The beft method of having the moft perfeft butter¬
flies, is to find out, if poffible, the larva or caterpillar
of each, by examining the plants, ftirubs, or tr£es,
they ufually feed upon, or by beating the fhrubs and
trees with long poles, and thereby lhaking the cater¬
pillars into a fheet fpread underneath to receive them ;
to put them into boxes covered with thin canvas,
gauze, or cat-gut, and to feed them with the frefli
leaves of the tree or herb on which they are found ;
when they are full grown, they will go into the pupa
or chryfalis ftate, and require then no other care till
they come out perfedl butterflies, at which time they
may be killed, as before direfled. Sometimes thefe
infefts may be found hanging to walls, pales, and
branches of trees, in the chryfalis ftate.
Moths might likewife be procured more perfeft, by
collefting the caterpillars, and breeding them in the
fame manner as butterflies. As the larvae or caterpil¬
lars cannot be preferved dry, nor very well kept in
fpirit, it would be fatisfa&ory if exa6l drawings could
be made of them while they are alive and perfedb
It may be neceflary to obferve, that in breeding thefe
kinds of infe&s, fome earth ftiould be put into the
boxes, as likewife. fome rotten wood in the corners ;
becaufe, when the caterpillars change into the pupa'
[ 3-9°7 1
INS [ 3908 ] INS
Infefts. or chryfalia flate, fome go into the earth, and continue
' under ground for many months before they come out
into the moth date ; and fome cover themfelves with
a hard fheli, made up of fmall pieces of rotten wood.
4. The fourth clafs of infefts [neuroptera) may be
killed with fpirit of wine, oil of turpentine, or by the
fumes of fulphur.
5. Thofe of the next clafs (hymenoptera) may be
killed in the fame manner. A pin may be run thro*
one of their wing-fhells and body.
6. Infe£ts of the fixth clafs {diptera) may likewife
be killed by fpirit, or by fumes of fulphur.
7. Thofe of the lad divifion (aptera) are in gene¬
ral fubjefts which Ihould be kept in fpirit.
When in fearch of infers, we fhould have a box
fuitable to carry in the pocket, lined with cork at the
bottom and top to flick them upon, until they are
'brought home. If this box be ftrongly impregnated
with camphor, the infefls foon become Aupified, and
are thereby prevented from fluttering and injuring
their plumage. Befides a gauze forceps, the colleftor
Ihould have a large mufqueto gauze-net, and alfo a
pin-cu(hion with three or four different fizes of pins,
to fuit the different fizes of infefts.
In hot climates, infedts of every kind, but particu¬
larly the larger, are liable to be eaten by ants and o-
ther fmall infedts; efpecially before they are perfcdlly
dry : to avoid this, the piece of cork on which our in-
fedts are ftuck in order to be dried, fliould be fufpend-
ed from the cieling of a room, by means of a flender
firing or thread ; befmear this thread with bird-lime,
or fome adhefive fubftance, to intercept the rapa¬
cious vermin of thefe climes in their paffage along the
thread.
After our infedls are properly dried, they may be
placed in the cabinet or boxes where they are to re¬
main : thefe boxes fhould be kept dry ; and alfo made
to fliut very clofe, to prevent fmall infedls from de-
ftroying them ; the bottoms of the boxes (liould be co¬
vered with pitch, or green wax, over which paper may
be laid ; or, which is better, lined with cork, well im¬
pregnated with a folution of corrofive fublimate mer¬
cury in a faturated folution of crude fal-ammoniac in
water, an ounce of which will diffolve 20 fcruples of
the fublimate.
The fineft colledlions have been ruined by fmall in¬
fedls, and it is impoffible to have our cabinets too fe-
cure. Such infedls as are thus attacked may be fumi¬
gated with fulphur, in the manner deferibed for kill¬
ing moths; if this prove ineffedtual, they may be im-
merfed in fpirit of wine, without much injuring their
fine plumage or colours, and afterwards let them be
fprinkled about their bodies and infertions of the
wings with the folution above-mentioned. But baking
the infedls in an oven, in the manner deferibed for
Birds (under that article), is the mod effedtual method
of extirpating thefe enemies; however, the utmoft
caution is requifite in this procefs, in regulating the
heat of the oven.
N. B. All kinds of infedls having no wings, may
be preferved in fpirits, brandy, or rum ; except crabs,
lobfters, and the like, which may conveniently be pre¬
ferved dry.
Insects giving root to Plants. Of this we have an
account, by Mr Fourgeroux, in the Memoirs of the A-
cademy of Sciences for 1769. The plants, of which InfeftsJ
Mr Fougeroux gives an account, are perfedlly there-
verfe of the worm-plant of China, deferibed by Mr
Reaumur in the year 1726. For, in that cafe, a worm
fixes its fnout into the extremity of the plant, and de¬
rives nourifhment from it. But the plants, of which
an account is here given, derive their nourifliment from
the animals.
The greateft part of the animal-plants which he
has feen, grow, he tells us, on the chryfalis of a fpecies
of cicada. The plant growing on thefe infedls has got
the generic name of clavaria, becaufe its {talks and
branches, when it has any, are terminated by tubercles,
which give the appearance of little clubs. The root of
this plant, in general, covers the body of the infedt,
and fometimes is even extended over its head. When
thefe produdlions have for fome time been preferved in
fpirits, the plant and animal may be feparated from
each other without hurting either. Small grooves,
formed by the rings of the animal, may be obferved
running crofs the roots of the plant: but no veftige
can be found of the root’s having any where penetrated
the body of the infedl. Thefe plants produce fibres
differing in length and number. The fibres are ter¬
minated by tubercles, which, before the plant arrives
at maturity, are folid; but, after that period, they
are found pundtured, probably by worms which have
fuffered a metamorpholis uponefcaping from them.
According to Mr Fourgeroux, plants grow, not on¬
ly on the chryfalis of the cicada, but upon the cicada
itfelf. He faw one of this kind upon a cicada brought
from Cayenne. The plant, in this cafe, differed from
the clavaria already mentioned. It was a fpecies of
fucus, compofed of long, white, filky fibres, covering
the body of the infedl, and extending from feven to
eight lines above and below its belly.
The author has found the clavaria growing upon
worms. He has found it chiefly upon worms, which
fuffering a metamorphofis, become afterwards a fmall
fpecies of May-bug. This chryfalis, he obferves. is
very different from that of the cicada; and, even in
its worm-ftate, may eafily be diftinguiflied from it.
After deferibing thefe different fpecies of animal-
plants, the author next proceeds to offer his opinion
upon this fubjedt. He firft confiders what had been
faid by Dr Watfon, in the Philofophical Tranfadlions,
concerning the vegetating-fly of the Caribbee iflands *. * See
Dr Watfon’s account of thefe flies is, that they bury Vegctabl
themfelves about the month of May, and begin to be 1'LY‘ ,
metamorphofed in June ; and that the little plant which
grows upon them refembles a branch of coral, is about
three inches in height, and carries fmall protuberan¬
ces, where worms are generated, which are again con¬
verted into flies. The author imagines, that, in this
account, Dr Watfon has been deceived by the worms,
which he has already obferved will eat into the clava¬
ria, and undergo a change in the holes which they
have there made. Mr Fourgeroux is rather inclined
to adopt the opinion of Dr Hill, founded upon obfer-
vations made at Martinico. There the cicadae are very
frequent; and, during their chryfalis (late, bury them¬
felves among dead leaves, to wait their metamorpho-
fis. Dr Hill imagines, that the feeds of the clavaria
are then attached to them, and are afterwards deve¬
loped, much in the fame manner as the fungus ex pede
equino
INS [ 3909 ] INS
f Infects equino grows upon the hoofs of dead Iiorfes.
! II . It may appear altonifhing, chat the clavaria (hould
, pirttion. attacf1 jtfelf fo conftantly to the nymphas of the cica>
dae in America, as it is not obferved to do fo in other
countries. For this Mr Fourgeroux attempts to ac¬
count, from viewing the clavaria as a parafite peculiar
to this fpecies of infedt; from the great number of the
nymphse of cicadas which abound in America; and
from the circumftances of the climate and foil, which
may render this phenomenon very common there, al¬
though it be not obferved in Europe.
Insects blown from the Nofe. Of this we are fur-
nilhed with many accounts in the works of medical au-
l Med. thors. The faft is confirmed by Dr Monro *, who
iitfj.ii.jn. has received at different times fome of thefe infedts
from different perfons. They were all of thefcolopen-
dra kind, though not exactly anfvvering to any defcrip-
tion of Linnaeus. One of thefe he received from Mr
Hill furgeon in Dumfries. It was an inch and a half
long ; and lived fome hours after it was difcharged,
creeping about flowly on a table. It was then put in¬
to ardent fpirits, foon after which it died.
INSERTION, in anatomy, the clofe conjundtion
of the veffels, tendons, fibres, and membranes of the
I. body with fome other parts.
INSIPID, an appellation given to things without
talle.
INSOLATION, in chemiftry, the fuffering mat¬
ters to Hand and digeft in the heat of the fun, inftead
a of that of a furnace.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to perfons unable
to pay their debts.
Trial by INSPECTION, or Examination, is
when, for the greater expedition of a caufe, in fome
point or iffue, being either the principal queftion, or
arifing collaterally out of it, but being evidently the
objedl of fenfe, the judges of the court, upon the te-
ftimony of their own fenfes, fhall decide the point in
; difpute. For, where the affirmative or negative of a
queftion is matter of fuch obvious determination, it is
not thought neceffary to fummon a jury to decide it;
who are properly called in to inform the confcience of
the court of dubious fadts: and therefore, when the
fadt, from its nature, muft be evident to the court ei¬
ther from ocular demonftration or other irrefragable
proof, there the law departs frorti its ufual refort, the
verdidl of 12 men, and relies on the judgment of the
court alone. As in cafe of a fuit to reverfe a fine for
non-age of the cognizor, or to fet afide a ftatute or re¬
cognizance entered into by an infant ; here, and in
other cafes of the like fort, a writ fhall iffue to the
fheriff, commanding him that he conftrain the faid par¬
ty to appear, that it may be afcertained by the view
of his body by the king’s juftices, whether he be of
full age or not: Ut per afpettum corporis fui conjlare
paterit jufticiariis noJlris,ft prxdiflus an Jit plena atatis
necne. If, however, the court has, upon infpec-
tion, any doubt of the age of the party, (as may fre¬
quently be the cafe), it may proceed to take proofs
of the fadt; and particularly may examine the infant
himfelf upon an oath of voir dire, veritatem dicere;
that is, to make true anfwers to fuch queftions as the
, court fhall demand of him : or the court may examine
his mother, his godfather, or the like.
INSPIRATION, among divines, implies thecon-
Vol. V.
veying of certain extraordinary and fupernatural noti- Infpiration
cesor motions into the foul. II
Some authors reduce the infpiration of the facred
writers, to a particular care of providence, which pre-  
vented any thing they had fatd from failing or co¬
ming to nought; maintaining, that they never were
really infpired, either with knowledge or expreffion.
According to M. Simon, infpiration is no more than
a diredlion of the Holy Spirit, which never permitted
the facred writers to be miftaken.
It is a common opinion, that the infpiration of the
Holy Spirit regards only the matter, not the ftyle or
words ; which feems to fall in with M. Simfon’s doc¬
trine of diredlion.
Among the heathens, the priefts and priefteffes were
faid to be divinely infpired when they gave oracles.
The poets, too, laid claim to it; and to this end
always invoked Apollo and themufesat the beginning
of any great work.
Inspiration, in phyfic, is underftood of that ac¬
tion of the breaft, by which the air is admitted
within the lungs; in which fenfe, infpiration is a
branch of refpiration, and ftands oppofed to Exspi-
ration.
This admiffion of the air depends immediately on its
fpring or elafticity, at the time when the cavity of the
breaft is enlarged by the elevation of the thorax and
abdomen, and particularly by the motion of the dia¬
phragm downwards: fo that the air does not enter
the lungs, becaufe they are dilated; but thofe dilate,
becaufe the air enters within them. Nor is it the dila¬
tation of the breaft which draws in the air, as is com¬
monly thought, tho’ this is a condition abfolutely ne¬
ceffary to infpiration ; but an adhial intrufion of the air
into the lungs. See Respiration.
INSPISSATING, in pharmacy, an operation
whereby a liquor is brought to a thicker confiftence,
by evaporating the thicker parts.
INSPRUCK, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria, and capital of the county of Tyrol, and
formerly the refidence of the archdukes of Auftria. It
is feated in a pleafant valley, in E. long. 11. 27. N.
Lat. 47. 3.
INSTALLATION, the a& of giving vifible pof-
feffion of an order, rank, or office, by placing in the
proper feat. See Installment.
INSTALLMENT, a fettling or inflating any
perfon in a dignity. The word is derived from the
Latin in, and f alluni, a term ufed for a feat in church,
in the choir, or a feat or bench in a court of juftice,
&c. Though Voffius is of opinion the word is of
German origin.
Installment is chiefly ufed for the induction of
a dean, prebendary, or other ecclefiaftical dignitary,
into the pofftffion of his ftall, or proper feat, in the ca¬
thedral church to which he belongs. This is fome-
times alfo called infallation.
Installment is likewife ufed for the ceremony,
whereby the knights of the garter are placed in their
rank, in the chapel of St George at Windfor.
INSTANT, a part of duration in which we per¬
ceive no fucceffion ; or it is that which takes up the
time only of one idea in our minds.
INST A U RAT 10 N, the re-eftabliffiment or re-
ftauration of a religion, a church, or the like, to its
2 z G former
I N S
Inflep former ftate. The word is by fome derived-from the
!l dd Latin inftaurum, which iignified the “ ftock” of
Infurance. neceifary for the tilling and managing of
grounds; as cattle, tools, harnefs, &c. But the
word inflaurum is only of the middle age : injiauratio
is of much greater antiquity, and by fome derived
from injiar, “ like as importing a thing’s being
brought to its former likenefs or appearance. See
Restauration.
INSTEP, in the manege, is that part of a horfe’s
hind leg which reaches from the ham to the paftern-
joint.
INSTINCT, a natural difpofition or fagacity
wherewith animals are endued ; by virtue whereof
they are enabled to provide for themfelves, know what
is good for them, and determined to preferve and pro¬
pagate their fpecies.
Instinct bears fome analogy to reafon, and fup-
plies the defe& of it in brutes. See Brute.
INSTITUTES, in literary hiftory, a book con¬
taining the elements of the Roman law.
The inftitutes are divided into four books; and con •
tain an abridgement of the whole body of the civil
law, being defigned for the ufe of ftudents. See Law,
n° 6, —11. and 43, 44.
Institute, in Scots law. When by difpofition or
deed of entail a number of perfons are called to the
fucceffion of an ellate one after another, the perfon
firft named is called the injiitute, the others fubjlitutes.
INSTITUTION, in general, fignifies the efta-
blilhing or founding fomething. — In the canon and
common law, it fignifies the invelling a clerk with the
fpiritualities of a reftory, &c. which is done by the bi-
fhop, who ufes the following formula : “ I inftitute you
veftor of fuch a church with the cure of fouls, and re¬
ceive your care and mine.”
Institutions, in literary matters, denote a fyftem
of the elements or rules of any art or fcience.
Thus phyfical, or medicinal inftitutions, are fuch
as teach the necefiary prsecognita to the praftice of
medicine, or the cure of difeafes.
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is fubfer-
vient to a caufe in producing any effeft.
Notorial Instrument, in Scots law, any faS cer¬
tified in writing, under the hand of a notary-public.
INSULAR, any thing belonging to an ifland.—
Infular fituations are produ&ive of many happy con-
fequences to the inhabitants, both with refpeft to the
climate, fecurity, and convenience for commerce ; for
a particular account of which, fee Island and Coast.
INSULATED, in architefture, an appellation
given to fuch columns as Hand alone, or free from any
contiguous wall, like an ifland in the fea ; whence
the name.
Insulated, in ele&rical experiments. When any
body is prevented from communicating with the earth
by the interpofition of an ele&ric body, itisfaid to be
infulated. See Electricity, n° 20.
INSURANCE, in law and commerce, a contraft,
whereby one party engages to pay the Ioffes which
the other may fullain, for a ftipulated premium or
conflderation. The moft common forts are, Infu¬
rance againft the dangers of the feas, infurance againft
Sre, infurance of debts, and infurance of lives.
I N S
I. Insurance againjl Lofs at Sea, is a moft bene- Infurancs
ficial inftitution, for promoting the fecurity of trade,
<ind preventing the ruin of individuals ; and is now
conducted by a regular fyftem of rules, tftablilhed by
the interpofition of the legiflature, the decifion of the
courts ofjuftice, and the practice of merchants.
It is carried on to the beft advantage by public
companies, or by a confiderable number of private
perfons, each of whom only engages for a fmall fum,
on the fame veffel. There are two public companies
eftablifhed by authority of parliament, viz. the London
and Royal Exchange Infurance-Companies. For
procuring fubfcrjption by private perfons, brokers are
generally employed, who extend the policy or con-
tra6l of infurance, procure fubferiptions, and aflilt at
fettling Ioffes. They are entitled to an allowance for
their trouble, generally 5 per cent, on premiums, and
2 per cent, on Ioffes.
The parties who engage to pay the damage are
called the infurers or under-writers; the parties for
whofe fecurity they engage are called the infured.
The premium is underftood to be paid when the in¬
furance is made ; but, if it be not paid, the infurers
have a preferable right on the fubjeft infured.
On this fubjeft, we ftiall confider, What is neceffaiy .
to render an infurance valid: When the rifle com¬
mences, and when it terminates:—What conftitutes a
total or a partial lofs: —What proof of lofs is necef-
fary :—and, How the lafs is adjufted.
Firjl, In order to render an infurance valid, the
infured muft have property really at ftake; the voyage
mull take place under the circumftances agreed on;
the dangers infured againft muft not be contrary to
law; and a candid account muft be given of circum¬
ftances which enhance the danger.
1. The condition of poffeffing. property was re¬
quired by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. to prevent flu’ps from
being fraudulently deftroyed when infured above their
value; and to difeourage a praftice which had become
common, of converting policies to thepurpofe of mere
wragers. In tranfadions of this kind, as the infured
had no property, and could claim no indemnification
for partial damage; fo the infurers, having loft their
wager by the fhip’s being loft, could claim no abate¬
ment, though part was faved: accordingly, the poli¬
cies contained claufes of intereft or no interell, free
from average, and without benefit of falvage. All fuch
policies are declared invalid.
This reftridion does not extend to privateers, nor
to fhips trading to the Spanilh or Portuguefe planta¬
tions.
Infurances are commonly made as intereft fliall ap¬
pear; and it is incumbent on the infured to prove the
value of his property. The value of the goods may
be proved by the invoices; and the cocquet muft be
produced, if required, to inftrud that the goods were
adually (hipped. It is admitted to value the fhip at
prime coll and charges, deduding the freights that
have been drawn fince purchafed, if the proprietors,
choofe to ftand to that rule; but they are not. reftrided
to it. Sometimes the value of the (hip or goods is
expreffed fn the policy; and this value muft be ad¬
mitted, although it be higher than the true one: but
it is incumbent, on the infured to prove that he had
property
[ 3910 ]
I N S
I N S
nfurance. property at flake; and, if the property be trifling in
comparifon of the fum infured, the infurance will be
fet atide, as an evafion of the ftatute.
Expeded profits, and bounty on the whale-fifhery,
if fpecified in the policy, may be infured.
When the value is lefs than the fum infured, the
owners may claim a return of premium for the ex-
cefs.
If there be feveral policies on the fame fubjed, of
different dates, the earlier one is valid, and the others
muff be vacated. If they be of the fame date, they
muft be vacated in equal proportions.
When a policy is vacated, in whole, or in part, the
under-writers have a right to retain 4 per cent. for.
their trouble.
In the cafe of a cargo intended for A, but after¬
wards fent to B, both expe&ed it, and infured, and B
claimed for the value on its being loft. The under¬
writers anfwered, that it was a double infurance, and
they ought only to pay their proportion. Judgment
was given, finding them liable for the whole, and re-
ferving to them any demand competent againft the
underwriters who infured for A.
Fraudulently to caft away or deftroy a fhip infured
above its value, is felony.
2. If the fhip does not proceed on the voyage, or
if, being warranted to depart with convoy, it departs
without convoy, the infurance muft be vacated.
If the extent of a trading voyage be uncertain, the
longed one in contemplation isdefcribed in the policy,
and it is agreed that part of the premium fhall be re¬
turned if the voyage be fhortened. In like manner, in
time of war, when infurance is made without condition
of convoy, it is agreed that part of the premium be
returned in cafe it fail with convoy.
When a fhip is warranted to depart with convoy,
it is underftood from the ufual place of convoy, (e. g.
the Downs,) and it is infured till it arrive there.
The common proof of failing with convoy is the
produ&ion of failing orders ; but, if a fhip be pre-
vented by the weather from receiving the failing orders,
other proof may be admitted.
A (hip was infured from the Thames to Halifax,
warranted to fail from Portfmouth with convoy. The
convoy had failed before the fhip arrived there, and
the underwriters declined to infure it, without convoy,
for the reft of the voyage. They were found liable to
return part of the premium, retaining only in pro-
] portion to the accuftomed rate from London to Portf¬
mouth. This decifion feems to eftablifh the following
principle, that, when the voyage performed is only
part of that defcribed in the policy, and when the rifle
can be proportioned, the underwriters are bound to
return part of the premium, though there be no agree¬
ment for that purgofe.
But, if a fit ip, infured only againft the hazards of
the fea, be taken by the enemy, the infured have no
I right to claim a return of premium, though the cap¬
ture happen foon, under pretence that little fea-hazard
was incurred.
If a fhip deviates from the voyage defcribed in the
policy without neceffity, it fets afide the infurance.
An intention to deviate is not fufficient to fet it afide;
there muft be an a&ual deviation ; and, even in that
cafe, the infurers are liable for damages fuftained be-
]
fore deviation. - Infurance.
It is no deviation to go out of the way to the ac- ’
cuftomed place of convoy, nor to the neareft place
where neceflary repairs may be had. Deviation, for
the purpofe of fmuggling, if without the knowledge
of the owners, does not fet afide the infurance, nor
when the mafter is forced by the crew to return.
In infurances to the Eaft-Indies, and home, the
infurers are underftood to take the rifle of detention
in the country, and of country voyages.
3. Infurance of prohibited goods, againft the rifle
of feizure by the government, is unlawful, and invalid.
The infurers, infured, brokers, and all accefibries, are
liable to the fine of 500I.
4. If the infured have any information of more
than common danger, they muft reveal every fuch cir-
cumftance to the infurers, otherwife the policy is fet
afide.
This rule is eftablifhed for the prefervation of good
faith ; and there are feveral ftrong decifions in fup-
port of it. If a fhip be fpoke to leaky at fea, or if
there be a report of its being loft, thefe circumftances
rnuft be communicated to the infurers. Even the
concealment of a falfe report of lofs vitiates the infu¬
rance; and, if the (hip be afterwards loft, though in a
different manner, the infured will recover nothing. In
a voyage from Carolina to London, another fhip had
failed to days after that which was infured, and ar¬
rived feven days before the infurance was made; and
the concealment of this circumftance, though the faft
was not proved to the fatisfaflion of the jury, was
confidered as fufficient to fet it afide. Alfo, fince the
commencement of the American war, a fhip being in¬
fured from Portugal, by the month, without conde-
feending on the voyage, failed for North-America,
and was taken by a provincial privateer. The infurers
refufed to pay, becaufe the hazardous deftinaticn was
concealed; and it wras only upon proof of the infured
being equally ignorant of it, that they were found
liable.
But the infured are not obliged to take notice of
general perils, which the infurers are underftood to
have in contemplation; dangerous navigation, Weft-
Indian hurricanes, enterprizes of the enemy, and the
like.
Infurance is not fet afide by a miftake in the name
of the fhip or mafter, or the like.
Infurance may be made on an uncertain fhip; on
any fhip that the goods may be loaded on; on any
fhip that A fhall fail in from Virginia. In this laft
cafe, the policy is not transferred to a fhip which A
goes on board during the voyage.
Secondly., If a fhip be infured at and from a port,
the infurance commences immediately if the fhip be
there, or at its arrival there. If it be damaged when
preparing for a voyage, the infurers are liable; but
not if the voyage be laid afide for feveral years, with
confent of the owners. Infurance from a port com¬
mences when the fhip breaks ground ; and, if it fet
fail, and be driven back and loft in the port, the in¬
furers are liable.
Infurance on goods generally continues till they be
landed ; but, if they be fold after the fhip’s arrival,
and freight contrafted to another port, the infurance
is concluded. Goods fent on board another fhip or
22 G 2 lighter
[ 39”
I N S
infurance. lighter are not at the rifle of the infurer; but goods
fent afliore in the long-boat are.
Infurance on freight commences when the goods
are put on board.
Goods from the Eaft-Indies, infured to Gibraltar,
and to be re-fhipped from thence to Britain, wxre put
on board a ilore-ihip at Gibraltar, to wait an oppor¬
tunity of re-lhipping, and were loft: The cuftom of
putting goods aboard a ftore-fhip being proved, the
infurers were found liable.
Lofs of fails alhore, when the fliip is repairing, is
Comprehended within the infurance. What is necef-
farily underftood, is infured, as well as what is ex-
prefled ; the eflential means, and intermediate fteps, as
•well as the end. Ships performing quarantine are at
the riik of the infurer.
Thirdly, The infurers are liable fora total lofs when
the fubjeft perifhes through any of the perils infured
againft. Baratry, though it properly fignifies running
away with the ftu'p, extends to any kind of fraud in
the mafter or mariners. Infurance againft detention
of princes does not extend to fhips that are feized for
tranfgreffing the laws of foreign countries.
The infurers are alfo liable for a total lofs, when
damage isfuftained, and the remaining property aban¬
doned or veiled in the infurers.
If a fliip be ftranded, or taken, and kept by the
enemy, or detained by any foreign power, or feized
for the fervice of the government, the proprietors have
a right to abandon.
But, if a Ihip be taken by the enemy, and be re¬
taken, or makes its efcape, before aftion againft the
infurers; have the infured a right to abandon, or mull
they only claim for the damages fuftained as an ave¬
rage lofs? There are oppofite decifions, according as
the circumftances of the cafe were ftrong. When the
fhip was long detained, the goods perifhable, the voy¬
age intirely loft, or fo difturbed, that the purfuit of it
was not worth the freight, or when the damage ex¬
ceeds half the value of the thing, they have been found
intitled to abandon; (Gofs againft Withers, 2 Bur¬
row, 683.). But, if the voyage be completed with
little trouble or delay, they are not intitled; (Hamil¬
ton againft Mendez, 2 Borrow, 1198.).
The infured cannot claim, as for a total lofs, on
an offer to abandon, when the lofs is, in its nature,
only partial; for, if this were permitted, they might
devolve the lofs occafioned by bad markets on the
infurers.
And, in all cafes, the infured have their option to
abandon, or not. They may retain their property if
they,pleafe, and claim for an average lofs; and they
muft make their option before they claim.
If the goods be fo much damaged, that their value
is lefs than the freight, the infurers are accountable
as for a total lofs.
The infurers are liable for general average, when
the property is charged with contribution ; and for
particular average, when the property is damaged, or
part of it deftroyed.
If the damage be fuftained through the fault of the
Ihip, the owneis of the goods may have recourfe, ei¬
ther againft the mafter or infurers ; and, if the in¬
furers be charged, they ftand in the place of the
owners, and have recourfe againft the mafter.
I N S
In order to prevent the infurers from being troubled Tnfuran
with frivolous demands for average, it is generally
ftipulated, that none fhall be charged tindery per cent.
or fome other determined rate ; and corn, flax, fruit,
fifh, and like perifhable goods, are warranted free
from average, unlefs general, or the fhip be ftranded.
In order to encourage every effort to fave the fliip,
the infurers are liable for charges laid out with that
defign, although the fubjeift perifti. Thus, they may
be charged with more than the fum infured.
In cafe of goods being damaged, the proportion of
the fum infured, for which the underwriters are liable,
is regulated by the proportion of the prices which the
found and damaged goods fetch at the port of defti-
nation. The prime coft of the goods is not confidered,
nor the neceflity of immediate fale, in confequence of
damage. Although the damaged goods fell above
prime coft, the infurers are liable.
Fourthly, If a fhip be loft, and the crew faved, the
lofs is proved by the evidence of the crew.
If damage be fuftained, the extent is proved by an
examination of the fubjedl damaged, at the fhip’s
arrival ; and the caufe by the evidence of the crew.
If the fhip be ftranded, evidence muft be taken at
the place where ft l anded.
Documents of lofs muft be laid before the under¬
writers, with all convenient fpeed ; and, if thefe be
fufficiently clear, the lofs fhould be immediately fettled.
The underwriters generally grant theirnotes at a month
or fix weeks date for their proportions.
If a fhip be not heard of for a certain time, it is
prefumed loft ; and the underwriters are liable to pay
the fums infured, the property being abandoned to
them in the event of the fliip’s return. Six months
are allowed for a voyage to any part of Europe, a
year to America, and two years to the Eaft Indies.
By the ordinance of Hamburgh, if a fhip be three
months beyond the ufual time of performing a voyage,
the underwriters may be defired to pay 92 per cent.
on an abandon. If they decline it, they are allowed
14 months more, and then they muft pay the full
value.
A fhip infured againft the hazards of the fea, but
not againft the enemy, if never heard of, is prefumed
loft at fea.
Fifthly, In order that the manner of fettling Ioffes
may be underftood, we muft explain what is meant by
covering property. We mentioned already, that infu-
rancesfor greater fums than the infured had really at
flake, were contrary to law : but fome latitude is al¬
lowed in that refpefl ; for if the owner were to infurc
no more than the exadl value of his property, he would
lofe the premium of infurance, and the abatement, if
any was agreed on.
For example, if he has goods on board to the value
of tool, and infures the fame at 5 per cent, to abate
2 per cent, in cafe of Ibfs; then, if a total lofs hap¬
pen, he recovers 98 1. from the infurers, of which 5 1.
being applied to re-place the premium, the nett fum
faved is only 93 1.: but, if the value on board be only
93 I. and the fum infured tool, he would be fully in¬
demnified for the lofs ; and his property, in that cafe,
is fa id to be covered.
To find how much fhould be infured to cover any
fum, fubtraft the amount of the premium and abate¬
ment
[ 3912 ]
INS [ 3913 ] I N T
mcnt (if any), from iooJ. As the remainder is to pay all expences j'n attempting to extinguiih fire, or Infuranee
tool, fo is the value, to the fum which covers it. fave goods, though not fuccefsful. If the value of a !l
In cafe of a total lofs, if the fum infured be not fubjedl be infured in part, and damage be fullained, nte£ra *
greater than that which covers the property, the in- the infurers pay the whole, if it does not exceed the
iurers muft pay it all. If greater, they pay what fum infured.
covers the property, and return the premium on the III. Insurance of Debts. See Bottomry.
overplus. IV. In virtue of iNsuRANCEs/crZ/t-r/, when theper-
Partial lofies are regulated by this principle, that fon dies, a fum of money becomes payable to the per-
whereas the owner is not fully indemnified, in cafe fon on whofe behalf the policy of infurance was granted,
of a total lofs, unlefs he covers his property, there- The principal infurance office of this kind, is that of
fore he fhould only be indemnified for a partial lofs in the amicable fociety for a perpetual affurance, kept
the fame proportion ; and, if it be not fully infured, in Serjeant’s inn, Fleet-ftreet, London,
he is confidered as infurer himfelf, for the part not In this office, after paying the charges of the po-
covered, and muft bear a fuitable proportion of the licy, and ios. entrance-money, each perfon pays j 1.
lofs. Therefore the value of the property is proved, per annum, by quarterly payments ; and from thefe
and the fum required to cover it computed. If that payments, the dividends, which ufually amount 100I.
fum be all infured, the underwriters pay the whole and upwards, are to arife. All perfons admitted are to
damage; if only'part be infured, they pay their thare, be between the ages of 12 and 45, and in a good
which is computed by the following rule: As the fum ftate of health. Any perfon is allowed to have two
which covers the property is to the fum infured, fo is or three infurances or numbers on the fame life, where-
the whole damage to the part for which the infurers by fuch perfon will be intitled to a claim on each num-
are liable.—For example, if the value of the property ber fo infured ; and every claimant is empowered to
be 3601. the fum infured 3001. the premium 8 per put in a new life in the room of one deceafed, w'ithin
cent, and abatement 2 per cent.; then the fum which 12 kalendar months next after the end of the current
fhould be infured to cover the property is 4001. ; and, year. By becoming members of this fociety, clergy-
if damage be fuftamed to the extent of 2001. the men, phyficians, lawyers, tradefmen, and all whofe
owners will recover 1501. income ceafes at the time of their death, may, in all
If a voyage is infured out and home, the premium probability, leave to their families a claim of not lefs
outward muft be confidered as part of the value on the than tool, for every 5 1. annually paid in.—The va-
homeward property, and the fum neceffary to cover it lue of infurances upon lives, depends upon the pro-
computed accordingly. For example, to infure too 1. bability of the continuance of any propofed life or
out and home, a: 5 per cent, each voyage, abatement lives, during any propofed term. Any queftions of
2 per cent, we compute thus : this kind may be determined from Dr Halley’s table,
93 : too :: L. ] 00 : L. 107 : 10:6, to be infured and from the principles of the do&rine of'chances,
outward, premium on L. 107 : 10: 6 outwards, at 5 But, as far as w'e can learn of the pra&ice on fuch
per cent. L. 5 : 7 : 6 ; 93 : 100: : L. 105 : 7 : 6 : occafions, the premiums paid to infurers are generally
L. 113 : 6 s. to be infured home ; the premium on higher than any computation founded on obfervations
which is L. 5 : 13 : 6; and, if the fhip be loft on the concerning the probabilities of human life will w’ar-
homeward voyage, rant, Thus it is not unufual to make a perfon pay
From the fum infured home L-H3 6 o 5 per cent, for the infurance ofhislifeforatwelve-
SubtraA the difeount, 2/>er era/. - 2 5 3 month; that is, in cafe the perfon dies within the
 year, the infurer is to pay 1001. for everyjl.re-
Sum for which the infurers are liable L. in ceived. Now it appears from Dr Halley’s table,,
Infurance out L. 5 7 6- which eftimates the probability of life low enough,
Infurance home - 5 !3 3 ^h31 5Per cent, is an adequate value only for a life of
 I I — 9 an advanced age,, fuch as 64.
 IJc-Insurance is a fecond contra<5f, made by an
Covered property L. 100 infurer, to transfer the rilk he has.engaged for to ano-
II. \\%vr.k\CE againji Fire. There are feveral offices ther. It is in general forbidden by 19 Geo. II. c. 37.
in Britain for this purpofe, of which the fun fire-office is but is permitted to the reprefentatives of an infurer, in
the moft confiderable. Infurances are divided into com- cafe of bis death, or to his affignees, in cafe of Ins
mon, hazardous, and doubly hazardous, according to bankruptcy; and it muft be mentioned in the policy
the nature of the fubjeft infured. When the fum in- that it is a re-infurance.
fured is high, there is a higher premium per cent, de- INTAGLIOS, precious ftones on which are en-
manded ; and money, papers, jewels, pidures, and graved the heads of great men, inferiptions, and the
gun-powder, arc not comprehended. If a fubjed be like ; fuch as we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, &c.
wrong deferibed, in order that it may be infured at a INTEGER, in arithmetic, a whole number, in
lower premium, the policy is void. The benefit of a contradiftindion to a fradion.
policy is transferred, by indorfement, to the repre- INTEGRAL, or integrant, in philofophy, ap-
fentatives of the perfon in whofe favour it was made; pellations given to parts of bodies which are of a ii-
and it may be transferred to other houfes when the milar nature with the whole : thus filings of iron have
infured changes his habitation. If infurance be made the fame nature and properties as bars of iron,
on. the fame fubjed in different offices, it muft be fpe- Bodies may be reduced into their integrant parts by
cified, by indorfement, on the policy ; and, in cafe triture or grinding, limation or filing, folution, a-
of lofs, the offices pay proportionally. The infurers malgation, &c. See Grinding, &c.
tnents
Interditt.
I N T [ 3914 ] I N T
INTEGUMENTS, in anatomy, denote the com¬
mon coverings which inveft the body ; as thecuticula,
cutis, &c. See Anatomy.
Integument, is alfo extended to the particular
membranes which inveft certain parts of the body ;
as the coats or tunics of the eye.
INTENDANT, one who has the condudl, infpec-
tion, and management of any thing. See Super-
INTENDANT. ,
This is a title frequent among the French : they
have intendants of the marine, who are officers in the
fea-ports, whofebufinefs it is to take care the ordinances
and regulations relating to fea-affairs be obferved :
intendants of the finances, who have the direction of
the revenues : intendants of provinces, who are ap¬
pointed by the king to take care of the adminiftra-
tion of jultice, policy, and finances in the provinces:
alfo intendants of buildings, of houfes. See.
INTENDMENT, in law, is the intention, defign,
or true meaning, of a perfon or thing, which frequent¬
ly fupplies what is not fully expreffed : but tho’ the
intent of parties in deeds and contra&s is much regard¬
ed by the law, yet it cannot take place againft the
rules of law.
Intendmentc/'' Crimes,’ this, in cafe of treafon,
where the intention is proved by circumftances, is pu-
nifhable in the fame manner as if it was put in execu¬
tion. So, if a perfon enter a houfe in the night-time,
with an intent to commit burglary, it is felony; alfo,
an afiault, with an intent to commit a robbery on the
highway, is made felony, andpuniffied with tranfpor-
tation, 7 Geo. II. c. 21.
INTENT, in the civil law, fignifies to begin, or
commence, an a&ion or procefs.
INTENTION, in medicine, that judgment, or
method of cure, which a phyfician forms to him-
fdf from a due examination of fymptoms.
Intention, in phyfics, the increafe of the power,
or energy of any quality, as heat, cold, &c. By which
it ftands pppofed to retnifiion, which fignifies its de-
creafe or diminution.
Intention, in metaphyfics, denotes an exertion of
the intelle&ual faculties with more than ordinary vi¬
gour ; when the mind with earneftnefs fixes its view
on any idea, confiders it on all fides, and will not be
called off by any felicitation.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the
odd day inferted in leap-year ; which was fo called
from calo, calare, “ to proclaim,” it being proclaim¬
ed by the priefis with a loud voice.
INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architeaure, de¬
notes the fpace between two columns, which is always
to be proportioned to the height and bulk of the co¬
lumns.
INTERCOSTAL, in anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch mufcles, nerves, arteries, and veins, as lie
between the ribs.
INTERDICT, an ecclefiaftical cenfure, by which
the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine
fervice in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This cen¬
fure has been frequently executed in France, Italy,
and Germany; and in the year 1170, pope Alexan¬
der III. put all England under an interdict, forbidding
the clergy to perform any part of divine fervice, except
baptizing of infants, taking confeffions, and giving ab-
folution to dying penitents. But this cenfure being
liable to the ill confequences of promoting libertinifm
and a negleft of religion, the fuccecding popes have
very feldom made ufe of it.
There was alfo an interdift of perfons, who were
deprived of the benefit of attending on divine fervice.
Particular perfons were alfo anciently interdidled of fire
and water, which fignified a banilhment for fome par¬
ticular offence : by their cenfure no perfon was allow¬
ed to receive them, or allow them fire or water; and
being thus wholly deprived of the two neceffary ele¬
ments of life, they were doubtlefs under a kind of ci¬
vil death.
INTEREST, is the premium or money paid for
the loan or ufe of other money. See Arithmetic,
n° 20.
Many good and learned men have in former times
very much perplexed themfelves and other people by
railing doubts about the legality of intereft in foro con-
feientice. It may not be amifs here to inquire upon
what grounds this matter does really ftand.
The enemies to intereft in general make no diftinc-
tion between that and ufury, holding any increafe of
money to be indefenfibly ufurious. And this they
ground as well on the prohibition of it by the law of
Mofes among the Jews, as alfo upon what is laid down
by Ariftotle; That money is naturally barren; and to
make it breed money is prepofterous, and a perverfion
of the end of its inftitution, which was only to ferve
the purpofes of exchange, and not of increafe. Hence
the fchool-divines have branded the pradice of taking
intereft, as being contrary to the divine law both na¬
tural and revealed ; and the canon law has preferibed
the taking any the leaft increafe for the loan of money
as a mortal fin.
But* in anfwer to this, it may be obferved, that the
Mofaical precept was clearly a political, and not amo¬
ral, precept. It only prohibited the Jews from ta¬
king ufury from their brethren the Jews ; but in ex-
prefs words permitted them to take it of a ftranger:
which proves that the taking of moderate ufury, or a
reward for the ufe, for fo the word fignifies, is not ma¬
lum in fe, fince it was allowed where any but an If-
raelite was concerned. And as to Ariftotle’s reafon,
deduced from the natural barrennefs of money, the
fame may with equal force be alleged of houfes, which
never breed houfes; and twenty other things, which
nobody doubts it is lawful to make profit of, by letting
them to hire. And though-'money was originally ufed
only for the purpofes of exchange, yet the laws of any
ftate may be well juftified in permitting it to be turn¬
ed to the purpofes of profit, if the convenience of fo-
ciety (the great end for which money was invented)
ffiall require it. And that the allowance of moderate in¬
tereft tends greatly to the benefit of the public, efpe-
cially in a trading country, will appear from that ge¬
nerally acknowledged principle, that commerce cannot
fubfift without mutual and extenfive credit. Unlefs
money therefore can be borrowed, trade cannot be
carried on : and if no premium were allowed for the
hire of money, few perfons would care to lend it ; or
at leaft the eafe of borrowing at a (hort warning (which
is the life of commerce) would be entirely at an end.
Thus, in the dark ages of monkifh fuperftition and ci¬
vil tyranny, when intereft was laid under a total in-
terdkft,
I N T [ 39
ntereft. terdi&, commerce was alfo at its lowed ebb, and fell
entirely into the hands of the Jews and Lombards:
but when mens minds began to be more enlarged, when
true religion and real liberty revived, commerce grew
again into credit; and again introduced with itfelf its
infeparable companion, the doftrine of loans upon in-
tereft.
And, really, confidered abftraftedly from this its
life, fince all other conveniences of life may be either
bought or hired, but money can only be hired, there
feems no greater impropriety in taking a recompenfe
or price for the hire of this, than of any other conve¬
nience. If one borrow look to employ in a benefi¬
cial trade, it is but equitable that the lender fliould
have a proportion of the gains. To demand an exor¬
bitant price is equally contrary to confcicnce, for the
loan of a horfe, or the loan of a fum of money : but a
reafonable equivalent for the temporary inconvenience
which the owner may feel by the want of it, and for
the hazard of his lofing it entirely, is not more immoral
in one cafe than it is in the other. And indeed the ab-
folute prohibition of lending upon any, even moderate
intereft, introduces the very inconvenience which it
feems meant to remedy. The necefilty of individuals
will make borrowing unavoidable. Without fome pro¬
fit by law, there will be but few lenders: and thofe
principally bad men, who will break thro* the law,
and take a profit ; and then will endeavour to indem¬
nify themfelves from the danger of the penalty, by
making that profit exorbitant. Thus, while all de¬
grees of profit were difcountenanced, we find more
complaints of ufury, and more flagrant inflances of
oppreffion than in modern times when money may be
eafily had at a low interefl. A capital dillinftion muft
therefore be made between a moderate and exorbitant
profit ; to the former of which we ufually give the
name of interejl, to the latter the truly odious appella¬
tion of ufury : the former is neceflary in every civil
ftale ; if it were but to exclude the latter, which ought
never to be tolerated in any well-regulated fociety.
Por, as the whole of this matter is well fimvmed up by
Grotius, “ if the compenfation allowed by law does
not exceed the proportion of the hazard run, or the
want felt, by the loan, its allowance is neither repug¬
nant to the revealed nor to the natural law: but if it
exceeds thofe bounds, it is then oppreflive ufury ; and
tho’ the municipal laws may give it impunity, they ne¬
ver can make it juft.”
We fee, that the exorbitance or moderation of in¬
tereft, for the money lent, depends upon two circum-
ilanees; the inconvenience of parting with it for the
prefent, and the hazard of lofing it entirely. The in¬
convenience to individual lenders can never be eftima-
tcd by laws ; the rate therefore of general intereft muft
depend upon the ufual or general inconvenience. This
refults entirely from the quantity of fpecie or current
money in the kingdom : for, the more fpecie there is
circulating in any nation, the greater fuperfluity there
will be, beyond what is neceflary to carry on the bu-
finefs of exchange and the common concerns of life.
In every nation, or public community,, there is a certain
quantity of money thus neceflary; which a perfon well
flailed in political arithmetic might perhaps calculate
as exa&ly, as a private banker can the demand for run-
sing cafli in his own fhop; all above this neceffary
.5 ] I N T
quantity may be fpared, or lent, without much incon- Interc-H.
venience to the refpeftive lenders; and the greater this
national fuperfluity is, the more numerous will be the
lenders, and the lower ought the rate of the national
intereft to be : but where there is not enough, or bare¬
ly enough, circulating calh, to anfwer the, ordinary
ufes of the public, intereft will be proportionably
high; for lenders-will be but few, as few can fubmit
to the inconvenience of lending.
So alfo the hazard of an entire lofs has its weight in
the regulation of intereft : hence, the better the fecu-
rity, the lower will the intereft be; the rate of interefl:
being generally in a compound ratio, formed out of
the inconvenience, and the hazard. And as, if there
were no inconvenience, there fliould be no intereft but
what is equivalent to the hazard; fo, if there were no
hazard, there ought to be no intereft, fave only what
arifes from the mere inconvenience of lending. Thus,
if the quantity of fpecie in a nation be fuch, that the
general inconvenience of lending for a year is compu¬
ted to amount to three per cent, a man that has money
by him will perhaps lend it upon good perfonal fecu-
rity at five/>er cent, allowing two for the hazard run ;
he will lend it upon landed fecurity, or mortgage, at
four per cent, the hazard being proportionably lefs;
but he will lend it to the ftate, on the maintenance of
which all his property depends, at three per cent, the
hazard being none at all.
But fometimes the hazard may be greater, than the
rate of intereft allowed by law will compenfate. And
this gives rife to the pra&ice, 1. Of bottomry, or re-
fpondentia. 2. Of policies of infurance. See Bot¬
tomry, and Insurance.
Upon the two principles of inconvenience and ha¬
zard, compared together, different nations have at dif¬
ferent times eftabliftied different rates of intereft. The
Romans at one time allowed centcfvna:, one per cent.
monthly, or twelve per cent, per annum, to be taken for
common loans; but Juftinian reduced it to trientes, or
one third of the as or centefimce, that is, four per cent. ;
but allowed higher intereft to be taken of merchants,
beeaufe there the hazard was greater. So too Grotius
informs us, that in Holland the rate of intereft was
then eight per cent, in common loans, but twelve to
merchants. Our law eftabliflies one ftandard for all
fclike, where the pledge or. fecurity itfelf is not put in
jeopardy ; left,, under the general pretence of vague
and indeterminate hazards, a door ftiould be opened to
fraud and ufury: leaving fpecific hazards to be provi¬
ded againft by fpeeific infurances, or by loans upon
refpondetitia, or bottomry. But as to the rate of legal
intereft, it has varied and decreafed for 200 years paft,
according as the quantity of fpecie in the kingdom has
increafed by acceffions of trade, the introdudion of
paper-credit, and other circumftances. The ftatute
37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. confined intereft to ten per cent.
and fo did the flatute 13 Eliz. c. 8. But as, through
the encouragements given in her reign to commerce,
the nation grew more wealthy ; fo, under her fucceflqr,
the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 17. reduced it to eight per
cent.', as did the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. to fix: and
laftly, by the ftatute 12 Ann. ft. 2. c. 16. it was
brought down to five per cent, yearly, which is now
the extremity of legal intereft that can be taken. But
yet, if a contrad which carries intereft be made in. a
foreign^
I N T [ 39
IiUcrjeftion foreign country, our courts will dire& the payment of
Inter reter *ntere^ according to the law of that country in which
rp‘e eT' the contradl was made. Thus Irilh, American, Turk-
ith, and Indian intereft, have been allowed in our courts
to the amount of even 12 per cent. For the modera¬
tion or exorbitance of intereft depends upon local cir-
cumftances; and the refufal to enforce fuch contrafts
would put a ftop to all foreign trade. And, by ftat.
14 Geo. III. c. 79. all mortgages and other fecuri-
ties upon eftates or other property in Ireland or the
plantations, bearing intereft not exceeding fix percent.
fhall be legal; though executed in the kingdom of
Great Britain: unlefs the money lent fhall be known
at the time to exceed the value of the thing in pledge;
in which cafe alfo, to prevent ufurious contra&s at
home under colour of fuch foreign fecurities, the bor¬
rower fhall forfeit treble the fum fo borrowed.
INTERJECTION, in grammar, an indeclinable
part of fpeech, fignifying fome pafiion or emotion of
the mind. See Grammar.
INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind
of confefiton of the articles of faith, obtruded upon
the Proteftants after Luther’s death by the emperor
Charles V. when he had defeated their forces; fo called
becaufe it was only to take place in the interim (mean
time) till a general council fhould have decided all
points in difpute between the Proteftants and Roma-
nifts. It retained moft of the dodtrines and ceremonies
of the Romanifts, excepting that of marriage, which
was allowed to the clergy, and communion to the laity
under both kinds. Moft of the Proteftants reje&ed it.
There were two other interims ; one of Leipfic, the o-
ther of Franconia.
INTERLOCUTOR, in Scots law. The fentence
or judgment of a court of law, is commonly called an
interlocutor before decree is extracted.
INTERLOPERS, are properly thofe who, with¬
out due authority, hinder the trade of a company or
corporation lawfully eftablifhed, by dealing in the fame
way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the
theatre between the a£ts of a play, to amufe the fpec-
tators while the adtors take breath and fhift their drefs,
or to give time for changing the fcenes and decora¬
tions.
INTERMITTENT, or Intermitting, Fevers,
fuch fevers as go off and foon return again, in oppofi-
tion to thofe which are continual. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
INTERPOLATION, among critics,denotesafpu-
rious paffage inferted into the writings of fome ancient
author.
INTERPOSITION, the fituation of a body be¬
tween, two others, fo as to hide them, or prevent their
aftion.
The eclipfe of the fun is occafioned by an fnterpo-
fition of the moon between the fun and us; and that
of the moon by the interpofition of the earth between
the fun and moon. See Eclipse.
INTERPRETER,' a perfon who explains the
thoughts, words, or writings, of fome other, which
before were unintelligible.—The word interpret, ac¬
cording to Ifidore, is compofed of the prepofition in¬
ter, and partes, as fignifying a perfon in the middle
betwixt two parties, to make them mutually under-
16 ] I N T
ftand each others thoughts: others derive it from inter,
and precs, i. e. fidejujfor; q. d. a perfon who ferves as
fecurity between two others who do not underftand
one another.
There have been great debates about interpreting
Scripture. The Romanifts contend, that it belongs ab-
folutely to the church: adding, that where (he is fi-
lent, reafon may be confulted; but where ftie fpeaks,
reafon is to be difregarded. The Proteftants gene¬
rally allow reafon the fovereign judge, or interpreter;
though fome among them have a ftrong regard to fy-
nods, and others to the authority of the primitive fa¬
thers. Laftly, others have recourfe to the Spirit with¬
in every perfon to intepret for them ; which is what
Bochart calls axofeigic ra vrvtvpal®-.
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the
throne is vacant in eledtive kingdoms; for in fuch as
are hereditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as an
interregnum.
INTERREX, the magiftrate who governs during
an interregnum.
This magiftrate was eftablifhed in old Rome, and
was almoft as ancient as the city itfelf: after the death
of Romulus there was an interregnum of a year, du¬
ring which the fenators were each interrex in their turn,
five days a-piece.
After the eftablilhment of confuls and a common¬
wealth, though there were no kings, yet the name and
fundfion of interrex was ftill preferved: for, when the
magiftrates were abfent, or there was any irregularity
in their eledlion, or they had abdicated, fo that the
comitia could not be held; provided they were unwill-
ing to create a di&ator, they made an interrex, whofe
office and authority was to laft five days; after which
they made another. To the interrex was delegated all
the regal and confular authority, and he performed all
their fun&ions. He affembled the fenate, held co¬
mitia or courts, and took care that the eledlion of ma¬
giftrates was according to rules. Indeed at firft it was
not the cuftom of the interrex to hold comitia, at lead
we have no inftance of it in the Roman hiftory. The
patricians alone had the right of eledling an interrex;
but this office fell with the republic, when the empe¬
rors made themfelves mafters of every thing.
INTERROGATION, or Point of Interroga¬
tion, in grammar, a charafter of this form (?) ferving
to denote a queftion.
INTERVAL, the diftance or fpace between tvyo
extremes, either in time, or place. The word comes
from the Latin intervallum, which, according to Ifi¬
dore, fignifies the fpace inter foffam <b murum, “ be¬
tween the ditch and the wall:’’ others note, that the
ftakes or piles, driven into the ground in the ancient
Roman bulwarks, were called valla; and the interftices
or vacancy between them, intervalla.
INTERVAL, in mufic. The diftance between any
given found and another, ftri&ly fpeaking, is neither
meafured by any common ftandard of extenfion nor
duration; but either by immediatefenfation,or by com¬
puting the difference between the numbers of vibrations
produced by two or more fonorous bodies, in the adl of
founding, during the fame given time. As the vibra¬
tions are flower and fewer during the fame inftant, for
example, the found is proportionally lower or graver;
on the contrary, as during the fame period the vibra¬
tions
Tnterreg4
num
Interval.^
I N T
tions increafe in number and velocity, the founds are
proportionably higher or more acute. An interval in
mufic, therefore, is properly the difference between the
number of vibrations produced by one fonorous body
of a certain magnitude and texture and of thofe pro¬
duced by another of a different magnitude and texture
in the fame time.
Intervals are divided into confonant and diffonant.
A confonant interval is that whofe extremes, or whofe
higheft and lowed founds, when fimultaneoufly heard,
coalefce in the ear, and produce an agreeable fenfation
called by Lord Kaims a tertium quid. A diffonant
interval, on the contrary, is that whofe extremes, fi¬
multaneoufly heard, far from coalefcing in the ear, and
producing one agreeable fenfation, are each of them
plainly diditiguifhed from the other, produce a grating
effedl upon the fenfe, and repel each other with an irre-
concileable hodility. In proportion as the vibrations
of different fonorous bodies, or of the fame fonorous
body in different modes, more or lefs frequently coin¬
cide during the fame given time, the chords are more
or lefs perfedt, and confequently the intervals more or
lefs confonant. When thefe vibrations never coincide
at all in the fame given time, the difcord is confum-
mate, and confequently the interval abfolutely diffo¬
nant.
Intervals are not only divided according to their na¬
tures, but alfo with refpedl to their degrees. In this
view, they are either enharmonic, chromatic, or diato¬
nic. Of thefe therefore in their order, from the lead to
the greated.
An enharmonic interval is what they call the eighth
part of a tone, or the difference between a major and
minor femitone generally didinguifhed by the name of
a comma. Commas, however, are of three different
kinds, as their quantities are more or lefs; but fince
thefe differences cannot be afeertained without long and
intricate computations, it is not neceffary for us to at¬
tempt an invedigation, whofe purfuit is fo unpleafant,
and whofe refult attended with fo little utility. It has
by muficians been generally called the eighth fart of a
tone; but they ought to have confidered, that a comma
is by no means the objeft of auricular perception, and
that its edimate can only be formed by calculation.
For a more minute difquifition of this matter, our
readers may confult the article Comma in the Mu-
fical Dictionary, or the article Music in this Work,
Notes « and /. A chromatic interval confids proper¬
ly of a minor femitone, but may alfo admit the ma¬
jor. A diatonic interval confids of a femitone-major
at lead, but may confid of any number of tones with¬
in the oftave. When an oCtave higher or lower is
affumed, it is obvious that we enter into another fcale
which is either higher or lower, but dill a repetition
of the former degrees of found.
Intervals again are either fimple or compound. All
the intervals within any one o&ave are fimple; fuch as
the fecond major or minor, the third, the fourth, the
fifth, the fixth, the feventh, &c. of thefe afterwards.
All intervals whofe extremes are contained in different
oftaves, fuch as the ninth, the tenth, the eleventh, the
twelfth, the thirteenth, the fourteenth, the fifteenth,
&c. may be termed compound intervals.
The femitone either exaftly or nearly divides the
tone into two equal parts. In the theory of harmu-
Vol. V.
I N T
nical computation three kinds of femitones are recog- Interval.
nifed, viz. the greated, the intermediate, and the
fmalled femitone. But in praftice, to which thefe ex¬
plications are chiefly adapted, the femitone is only di-
dinguidied into major and minor. The femitone ma¬
jor is the difference between the third major and the
fourth, as EF. Its ratio is as 15 to 16, and it forms
the lead of all diatonic intervals.
The femitone minor confids of the difference be¬
tween the third major and minor : it may be marked
in the fame degree by a (harp or a flat, and it only
forms a chromatic interval ; its ratio is as 24 to 25.
Though fome didinftion is made between thefe fe¬
mitones by the manner of marking them, yet on the
organ and harpfichord no didinftion can be made ;
nor is there any thing more common for us than to
fay, that D (harp in rifing is E flat in defeending,
and fo through the whole diapafon above or below ;
befides, the femitone is fometimes major and fometimes
minor, fometimes diatonick and fometimes chromatic,
according to the different modes in which we compofc
or pra&ife 5 yet in praftice thefe are called femitones
minor, which are marked by (harps or flats, without
changing the degree ; and femitones major are thofe
which form the interval of a fecund.
With refpeft to the three femitones recognifed in
theory, the greateft femitone is the difference between
a tone major and a femitone minor ; and its ratio is as
25 to 27. The intermediate femitone is the difference
between a femitone major and a tone major; and its
ratio is as 128 to 135. In a word, the fmall femitone
confifts of the difference between the greateft and the
intermediate femitone ; and it? ratio is as 125 to 128.
Of all thefe intervals, there is only the femitone
major, which is fometimes admitted as a fecond in har¬
mony.
The interval of a tone which chara&erifes the dia¬
tonic fpecies of compofition, is either major or minor.
The former confifts of the difference between the fourth
and fifth ; and its ratio is as 8 to 9 : and the latter,
whofe ratio is as 9 to 10, refolts from the difference
between the third minor and the fourth.
Seconds arc diftinguiftied into four kinds ; two of
which are not in practice fufficiently momentous to be
mentioned. The fecond major is fynonimous with the
interval of a tone; but as that tone may be either
major or minor, its ratio may be either as 8 to 9, or
as 9 to 10.
The fecond minor confifts of the diftance from B to
C, or from EF; and its ratio is as 15 to 16.
The third is fo called, becaufe it confifts of two
gradations, or three diatonic founds, as from G to
B afeending, or from A to C, inclufive of the ex¬
tremes ; of which the firft is a third major, compofed
of two full tones, and its ratio as 4 to 5 ; the fecond,
a third minor confiding of a tone and a femitone ma¬
jor, and its ratio as 5 to 6.
The fourth has by fome been reckoned an imperfeft,
but more juftly by others a perfedt, chord. It con¬
fifts of three diatonic degrees, but takes its name from
the four different founds of which it is formed ; or, in
other words, the number by which it is denominated
includes the extremes. It is compofed of a tone ma¬
jor, a tone minor, and a femitone major, as from C to
F afeehding; its ratio as 3 to 4.
22 H The
[ 39'7 ]
I N T [391
Interval. The fifth next to the odlave, is perhaps the mod
~ perfe<5t interval, as lead fufceptible of alteration. The
number from whence it affumes its name likewife in¬
cludes its extremes. It confids of two tones major,
one minor, and a femitone major, as from A to E
afcending ; its ratio is as 2 to 3.
The fixth is not found among the natural order of
confonances, but only admitted by combination. It
is not here neceffary to mention its various diftin&ions
and ufes, as we only give an account of intervals in
general.
The fixth major confifls of four tones and a femi¬
tone major, as from G to E afcending; its ratio is as
3 to 5. The fixth minor contains three tones and two
femitones major, as from E to C afcending ; its ratio
is as 5 to 8.
The feventh, as a reduplication of the fecond, is a
dilfonance. When major, it confids diatonically of
five tones, three major, and two minor, and a major
femitone, as from C to B afcending; its ratio is as
■8 to 15.
When minor, it confids of four tones, three major
and one minor, and two major femitones, as from E to
D afcending ; its ratio is as 5 to 9.
The oftave is the mod perfeft of all chords, and in
many cafes hardly to be didinguiftied by the ear from
an unifon; that is to fay, from that coincidence of
found produced by two mufical firings, whofe mat¬
ter, lengths, diameters, and tenfions, are the fame.
As the vibrations of two firings in unifon during any
{jiven time, are precifely coincident; fo whild the
owed extreme of the o&ave vibrates once, the high-
eft vibrates twice; and confequently its ratio is as 1
to 2, as from c to C afcending. It confifts of fix full
tones and two femitones major. Its name is derived
from the Latin 0R0, “ eightbecaufe that number
likewife includes its extremes. It may likewife be di¬
vided into twelve femitones. It contains the whole
diatonic fcale; and every feries. above or below con¬
fifts only of the fame returning founds. From whence
the natures, diftances, and powers, of every interval
greater than the oftave, as the ninth, the tenth, the
eleventh, the twelfth, the thirteenth, the fourteenth,
the fifteenth, the triple odtave, &c. may eafily be com¬
puted.
During our paft obfervations upon the term ititervalt
we have either wholly negle&ed our faithful aflociate
M. Rouffeau, or only maintained a diftant and mo¬
mentary intercourfe with him. We now propofe to
pay him a more permanent and familiar vifit; but as
he is engaged in the difpute between the Pythago¬
reans and Ariftoxenians, we think it more advanta¬
geous to decline the controverfy, and to follow him,
after having efcaped the fray, like a gentleman and a
fcholar. Having put the partizans of Ariftoxenus to
filence, let us, with him, forfake the lifts of combat,
nor ftain his triumph by infulting the falling cham¬
pions.
“ We divide, (fays he), as did the ancients, in¬
tervals into confonant and diflbnant. The confonan-
* See ces are perfeft or imperfeft * ; diflbnances arc either
Confonance fuch by nature, or become fuch by accident. There
are only two intervals naturally diflbnant, viz. the fe¬
cond and feventh, including their odlaves or replica¬
tions ; nay, ftill thefe two may be reduced to one a-
8 ] I N T
lone, as the feventh is properly no more than a repli- Interval,
cation of the fecond; for B, the feventh above the ~
loweft C, where we have generally begun the fcale, is
really an odlave above B, the note immediately below
that C ; and confequently the interval between thefe
lower founds is no more than that of a fecond major,
to which all diflbnances may therefore be ultimately
reduced, whether confidered as major or minor; but
even all the confonances may become diflbnant by ac¬
cident. See Discord.
“ Befides, every interval is either Ample or redu¬
plicated. Simple intervals are fuch as the limits
of a Angle odlave comprehend. Every interval which
furpafles this extent is reduplicated; that is to fay,
compounded of one or more odtaves, and of the Ample
interval whofe replication it is.
“ Simple intervals are likewife divided into diredl
and inverted. Take any fimple interval whatever for
a diredl one; the quantity which, added to itfelf, is
required to complete the odlave, will be found an in¬
verted interval; and the fame obfervation holds reci¬
procally true of fuch as are inverted
“ There are only fix kinds of fimple intervals; of
which three contain fuch quantities, as, added to the
other three, are required to complete the odlave ;
and of confequence likewife the one muft be inver-
fions of the other. If you take at firft the fmalleft
intervals, you will have, in the order of direft inter¬
vals, the fecond, the third, and fourth ; for inverted,
the feventh, the fixth, and fifth. Suppofe thefe to
be diredl, the others will be inverted; every thing
here is reciprocal.
*e To find the name of any interval whatever, it is
only neceflary to add the denomination of unity to the
degree which it contains. Thus the interval of one
degree fliall give a fecond ; of two, a third ; of three,
a fourth ; of feven, an odlave; of nine, a tenth, &c.
But this is not fufficient to determine an interval with
accuracy ; for under the fame name it may be either
major or minor, true or falfe, diminilhed or redun¬
dant.
“ The confonances which are imperfedl, and the
two natural diflbnances, may be major or minor;
which, without changing their degree, occafions in
the interval the difference of a femitone: fo that if,
from a minor interval, we ftill deduce a femitone, it
becomes an interval diminiflied ; if, by a femitone, we
increafe a major interval, it becomes an interval re¬
dundant.
“ The perfedl confonances are by their nature in¬
variable. When their intervals are fuch as they ought
to be, we call them juft, or true : and if we dilate or
contradl this interval by a femitone, the confonance is
termed falfe, and becomes a diffonance ; redundant,
if the femitone be added ; diminijhed, if it be abftradt-
ed. We improperly give the name of a falfe fifth to
the fifth diminifhed ; this is taking the genus for the
fpecies: the fifth redundant is every jot as falfe as the
diminiftied, it is even more fo in every refpedl.,,
In the Mufical Didlionary, plate C, fig. 2. may
be feen a table of all the fimple intervals pradlicable
in Mufic, with their names, their degrees, their va¬
lues and their ratios.
Having afeertained the diftinftion between major
and minor intervals, it is only neceflary to add, that;
thefe
I N T [39
Tnttftate thefe may be natural or artificial. Of the natural we
III II have already given fome account, by afcertaining the
•jiiturigue. diftances and ratios of fuch as have been mentioned.
Of the artificial, we may obferve, that they are fuch
as change their pofition from what it naturally is in
the diatonick fcale, to what the conveniency of com-
pofition or tranfpofition requires it to be. A note
thus artificially heightened by a femitone, together
with the charafter which exprefles that elevation, is
called a Jharp; on the contrary, a note artificially de-
preffed by a femitone, together with the charafter by
which that depreffion isfignified, is called a flat. The
chara&er which reftores a note thus depreffed or r^ifed
to its primary (late, is called a natural. Major or
minor intervals, as they prevail, charadterife the ma¬
jor or minor mode. See Mode.
This fubjeft is fufficiently explained in the article
Music, Chap. IV.
INTESTATE, in law, aperfonthat dies without
making a will.
INTESTINES, in anatomy. See there, n° 354.
INTESTINAL, fomething belonging to orfeat-
ed in the inteftines.
INTONATION, in mufic, the adtion of founding
the notes in the fcale with the voice, or any other gi¬
ven order of mufical tones. Intonation may be either
true or falfe, either too high or too low, either too
fharp or too flat; and then this word intonation, at¬
tended with an epithet, muft be underftood concern¬
ing the manner of performing the notes.
In executing an air, to form the founds, and pre-
ferve the intervals as they are marked with juftnefs
and accuracy, is no inconfiderable difficulty, and
fcarcely pradticable, but by the afliftance of one com¬
mon idea, to which, as to their ultimate left, thefe
founds and intervals muft be referred. thefe common
ideas are thofe of the key, and the mode in which the
performer is engaged ; and from the word tone, which
is fometimes ufed in a fenfe almoft identical with that
of the key, the word intonation may perhaps be deri¬
ved. It may alfo be deduced from the word diatonic,
as in that fcale it is moft frequently converfant; a fcale
which appears moft convenient and moft natural to the
voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of
fuch intervals as are greater or leffer than thofe of the
diatonick order ; becaufe, in the firft cafe, the glottis
and vocal organs are modified by gradations too large;
or too complex, in the fecond.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, any
work that fortifies a poll againft an enemy who at¬
tacks. It is generally taken for a ditch or trench with
a parapet. Intrenchments are fometimes made of
fafeines with earth thrown over them, of gabions,
hogfheads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men
from the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an affemblage of events or circum-
ftances, occurring in an affair, and perplexing the per-
fons concerned in it. In this fenfe, it is ufed to fig-
nify the nodus or plot of a play or romance ; or that
point wherein the principal characters are moft em-
barraffed through the artifice and oppofition of cer¬
tain perfons, or the unfortunate falling out of certain
accidents and circumftances.
In tragedy, comedy, or an epic poem, there are
always two defigns. The firft and principal is that of
19 ] I N V
the hero of the piece: the fecond contains the de- Intrigue
figns of all thofe who oppofe him. Thefe oppofite II
caufes produce oppofite effedts, to wit, the efforts of nveges‘
the hero for the execution of his defign, and the ef¬
forts of thofe who thwart it. As thofe caufes and de¬
figns are the beginning of the adtion, fo thefe efforts
are the middle, and there form a knot or difficulty
which we call the intrigue, that makes the greateft
part of the poem. It lafts as long as the mind of the
reader or hearer is fufpended about the event of thofe
oppofite efforts: the folution or cataftrophe commences
when the knot begins to unravel and the difficulties
and doubts begin to clear up.
The intrigue of the Iliad is twofold. The firft com¬
prehends three days fighting in Achilles’s abfence,
and confifts on the one fide in the refiftance of Aga¬
memnon and the Greeks, and on the other in the in¬
exorable temper of Achilles. The death of Patroclus
unravels this intrigue, and makes the beginning of a
fecond. Achilles refolves to be revenged, but Heftor
oppofes his defign ; and this forms the fecond intrigue,
which is the laft day’s battle.
In the ^Eneid there are alfo two intrigues. The firft
is taken up in the voyage and landing of iEneas in
Italy ; the fecond is his eftabliftiment there : the op¬
pofition he met with from Juno in both thefe under¬
takings, forms the intrigue.
As to the choice of the intrigue, and the manner
of unravelling it, it is certain they ought both to
fpring naturally from the ground and fubjedl of the
poem. Boffu gives us three manners of forming the
intrigue of a poem: the firft is that already mentioned;
the fecond is taken from the fable and defign of the
poet; in the third the intrigue is fo laid, as that the
folution follows from it of courfe.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the real and ge¬
nuine values and properties, &c. of any thing, in op¬
pofition to their extrinftc or apparent values.
INTRODUCTION, in general, fignifies any thing
which tends to make another in fome meafure known
before we have leifure to examine it thoroughly ; and
hence it is ufed on a great variety of occafions. Thus
we fpeak of the introduftion of oneperfon to another;
the introduction to a book, &c.—It is alfo ufed to
fignify the aCtual motion of any body out of one place
into another, when that motion has been occafioned
by fome other body.
Introduction, in oratory. See Oratory,
n° 26.
INTUITION, among logicians, the a£t whereby
the mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of
two ideas, immediately by themfelves, without the
intervention of any other; in which cafe the mind
perceives the truth as the eye does the light, only by
being diredted towards it. See Logic, n° 25. 27.
INVECTED, in heraldry, denotes a thing fluted or
furrowed. See Heraldry, PlateCXLIV.fig. i. (a.)
INVECTIVE, in rhetoric, differs from reproof,
as the latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended
for the good of the perfon reproved ; whereas the in-
veCtive is the work of an enemy, and entirely defigned
to vex and give uneafinefs to the perfon againft whom
it is direfted.
INVEGES (Auguftin), a learned Sicilian Jefuit,
wrote in Italian an Hiftory of the city of Palermo,
22 H 2 and
I N V [ 3920 ] I N V
Inverary and other vvcrki, which are efteemed. He died in
_ J , 1677, aged 82.
invcrlocRy. INVER ARY, a parliament town of Scotland, in
Argyleihire, feated on Loch-fin in W. Long. 5. o.
N. Lat. 47. 3.—Here is a caftle, the principal feat
of the dukes'of Argyle, chief of the Campbells. It
was built by duke Archibald ; is quadrangular, with a
round tower at each corner ; and in the middle rifes
a fquare one glazed on every fide to give light to the
itaircafe and galleries, which has from without a moil
difagreeable effe&. This caftle is built of a coarfe
lapis ollaris brought from the other fide of Loch-fin ;
and is of the fame kind with that found in Norway,
of which the king of Denmark’s palace is built. The
founder of the caftle defigned to have built a new
town on the weft fide of the little bay on which the
houfe ftands: he finiftied a fewhoufes, a cuftom-houfe,
and an excellent inn ; but his death put a flop to the
conclufion of the plan ; which, when brought to per¬
fection, will give the place a very different appearance
from what it now bears ; the old town being com-
pofed of the molt wretched hovels that can be ima¬
gined.
INVERKEITHING, a parliament-town of Scot¬
land, in the county' of Fife, fituated on the northern
ihore of the Frith of Forth, in W. Long. 3. 15. N.
Lat. 56. 5. It was much favoured by William, who
granted its firft charter. He extended its liberties
confiderably, and in the time of David I. it became a
royal refidence. The Moubrays had large poffeffions
here, which were forfeited in the reign of Robert II.
The Francifcans had a convent in this town ; and, ac¬
cording to Sir Robert Sibbald, the Dominicans had
another.
INVERLOCHY, or Fort William, a fort-
refs ere&ed in the Highlands of Scotland in king
William’s time. Even prior to that, however, there
had been a fmall fortrefs ere&ed by general Monk.
The prefent fort is a triangle, has two baftions, and is
capable of admitting a garrifon of 800 men. It was
well defended in 1746 againft the rebels, who railed
the fiege with much difgrace. It was alfo attempted
by thofe of 1715, but without fuccefs. The fort lies
on a narrow arm of the fea called Lochiel, which ex¬
tends fome miles higher up the country, making a
bend to the north ; and extends likewife weftward to¬
wards the ifle of Mull, or near 24 Scotch miles.
This fort on the weft, Fort Auguftus in the centre,
and Fort George on the eaft, form what is called the
chain from fea to fea. This fpace is called glen-snore,
or the great glen, which, including water and land,
is ahnoft a level of 70 miles. There is in fa£l little land,
but what is divided by a frith, loch, or river; except
two miles which lie between Loch-oich and Loch-Iochy,
called Lagan-achadrom. By means of Fort-George all
entrance up the Frith towards Invernefs is prevented.
Fort-Auguftus curbs the inhabitants midway, and Fort-
William is a check to any attempts in the weft. De¬
tachments are made from all thefe garrifons to Inver¬
nefs, Bernera barracks oppofite to the Ifle of Skie,
and caftle Duart in the Ifle of Mull. Other fmall
parties are alfo fcattered in huts throughout the
country, to prevent the ftealingof cattle.—-Fort Wil¬
liam is furrounded by vaft mountains, which occafions
almoft perpetual rain. Benevifh foars above the reft,
and ends in a point faid to be 1450 yards above the Invcrncfi
level of the fea. The fort ftands in W. Long. 5. 15. (I
N. Lat. 56. 55. lnverted-
INVERNESS, a town of Scotland, and capital of
a county of the fame name, finely feated on the river
Nefs, over which there is a ftone bridge of feven arches,
in W. Long. 40. N. Lat. 57. 36. It is large, well
built, and very populous, being the Jaft town of any
note in Britain. As there are always regular troops
in its neighbourhood, there is a great air of politenefs,
a plentiful market, and more money and bufinefs ftir-
ring than could have been expe&ed in fuch a remote
part of the ifland. The country in the neighbourhood
is remarkably well cultivated ; and its produce clearly
fhews, that the foil and climate are not defpicable.
There is a profitable falmon-fiftiery; which, however,
might be improved in many refpedts. They have alfo
fome branches both of the woollen and linen manufac¬
ture ; and, in confequence of their excellent military
roads, a great proportion of inland trade. But, be-
fides all this, Invernefs is a port with 20 creeks depen¬
dent upon it, part on the Murray Frith to the eaft, and
part on the north of the town, reaching even the fouth
border of the county of Caithnefs ; yet the foreign
commerce here is far from being extenfive. There
are indeed fome few merchants in the town, and fome
few (hips belonging to it ; but they are fmall in fize,
as well as few in number. The harbour too is none
of the bed, which induced the inhabitants to apply to
the legiflature upwards of 40 years ago, when they
obtained a grant for 19 years; which, by another law,
was continued for the fpace of 21 years farther; and,
in confequence of this, they have made, and are ftill
making, very confiderable improvements.
iNVERNEss-S/z/n?, a county of Scotland, adjoining
to Rofs and Cromartie on the north; to Murray-land
on the eaft, of which it includes a part; to Lorn,
Braidalbin, and Athol, on the fouth ; and on the weft
is wafiied by the Atlantic ocean. It extends 60 miles
in length from eaft to weft, and 55 where broadeft,
from fouth to north. It produces plenty of iron
ore, has large woods of fir and oak, plenty of pa-
fturage, and fome corn. Here alfo is plenty of deer,
hares, partridges, growfe, and all forts of game,
whether fowls or quadrupeds. The hills and moun¬
tains feed numerous flocks of black cattle: the li¬
vers and lakes, of which there is a great number,
afford abundance of falmon, eels, and trout ; and for
fea-fifli, there is hardly a diftridl in Scotland fo well
provided.
INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the
ruleof three. See Arithmetic, n0 13.
Inverse, in mufic. See Inverted.
INVERTED, in mufic, is derived from the Latin
prepofition/«, and vertere, “ to turn any thing a con¬
trary way.” The analogy of this term, and its ufe in
mufic, will appear more obvious from the fequcl.
It fignifies a change in the order of the notes which
form a chord, or in the parts which compofe harmony:
which happens by fubftituting in the bafs, thofe founds
which ought to have been in the upper part: an ope¬
ration not only rendered pradlicable, but greatly faci¬
litated, by the refemblance which one note has to ano¬
ther in different oflaves; whence we derive the power
of exchanging one oftave for another with fo much
pro-
I N V [ 39
propriety and fuccefs, or by fubilitutiog in the ex¬
tremes thofe which ought to have occupied the middle
itation ; and vice verfa.
It is certain, that in every chord there muft be a
fundamental and natural order, which is the fame with
that of its generation : but the circumftances of fuc-
ceffion, tafte, expreffion, the beauty of melody, and
variety, the approximation of harmony, frequently
oblige the compofer to change that order by invert¬
ing the chords, and of confequence the difpoiition of
the parts.
As three things may be arranged in fix different
orders, and four things in twenty-four ; it would feem
at firft, that a perfect chord fhould be fufceptible of
fix inverfions, and a diffonant chord of twenty-four;
fince one is compofed of four and the other of three
founds, and fince inverfion confifts only in a tranfpofi-
tion of o&aves. But it muft be obferved, that in har¬
mony all the different difpofitions of acuter founds are
not reckoned as inverfions, whilft the fame founds re¬
main in the lower parts. Thus, thefe two orders of
the perfeft chord nt mi fol, or C E G, and at fol mi, or
C G E, are only taken for the fame inverfion, and only
bear the fame name ; this reduces the whole of inver¬
fions of which a perfedt chord is fufceptible to three ;
that is to fay, to as many inverfions as the chord
contains different founds: for the replications of the
fame found are here reckoned as nothing.
Every time, therefore, when the fundamental bafs is
heard in the loweft parts, or if the fundamental bafs
be retrenched, every time when the natural order is
preferved in the chords, the harmony is diredt. As
foon as that order is changed, or as foon as the funda¬
mental founds, without being in the lower parts, are
heard in fome of the others, the harmony is invert¬
ed. It is an inverfion of the chord, when the fun¬
damental found is tranfpofed; it is likewife an inver¬
fion of the harmony, when the treble or any other
part moves as the bafs ought to have done.
Every where, where a diredt chord can be well pla¬
ced, its inverfions will likewife be fo with refpedt to
the harmony ; for it is {till the fame fundamental fuc-
cefiion. Thus, at every note of the fundamental bafs,
it is in the power of the compofer to arrange the chord
at his pleafure, and of confequence every moment to
produce different inverfions ; provided that he does not
change the regular and foundamental fucceffion; pro¬
vided alfo, that the diffonances may always be prepared
and refolved in the fame parts where they are firft
heard, that the fenfible note may always afcend, and
that fuch falfe relations may be avoided as would be
too ha rill upon the ear in the fame part. This is the
key of thefe myfterious diftindlions which compofers
have made between thofe chords where the treble is
fyncopated, and thofe in which the bafs ought to be
fyncopated; as, for inftance, between the ninth and the
fecond : it is thus that in the firft the chord is direft,
and the diffohance in the treble ; in the others, the
chord is reverfed, and thediffonance in the bafs.
With refpeft to chords by fuppofition, greater pre¬
caution is neceffary in inverting them. As the found
which they add to the bafs is abfolutely foreign to the
harmony; it is often only tolerable there, on account
of its vaft diftance from the other founds, which ren¬
ders the diffonance lefs harlh. But if thefe added
21 ] I N U
founds flhould happen to be tranfpofed in the higher Invefiiga-
parts, as it fometimes does; if this tranfpofition be not
performed with much art, it may produce a very bad jnyja
effe& ; and never can this be happily pra&ifcd without 
taking away fome other found from the chord. See,
at the article Accord in the Mufical Di&ionary, the
cafes when inverjion may be praftifcd, and the choice
of fuch as are proper.
The perfect knowledge of inverfion depends on art
and ftudy alone: the choice is a different matter; to
this an ear and a tafte are neceffary; experience of the
different effe&s are likewife indifpenfable; and though
the choice of inverfions be indifferent with refpeft to
the foundation of the harmony, it is by no means fuch
in regard of the effeft and expreffion. It is certain,
that the fundamental bafs is formed to fupport the
harmony, and to prevail beneath. Every time there¬
fore when the order is changed and the harmony in¬
verted, there ought to be good reafons for it: with¬
out which, the compofer will fall into the vice of our
more recent mufic, where the melody of the treble is
often like what the bafs ftiould be, and the bafs always
like that of the treble, where every thing is confound¬
ed, reverfed, difordered, without any other reafon than
to fubvert the eftablifhed order, and to fpoil the har¬
mony.
INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the fearch-
ing or finding out any thing by the tradfs or prints
of the feet ; whence mathematicians, fchoolmen, and
grammarians, come to ufe the term in their refpedive
refearches.
INVESTING a Place, is when a general, having
an intention to befiege it, detaches a body of horfe to
poffefs all the avenues; blocking up the garrifon,
and preventing relief from getting into the place, till
the army and artillery are got up to form the fiege.
INVESTITURE, in law, a giving livery of feifin
or poffeffion. There was anciently a great variety of
ceremonies ufed upon inveftitures; as at firft they were
made by a certain^ form of words, and afterwards by
fuch things as had the greateft refemblance to the
thing to be transferred : thus, where lands were in¬
tended to pafs, a turf, &c. was delivered by the grantee
to the grantee. In the church, it was cuftomary for.
princes to make inveftiture of ecclefiaftical benefices,
by delivering to the. perfons they had chofen, a paftoral
ftaff and a ring.
INULA, elecampane ; a genus of the polygamia :
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of
plants. There are 22 fpecies, of which the helenium,
or common elecampane, is the moft remarkable. It is
a native of Britain; but is cultivated in gardens for the
fake of the root, which is ufed in medicine. The root
is perennial, thick, branching, and of a ftrong odour.
The lower leaves are eight or nine inches long, and
four broad in the middle, rough on their upper fide,
but downy on the under fide. The ftalks rife about
four feet high, and divide toward the top into feveral
fmaller branches, garniftied with oblong oval leaves
indented on their edges, ending in acute points. Each
branch is crowned with one large yellow radiated
flower, fucceeded by narrow four-cornered feeds, cover¬
ed with down. It may be propagated in autumn by
feeds or offsets.
Medicinal Ufes, &c. The root of elecampane, e.
I N V [ 3922 ] J O A
InuniJataj fpecially when dry, has an agreeable aromatic fmell; INVOLUTION, in algebra. See Algebra, n® Involuti
\\ its tafte, on chewing, is glutinous, and as it were JOAB, general of the army of king David, de- II
Invoiucrum romewhat rancid : in a little time it difcovers an aro- feated the Syrians and the other enemies of David, •*°an’
matic bitternefs, which by degrees becomes confider-
ably acrid and pungent. It poflefles the general vir¬
tues of alexipharmacs ; and is principally recommend¬
ed for promoting expeftoration in humoral afthmas and
coughs. Liberally taken, it is faid to excite urine,
and to loofen the belly. In fome parts of Germany,
large quantities of this root are candied, and ufed as
a ftomachic for ftrengthening the tone of the vifcera in
general, and for attenuating tenacious juices. Spiri¬
tuous liquors extrafl; its virtues in greater perfection
than watery ones. The former fcarce elevate any
thing in diftillation : with the latter an eflential oil a-
rifes, which concretes into white flakes; this pofieffes
at firft the flavour of the elecampane, but is very apt
to lofe it in keeping. Outwardly applied, a decoftion
of it is faid to cure the itch. The root bruifed and
macerated in urine with balls of alhes and whortle¬
berries, dyes a blue colour.
INUNDATiE, the name of the 15th order in
Linnseus’s fragments of a natural method; confifting
of plants which grow' in the water. See Botany,
p. 1307.
INVOCATION, in theology, the aft of ado¬
ring God, and efpecially of addrefling him in prayer
for his afliftance and proteftion. See the articles A-
doration and Prayer.
The difference between the invocation of God and
of the faints, as praftifed by the Papifts, is thus ex¬
plained in the catechifm of the council of Trent.
“ We beg of God, (fays the catechifm,) to give us
good things, and to deliver us from evil ; but we
pray to the faints, to intercede with God and obtain
thofe things which we ftand in need of. Hence we
ufe different forms in praying to God, and to the
faints: to the former we fay, hear us, have mercy on
us ; to the latter we only fay, pray for us.” The
council of Trent eXprefsly teaches, that the faints who
reign with Jefus Chrift offer up their prayers to God
for men; and condemn thofe who maintain the con¬
trary doftrine. The Proteftants rejeft and cenfure
this praftice as contrary to fcripture, deny the truth
of the faft, and think it highly unreafonable to fup-
pofe that a limited finite being fhould be in a manner
omniprefent, and at one and the fame time hear and
attend to the prayers that are offered to him in Eng¬
land, China, and Peru ; and from thence infer, that
if the faints cannot hear their requefts, it is incon-
fiftent with common fenfe to addrefs any kind of
prayer to them.
Invocation, in poetry, an addrefs at the begin¬
ning of a poem, wherein the poet calls for the afliftance
of fome divinity, particularly of his mufe, or the deity
of poetry.
INUNDATION, a fudden overflowing of the dry
land by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, fprings,
or rains. See all thele articles.
INVOICE, an account in writing of the particu¬
lars of merchandife, with their value, culfom, charges,
&c. tranfmitted by one merchant to another in a di-
ttant country.
INVOLUCRUM, among botanifts. See Botany,
p. 1293.
and took the fort of Zion from the Jebufites, who,
thinking it impregnable, committed it to the care of
the lame and blind, whom they placed on the walls.
He fignalized himfelf in all David’s wars, but was
guilty of bafely murdering Abner and Amafa. He
procured a reconciliation between Abfalom and Da¬
vid ; and afterwards flew Abfalom, contrary to the ex-
prefs orders of the king. He at length joined Adoni-
jah’s party ; and was put to death by the order of So¬
lomon, 1014 B. C.
JOACHIMITES, in church-hiftory, the difciples
of Joachim a Ciltertian monk, who was an abbot
of Flora in Calabria, and a great pretender to in-
fpiration.
The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain
ternaries : The Father, they faid, operated from the
beginning till the coming of the Son ; the Son, from
that time to theirs, which was the year 1260; and
from that time the Holy Spirit was to operate in
his turn. They alfo divided every thing relating to
men, to doftrine, and the manner of living, into
three clafles, according to the three perfons in the
Trinity: The firft tenary was that of men; of whom
the firft clafs was that of married men, which had
lafted during the whole period of the Father; the
fecond was that of clerks, which had lafted during the
time of the Son; and the laft was that of the
monks, in which there was to be an uncommon effu-
fion of grace by the Holy Spirit: The fecond ternary
was that of doftrine, viz. the Old Teftament, the
New, and the everlafting Gofpel; the firft they a-
fcribed to the Father, the fecond to the Son, and the
third to the Holy Spirit : A third ternary confifted in
the manner of living, viz. under the Father, men lived
according to the flefti; under the Son, they lived ac¬
cording to the flelh and the fpirit; and under the Ho¬
ly Ghoft, they were to live according to the fpirit
°njOAN (Pope), called by Platina John VIII. is
faid to have held the holy fee between Leo IV. who
died in 855, and Benedift III. who died in 858.
Marianus Scotus fays, (he fat two years five months
and four days. Numberlefs have been the controver-
fies, fables, and conjeftures, relating to this pope. It
is faid that a German girl, pretending to Be a man,
went to Athens, where (he made great progrefs in the
fciences; and afterward came to Rome in the fame
habit. As flic had a quick genius, and fpoke with a
good grace in the public deputations and leftures, her
great learning was admired, and every one loved her
extremely; fo that after the death of Leo, (he was
chofen pope, and performed all offices as fuch. Whilft
file was in pofleffion of this high dignity, fhe was got
with child ; and as flie was going in a folemn procef-
fion to the Lateran church, (he was delivered of that
child, between the Colifeum and St Clement’s church,
in a moft public ftreet, before a crowd of people, and
died on the fpot, in 857. By way of embellilhing
this ftory, may be added the precaution reported to
have been afterward taken to avoid fuch another acci¬
dent. After the eleftion of a pope, he was placed on
a chair with an open feat, called the groping chair,
when
JOB [ 3923 ] J O H
when a deacon came moft devoutly behind and fatif-
fied himfelf of the pontiff’s fex by feeling. This pre-
 caution, however, has been long deemed unnecefiary,
becaufe the cardinals now always get baflards enough
to eftablifh their virility before they arrive at the pon¬
tificate.
Joan d'Arc, or the Maid of Orleans, whofe heroic
behaviour in reanimating the expiring valour of the
French nation, though by the moft fuperftitious
means, (pretending to be infpired), deferved a better
fate. She was burnt by the Englifh as a forcerefs, in
1421, aged 24. See France, n° 60.
JOANNA (St), one of the Comora iflands in the
Indian ocean, E. Long. 44. 25. S. Lat. 12. o. The
north fide (hoots out into two points, 26 miles afun-
der, between which there is a great bay. This ifiand
is a proper place of refrefhment for the Eaft India
fhips, whofe crews, when ill of the fcurvy, foon reco¬
ver by the ufe of limes, lemons, and oranges, and from
the air of the land. The ifiand abounds with horned
cattle, goats, fowls, rice, pepper, cocoa-nuts, plan¬
tains, bananas, oranges, lemons, limes, pine-apples,
guavas, plums, yams, and potatoes. They have like-
wife honey and fugar-canes; and the foil is fo rich,
that it feems proper for any other vegetables: all
thefe, except the cocoa-nuts, may be gathered at plea-
fure. The profpedf of the country is exceeding beau¬
tiful, and may be called without exaggeration a ter-
rejirial paradife; every valley being a delightful
grove, and the hills covered with variety of ever¬
green trees, combined with water-falls and cafcades,
render it impoffible that they ftiould receive any addi¬
tion from art. The town where the king refides is at
the eaft fide of the ifiand; and though it is three quar¬
ters of a mile in length, it does not contain above 200
houfes. However, the villages are thick, and there
are cottages almoft every where. Their principal
houfes are built with ftone, with a quadrangle in the
middle, and are only one ftory high. All the other
houfes, or rather huts, are (lightly compofed of plafter-
ed reeds; and yet the mofques are tolerable ftruc-
tures, very neat and clean in the infide. The horn¬
ed cattle are a kind of buffaloes, having a large hump
on their (boulders, which is very delicious eating.
They have neither horfes nor affes, nor beafts of
prey ; but they have monkies of feveral forts, and
bats as large as a weafel ; they have alfo various
forts of birds not yet diftinguiftied by any particular
name.
JOB, or Book of Job, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, containing a narrative of a feries of mif-
fortunes which happened to a man whofe name was
fob, as a trial of his virtue and patience ; toge¬
ther with the conferences he had with his cruel
friends on the fubjeft of his misfortunes, and the
manner in which he was reftored to eafe and happi-
nefs. This book is filled with thofe noble, bold, and
figurative expreffions, which donftitute the very foul
of poetry.
Many of the Jewifti rabbins pretend that this rela¬
tion is altogether a fi&ion : others think it a fimple
narrative of a matter of fa£t, juft as it happened: while
a third fort of critics acknowledge, that the ground¬
work of the ftory is true, but that it is wrote in a
poetical ftrain, and decorated with peculiar circum-
ftances, to render the narration more profitable and en- Jobber
tertaining. II
The time is not fet down in which Job lived. Some -*0 n'
' have thought that he was much ancienter than Mofes,
becaufe the law is never cited by Job or his friends,
and becaufe it is related that Job himfelf offered facri-
fices. Some imagine that this book was Wrote by
himfelf; others fay, that Job wrote it originally in
Syriac or Arabic, and that Mofes tranflated it into
Hebrew : but the rabbins generally pronounce Mofes
to be the author of it, and many Chriftian writers are
of the fame opinion.
JOBBER, in law, a perfon that buys and fells
cattle for others. Hence (lock-jobbers are perfons
who buy and fell (locks for other perfons.
JOBERT (Lewis), a pious and learned jefuit,
born at Paris in 1647. He diftinguiftied himfelf as a
preacher; and befides feveral other trafts wrote a trea-
tife entitled La Science des Med a Hies, which is in
good efteem. He died in 1719; and the bed edi¬
tion of this work is that of Paris in 1739, 2 vols
i2mo.
JODELLE (Stephen), lord of Limodin, was
born at Paris in 1532'; and diftinguiftied himfelf fo
greatly by his poetical talents, that he was reckoned
one of the Pleiades celebrated by Ronfard. He is faid
to be the firft Frenchman who wrote plays in his own
language according to the ancient form. He was re¬
markably ready at compofition, writing without ftudy
or labour ; and was well (killed in polite arts and gen¬
teel exercifes. In his younger years he embraced the
reformed religion, and wrote a fatire on the mafs in
100 Latin verfes ; yet all of a fudden returned to that
mafs again. He died in 1579, very poor.
JOEL, the fon of Phatuel, and the fecond of the
leffer prophets, 800 B. C. foretold the captivity of Ba¬
bylon, the defeent of the Holy Ghoft on the apoftles,
and the lad judgment. His prophecy is in Hebrew,
and contains only three chapters. The ftyle is ftrong,
expreflive, and figurative.
JOHN (St), the Baptist, the fore-runner of Jefus
Chrift, was the fon of Zacharias and Elizabeth. He
retired into a defart, where he lived on locufts and
wild honey; and about the year 29 began to preach
repentance, and to declare the coming of the Mefiiah.
He baptized his difciples, and the following year
Chrift himfelf was baptized by him, in the river Jor¬
dan. Some time after, having reproved Herod An-
tipas, who had a criminal correfpondence with Hero-
dias his brother Philip’s wife, he was call into prifon,
where he was beheaded. His head was brought to
Herodias, who, according to St Jerome, pierced his
tongue with the bodkin (he ufed to fatten up her hair,
to revenge herfelf after his death for the freedom of his
reproofs.
John (St), the apoftle, or the evangelift, was the
brother of St James the Great, and the fon of Zebe-
dee. He quitted the bufinefs of fiftiing to follow
Jefus, and was his beloved difciple. He was witnefs
to the aflions and miracles of his Mafter; was prefent
at his transfiguration on mount Tabor; and was with
him in the garden of Olives. He was the only apoftle
who followed him to the crofs; and to him Jefus left
the care of his mother. He was alfo the firft apoftle
who knew him again after his refurreftion. He
preached
John.
] o H [ 3924 1 J O H
preached the faith in Alia; and principally refided
at Ephefus, where he maintained the mother of our
Lord. He is faid to have founded the churches of
Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia,
and Laodicea. He is alfo faid to have preached the
gofpel amongd the Parthians, and to have addreffed
his firft epiftle to that people. It is related, that,
when at Rome, the emperor Domitian caufed him to
be thrown into a caldron of boiling oil, when he
came out unhurt; on which he was banifhed to the
ifle of Patmos, where he wrote his Apocalypfe. After
the death of Domitian, he returned to Ephefus, where
he compofed his Gofpel, about the year 96; and died
there, in the reign of Trajan, about the year too,
aged 94.
Gojpel of 5/ John, a canonical book of the New
Tcftament, containing a recital of the life, actions,
doflrine, and death, of our Saviour Jefus Chrift,
written by St John the apoflle and evangelift.
St John wrote his Gofpel at Ephefus, after his re¬
turn from the Hie of Patmos, at the defire of the
Chriftians of Afia. St Jerome fays, he would not
undertake it, but on condition that they fhould ap¬
point a public fail to implore the afliftance of God ;
and that, the faft being ended, St John, filled wuth
the Holy Ghoft, broke out into thefe words, “ In
the beginning was the Word,” &c. The ancients
afiign two reafofis for this undertaking: the firft is,
becaufe, in the other three Gofpels, there was want¬
ing the hiftory of the beginning of Jefus Chrift’s
preaching, till the imprifonment of John the Baptift,
which therefore he applied himfelf particularly to
relate. The fecond reafon was, in order to remove
the errors of the Corinthians, Ebionites, and other
feds.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
John of Salijburyt bifhop of Chartres in France,
was born at Salifbury in Wiltfliire, in the beginning
of the 12th century. Where he imbibed the rudi¬
ments of his education, is unknown; but we learn,
that in the year 1136, being then a youth, he was
fent to Paris, where he ftudied under feveral eminent
profefibrs, and acquired confiderable fame forvhis ap¬
plication and proficiency in rhetoric, poetry, divinity,
and particularly in the learned languages. Thence
he travelled to Italy: and, during his refidence at
Rome, was in high favour with pope Eugenio III.
and his fuccefibr Adrian IV. After his return to
England, he became the intimate friend and compa¬
nion of the famous Thomas Becket, archbifhop of
Canterbury, whom he attended in his exile, and is
faid to have been prefent when that haughty prelate
was murdered in his cathedral. What preferment he
had in the church during this time, does not appear;
but in 1x76 he was promoted by king Henry II. to
the bilhopric of Chartres in France, where he died in
1182.
This John of Salifbury was really a phsenomenon.
He was one of the firft reftorers of the Greek and Latin
languages in Europe; a claflical fcholar, a philofopher,
a learned divine, and an elegant Latin poet. He wrote
feveral books; the principal of which are, his Life of
St Thomas of Canterbury, a colled!ion of letters, and
Polycraticon.
Pope John XXII. a native of Cahors, before called
James d'Eufe, was well fkilled in the civil and canon
law; and was eledled pope after the death of Clement V.
on the 7th of Auguft 1316. He publifhed the con-
ftitutions called Clementines, which were made by his
predeceflbr; and drew up the other conftitutions called
Extravagantes. Lewis of Bavaria being eledled em¬
peror, John XXII. oppofed him in favour of his com¬
petitor ; which made much noife, and was attended
with fatal confequences. That prince, in 1329, caufed
the antipope Peter de Corbiera, a cordelier, to be
dedled, who took the name of Nicholas V. and was
fupported by Michael de Cefenne, general of his or¬
der ; but that antipope was the following year taken
and carried to Avignon, where he begged pardon of
the pope with a rope about his neck, and died in pri-
fon two or three years after. Under this pope arofe
the famous queftion among the cordeliers, called the
bread of the cordeliers; which was, Whether thofe
monks had the property of the things given them, at
the time they were making ufe of them.? for example.
Whether the bread belonged to them when they were
eating it, or to the pope, or to the Roman church?
This frivolous queftion gave great employment to the
pope; as well as thofe which turned upon the colour,
form, and fluff of their habits, whether they ought to
be white, grey, or black; whether the cowl ought to
be pointed or round, large or fmall; whether their
robes ought to be full, fhort, or long; of cloth, or of
ferge, &c. The difputes on all thefe minute trifles
were carried fo far between the minor brothers, that
fome of them were burned upon the occafion. He died
at Avignon in 1334, aged 90.
John, king of England. See England, n® 133,
X44.
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, a renowned
general, father of Henry IV. king of England, died
in 1438.
John of Leyden, otherwife called Buccold. See
Anabaptists.
John Sobiejki of Poland, one of the greateft war¬
riors in the 17th century, was, in 1665, made grand-
marlhal of the crown; and, in 1667, grand-general of
the kingdom. His vi£ories obtained over the Tartars
and the Turks procured him the crown, to which he
was elefted in 1674. He was an encourager of arts
and fciences, and the prote6lor of learned men. He
died in 1696, aged 72.
St John’s Day, the name of two Chriftian feftivals;
one obferved on June 24th, kept in commemoration
of the wonderful circumftances attending the birth of
John the Baptift; and the other on December 27th,
in honour of St John the evangelift.
St John’/ /Port. See Hypericum.
John’s {Stf an ifland of the Eaft-Indies, in Afia,
and one of the Philippines, eaft of Mindanayo, from
which it is feparated by a narrow ftrait. E. Long.
125. 25. N. Lat. 7. o.
John's ('StJ, an illand of North-America, in the
bay of St Lawrence, having New-Scotland on the
fouth and weft, and Cape Breton on the eaft. The
Englifh got poffefiion of it when Louifbourg was fur-
rendered to them, on July 26, 1758.
JOHNSON (Ben), one of the moft confiderable
dramatic poets oi the laft age, whether we confider
the number or the merit of his produftions. He was
bom
Joh
II
Johnfc
ion [ 3925 ] J o r
born at Weflminfter in 1574, and was educated at the
public fchool there under the great Camden. He
was defcended from a Scots family ; and his father,
who loft his eftate under Queen Mary, dying before
our poet was born, and his mother marrying a brick¬
layer for her fecond hufband, Ben was taken from
fchool to work at his father-in-law’s trade. Not be¬
ing captivated with this employment, he went into
the Low Countries, and diftinguifhed himfelf in a mili¬
tary capacity.
On his return to England, he entered himfelf at St
John’s college, Cambridge ; and having killed a per-
fon in a duel, was condemned, and narrowly efcaped
execution. After this he turned after ; and Shake-
fpeare is faid to have firft introduced him to the world,
by recommending a play of his to the ftage, after it
had been rejefted. His Alchymift gained him fuch
reputation, that in 1619 he was, at the death of Mr
Daniel, made poet-laureat to King James I. and ma-
fter of arts at Oxford.
As we do not find Johnfon’s oeconomical virtues any
where recorded, it is the lefs to be wondered at, that
after this we find him petitioning king Charles, on his
acceffion, to enlarge his father’s allowance of too
merks into pounds; and quickly after we learn, that
he was very poor and fick, lodging in an obfeure al¬
ley : on which occafion it was, that Charles, being
prevailed on in his favour, fent him ten guineas ;
which Ben receiving, faid, “ His majefty has fent me
ten guineas, becaufe I am poor, and live in an alley ;
go and tell him, that his foul lives in an alley.”
He died in Auguft 1637, aged 63 years, and was
buried in Weftminlter-Abbey. — The moft complete
edition of his works was printed in T756, in 7 vols.
8vo.
Johnson (Samuel), an Engliflt divine, remarkable
for his learning, and fteadinefs in fuffering for the prin¬
ciples of the revolution in 1688. He was born in
1649; an(^» entering into orders, obtained in 1670 the
reftory of Corringham in the hundreds of Eflex, worth
no more than L. 80 a-year; which was the only
church-preferment he ever had. The air of this place
not agreeing with him, he was obliged to place a cu¬
rate on the fpot, at the expence of half his income,
while he fettled at London ; a fituation much more
to his liking, as he had a ftrong propenfity to poli¬
tics. The times were turbulent: the duke of York
declaring himfelf a Papift, hisfucceffion to the crown
began to be warmly oppofed ; and Mr Johnfon, who
was naturally of no fubmifiive temper, being made
chaplain to lord William Rufiel, engaged the eccle-
fiaftical champion for paflive obedience Dr Hicks, in
a treatife intitled Julian the apojlate, &c. publifti-
ed in 1682. He was anfwered by Dr Hicks in a
piece intitled Jovian, &c. To which he drew up,
and printed, a reply, under the title of Julian's arts
to undermine and extirpate Chri/lianity, <bc.; but by
the advice of his friends fuppreffed the publication.
For this unpubliftied work he was committed to pri-
fon; but not being able to procure a copy, the court
profecuted him for writing the firft traft, condemned
him to a fine of 500 merks, and to lie in prifon until it
was paid. By the affiftance of Mr Hambden, who was
his fellow-prifoner, he was enabled to run into farther
troubles ; for on the encampment of the army on
Vol. V.
Hounflbw-heath, in 1686, he printed and difperfed,
An humble and hearty addrefs to all the Protejlants in
the prefent army ; for this he was fentenced to a fecond
fine of 500 merks, to be degraded from the prieft-
hood, to (land twice in the pillory, and to be whip¬
ped from Newgate to Tyburn. It happened luckily,
that, in the degradation, they omitted to ftrip him of
his caflbck ; which circumftance, flight as it may ap¬
pear, rendered his degradation imperfeft, and after¬
wards preferved his living to him. Interceffion was
made to get the whipping omitted ; but James re¬
plied, “ That fince Mr Johnfon had the fpirit of mar¬
tyrdom, it was fit he fliould fuffer:” and he bore it
with firmefs, and even with alacrity. On the Revolu¬
tion, the parliament refolved the proceedings againft:
him to be null and illegal ; and recommended him to
the king, who offered him the rich deanery of Dur¬
ham : but this he refufed, as inadequate to his fervices
and fufferings, which h£ thought to merit a bifhopric.
The truth was, he was paflionate, felf-opiniated, and
turbulent; and though, through Dr Tillotfon’s means,
he obtained a penfion of 300 1. a-year, with other
gratifications, he remained difeontented ; pouring forth
all his uneafinefs againft a {landing army, and the
great favours {hewn to the Dutch. He died in 1703,
and his works were afterwards collefted in one vo¬
lume folio.
Johnson (John), a learned divine, born in 1662.
He was zealous for the Revolution, and preached a
noted fermon at Feverfliam on the occafion, from the
words, “ Remember Lot’s wife;” wherein he fet
forth the great danger of looking back, and vindica¬
ted the liturgy againft Mr Baxter and others. He
publifhed The Clergyman's Vade Mecum, and A Ccl-
leflion of Ecclefajlical Laws as a continuation of it;
but catching the infeftion fpread by Dr Sachavercl,
he, on the acceffion of Geo. I. to the amazement of
all his old friends, entertained unfavourable thoughts
of the Proteftant fuccefiion, and refufed to read the
ufual prayers for the king. Being profecuted, howe¬
ver, he thought proper to fubmit; and died vicar of
Cranbrook in Kent, in 1725.
JOIGNY, a town of France, in Champagne, and
in the diocefc of Sens, with a very handfome caftle.
It confifts of three pariflies, and is pleafantly fitua-
ted on the river Yonne, in E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat,
47. 56.
JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fit¬
ting various pieces of timber together. It is called
by the French menuiferie, “ fmall work,” to diftin-
guifti it from carpentery, which is employed about
large and lefs curious works.
JOINT, in general, denotes thejunfture of two
or more things. The joints of the human body are
called by anatomitts articulations. See Anatomv,
n° 2. b, c, d, e, f.
The fupplenefs to which thejoints may be brought
by long praftice from the time of infancy, is very fur-
prifing. Every common pofture-mafter flievvs us a
great deal of this ; but one of the moft wonderful in-
ftances we ever had of it, was in a perfon of the name
of Clark, and famous for it in London, where he was
commonly known by the name oi Clark the pofure-
tnajler. This man had found the way, by long prac¬
tice, to diftort many of the bones, of which nobody
22 I before
Johnfon
JoLt
J o L [ 3926 ] J O L
Jointure before had ever thought it poffible to alter the pofi-
tion. He had fuch an abfolute command of his
mufcles and joints, that he could almoft disjoint his
whole body ; fo that he once impofed on the famous
Mullens by his diftortions, in fuch a manner, that he
refufed to undertake his cure : but, to the amaze¬
ment of the phyfician, no fooner had he given over
his patient, than he faw him reftore himfelf to the fi¬
gure and condition of a proper man, with no diftor-
tion about him.
JOINTURE, in law, generally fignifies a fettle-
ment of lands and tenements, made on a woman in
confideration of marriage.
JOINVILLE (John Sirede), an eminent French
ftatefman of the 13th century, who was fenefchel or
high-fteward of Champagne, and one of the principal
lords in the court of Lewis IX. He attended that
monarch in all his expeditions; and had fo much con¬
fidence placed in him, that all matters of juflice in the
palace were referred to his decifion, and the king un¬
dertook nothing of confequence without confulting
him. He wrote the hifiory of St Lewis in French,
which is a very curious and intcrefting piece ; and
died about the year 1318. The bed edition of this
work is that of Du Cange, in folio, with learned re¬
marks.
Joinville, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in Champagne, with the title of a principali¬
ty, and a large magnificent caftle. It is fituated on
the river Marne, in E. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 48. 20.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in archite&ure, thofe pieces
of timber framed into the girders and fummers, on
which the boards of the floor are laid.
IOLAUS, in fabulous hiflory, the fon of Iphicles,
afiifted Hercules in overcoming the hydra, by procu¬
ring and lighting firebrands, as fall as Hercules cut
off its heads. As a reward for this piece of fervice,
Hercules prevailed on Hebe to reftore him to youth,
when decrepid with age.
JOLI, orJoLY, (Claudius), a worthy parifh-prieft,
and an excellent fcholar, defcended from a family emi¬
nent for learning and piety; was born at Paris in
1607. He applied himfelf firft to the law, and plead¬
ed for fome time at the bar : but inclining afterwards
to the church, he entered into orders, and in 1631
obtained a canonry in the cathedral church of Notre
Dame at Paris ; the duties of which office he difchar-
ged with an exa&nefs beyond all example as long as
he lived. Difcovering at the fame time occafionally a
capacity for ftate-affairs, the duke de Longueville,
the French plenipotentiary for negociating a general
peace, took Joly with him to Munfter, where he pro¬
ved a good affiltant. On his return, he refumed his
former employments with his ufual zeal. In 1671 he
was made precentor in his church ; and feveral times
official of Paris, without his feeking; always beha¬
ving, as an ecclefiaftical magiftrate, with perfect inte¬
grity, and teftifying a fincere love forjuftice. He
died in 1700, and left many works ; in which, as in
as many mirrors, his true charafter fully appears.
Joli (Guy), king’s counfellor to the Chatelet, and
fyndic of the revenues of the Hotel de Ville at Paris,
attached himfelf for a long time to cardinal de Retz
In the capacity of fecretary. Befide other traits, he
\\tq\s Memoin from 1648 to 1665, including thofe
of Cardinal de Retz ; a tranflation of which into Eng- J°na.
lifh was pflblifhed in 1755. ~
JONA, or Iona, the moft celebrated of all the
Hebrides^ called alfo St Columb-kill, from St Colum- ^
ba *, who came hither from Ireland, and here lies *n-^e*
buried. The ifland ftretches two miles in length from columba.'1
fouth to north in the neighbourhood of Mull, and is
about a mile broad from eaft to weft. One end of it
is rocky and barren ; the other, plain, arable, and
fruitful. Columba having converted the northern
Pidts by his preaching, their king is faid to have be-
ftowed upon him this ifland, where he erefted two
churches and two monafteries, and inftituted a femi-
nary that foon became famous for learning and faniti-
ty. Thefe foundations were richly endowed by the
kings of Scotland and lords of the ifles : Jona became
the cathedral of the bilhop of the ifles; and, on ac¬
count of its fuppofed fandlity, was chofen as a burying-
place for kings, heroes, and churchmen. St Mary’s
church in this ifland is built in form of a crofs, in the
Gothic manner; on each fide of the choir are two
chapels, having, at the entrance, large pillars carved
in baffo relievo : the iteeple, doors, and windows, are
adorned with curious fret-work; the altar is. large,
magnificent, and compofed of fine polifhed marble.
Within the church feveral abbots are interred, and
among thefe MTlikenich, whofe ftatue of black marble
appears as big as the life, in an epifcopal habit, with
the mitre and crofter; the reft are reprefented in the
fame manner, and fome diltinguiihed by Latin in-
fcriptions. Behind the church are the ruins of a cloi-
fter, library, and hall ; in which laft there ufed to be
public deputations. At the weft end of the church,
in a little cell, we find the tomb of Columba, but un-
diftinguifhed by any infcription. Hard by flands the
crofs of St Martin, an entire porphyry ftone, eight
feet high above the ground, flanding on a pedeftaL
and exhibiting on the eaft fide the figure of a tree,
and on the weft a large crucifix. At a little diftance
from hence we fee the ruins of Dun-ni Manich, or
Monks Fort, built of ftone and lime; which feems
to have been a kind of raifed baftion, on which the
monks enjoyed the cool air, and a profpedf of the
whole country. A little farther weftward lie the
black ftones, fo called, not for their colour, which is
grey, but on account of the dreadful vengeance which
was faid to overtake all thofe who fwore an oath oir
thefe ftones and were afterwards guilty of perjury.
Kneeling on thefe ftones with uplifted hands, Mac¬
donald, lord of the ifles, confirmed the grants of
lands to his adherents and vaffals, folemnly fwearing
before witneffcs, that he would never revoke the rights
and privileges he then beftowed.
The other church in Jona is called.5/ Quran’s, from
the patron to which it is dedicated. The ftatelieft
tomb in this church belongs to the laird ofM'Kinnon.
On the wall above appears a crucifix, engraved with
the family-arms underneath. On the tomb-ftone lies
a ftatue as big as the life in armour, a (hip under fail,
a lion at the head, and another at the feet, with this
infcription, Hie eji abbas Lachlan Much-fingone, et ejus
filius, Abbates de /. JEtatis in Dno. Mo. CCCC. ann.
But the moft remarkable fpot is the ccemctery on the
fouth fide, in which the king and chieftains lie buried
under fhrines. Each particular vault was diftinguilh-
TON [ 3927 ] JON
ed by an infcription ; but tbcfe are now not legible.
In that on the right hand, four kings of Ireland were
interred ; on the left, eight kings of Norway lie bu¬
ried ; and in the middlemoft, eight and forty kings
of Scotland. Here are likewife the tombs of Mac¬
donald of Ila, Gilbred, and Paul Sporran, ancient
tribes of the fame name ; the Macleans of Duart,
Lochbuy, and Coll, MacaMer, likewife a branch of
the Macdonalds, Mac-ouvrey of Ulvay, and feveral
dignified clergymen ; one of which exhibits this in-
fcription, Hiejacet yohannes Turnbull, quondam epif-
copus Canterburienjis. All thefe monuments are of
laymen,1 adorned with ftatues in armour, and ar¬
morial enfigns engraven in done.
About a quarter of a mile farther fouth, is the
church of Ronad, the burying-place of feveral abbef-
fes; one of whom is thus inferibed: Hie jacet Dna.
Anna Terleti, filia quondam prioreffa de Jona, qua
obijt anno Mo. Chrijli, animam Abrakamo commenda-
7Hus. If this infcription be true, the prioreffes in thofe
days did not live a life of celibacy; though indeed a
little alteration in the pun&uation and orthography
will deftroy this fuppofition ; for example, Hie jacet
Dna. Anna, Tarleti filia, quondam prioreffe de Jona,
(sc. In the middle of a long pavement belonging to
the adjoining nunnery, Hands another-ftonecrofs, called
Maclean’s crofs, like that which we have already de-
feribed. On the (bore is a fmall dock dug to preferve
the curich or boat, made of timber covered with hides,
in which Columba is faid to have tranfported himfelf
and eighteen ecclefiaftics from Ireland. One copy of
this apoftle’s life, written in the Irifh charafter, which
by the by is no other than the old Saxon, was in the
poflefiion of John Macneil in the ifle of Barray ; and
another in the hands of Macdonald of Benbecula.
The monaftery of Jona furnifhed divers bilhops to the
diocefes of Scotland and England; among others, the
famous Aidanus, bifhop of Lindisfairn, now Holy
Ifland.
JONAH, or Prophecy 0/'Jon ah, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament; in which it is related, that Jo¬
nah (about 771 B. C.) was ordered to go and pro¬
phecy the deftru&ion of the Ninevites, on account of
their wickednefs. But the prophet, inftead of obey¬
ing the divine command, embarked for Tarfhifh; when,
a tempeft arifing, the mariners threw him into the fea;
he was fwallowed by a great fifh; and after being three
days and nights in its belly, was caft upon the land.
Hereupon being fenfible of his pad danger and furpri-
fing deliverance, he betook himfelf to the journey and
embafly to which he was appointed; and arriving at
Nineveh the metropolis of Alfyria, he, according to his
commiffion, boldly laid open their fins and mifear-
riages, and proclaimed their fudden overthrow: upon
which the whole city, by prayer and fading, and a
fpeedy repentance, happily averted the divine ven¬
geance, and efcaped the threatened ruin. Jonah upon
this, fearing to pafs for a falfe prophet, retired to a hill
at fome didance from the city; where God, by a mi¬
racle, condefcended to (hew him the unreafonablenefs of
his difeontent.
JONAS (Judus), a Protedant divine, born at North
Haufen, in Thuringia, in X493. He was one of Lu¬
ther’s mod zealous difciples. He contra&ed a drift
fiiendfiiip with Melanfthon ; became principal of the
college of Wittemburg, and afterwards dean of the Jonas
univerfity of that city. He wrote a treatife in favour i!
of the marriage of prieds, and other works; and died Jon<:s‘
in 1555.
Jonas (Arnagrimus), a learned Icelander, acquired
great reputation by his Ikill in the fciences, and par¬
ticularly in adronomy. He was coadjutor to Guude-
bran de Thorlac, bifhop of Hola, in Iceland. He re¬
futed that bidiopric, after the death of Gundebran;
and died in 1649. He wrote feveral works; the prin¬
cipal of which are. Idea vera Magijlratds, and his hi-
dory and defeription of Iceland.
JONATHAN, the fon of Saul, celebrated in Sa¬
cred hidory for his valour, and his friendfhip for Da¬
vid againd the intered of his own houfe. Slain in
battle, 1055 B. C.
Jonathan Maccabaus, brother of Judas, a renown¬
ed general of the Jews. He forced Bacchides the Sy¬
rian general, who made war with the Jews, to accept a
peace ; conquered Demetrius Soter, and afterwards
Apollonius, that prince’s general; but, beingenfnared
by Tryphon, was put to death, 144 B. C.
JONES (Inigo), a celebrated Englifh architefl,
was the fon of a cloth-worker of London, and was
born in 1572. He was at fird put apprentice to a
joiner; but early didinguifhed himfelf by his inclina¬
tion to drawing or defigning, and was particularly-
taken notice of for his Ikill in landfcape-painting.
This afterwards recommended him to the favour of
William earl of Pembroke, who fent him abroad with
a handfome allowance in order to perfeft himfelf in
that branch. He was no fooner at Rome, than he
found himfelf in his proper fphere : he felt that nature
had not formed him to decorate cabinets, but to defigrt
palaces. He dropt the pencil, and conceived White¬
hall. In the date of Venice he faw the works of Pal¬
ladio, and learned how beautiful tade may be exerted
on a lefs theatre than the capital of an empire. How
his abilities didinguifhed themfelves in a fpot where
they certainly had no opportunity to aft, we are not
told, though it would not be the lead curious part of
his hidory ; certain it is, that, on the drength of his
reputation at Venice, Chridian IV. invited him to
Denmark, and appointed him his architeft ; but on
what buildings he was employed in that country, we
are yet to learn. James I. found him at Copenhagen,
and queen Anne took him in the quality of her archi¬
teft to Scotland. He ferved prince Henry in the
fame capacity, and the place of furveyor-general of
the works was granted to him in reverfion. On the
death of that prince, with whom at lead all his la¬
mented qualities did not die, Jones travelled once
more into Italy, and, afiided by ripenefs of judgment,
perfefted his tade. To the interval between thefc
voyages Mr Walpole is inclined to afiign thofe build¬
ings of Inigo, which are lefs pure, and border too
much upon the badard dyle, which one may call king
James's gothic. Inigo’s defigns of that period are
not gothic ; but have a littlenefs of parts, and a weight
of ornaments, with which the revival of the Grecian
tade was encumbered, and which he (hook off in his
grander defigns. The furveyor’s place fell, and he
returned to England; and, as if architefture was not
all he had learned at Rome, with an air of Roman
difinteredednefs he gave up the profits of his office,
22 I 2 which
TON [ 3928 ] JON
which he found extremely in debt ; and prevailed upon
the comptroller and paymafter to imitate his example,
till the whole arrears were cleared.
In 1620, he was employed in a manner very un¬
worthy of his genius: king James fet him upon dif-
covering, that is, gueffing, who were the founders
of Stonehenge. His ideas were all Romanized ; con*
fequently, his partiality to his favourite people, which
ought rather to have prevented him from charging them
with that mafs of barbarous clumfinefs, made him
conclude it a Roman temple.
In the fame year Jones was appointed one of the
commiffioners for the repair of St Paul’s ; but which
was not commenced till the year 1633, when Laud,
then bilhop of London, laid the firft Hone, and Inigo
the fourth. In the reftoration of that cathedral, he
made two capital faults. He firft renewed the fides
with very bad Gothic ; and then added a Roman por¬
tico, magnificent and beautiful indeed, but which had
no affinity with the ancient parts that remained, and
made hi? own Gothic appear ten times heavier. He
committed the fame error at Winchefter, thrufting a
fcreen in the Roman or Grecian tafte into the middle
of that cathedral. Jones indeed was by no means
fuccefsful when he attempted Gothic. The chapel of
Lincoln’s-Inn has none of the charadieriftics of that
archite&ure. The cloyfter beneath feems oppreffed
by the weight of the building above.
The authors of the life of Jones place the ere&fng
of the Banqueting-houfe in the reign of king Charles;
but it appears, from the accounts of Nicholas Stone,
that it was begun in 1619, andfinifhedin two years—
a fmall part of the pile defigned for the place of our
kings; but fo complete in itfelf, that it Hands a mo¬
del of the moft pure and beautiful tafte. Several
plates of the intended palace at Whitehall have been
given ; but Mr Walpole thinks, from no finilhed de-
iign. The four great {beets are evidently made up
from general hints ; nor could fuch a fource of inven¬
tion and tafte as the mind of Inigo, ever produce fo
much famenefs. The whole fabric, however, was fo
glorious an idea, that one forgets for a moment (fays
Mr Walpole), in the regret for its not being executed,
the confirmation of our liberties, obtained by a me¬
lancholy fcene that paffed before the windows of that
very Banqueting-houfe.
In 1623 he was employed at Somerfet-houfe, where
a chapel was to be fitted up for the Infanta, the in¬
tended bride of the prince. The chapel is ftill in be¬
ing. The front to the river, part only of what was
defigned, and the water-gate, were eredled afterwards
on the defigns of Inigo, as was the gate at York-
ftairs.
On the acceffion of Charles, Jones was continued
in his polls under both king and queen. His fee as
furveyor, was eight (hillings and four-pence a-day,
, with an allowance of 461. a-year for houfe-rent, be-
fides a clerk, and incidental expences. What greater
rewards he had, are not upon record.
During the profperous date of the king’s affairs,
the pleafures of the court were carried on with much
tafte and magnificence. Poetry, painting, mulic,
and archite&ure, were all called in to make them ra¬
tional amufements. Mr Walpole is of opinion, that
the celebrated fdlivals of Louis XIV. were copied
from the (hews exhibited at Whitehall, in his time J°'
the moft polite court in Europe. Ben Johnfon: was 
the laureat; Inigo Jones the inventor of the decora¬
tions ; Laniere and Ferabofco compofed the fympho-
nies ; the king, the queen, and the young nobility,
danced in the interludes. We have accounts of many
of thofe entertainments, called mafques; they had
been introduced by Anne of Denmark.
Lord Burlington had a folio of the defigns for thefe
folemnities, by Inigo’s own hand, confiding of habits,
malks, fcenes, &c. The harmony of thefe malks was
a little interrupted by a war that broke out between
the compofers, Inigo and Ben ; in which, whoever
was the aggrelfor, the turbulent temper of Johnfon
took care to be moft in the wrong. Nothing exceeds
the grofthefs of the language that he poured out, ex¬
cept the badnefs of the verfes that were the vehicle.
There he fully exerted all the brutal abufe which his
contemporaries were willing to think wit, becaufe
they were afraid of it; and which only feems to (hew
the arrogance of the man, who prefumed to fatirize
Jones and rival Shakefpear.
The works of Inigo Jones are not fcarce; Snrgeon’s-
hall is one of his bell works. One of the moft ad¬
mired is the Arcade of Covent-garden, and theChurch :
“ Two ftrudlures, (fays Mr Walpole), of which I
want tatte to fee the beauties. In the arcade there is
nothing remarkable ; the pilafters are as arrant and
homely (tripes as any plafterer would make. The
barn-roof over the portico of the church ftrikes my
eyes with as little idea of dignity or beauty, as it could
do if it covered nothing but a barn. It mud be owned,
that the defe£l is not in the architedl, but in the order.
—Who ever faw a beautiful Tufcan building ? Would
the Romans have chofen that order for a temple ?”
The expence of building that church was 4500 1.
Ambrelbury in Wiltlhire was defigned by Jones,
but executed by his fcholar Webb. Jones was one of
the firft that obferved the fame diminution of pilafters as
in pillars. Lindfay-houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields,
which he built, owes its chief graqp to this Angularity.
In 1618 a fpecial commilfion was illued to the lord
chancellor, the earls of Worcefter, Pembroke, Arun¬
del, and others, to plant, and reduce to uniformity,
Lincolns-Inn Fields, as it (hall be drawn by way of
map, or ground-plot, by Inigo Jones, furveyor-ge-
ntral of the works. That fquare is laid out with a
regard to fo trifling a Angularity, as to he of theexaA
dimenfions of one of the pyramids: this would have
been admired in thofe ages when the Keep at Ken-
nelworth Caftle was ere&ed in the form of an horfe-
fetter, and the EfcUrial in the drape of St Laurence’s
gridiron.
Colelhill in Berklhire, the feat of Sir Matthew’
Pleydell, built in 1650, and Cobham-hall in Kent,
were Jones’s. He was employed to rebuild Caftle
Alhby, and finilhed one front : but the civil war in¬
terrupted his progrefs there and at Stoke-park in
Northamptonlhire. Shaftfbury-houfe, now the Lon¬
don Lying-in hofpital, on the call fide of Alderfgate-
ftreet, is a beautiful front. The Grange, the feat of
the lord chancellor Henley in Hamplhire, is entirely
of this mailer. It is not a large houfe, but by far
one of the bell proofs of his tafte. The hall, which
open* to a fmall vcftibule with a cupola, and the Han-
o N [ 3929 ] TOR
Jonia. cafe adjoining, are beautiful models of the pureft and
II mod clafficantiquity. The gate of Beaufort-garden
at Chell'ea, defigned by Jones, was purchafed by lord
Burlington, and tranfported to Cbifwick. He drew
a plan for a palace at Newmarket; but not that
wretched hovel that Hands there at prefent. One of
the moft beautiful of his works is the Queen’s houfe
at Greenwich. The fird idea of the hoipital is faid
to have been taken by his fcholar Webb, from bis
papers.
Inigo taded early the misfortunes of his mader.
I He was not only a favourite, but a Roman catholic :
in 1646, he paid 545 1. for his delinquency and fequef-
tration. Whether it was before or after this fine, it
is uncertain, that he and Stone the mafon buried
their joint dock in Scotland-yard ; but an order being
pub!ifhed to encourage the informers of fuch conceal¬
ments, and fourpe.fons being privy to the fpot where
the money was hid, it was taken up, and reburied in
Lambeth-mardi.
Grief, misfortunes, and age, put an end to his life
at Somerfet-houfe, July 21. 1651.
Several of his defigns have been publidied by Mr
Kent, Mr Colin Campbell, and Mr llaac Ware. He
left in MS. fome curious notes on Palladio’s archi-
te&ure, which are inferred in an edition of Palladio
publidied in 1714.
IONIA (anc. geog.), a didrift of the Hither Alia,
a great colony of Greeks, led thither after that of
Aiolia. It confided of twelve cities, ten of which were
on the continent, and two on the idands of Samos
and Chios; extending from Phoccca to Miletus, in-
clufive from north to fouth, according to Herodotus,
Strabo, and Mela: Though Ptolemy confines it be¬
tween the Hermus to the north, and the Meander to
the fouth. Jones or Jaones the people, (Homer)
taking name from Javan their progenitor: A foft
and luxurious nation. Plato banidies from his repub¬
lic the Ionian mufic, as too effeminate. The Attagen
lonicus, (Horace, Martial), was a bird in edeem for
its fiavour with perfons who loved good eating.—The
Ionian fea was that part of the Mediterranean extend¬
ing between Epirus and Pcloponnefus to the ead, and
Magna Grascia and part of Sicily to the wed.
IONIC order. See Architecture, p. 352.
Ichic Dialcft, in grammar, a manner of fpeaking
peculiar to the people of Ionia.
Ionic Seft was the fird of the ancient lefts of phi-
lofophers; the others were the Italic and Eleatic.
The founder of this feft was Thales, who, being a
native of Miletus in Ionia, occafioned his followers to
affume the appellation of Ionic : Thales was fucceeded
by Anaximander, and he by Anaximenes, both of
Miletus; Anaxagoras Clazomenius fucceeded them,
and removed his fchool from Afia to Athens, where
Socrates was his fcholar. It was the didinguiihing
tenet of this feft, that water was the principle of all
natural things.
JONK, or Jonque, in naval affairs, is a kind of
fmall (hip, very common in the Ead Indies. Thefe
veffels are about the bignefs of our fly boats; and
differ in the form of their building, according to the
different methods of naval architeAure ufed by the
nations to which they belong. Their fails are frequently
made cf mats, and their anchors are made of woed.
JONSTON (John), a learned Polilh r.aturalift and Job ml on
phyfician, born in 1603. travelled alb over Eu- II.
rope, and procured edtem every-where by his know- Jortm'
ledge; afterward he bought the edate of Ziebetidorf
in the duchy of Lignitz in SrJefia, where he fpeut the
remainder of his days. He wrote a natuial hiflory of
birds, fifli, quadrupeds, inftAs, fefpents, and dragons,
in folio; a piece upon the Hebrew and Greek fefli-
vals, a thaumatography, and fome poems. He died
in 1675.
JOPPE (anc. geogr.), a town of Samaria, on the
Mediterranean, fituate in a plain (iMacc. x.), in the
tribe of Ephraim (Jofh. xvi.). Here Andromeda is
fabled to have been bound and expofed to the fea-
monfler, and delivered by Perfeus. Now Jaffa, a
port-town of Palelline. E. Long. 36. o. N. Lat.
32. 20.
JORDANO (Luca), an eminent Italian painter,
was born at Naples in 1632. He became very early
a difciple of Joleph Ribera; but going afterwards to
Rome, he attached himfelf to the manner of Pietro da
Cortona, whom he aflifled in his great works. Some
of his pidures being fetn by Charles II. king of
Spain, he engaged him in painting the Efcurial; in
which talk he acquitted himfelf as a great painter.
The king (hewed him a pidure of Baffani, exprefling
his concern that he had not a companion: Luca
painted one fo exadly in Baffani’s manner, that it was
taken for a performance of that mader ; and for this
fervice he was knighted, and gratified with feveral ho¬
nourable and valuable employments. The great works
he executed in Spain, gave him dill greater reputa¬
tion when he returned to Naples; fo that though he
was a very quick workman, he could not fupply the
eager demands of the citizens. No one, not even
Tintoret, ever painted fo much as Jordano; and his
generofity carried him fo far as to prefent altar-pieces
to churches that were not able to purchafe them. His
labours were rewarded with great riches; which he
left to his family, when he died, in 1705.
JORDANS (James), one of the mod eminent
painters of the Flemifh fchool, was born at Antwerp
in 1593. He learned the principles of his art from
Adam Van Ort, whofe daughter he married; which
connexion hindered him from gratifying his inclination
of vifiting Italy. He improved mod under Rubens ;
for whom he worked, and from whom he drew his bed
principles: his tatle direded him to large pieces; and
his manner was drong, true, and fweet. A great
number of altar-pieces painted by him are jreferved
in the churches in the Netherlands, which maintain
the reputation of this artid. Fie died in 1678.
JORTIN (John), a very learned and ingenious
Englifh clergyman, was born in Huntingdonfhire,
about the year 1701. Having fome private fortune
of his own, and being of a peculiar difpofition that
could not folicit promotion, he remained long without
preferment. In 1738, lord Wincheder gave him the
living of Eadwell in Kent; but the place not agree¬
ing with his health, he foon refigned it. Archbiihop
Herring, who had a great value for him, about the
year 1751 prefented him to the living of St Dundan’s
in the Ead; and bidiop Olbaldidon in 1762 gave him
that of Kenfington, with a prebend in St Paul’s ca¬
thedral, and made him archdeacon of London. His
temperj,.
Jotapata.
JOS [ 3930 ] J O V
temper, as well as h!s afpeft, was rather morofe and to the king of France, chancellor and judge of the Joubertl
faturnine; but in company that he liked, he was at all univerfity of Montpelier, was born at Valence in 0 I
.times facetious, yet (till with a mixture of fal cenfura Dauphiny in 1530. He became the difciple of Ron- JournaM
fuperiorum. His fermons were fenfible and argumen- delet at Montpelier; and at his death fucceeded to the "
tative; and would have made more impreffion on his regius profeflbrlhip of that univerfity, where he had
hearers, had he been more attentive to the advantages given abundant proofs of his merit, and ftrengthened
flowing from a good delivery: but be appeared to his reputation by theleAures he read in that capacity,
greater advantage as a writer. His remarks on ecle- as well as by the works he publifhed. Henry III.
fiaftical hiftory, his fix diflertations, his life of Eraf- who paffionately wilhed to have children, fent for him
mus, and his fermons, were extremely well received to Paris, in hopes by his afliftance to render his mar-
by the public. He died in the year 1770. riage fruitful; but he was difappointed, without any
JOSEPH, the fon of Jacob; memorable for his lofs of repute to Joubert. Much offence was indeed
chattity, and the honours conferred on him at the taken at a piece he publifhed under the title of
court of Egypt, &c. He died in 1635 C* errcrj-, in which he treated of virginity and generation
aged 110. more plainly than had ever before been done in the
JOSEPHUS, the celebrated hiftorian of the Jews, French language. But, though he had promifed
was of noble birth, by his father Mattathias defcended fomething more on the fame fubjeA, he was fo piqued
from the high-priefts, and by his mother of the blood- at the clamour railed againftit, that the public fawno
royal of the Maccabees; he was born A. D. 37, under more, of fix parts promifed, than the firft, and part of
Caligula, and lived under Domitian. At 16 years of the fecond, though they were greatly called for. He
age he betook himfdf to the fed! of the Efi'enes, and died in 1582; and his fon Ifaac tranflated fome of his
then to the Pharifees; and having been fuccefsful in a Latin paradoxes into French.
journey to Rome, upon his return to Judaea he was JOVIAN, the Roman emperor, elefted by the
made captain-general of the Galilseans. Being taken army, after the death of Julian the apoftate, in 363.
prifoner by Vefpafian, he foretold his coming to the He at firft refufed, faying he would not command
empire, and his own deliverance by his means. He idolatrous foldiers ; but, upon an affurcfnee that they
accompanied Titus at the fiege of Jerufalem, and writ would embrace Chriftianity, he accepted the throne,
his “Wars of the Jews,” which Titus ordered to be put and immediately fhut all the Pagan temples, and flor¬
in the public library. He afterwards lived at Rome, bid their facrifices. But he did not long enjoy the
where he enjoyed the privileges of a Roman citizen, dignity to which his merit had raifed him; being fuf-
and where the emperors loaded him with favours, and focated in his bed by the fumes of a fire that had
granted him large penfions. Befides the above work, been made to dry the chamber, in 364, the 33d of
he wrote, 1. Twenty hooks of Jewifh antiquities, his age, and the eighth month of his reign. See Con-
which he finifhed under Domitian. 2. Two books stantinople, n° 71—73.
againft Appian. 3. An elegant difeourfe on the mar- JOVIUS (Paul), in Italian Giovio, a celebrated
tyrdom of the Maccabees. 4. His own life. Thefe hiftorian, was born at Como in Italy, in the year 1483.
works are excellently written in Greek. As his father died in his infancy, he was educated by
JOSHUA, the renowned general of the Jews, who his eldeft brother Benedidl Jovius, under whom be be-
condufted them through the wildernefs, &e. died in came well fkilied in claffical learning; and then went
J424 B. C. aged no. to Rome, for the fake of enjoying the benefit of the
Joshua, a canonical book of the Old Teftament, Vatican library. He there wrote his firft piece, De
containing a hiftory of the wars and tranfaftions of />^£7£a/Re/waw.;, which he dedicated to cardinal Lewis
the perfon whofe name it bears. This book may be of Bourbon. He received a penfion of 500 crowns
divided into three parts: the firft of which is a hiftory for many years from Francis I. king of France, whofe
of the conqueft of the land of Canaan; the fecond, favour he fecured by his flatteries. But, in the fol-
which begins at the 12th chapter, is a defeription of lowing reign, having difgufted the conftable Montmo-
that country, and the divifion of it among the tribes; rency, his name was ftruck out of the lift of penfioners.
and the third, comprifed in the two laft chapters, con- Jovius did not fuffer his fpirits to fink under this mif-
tains the renewal of the covenant he caufled the Ifrae- fortune: he had obtained a high reputation in the
Jites to make, and the death of their vi&orious leader learned world by his writings; and having always
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of 17, fhewed great refpeft to the houfe of Medicis, on whofe
or, according to others, of 27 years. praifes he had expatiated in his works, he applied to
JOSIAH, king of Judah; the deftroyer of idola- Clement VII. and obtained the bifhoprickof Nocera.
try, and the reftorer of the true worftiip, an excellent His principal piece is his hiftory, which is that of his
magiftrate, and a valiant general, was flain in battle, own time throughout the world, beginning with 1494,
609 B. C. and extending to the year 1544. This was the chief
JOTAPATA (anc. geogr.), a town of the Lower bufinefs of his life. For he formed the plan of it in the
Galilee, diftant 40 ftadia from Gabara: a very ftrong year 1515; and continued upon it till hisdeath, which
place, fituate on a rock, walled round, and *encom- happened at Florence in 1552. It is printed in three
paffed on all hands with mountains, fo as not to be volumes folio. He is allowed to have been a man of
feen but by thofe who came very near. It was with wit as well as learning ; he was mafter of a bright and
great difficulty taken by Vefpafian, being defended poliftied ftyle, and has many curious obfervations:
by Jofephus, who commanded in it; when taken, it but being a venal writer, his hiftories are not much
was ordered to be razed. credited.
JOUBERT (Lawrence), counfellor and phyfician JOURNAL, or Dav-boox. See Book-keeping.
Jour-
IPS [ 3931 ] IPO
cjournal Journal, in navigation, a fort of diary, or
II daily regifter of the (hip’s courfe, winds, and wea-
anhif1" t*ier 5 toget^er w‘1^ a general account of whatever is
material to be remarked in the period of a fea-voy-
age.
In all fea-journals, the day, or what is called the
24 hours> terminates at noon, becaufe the errors of
the dead-reckoning are at that period generally cor-
refted by a folar obfervation. The daily compaft
ufually contains the (late of the weather; the varia¬
tion, increafe, or diminution of the wind; and the
fnitable (hifting, reducing, or enlarging the quantity
of fail extended ; as alfo the moll material incidents of
the voyage, and the condition of the (hip and her crew;
together with the difcovery of other drips or fleets,
'alien. a lanc*> ^oa*8> breakers, foundings, &c *.
Journal, is alfo a name common for weekly effays,
news-papers, &c. as the Grays-Inn journal, the Weft-
mintter journal, &c.
Journal, is alfo ufed for the titles of feveral books
which come out at dated times, and give abdrafts,
accounts, &c. of the new books that are publilhed,
and the new improvements daily made in arts and
fciences ; as the Journal de Syavans, 8cc.
JOURNEY, a tra& of ground palled over in tra¬
velling by land; properly as much as may be pafled
over in one day.
Management of a Horfe on a Journey. See Horse.
JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the
day only; but the word is now ufed for any one who
works under a mader, either by the day, the year, or
the piece.
JOUVENET (John), a celebrated French paint¬
er, was born at Rouen in 1644; where his father,
who was a painter, bred him up to the fame profeffion:
but his greated improvement was confefledly derived
from the indruclions of Nicholas Pouffin, and Audy-
ing the works of that mader. He acquired fo good a
knowledge of defign, as qualified him for employment
in feveral grand works in the palaces at Paris and Tria¬
non ; in many of the churches and convents ; and in
the hofpital of invalids, where he painted the twelve
apodles, each figure being 14 feet high. He was e-
deemed to have a ready invention, to be corredt in his
defigns, and to have a tade for grandeur in his com-
politions : it is obferved of this artid, that being de¬
prived of the ufe of his right hand by a paralytic dif-
order, he neverthelefs continued to paint with his left,
| He died in the year 1717.
JOY, that affe&ion of the mind confequent on be¬
ing put in pofieffion of what we have defired. For the
ededls of joy in the animal oeconomy, fee (the Index.
1 fubjoined to) Medicine.
IPECACUANHA, in the materia medica, a Wed-
Indian root, of which there are two kinds, didinguifli-
cd by their colour, and brought from different places;
but both poffefiing the fame virtues, tho’ in a different
degree. The one is grey, and brought from Peru; the
other is brown, and is brought from the Brafils : and
thefe are indifferently fent into Europe underthe general
name of ipecacuanha.
Thefe two forts have been by fome fuppofed to be
the roots of two different plants : but this is a midake;
the only difference is, that one grows in a different
place, and in a richer and moifter foil, and is better
fupplied with juices than the other-
ipecacuanha is an excellent, mild, and fafe emetic;
it is alfo a noble redringent ; and, given in dofes too -
fmall to vomit, is the greated of all remedies for a dy-
fentery. Small dofes are alfo an excellent remedy in
diarrhoeas of a more Ample kind ; and in the fluor albus
we hardly know a better medicine.
IPICRATES, general of the Athenians, had
that command conferred upon him at 20 years of age,
and became famous for the exa&nefs of his military
difcipline. He made war on the Thracians ; redo-
red Seuthes, who was an ally of the Athenians; at¬
tacked the Lacedaemonians; and, on many other occa-
fions, gave fignal proofs of his conduit and courage.
Many ingenious repartees have been mentioned of this
general: a man of good family with no other merit
than his nobility, reproaching him one day for the
meannefs of his birth, he replied, “ I (hall be the
fird of my race, and thou the lad of thine.” He died
380 B. C.
IPOMEA, QUAMoiLXT, or Scarlet Convolvulusi a
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants. There are feveral fpecies; but
not more than one, (the coccinea), cultivated in our
gardens. This hath long, (lender, twining dalks, ri-
fing upon fupport fix or (even feet high. The leaves
are heart-fliaped, pointed, and angulated at the bafe,
and from the fides of the flalks and branches arife
many (lender footflalks ; each fupporting feveral large
and beautiful funnel-lhaped and fcarlet flowers. There
is a variety with orange-coloured flowers. Both of
them are annual, vifing'from feed in fpiing, flowering
in July and Augufl, ripening their feeds in September
and Odlober, and totally peridiing in a (hort time af¬
ter. They are tender, and mud be brought up in a
hot-bed till the latter end of May or beginning of
June, when they may be planted out to adorn the
borders, or fome may be planted in pots to move ccca-
fionally to adbrn any particular place; but in either
cafe, there mud be dicks for them to twine upon.
IPSWICH, the capital of the county of Suffolk in
England, feated in E. Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 52. 12.
The name comes from the Saxon Gypefiuick, that is,
a town fituated upon the Gyppen, now called Orwell.
It had once 21 churches, but now has only 12. It was
plundered by the Danes in 99.1, and afterwards be-
(ieged by king Stephen. It had charters and a mint
in the reign of king John, but its lad charter was/rom
Charles II. The remains of a wall and fix or feven re¬
ligious houfes are (till to be feen. Though it is not
in fo flourilhing a date as formerly when the harbour
was more commodious, yet it is dill a large well-built
town. Befides the churches already mentioned, it has
feveral meeting-.houfes, two chapels, a town-hall,
council-chamber, a large market-place with a crofs in
the middle of it, a (hire-hall for the county-feffions,
a library, feveral hofpitals, a frte-fchool, a handfome
done bridge over the river, dately (humbles in the
market-place built by cardinal Wolfey, who was a na¬
tive of the town and a butcher’s fon, and who alfo
began to build a college here on the ruins of a fmall
college of black canons, which dill bears his name,
though it was never finilhed. Here are alfo feveral
alms-houfes, three charity-fchools, and a convenient
key and cuflom-houfe. By virtue of Charles IL’s
charter,.
Ipic-rafes
ll ,
Ipfwicb.
Origin of
the Irith,
according to
IRE [ 3932 ] IRE
charter, the town Is governed by two bailiffs, a recorder, ther colony arrived from the eaft, under the dire&ion
12 portmen, of whom the bailiffs are two, a town- of one Nemedius. He fet fail from the Euxine fea
clerk, two coroners, and 24 common-council. The with 30 tranfports, each manned with 40 heroes; and
bailiffs and 24 of the portmen are juftices of the peace, at laft arrived on the coafts of Ireland, after a very te-
The town enjoys a great many privileges, as palling dious and ftrange navigation. During his reign alfo
fines and recoveries, trying criminal, and even crown many lakes were formed in the country, which had no
and capital caufes among themfelves, fettling the af- exigence before; the moft material circumfiance, how-
fize of bread, wine, and beer. No freeman is obliged ever, was an unfuccefsful war in which he was engaged
to ferve on juries out of the town, or bear any office with fame African pirates, who in the end enflaved his
for the king, except that of the fheriff, or to pay tolls people. The vidlors proved fuch infupportable ty-
or duties in any other part of the kingdom. They rants, that the Irifh found themfelves nnder a neceffity
have an admiralty jurifdidUon beyond Harwich on the of quitting the ifland altogether. They embarked on
Effex coaft, and on both fides the Suffolk coaft, by board a fleet of 1130 (hips, under the command of
which they are intitled to all goods call on ffiore. three grandfons of Nemedius, viz. Simon Breac, To
The bailiffs even hold an admiralty-court beyond Chath, and Briatan Maol. The firft returned to
Landguard fort. By a trial in king Edward III.’s Greece, the fecond failed to the northern parts of Eu-
titne, is appears that the town had a right to the cu- rope, and the third landed in the north of Scotland,
ftom-duties for all goods coming into Harwich-haven. and from him the ifland of Britain is faid to have ta-
■They claim a right alfo to all waifes and ftrays, &c. ken its name, and the Welfli their origin.
The raanufadhires of the town are chiefly woollen and About 216 years after the death of Nemedius, the
linen cloth. It has ftill a confiderable foreign trade, defendants of Simon Breac returned from Greece into
The tide rifes pretty high, and brings great (hips Ireland. They were conduced by five princes of great
within a fmall diftance of the town. They export a reputation, who divided the ifland into five kingdoms,
great deal of corn to London, and fometimes to Hoi- nearly equal in fize. Thefe kingdoms were called
land. Formerly, they had a great trade in (hip- Murtfler, Leinjler, Connaught, Meath, and UIJier;
building; but that having declined, they now fend and the fubje&s of thefe kings are called by the Irifli
great quantities of timber to the king’s yard at Cha- hiftorians, Firbolgs.
tham. It has feveral great fairs for cattle, cheefe, and The Firbolgs were in procefs of time expelled or
butter; and is admirably fituated for the trade to totally fubdued, after the lofs of 100,000 men in one
Greenland, becaufe the fame wind that carries them battle, by the Tuath de Dannans, a nation of necro-
out of the river will carry them to Greenland. It is mancers who came from Attica, Boeotia, and Acha-
worth remarking, that it is one of the bed places in ia, into Denmark ; from Denmark to Scotland; and
England for perfons in narrow circumftances, houfe- from Scotland to Ireland. Thefe necromancers were
rent being eafy, provifions cheap and plentiful, the fo completely fleilled in their art, that they could even
paffage by land or water to London, &c. conve- rellore the dead to life, and bring again into the field
nient, and the company of the place good. It gives thofe warriors who had been flain the day before,
title of vifeount, as well as Thetford, to the duke of They had alfo fome curiofities which poffeffed a won-
Grafton. derful virtue. Thefe were a fword, a fpear, a caul-
IRELAND, one of the Britannic iflands, fituated dron, and a marble chair ; on which laft were crowned
between the 5th and 10th degrees of weft longitude, firft the kings of Ireland, and afterwards thofe of
and between the 51ft and 56th of north latitude, Scotland. But neither the powerful virtues of thefe
extending in length about 300 miles, and about 150 Danifh curiofities, nor the more powerful fpellsof the
in breadth. magic art, were able to preferve the Tuath de Dannans
The ancient hiftory of this ifland is involved in fo from being fubdued by the Gadelians when they in-
much obfeurity, that it has been the object of con- vaded Ireland.
tention among the antiquarians for upwards of a cen- The Gadelians were defeended from one Gathelus,
tury and an half. The Irifli hiftorians pretend to very from whom they derived their name. He was a man
great antiquity. According to them, the ifland was of great confequence in Egypt, and intimately ac-
firft inhabited about 322 years after the flood. At quainted with Mofes the Jewifti legiflator. His mo-
that time Partholanus the fon of Scara landed in Mun- ther was Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, by Niul the
fter on the 14th of May with 1000 foldiers, and fome fon of a Scythian monarch cotemporary with Nimrod,
women, from Greece. This voyage he had underta- The Gadelians, called alfo Scots, from Scota above-
ken on account of his having killed his father and mo- mentioned, conquered Ireland about 1300 B. C. under
ther in his native country. The fame hiftorians in- Heber and Heremon, two fons of Milefius king of
form us, that a great number of lakes broke out in Spain, from whom were defeended all the kings of Ire-
Ireland during the reign of Partholanus, which had land down to the Englifli conqueft, and who are there-
no exiftence when he came into the ifland, with many fore ftyled by the Irifli hiftorians, princes of the Mile-
other particulars not worth mentioning ; but the mod fian race.
furprifing circumftance is, that about 300 years after From this period the Irifti hiftorians trace a gradual
the arrival of this Grecian colony, all of them periffi- refinement of their countrymen from a ftate of the
ed by a plague, not a (ingle perfon remaining to tell groffeft barbarity, until a monarch, named Ollam Fod-
the fate of the reft ; in which cafe, it is wonderful how la, eftabliftied a regular form of government, ere&ed
the cataftrophe fhould have been known. a grand feminary of learning, and inftituted the Fes,
After the extindion of this firft colony, Ireland re- or triennial convention of provincial kings, priefts, and
mained a perfeft wildernefs for 30 years; when ano- poets, at Feamor or Tarah in Meath, for the eftablifti-
E [ 3929 ] IRE
of government. But antiquity maintain, that the Irifh had the knowledge Ireland-
ofletters,and had made confiderable progrefs intheans,
before the time of St Patrick; tho’ they allow, that he
introduced the Roman charafter, in which his copies
of the Scripture and liturgies were written. To enter
into this difpute would be contrary to our plan. It is
fufficient to obferve, that, excepting by fome of the Irifli
themfelves, the hiftory already given is generally rec¬
koned entirely fabulous, and thought to have been in¬
vented after the introdudlion of Chriftianity. An ori¬
gin of the Irilh nation hath been found out much
nearer than Alia, Greece, or Egypt; namely, the
ifland of Britain, from whence it is now thought that
Ireland was firft peopled. A difpute hath arifen con¬
cerning the place from whence the firit emigrants
from Britain fet fail for Ireland. The honour of be¬
ing the mother-country of the Irifli hath been difputed
I R
ment of laws and regulatk
~ whatever were the inftitutions of this monarch, it is
acknowledged that they proved infufficient to with-
ftand the wildnefs and diforderof the times. To Kim-
bath, one of his fucceflbrs, the annalifts give the ho¬
nour of reviving them, befides that of regulating Ul-
fter, his family-province, and adorning it with a ftate-
ly palace at Eamannia near Armagh. His immediate
fucceffor, called Hugony, is ftill more celebrated for
advancing the work of reformation. It feems, that,
from the earlieft origin of the Irifli nation, the ifland had
been divided into the five provincial kingdoms above-
mentioned, and four of thefe had been fubjedl to the
fifth, who was nominal monarch of the whole ifland.
Thefe four, however, proved fuch obftinate difturbers
of the peace, that Hugony, to break their power,
parcelled out the country into 25 dynafties, binding
them by oath to accept no other monarch but one of between the North and South Britons. MrMacpher-
his own family. This precaution proved ineffedual.
Hugony himfelf died a violent death, and all his fuc¬
ceflbrs for a feries of ages were aflaflinated, fcarcely
with one exception.
About too B. C. the pentarchal government was
reftored, and is faid to have been fucceeded by a con¬
fiderable revolution in politics. The Irifli bards had
for many ages difpenfed the laws, and the whole na¬
tion fubmitted to their decifions; but as their laws
were exceedingly obfeure, and could be interpreted on¬
ly by themfelves, they took occafion from thence to
opprefs the people, until at laft they were in danger of and Ireland; by all of which it hath at fome time
being totally exterminated by a general infurreftion. other been known.
In this emergency they fled to Convocar-Mac-Nefla,
the reigning monarch, who promifed them his protec-
cafe they reformed ; but at the fame time, in
fon has argued llrenuoufly for the former, and Mr
Whitaker for the latter. For an account of their dif¬
pute, however, we mull refer to the works of thefe
gentlemen. Mr Whitaker claims the vi&ory, and
challenges to himfelf the honour of being the firft who
clearly and truly demonftrated the origin of the Irilh. j.
The name of Ireland, according to Mr Whitaker, Early hi-
is obvioufly derived from the word Jar, or which
in the Celtic language fignifies “ w'dt.” This word was MrWhit-
fometimes pronounced Iver, and Hiver ; whence' the aker.
names of /r/V, lerna, Juverna, Iverna, Hibernia.,
tion
order to quiet the juft complaints of his people, he em¬
ployed the moft eminent among them to compile an
intelligible, equitable, and diftinft, body of laws,
which were received with the greateft joy, and digni¬
fied with the name of celejlial decifions. Thefe deci¬
fions feem to have produced but very little reformation
among the people in general. We are now prefented
with a new feries of barbarities, murders, fadlions,
and anarchy; and in this difordered fituation of af¬
fairs it was, according to the Irilh hiftorians, that the
-chieftain mentioned by Tacitus addrefled himfelf to
Agricola, and encouraged him to make a defeent on
Ireland. This fcheme happened not to fuit the views
About 350 B. C. according to the fame author,
the Belgse crofled the channel, invaded Britain, and
feized the whole extended line of the fouthern coaft,
from Kent to Devonlhire. Numbers of the former in¬
habitants, who had gradually retired before the enemy,
were obliged at laft to take Ihipping on the weftern
coaft of England, and pafled over into the uninhabited
ifle of Ireland. Thefe were afterwards joined by a
another body of Britons driven out by the Belgas un¬
der Divitiacus, about too B. C. For two centuries
and a half afterwards, thefe colonies were continually
reinforced with frelh fwarms from Britain; as the po-
puloufnefs of this ifland, and the vicinity of that invi¬
ted them to fettle in the one, or the bloody and fuc-
ceflive wars in Britain during this period naturally in¬
duced them to relinquilh the other: and the whole c'
of the Roman general at that time, and therefore was cuit of Ireland appears to have been completely peo-
not adopted ; and fo confident are thefe hiftorians of pled about 150 years after Chrift; and as the inhabi-
the ftrength of their country even in its then diftradted
ftate, that they treat the notion of its being fubdued
by a Roman legion and fome auxiliaries (the force
propofed to Agricola), as utterly extravagant; ac¬
quainting us at the fame time, that the Irilh were fo
far from dreading a Roman invafion, that they failed
to the affiftance of the Pifts, and having made a fuc-
cefsful incurfion into South Britain, returned home
with a confiderable booty.
In the fame ftate of barbarity and confufion the
kingdom of Ireland continued till the introduftion of
Chriftianity by St Patrick, about the middle of the
fifth century. This mifiionary, according to the adver-
faries of the Irifli antiquity, firft introduced letters into
Ireland, and thus laid the foundations of a future civi¬
lization. On the other hand, the advocates for that
Vot. V.
tants had all fled equally from the dominion of the
Belgas, or for fome other caufe left their native coun¬
try, they were diftinguifhed among the Britons by one
general and very appolite name, viz. that of Scuites,
or Scots, “ the wanderers, or refugees.” s
Mr Whitaker alfo informs us, “ that in the times Names and
of the Romans Ireland was inhabited by 18 tribes; by lituation of
one upon the northern and three on the fouthern ftiore, tribes
feven upon the weftern, fix on the eaftern, and one in wls^nha^ ^
the centre. ... Med. **
“ Along the eaftern coaft, and the Vergivian or inter¬
nal ocean, were ranged the Damnii, the Voluntii, and
the Eblani, the Caucii, the Menapii, and the Coriondii.
The firft inhabited a part of the two counties of An¬
trim and Down, extending from Fair-head, the moft
north-eafterly extremity of the ifland, to Ifamnum
22 K Pro-
IRE [ 3930 .] IRE
1;eland. Promontonum, or ilie point of Ardgiafs haven in the
“ county of Down; and having the Logia or Lagan,
which falls into Carrickfergua Bay, within their pof-
feffions, and Dunum or Down-patrickfor their capital.
The Voluntii pofleffed the coaft from the point of that
haven to the river Buvinda or Boyne, the remainder
of Down, the breadth of Ardmagh, and all Louth ;
having the Vinderus or Carlingford river in their do¬
minions, and the town of Laberus near the river Deva
(Atherdee in the county of Louth) for their metropo¬
lis. And the Eblani reached from the Boyne to the
Laebius, Lrev-ui, or LifFy ;'refiding in Eall-Meath,
and in the large portion of Dublin county which is to
the north of this river ; and acknowledging Mediola¬
num, Eblana, or Dublin, for their principal town. The
Caucii fpread from the Liffy to the Letrim, the Oboca
of the ancients; had the reft of Dublin county, and
fuch parts of Wicklow as lie to the north of the lat¬
ter; and owned Dunum or Rath-Downe for their chief
city. The Menapii occupied the coaft betwixt the
Letrim and Cancarne-point, all the reft of Wicklow,
and all Wexford to the point; their chief town, Me-
napia, being placed upon and to the eaft of Modona,
Slanus, or Slane. And the Coriondii inhabited at the
back of the Caucii and Menapii, to the weft of the
Slane and Lify, and in all Kildare and all Catherlogh;
being limited by the Boyne and Barrow on the weft,
the Eblani on the north, and the Brigantes on the
fouth.
“ Upon the fouthern fhore and along the verge of the
Cantabrian ocean, lay the Brigantes, the Vodke, and
the Ibernii. The firft owned the reft of Wexford and
all Waterford: extending to the Blackwater, Aven-
More, or Dabrona, on the fouth-weft; having the great
mouth of the Barrow with their territories, and Bri-
gantia, Waterford, or fome town near it, for their firft
city; and giving name of Brigas to the Suir or Swire,
their limitary ftream on the north, and the appellation
of Bergie to their own part of the county of Wexford.
The Vodiae pofleffed the (hire of Corke from the Black-
water to the Ban, the river of Kinfale, and the Do-
bona or Dubana of the ancients; and affixed the name
of Vodium Promontorium to the point of Balycotton
ifland. And the Ibernii inhabited the remainder of
Corke, and all that part of Kerry which lies to the
fouth-eaft of Dingle-found; having Rufina or Ibaune
for their capital, the Promontorium Auftrinnm or Mif-
fen-Head about the middle of their dominions, and
the river Ibernus or Dingle-found for their northern
barrier; and leaving their names to the three divifions
of Ibaune, Beare, and Iveragh.
“ Upon the weftern (hore of the ifland and along the
Great Britannic or Atlantic ocean, were the Lucanii
or Lucenii, the Velaborii, and the Cangani, the Au-
terii, the Nagnatse, the Hardinii, and Venicnii. The
Lucenii inhabited the peninfula of land that lies along
the river Ibernus or Dingle-found, and perhaps fome
adjoining parts of Kerry. The Velaborii ranged along
the fmall remainder of the latter, and over the whole
of Limerick to the Senus or Shannon; having the Du-
rius or Cafheen flowing through their dominions, and
Regia, Limeric, or fome town near it, for their me¬
tropolis. And the latter was probably that city near
Limerick, the fite of which is ftill famous, and retains
the appellation of Cathair, or the fortrefs; and where
the remains of ftrcets, and other marks of a town, may Ireland,
yet be traced. The Cangani lived in the county of ‘
Clare: Macolicum near the Shannon, perhaps Feakle
or Melic, being their principal town ; a headland in
the Bay of Galway, near Glaniny, being denominated
Benifamnum Promontoriufn; and the adjoining ifles of
Arran, called Infula Cangana. The Auterii were fet¬
tled in the county of Galway; winding along the deep
recefs of the Sinus Aufoba or Bay of Galway; ftretch-
ing towards the north as far the Libnius, or the river
that bounds the fhire in that part; and poffeffing the
fmall portion of Mayo, which lies to the fouth of it.
And thefe were fubjedf toAuterium, anciently Aterith,
and now’ Athenree; and have left their name to the
divifion of Athenree. The Nagnatae occupied the reft
of the large county of Mayo, all Sligo and all Rof-
common, all Letrim as far as Logh Allin on the fouth-
eaft, and all Fermanagh to Balyfhannon and Logh
Erne; being bounded by the Rhebius or river of Ba-
lylhannon, and the Lake Rhebius or Logh Erne; ha¬
ving a deep bay, called Magnus Sinus, that curves along
Mayo, Sligo, and Letrim counties; and acknowledg¬
ing Nagnat, Necmaht, or Alnecmaht, the town of the
Nagnatas, for their capital. And the Hardinii and
Venicnii w^ere confederated together under the title of
the Venicnian Nations, extended from Balylhannon to
the North-Cape, and pofftffed all Donnegalle, except
the two whole divifions of Raphoe and Enis-Owen, and
the eaftern part of Killmacrenen. The Venicnii lay
along the immediate margin of the fltore, giving name
to the Promontorium Venicnium or Cape Horn, and
to the Infula Venicnia or North-Arran Ifland. And
their metropolis Rheba was feated upon the lake Rhe¬
bius, and in the country of the Hardinii on the fouth-
eaft.
“ Upon the northern (hore and along the margin of
the Deucaledonian ocean, were only the Robogdii; in¬
habiting the reft of Donnegalle, all Derry, and all
Antrim to the Fair-Head, and the Damnii; and gi¬
ving their own name to the former and the divifion of
Raphoe. And they had the rivers Vidua or Ship-
harbour, Argita or Logh Swilly, Darabouna or Logh
Foile, and Banna or Ban, in their territories; and ac¬
knowledged Robogdium, Robogh, or Raphoe, for their
chief city.
“ The central regions of the ifland, all Tyrone, the
remainder of Fermanagh and Letrim, all Monaghan,
and the reft of Ardmagh ; all Cavan, all Longford,
and all Weft-Meath; all the King’s and Queen’s coun¬
ty, all Kilkenny, and all Tipperary ; were planted by
the Scoti. The Shannon, Logh Allin, and Logh
Erne, were their great boundaries on the weft ; the
Barrow, Boyne, and Logh Neagh, on the eaft ; the
Swire and Blackwater on the fouth ; and a chain of
mountains on the north. And the two greateft of
their towms were Rheba, a city feated, liked the Rhe¬
ba of the Venicnians, upon the lake and river Rhebius,
but on a different part of them, and fomewhere in time
north of Cavan ; and Ibernia, a town placed a little to
the eaft of the Shannon, and fomewhere in the coun¬
ty of Tipperary.”
But whether we are to receive as truth the accounts
given by Mr Whitaker, thofe of the Irifh annalifts,
or any other, it is certain, that, till little more than a
century ago, Ireland was a feene of confufion and
flaughter
IRE [ 3931 ] IRE
f Ireland, (laughter. The Irifli hiftorians acknowledge this, as
  we have already feen. Very few of their monarchs
efcaped a violent death. The hiftories of their kings
indeed amount to no more than this, viz. that they
began to reign in fuch a year, reigned a certain num¬
ber of years, and were (lain in battle by the valiant
prince who fucceeded to the throne. The introduc¬
tion of Chrillianity feems to have mended the matter
very little, or rather not at all. The fame wars be¬
tween the chiefs continued; and the fame murders and
4 treacheries took place among the inhabitants, till they
Invafion of were invaded by the Dands or Normans, about the
the Danes. en(( 0f the eighth century. At this time, we are told,
that the monarchical power was weak, by rcafon of the
factious and affuming difpoCtion of the inferior dyna-
(tics ; but that the evils of the political conllitution
had conftderably fubfided by the refpeft paid to reli¬
gion and learning. The firlt invafions of the Danes
were made in fmall parties for the fake of plunder,
and were repelled by the chieftain whofe dominions
were invaded. Other parties appeared in different parts
of the ifland, and terrified the inhabitants by the ha¬
voc they committed. Thefe were in like manner put to
flight, but never failed to return in a (hort time ; and in
this manner was Ireland harraffed for the fpace of 20
years, before the inhabitants thought of putting an
end to their inteftine contefts, and uniting againlt the
common enemy. The northern pirates, either by
force or treaty, gradually obtained fome fmall fettle-
ments on the ifland; till at length Turges, orTurge-
fius, a warlike Norwegian, landed with a powerful ar¬
mament in the year 815. He divided his fleet and ar¬
my, in order to ftrike terror in different quarters. His
followers plundered, burned, and maffacred, without
mercy, and perfecuted the clergy in a dreadful man¬
ner on account of their religion. The Danes already
fettled in Ireland, flocked to the ftandard of Turge-
fius, who thus was enabled to feat himfelf in Armagh,
from which he expelled the clergy, and feized their
lands. The IrHh, in the mean time, were infatuated
by their private quarrels; till at laft, after fome ill-
condufted and unfuccefsful efforts, they funk into a
(late of abjeft fubmiffion, andTurgefius was proclaimed
monarch of the whole ifland, in 845.
The new king proved fuch a tyrant, that he foon
became intolerable. A confpiracy was formed againft
him; and he was feized by Melachline prince of Meath,
in a time of apparent peace. An univerfal infurrec-
tion enfued ; the Danes were maffacred or difperfed ;
their leader condemned to death for his cruelties, and
drowned in a lake. The foreigners, however, were
not exterminated, but the remains of them were al-
I lowed to continue on the ifland as fubje&s or tributa¬
ries to fome particular chieftains. A new colony foon
arrived, but under pretence of peaceable intentions,
and a defign of enriching the country by commerce.
The Irifh, through an infatuated policy, fuffered them
to become mafters of Dublin, Limeric, Waterford,
and other maritime places, which they enlarged and
fortified with fuch works as had till then been un¬
known in Ireland. The Danes did not fail to make
ufe of every opportunity of enlarging their territories,
and new wars quickly enfued. The Irifh were fome-
times victorious, and fometimes not; but were never
able to drive out their enemies, fo that they continued
to be a very ditlinguifhed and powerful fept, or tribe, Ireland,
in Ireland. The wars with the Danes were nofooner
at an end, than the natives, as ufual, turned their arms
againft each other. The country was haraffed by the
competitions of the chiefs ; laws and religion loft their
influence, and the moft horrid licentioufoefs and im¬
morality prevailed. Thus the whole ifland feemed
ready to become a prey to the firft invader, when an
attempt was made upon it by Magnus king of Nor¬
way. This attempt mifcarried, through his own rafh-
nefs ; for, having landed without oppofition, he ad¬
vanced into the country without the leaft apprehen-
fion. The confequence of this was, that he was fur-
rounded and cut in pieces with all his followers. His
death, however, proved of little benefit to Ireland ;
the fame diforders which had gradually reduced the
kingdom to a ftate of extreme weaknefs, ftiil conti¬
nued to operate, and to facilitate the fuccefs of
the Englifh invafion, which happened in the reign of
Henry II. ^
The firft motives which induced this monarch to Henryll. of
think of an expedition againft Ireland are not well England
known. It was fuppofed that he had been provoked
by fome afliftance which the Irifh princes had given q" jreland!
to the French ; but, whatever might be in this, it is
certain that the defign was conceived foon after he a-
fcended the throne; and his flatterers foon furnifhed
him with fufficient reafons for confidering the Irifli as
his fubje&s. It was affirmed, that they had original¬
ly poffeffed themfelves of their country by permiffion
of Gurguntius a Britifli king ; and that, as depen¬
dents of the Britons, they were the natural and right¬
ful fubje&s of the Englifh monarch. It tvas alfo fug-
gefted, that the renowned king Arthur, Egfred the
Northumbrian prince, and Edgar one of the Saxon
kings of England, had all led their armies into Ireland,
and there made valuable acquifitions, which their fuc-
ceffor was in honour bound to recover and maintain.
All thefc fuggeftions, however, or whatever elfe had
occurred to himfelf, feemed yet infufficient to Henry ;
and therefore he took the moft effe&ual method to en-
fure his reputation, namely, by an application to the
pope. To him he reprefented, that the inhabitants
of Ireland were funk into the moft wretched ftate of
corruption, both with regard to morals and religion ;
that Henry, zealous for the honour and enlargement
of God’s kingdom, had conceived the pious defign of
erefling it in this unhappy country ; was ready to de¬
vote himfelf and all his powers to this meritorious fer-
vice ; implored the benedidlion of the pontiff; and re-
quefted his permiffion and authority to enter Ireland,
to reduce the difobedient and corrupt, to eradicate all
fin and wickednefs, to inttruft the ignorant, and
fpread the bleffed influence of the gofpel in all its pu¬
rity and perfeAion; promifing at the fame time to pay
a yearly tribute to St Peter from the land thus to be
reduced to his obedience, and to the holy fee. Adrian,
the reigning pope, rejoiced at this application which
tended fo much to the advancement of his own power. 6
A bull was therefore immediately formed, conformable rs. inverted
to the moft fangume wifties of Henry, which was fent ‘I56
to England without delay, together with a ring, the b/the8”'*
token of his inveftiture as rightful fovereign of Ire- Pope,
land. But whatever inclination the king of England
or the pope might at this time (A. D. nj6) have
22 K 2 for
IRE [ 3932 ] IRE
Ireland. for tj)2 fubje&ion of Ireland, the fituation of the Eng-
lifh affairs obliged him to defer it for fome time.
State of ^ate f>'£lan^» as we ^ave already obferved,
Ireland at was at this time extremely favourable for an invafion.
that time. The monarch enjoyed little more than a titular digni¬
ty, being haraffed by a faction, and oppofed by pow¬
erful rivals. A number of chieftains who affumed the
title and rights of royalty, paid a precarious tribute
to their fuperior, and united, if they were difpofed to
unite, with him, rather as his allies than his fubjefts.
In Ulfter, the family of the northern Hi Nial, as it
was called, exercifed an hereditary jurifdi&ion over
the counties now called Tirone, Derry, and Donnegal.
They alfo claimed a right of fupremacy over the lords
of Fermanagh, Antrim, and Argial, which included
the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, Lowth, and
fome adjacent diftrifts : while Dunleve, prince of U-
ladh (now Down), difputed the fuperiority of this fa¬
mily, and affe&ed an independent ftate. In Munller,
reigned the defeendants of Brien, a famous fovereign
of former times, impatient to recover the honours of
their family; but at laft, being confined by powerful
rivals to the territory of North Munller, they were
obliged to leave the family of Mac Arthy fove-
reigns of Defmond, the fouthern divifion. In Con¬
naught, the princes known by the name of O'Connor,
were acknowledged fovereigns of the eaftern territory.
Tiernan O’Ruarc, an a&ive and reftlefs military chief,
had the fupremacy in Breffney, containing the modern
county of Leitrim, and fome adjacent diftrifts. Meath,
or the fouthern Hi-Nial, was fubjeft to the family of
Clan-Colman, Murchard O’Malacblyn, and his fuc-
cefibrs. Leinfter, divided into feveral principalities,
was fubje& to Dermod, a fierce, haughty, and op-
preffive tyrant*. His father had governed with great
cruelty. Seventeen of his vaflal lords had been either
put to death, or had their eyes put out, by his order
in one year ; and Dermod feemed to inherit too great
a portion of the fame temper. His ftature and bodily
firength made him admired by the inferior orders of
his fubjefts, and thefe he w^as careful to proteft and
favour. His donations and endowments of religious
houfes recommended him to the clergy ; but his tri¬
butary chieftains felt the weight of his pride and
tyranny, and to them his government was extremely
odious.
The chief competitors for the rank of monarch of
Ireland, in the mean time, were, the heirs of the two
houfes of O’Connor, and the northern Hi -Nial. Tor-
logh O’Connor was in pofieffion; but he was not gene¬
rally recognifed, and was oppofed by his rival O’Loch-
lan: notwithftanding which, he maintained his dignity
with magnificence and vigour, till a decifive viftory
gained by him over O’Brien raifed O’Lochlan’s jea-
loufy fo much, that he obliged him, in a convention of
the ftates, to allow him the fovereignty of the northern
divifion. In confequcnce of this partition, it was re-
folved to transfer the territory of O’Ruarc to a perfon
more inclined to the interefts of the two fovereigns.
An expedition wTas accordingly undertaken ; O’Ruarc
was furprifed, defeated, and driven from his dominions.
Dermod, who had conceived an unlawful pafiion for
Dervorghal, the wife of O’Ruarc, took the opportuni¬
ty of her hufband’s diftreffes, to carry her off in
3»iumph. O’Ruarc conceived the moft implacable re-
fentment againft Dermod ; and therefore applying him- Ireland,
felf to Torlogh, promifed an inviolable attachment to ——
his intereft ; and prevailed on him not only to rein-
ftate him in his pofiefiions, but to revenge the infult
offered by Dermod, and to reftore his wife. By means
of fuch a powerful ally, O’Ruarc found frequent op¬
portunities of haraffing his antagonift till the death of
Torlogh, which happened in 1156, upon which
O’Lochlan fucceeded to the fovereignty. Dermod
was the firfl to acknowledge the authority of this new
fovereign, by whofe means he hoped to be able to re¬
venge himfelf on O’Ruarc. He foon found, however,
that he had a&ed too precipitately. His patron, ha¬
ving treacheroufly feized and put out the eyes of Dun¬
leve prince of Down, the neighbouring chieftains took
arms, in order to fecure themfelves from his barbarity.
O’Lochlan was defeated and killed; upon which the
monarchy devolved on Roderic the fon of the late Tor¬
logh O’Connor.
The new prince had acquired the reputation of va¬
lour, and was determined to eflablifh this reputation
by fome remarkable exploit in the beginning of his
reign. Having therefore engaged in his fervice the
Oilmen, or defeendants of the Danes, he marched a-
gainft Dermod as the chief partizan of his fallen rival.
The king of Leinfter was feized with the utmoft con-
fternation; and in defpair fet fire to his own town of
Ferns, left the enemy ftiould have the fatisfa&ion of
fpoiling it. Roderic (till advanced, attended by O’Ru¬
arc, Dermod’s implacable enemy, and foon over-ran the
whole province. All the inferior lords at once ac- 3
knowledged Roderfc’s authority. Dermod was depo- Dermod,
fed, as a man utterly unworthy of his ftation; another an,exiled
of his family was raifed to the throne; and the unfor-
tunate prince, finding it impoflible to (lay with fafety ance from"
in Ireland, embarked with 60 of his followers for Eng- Henry II.
land, and foon arrived at the port of Briftol, with a
defign to folicit afiiftance from king Henry.
In England, Dermod’s charadler was unknown, and
he was regarded as an injured prince driven from his
throne by an iniquitous confederacy. The clergy re¬
ceived him as the benefadlor of their order, and enter¬
tained him in the monaftery of Auguftines with great
hofpitality. Having learned that Henry was then in
Aquitain, he immediately went thither, and in a very
abjedl manner implored his afiiftance, promifing to ac¬
knowledge him as his liege lord, and to hold his do¬
minions, which he was thus confident of regaining, in
vaflalage to Henry and his heirs.
Though nothing could be more flattering to the
ambition of the king of England than this fervile ad-
drefs, yet the fituation of his own affairs rendered it
impoflible for him at that time to reap from it any of
the advantages with which it flattered him. He there¬
fore difmiffed the Irilh prince with large prefents, and
a letter of credence addrefied to all his fubjefts; noti¬
fying his grace and proteftion granted to the king of
Leinfter; and declaring, that whofoever within his do¬
minions fhould be difpofed to aid the unfortunate prince
in the recovery of his kingdom, might be affured of
his free licence and royal favour.
Dermod returned to England highly pleafed with
the reception he had met with ; but notwithftanding
the king’s letter, none of the Englilh feemed to be
difpofed to try their fortunes in Ireland. A month
I R E
[ 3933 ]
I R E
elapfed without any profpeA of fuccours, fo that Der- Maurice Pendergaft alfo joined him with his whole Ireland,
mod began to defpair. At laft, however, lie per-
fuaded, with great promifes, Richard Earl of Chep-
ftow, or, as it was formerly called, Striguh, a noble¬
man of confiderable influence in Wales, but of broken
K-- fortune, to affift him with a confiderable force to be
nuTlre- tranfporte(i next fpting into Ireland. Overjoyed at
this firft inftance of fuccefs, he advanced into South
Wales, where, by the influence of the bilhop of St
David’s, he procured many other friends. Robert
Fitz-Stephen, a brave and experienced officer, cove¬
nanted with him to engage in his fervice with all his
followers, and Maurice Fitz-Gerald his maternal bro-
troop, being provoked by Dermod, who had refufed "
him leave to return to Wales. This defedlion, how¬
ever, was in part fupplied by the arrival-of Fitz-Ge¬
rald with 10 knights, 30 horfemen, and too archers,
Pendergaft in a fhort time repented of his new al¬
liance, and retired into Wales; fo that the prince was
obliged to make his fubmiflion to Dermod, which the
latter with fome relu&ance accepted.
In the mean time, Roderick having fettled all his
other affairs, advanced againft the allies with a power¬
ful army. Dermod was thrown into defpair; but,
encouraged by Fitz-Stephen, he encamped in a very
ther ; while Dermod, on his part, promifed to cede ftrong fituation, where he was foon befieged by Ro¬
to the two principal leaders, Fitz-Stephen and Fitz- deric. The latter, however, dreading the valour of
Gerald, the entire dominion of the town of Wexford, the Englilh, condefcended to treat, firft with them,
with a large adjoining territory, as foon as, by their and then with Dermod, in order to detach them from
affiftance, he Ihould be reinftated in his rights. the interefts of each other: but as this proceeded evi-
The Irilh prince having now accomplifhed his pur- dently from fear, his offers were rejected by both par-
pofe, fet fail for Ireland in the winter of 1169, and ties; upon which he began to prepare for battle: but-
recovered a fmall part of his dominions even before at the very time when the engagement fhould have
the arrival of his new allies; but being attacked with commenced, either through the fuggeftions of his cler-
a fuperior force by his old enemies Roderic and gy, or of his own fears, Roderic entered into a new
O’Ruarc, he found himfelf obliged to feign fubmif- negociation ; which at laft terminated in a peace. The peace con..
fion till the Englilh allies came to his affiftance. The terms were, that Dermod Ihould acknowledge the eluded.
expeSed fuccours arrived in the month of May 1170, fupremacy of Roderic, and pay him fuch fervice as the
in a creek called the Barw, near the city of Wexford, monarchs of Ireland had ufually received from inferior
Robert Fitz-Stephen commanded 30 knights, 60.men princes; and as a fecurity for his faithful performance
in armour, and 300 archers. With thefe came Har- of this article, he delivered up his favourite fon as an
vey of Mountmorres, nephew to earl Richard. He hoftage to Roderic: but in order to eftablilh this ac-
had no military force along with him; but came folely commodation on the firmed bafis, the latter obliged
with a view of difeovering the nature of the country, himfelf to give his daughter in marriage to the young
and reporting it to his uncle. Maurice of Pendergaft prince as foon as Lein (ter Ihould be reduced, and the
commanded 10 knights and 200 archers : and thus the peace of the ifland effeftually reftored. By a fecret
Englilh force which was to contend with the whole article, Dermod engaged to difmifs the Britilh forces
ftrength of Ireland, amounted to no more than 600 immediately after the fettlement of his own province,
men. and in the mean time not to bring over any further re-
Trifling as this affifiance may feem, it neverthelefs inforcements from England,
changed the face of affairs almoft inftantaneoully. Thus ended the firft Britilh expedition into Ireland ;.
Numbers of Dermod’s fubjetfts, who had abandoned the confequences of which were fo little dreaded at that
him in his diftrefs, now flocked to his ftandard. Wex- time by the natives, that their hiftorians, though they
ford was immediately attacked, and furrendered in a dwell upon the. provincial wars and contefts in other
few days; Fitz-Stej>hen and Fitz-Gerald were jointly parts of the illand, fpeak of the fettlement of the
invefted with the lordlhip of this city and its do- Welfhmen in Leinfter with a carelefs indifference,
main ; and Harvey of Mountmorres was declared lord But though the fettlement of this colony feemed very
of two confiderable diftridls on the coaft. After three little alarming to the generality, it could not efcape
or four weeks fpent in feafting and rejoicing, a new the obfervation of difeerning perfons, that a man of
expedition was undertaken againft the prince of Offo- Dermod’s charader would not long keep his treaties;
ry, (a diftridl of Leinfter), who had not only revolted and that on the firft emergency he would have re-
from Dermod, but put out the eyes of one of his fons, courfe to his former allies, who thus would eftablifli
and that with fuch cruelty, that the unhappy youth themfelves more and more, till at laft they would re-
expired under the operation. The allied army was duce the country entirely under their fubje&ion. New ma-
 ^ -i'-'   — r„j 1 l- Thefe reflexions, if any fuch were then made, were chinations
in a fliort time verified. Dermod was fcarce fettled in ofDermocb .
his own dominions, when he began to afpire at the
fovereignty, and form fehemes for dethroning Rode¬
ric. He applied to Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald;
by whom he was again direXed to apply to Richard
earl of Chepftow, more commonly known by the name
of Strongbo’w, on account of his feats of archery.
Richard was very much inclined to accept of his in¬
vitation ; but thought it incumbent upon him firft to
obtain the confent of king Henry. The king, how¬
ever, did not incline that his fubjeXs ffiould make
conquefts for themfelves in any other country, and.
therefore
now increafed to 3000 men, who were oppofed by the
prince of Offory at the head of 5000, ftrongly en¬
trenched among woods and morafles. By the fupe¬
rior conduX of the Englifh troops, however, the Iriffi
were decoyed from their advantageous fituation, and
thus were entirely defeated. The Engliffi were for
keeping the field till they had totally reduced their
enemies : but Dermod, accuftomed only to ravage and
plunder, contented himfelf with deftroying the coun¬
try ; and a fudden reverfe of fortune feemed ready to
take place. The prince of Offory, though defeated,
ftill appeared in arms, and only waited for an oppor-
Sunity of again oppofing the enemy in the field.
IRE [ 3934 ] IRE
lrc!an3. therefore difmifled Richard with an equivocal anfwer ;
but the latter being willing to underfland his fove-
reign’s words in the moft favourable fenfe, immediate-
13 ly fet about the necelfary preparations for his expedi-
A new bo- tion. In May 1711, Raymond le Grofs, Richard’s
dy of Eng- domeftic friend, and the near relation of Fitz-Ste-
in Ireland P^en an^ Fitz-Gerald, landed at a place called Don-
donalf, near Waterford, with 10 knights and 70 arch¬
ers ; and along with them came Hervey of Mountmor-
res, attended by a final] train. The Englilh imme¬
diately intrenched themfelves, and erefted a temporary
fort for themfelves : which proved a very neceffary
precaution ; for the natives, juftly attributing this new
debarkation to the pra&ices of Dermod, inftantly
formed a tumultuous army, and marched to expel
the invaders. The Engliih prepared to meet them ;
but when they perceived the great fnperiority of the
14 enemy, they thought proper to retire to their fort.
'I'lieir fnc- Here, however, they mud have been totally cut off,
mieltnd l^elr not; luckily collected a numerous herd of
cattle from the neighbouring country for their fub-
fiitence. Thefe they drove with fury among the Irilh,
who were thus put into the utmoft confulion. The
invaders feized the favourable moment; and, falling
upon their difordered enemies, put them to flight,
and drove great numbers of them into the fea, where
they perilhed. Seventy prifoners were taken, all of
them principal citizens of Waterford ; who, though
they offered large fums for their ranfom, and even
that the city fliould be delivered up to the Eng-
Jilh, were all barbaroufly put to death. This fuccefs
and cruelty fo intimidated the Irifh, that they fuffered
thefe mercilefs invaders to maintain their ftation unmo-
lefted, and wait for the arrival of their aflbciates.
Richard in the mean time having aflembled his vaf-
fals, led them through Wales, where he was joined
by great numbers of other adventurers ; but, when juft
on the point of embarking, was furprifed by a poli-
tive command from the king, to defift from his intend¬
ed enterprize, on pain of forfeiture of his lands and
honours. He was now, however, too much intereft-
ed in his fcheme to retraft ; and therefore pretended
,s to difbelieve the authenticity of the royal mandate.
Earl Rich- On the eve of the feaft of St. Bartholomew, he landed
ard arrives at Waterford with 200 knights and 1200 infantry,
powerful ck°fen an(3 we^ appointed foldiers. They were
reinforce- immediately joined by Raymond and his troop ; and
jrient. the very next day it was refolved to make an attempt
upon Waterford. The city was taken by ftorm, and
a dreadful maflacre enfued ; to which the cruel Der¬
mod had the merit of putting an end. The marriage
of Richard with Eva, the daughter of Dermod, was
folemnized without delay, and a fcene of joy and fe-
ftivity fucceeded the calamities of war.
A new expedition was now undertaken againft
Dublin ; the inhabitants of which had either manifeft-
cd fome recent difaffeftion to Dermod, or had never
been thoroughly forgiven for their old defe&ion.
Roderic advanced againft the allied army with a for¬
midable body, confifting, as is faid, of 30,000 men :
but, fearing to come to a general engagement, he
contented himfelf with fome flight Ikirmifhes; af¬
ter which, great part of his vaflals forced him
to difmifs them, and Dublin was left to its fate.
The inhabitants were treated very feverely; how¬
ever, a confiderable body of them, with Hefculph Ireland.
their governor, had the good fortune to gain fome *1
veflels lying in the harbour, and made their efcapeto
the northern iflands. Earl Richard was now invefted
with the lordfhip of Dublin; and appointed Milo de
Cogan, a brave Englifh knight, his governor ; while
he himfelf, in conjundlion with the forces of Dermod,
over ran the country of Meath, committing every
where the moft horrid cruelties. Roderic, in the
mean time, unable to oppofe them in the field, fent
deputies to Dermod, commanding him to retire, and
putting him in mind that his fon was in his hands, and
muft anfwer with his life for the breach of thofe trea¬
ties which his father made fo little fcruple to violate.
Natural affe&ion, however, had very little place in
the bread of Dermod. He exprefled the utmoft in¬
difference about his fon ; and, with the greateft arro¬
gance, claimed the fovereignty of all Ireland : Ro¬
deric, provoked at this anfwer, cut off the young
prince’s head.
This piece of impotent cruelty ferved only to make
the king odious to his own fubje&s, while Dermod
and his Englifli allies committed every where the
greateft devaftations, and threatened to fubdue the
whole ifland. This indeed they would probably have
accomplilbed, had not the extraordinary fuccefs of
Strongbow alarmed king Henry; who, fearing that
he might render himfelf totally independent on the
crown of Britain, iffued his royal edift, ftri&ly for- i<S
bidding any Englifh veffel from paffing into Ireland AI1 the a<!*
• , ^ j & j- „ venturers
with men, arms, or provihons; and commanding all recaneci by
his fubje&s at that time refidentin Ireland, of whate- the king,
ver rank or degree, to return to their country before
the enfuing feaft of Eafter, on pain of forfeiting their
lands, and being declared traitors.
Our adventurers were plunged into the greateft di-
ftrefs by this peremptory edift. They now found
themfelves cut off from all fupplies in the midft of
their enraged enemies, and in danger of being for-
faken by thofe who had attached themfelves to them
during their fuccefs. Raymond was difpatched with
a moft fubmiflive meffage to the offended monarch ;
but before he received any favourable anfwer, every
thing was thrown into confufion by the death of Bec-
ket *, fo that the king had neither leifure nor inclina- * See £
tion to attend to the affairs of Ireland. About the/a^no 117,
fame time the death of Dermod their great ally feemed n8.
altnoft to give a finilhing ftroke to the Englilh affairs.
An univerfal defe&ion took place among their affo- 0f
ciates ; and before they had time to concert any pro- the Englifli
per meafures, Hefculph, who had formerly efcapedfrom
Dublin, appeared before that city with a formidable
body of troops armed after the Danifh manner. A
furious attack enfued ; which at laft ended in the de¬
feat and captivity of Hefculph, who was immediately
put to death. This danger, however, was foon fol¬
lowed by one ftill greater. Roderic had formed a
powerful confederacy with many of the Irilh chieftains,
and the kings of the northern ifles, in order to extir¬
pate the Englifh totally from the ifland. The har¬
bour of Dkiblin was blocked up by a fleet of 30 (hips
from the northern ifles ; while the confederated Irifh
took their ftations in fuch a manner as to furround the
city, and totally cut off all fupplies of provifions. In
two month’s time the Englifh were reduced to great
ftraits.
IRE [ 3935 ] IRE
i Ireland, ftraita. On the firft alarm, Richard had fent for af-
“fiftance to Fitzftephen; who having weakened his
own force, in order to ferve the earl, the people of
Wexford had rifen and befieged Fitzftephen in his fort
xalled Carrig near that city. A meflenger now ar¬
rived, informing Strongbow that his friend was in the
utmoft danger, and muft fall into the hands of his e-
nemies if not affifted within three days ; upon which
a council of war was called, in order to deliberate on
the meafures neccfiary to be purfued in this defperate
emergency. It was foon refolved to enter into a treaty
with Roderic upon any terms that were not totally
fervile or oppreffive. Laurence prelate of Dublin was
appointed to carry the terms; which were, that Ri¬
chard propofed to acknowledge Roderic as his fove-
reign, and to hold the province of Leinfter as his vaf-
fal, provided he would raife the fiege. Laurence foon
returned with an anfwer, probably of his own fra¬
ming ; namely, that Dublin, Waterford, Wexford,
I and all the forts poffefled by the Britilh, fliould be im¬
mediately given up; and that the eail and his aflb-
ciates, Ihould depart with all their forces by a certain
day, leaving every part of the ifland free from their
ufurpations, and abfolutely renouncing all their pre¬
tended claims. On thefe conditions they were to be
fpared ; but the leaft reluftance or delay vvould de¬
termine the befiegers to ftorm the city.
Thefe terms, though they contained nothing info-
lent or unreafonable, confidering the prefent fituation
of the Engliih, were yet intolerable to our indigent
adventurers. After fome time fpent in filence, Milo
de Cogan, fuddenly ftarting up, declared his refolu-
tion to die bravely rather than fubmit to the mercy of
barbarians. The fpirit of defperate valour was in-
ftantly caught by the whole afiembly ; and it was re¬
folved to riik their whole fortune on one defperate ef¬
fort, by Tallying out againft the enemy, and to make
their attack upon that quarter where Roderic himfelf
They to- commanded. Accordingly, having perfuaded a body
tally defeat of the townfmen to take part in this defperate enter-
their ene- prize, they marched out againft their enemies, who
mks. expefted nothing lefs than fuch a hidden attack. The
befiegers were fecure and carelefs, without difeipline
or order; in confequence of which, they were unable
to fuftain the furious aflault of the Englifh. A ter-
Irible flaughter enfued, and the Irifti inftantly fled in
thegreateft confufion; their monarch himfelf efcaping
only by mixing half naked with the crowd. The other
chieftains who were not attacked caught the panic,
and broke up their camps with precipitation; while
the vigors returned from the purfuit to plunder, and
among other advantages gained as much provifion as
was fufficient to fupport them for a whole year.
Strongbow being thus relieved from his diftrefs,
committed the government of Dublin to Milo de Co¬
gan, while he proceeded immediately to Wexford in
order to relieve Fitzftephen : but in this he was
difappointed; for that brave officer, having often
repulfed his enemies, was at laft treacheroufly de¬
ceived into fubmiffion and laid in irons. Strongbow,
however, continued to advance; and was again attacked
by the Irifti, whom he once more defeated. On his
arrival at Wexford, he found it burnt to the ground ;
the enemy having retired with Fitzftephen and the
seft of the prifoneis to Holy Ifland, a fmall ifland in
the middle of the harbour, from whence they fent a Ireland,
deputation, threatening to put all the prifoners to
death if the leaft attempt was made to moleft them in
their prefent fituation. The earl then proceeded to
Waterford, and from thence to Ferns ; where he for
fome time exercifed a regal authority, rewarding his
friends and punifning his enemies. A more import¬
ant objeift, however, foon engaged his attention. The
king of England having fettled his affairs as well as
he could, now determined to conquer Ireland for him- ip
felf. A fummons was inftantly difpatched to earl Earl Rich-
Richard, expreffing thegreateft refentment at hispre-ard fa™’
fumption and diibbedience, and requiring his imme- England
diate prefence in England. The earl found himfelf 8
under a neceffity of obeying; and having made the
beft difpofitions the time would permit for the fecu-
rity of his Irifli poffeffions, embarked for England, and
met the king at Newnham near Glocefter. Henry
at firft affe&ed great difpleafure; but foon allowed
himfelf to be pacified by a furrender of the city of
Dublin, and a large territory adjacent, together with
all the maritime towns and forts acquired by Strong¬
bow ; while on his part he confented that the earl
fliould have all his other poffeffions granted in perpe¬
tuity, to be held of the king and his heirs. The
other adventurers made their peace in a fimilar man¬
ner; while the Irifli chieftains, inftead of uniting in
the defence of their country, only thought how to
make the moft of the approaching invafion, or at lead
how to avert the threatened evils from their own par¬
ticular diftri&s. They faw the power of. their own
fovereign on the point of total diffolution; and they
faw it with indifference, if not with an envious and
malignant fatisfa&ion. Some were even ready to
prevent their invader, and to fubmit before he ap¬
peared on the coaft. The men of Wexford, who had
poffeffed themfelves of Fitzftephen, refolved to avert
the confequences of their late perfidy and cruelty, by
the forwardnefs of their zeal for the ferviceof the king
of England, and the readinefs of their fubmiffions.
Their deputies call themfelves at Henry’s feet; and,,
with the moft paffionate expreffions of obedience,
humbly intreated that he would accept them as his
faithful vaffals, ready to refign themfelves, their lands,
and poffeffions, to his abfolute difpofal. “ They had
already, (they faid), endeavoured to approve their
zeal by feizing Robert Fitzftephen, a traitor to his
fovereign, who had lately entered their territory by
force of arms without any due warrant or fair pre¬
tence, had flaughtered their people, feized their lands,
and attempted to eftablifti himfelf independent of his
liege lord. They kept him in chains, and were ready
to deliver him to the difpofal of his fovereign.”—The
king received them with expreffions of the utmoft grace
and favour; commended their zeal in repreffing the
unwarrantable attempts of Fitzftephen; declared that
he fhould foon inquire into his crimes, and the wrongs
they had fuftained, and inflidt condign puniftiment
for every offence committed by his undutiful fubjefts.
—Thus were the Irifhmen difmiffed in the utmoft joy
and exultation ; and the artifice of Henry, while it
infpired thefe men with difpofitions favourable to his
iuterefts, proved alfo the moft effe&ual means of fa-
ving Fitzftephen from their cruelty.
Henry, having completed the preparations neceffary -
for;
IRE [ 3936 1 IRE
Ireland, for Ivis expedition, embarked-at Milford with feveral
  ' of his barons, 400 knights, and about 4000 foldiers,
10 on board a fleet of 240 fail. He landed at Water-
King Hen- ford on the feaft of St Luke in Oftober 1172; with a
ry lanJs in profeffed defign not to conquer, but to take poflefiion
»e an . ^ ^ kingdom already his own, as being granted him
by the pope. Moll of the Irifh indeed fecmed to be
of the fame opinion, and therefore fubmitted without
the leafl: refiftance. Strongbow fet them an example,
by making a formal furrender of Waterford, and do-
* ing homage to the king for the territory of Leinfter.
Fitz-Stephen was delivered up, with many accufations
of tyranny and injuftice. He was at firft fent to pri-
fon ; but foon purchafed his liberty, by furrendering
a, Wexford, and doing homage for the reft of his poflef-
Manylrilh lions to the king. The prince of Lefmond was the
■chieftains ir|{h chieftain who fubmitted. On the very day
him”*110 a^ter the king’s arrival, he attended his court, refigned
the city of Corke, did him homage, and ftipulated to
pay a tribute for the reft of his territory. An Eng-
lilh governor and garrifon were immediately appointed
to take pofleffion of his capital; and the king difplayed
his power and magnificence by marching to Lifmore,
where he chofe a fituation and gave the neceffary or¬
ders for building a fort. The prince of Thomond
next fubmitted and did homage. He was followed by
the princes of Oflbry, Decies, and all the inferior
chiefs of Munfter.
The king, after having provided for the fecurity of
all his newly acquired territories, and put garrifor.s in
the cities of Limerick, Corke, Waterford, and Wex¬
ford, proceeded to take pofleflxon of Dublin, which
had been furrendered by Strongbow. The neighbour¬
ing lords took the opportunity of fubmitting as he ad¬
vanced. O’Carrol of Argial, a chieftain of great con-
fequence, repaired to his camp, and engaged to become
his tributary; and even O’Ruarc, whom Roderic had
made lord of a confiderabie part of Meath, voluntari-
ly fubmitted to the new fovereign.
Roderic Roderic, though furprifed at the defeflion of fo
ftill holds many of his allies, ftill determined to maintain his
own dignity, and at leaft preferve his province of Con¬
naught, feeing he could no longer call himfelf monarch
of the whole ifland. With this defign he entrenched
himfelf on the banks of the Shannon ; and now, when
difencumbered from a crowd of faithlefs and difcon-
tented followers, he appears to have a£ted with a fpi-
rit and dignity becoming his ftation. Hugh de Lacy
and William Fitz-Andelm were commiflioned by the
king to reduce him: but Roderic was too ftrong to be
attacked with any probability of fuccefs by a detach¬
ment from the Englifh army ; and he at leaft affe&ed
to believe, that his fituation was not yet fo totally de-
fperate as to reduce him to the neceffity of refigning his
dignity and authority, while his own territory remain¬
ed inviolate, and the brave and powerful chiefs of Ul-
fter ftill kept retired in their own diftri&s without any
thoughts of fubmifiion. Henry in the mean time at¬
tempted to attach the Iriftv lords to his interefts by ele¬
gant and magnificent entertainments, fuch as to them
appeared quite aftonifhing. Some hiftorians pretend
that he eftabliihed the Englifh laws in all thofe parts
which had fubmitted to his jurifdidtion ; but this muft
appear extremely improbable, when wc confider how
tenacious a rude and barbarous people are of their an¬
cient laws and cuftoms. The Irifh lords had been ac- Ireland,
cuftomcd to do homage to a fuperior; and they had- '
made no fubmiffion to Henry which they had not for¬
merly done to Roderic, and probably thought their
fubmiflion to the king of England more honourable
than that to their Irifh monarchs ; and it cannot be
fuppofed, that a wife and politic monarch, fuch as
Henry undoubtedly was, fhould form at once fuch an
extravagant fcheme as altering the laws of a great num¬
ber of communities, none of which he had fubdued by
force of arms. By his tranfadlions both with the
natives and adventurers, however, Henry had attained
the abfolute dominion of feveral maritime cities and
their dependencies; fo that he had both a confiderablc
number of real fubje&s, and a large extent of territory,
in the ifland. To thefe fubjefts indeed Henry granted
the Englifh laws; and gave the city of Dublin by
charter to the inhabitants of Briftol, to be held of him
and his heirs, with the fame liberties and free cuftoms
which they enjoyed at Briftol, and throughout all his
land. And, by another charter, executed foon after,
he confirmed to his burgeffes of Dublin all manner of
rights and immunities throughout his whole land of
England, Normandy, Wales, and Ireland, wherever
they and their effe&s fhall be, to be fully and honour¬
ably enjoyed by them as his free and faithful fubje&s-.
And as it was not eafy to induce his Englifh fubjedls
immediately to fettle in thefe maritime towns, he per¬
mitted the Oilmen to take pofleflion of Waterford;
and to them he granted a particular right of deniza¬
tion, whereby they were invefted with the rights and
privileges of free fubjeds, and for the future to be
governed by the laws of his realm. For the better
execution of thefe new laws, the king alfo made a di-
vifion of the diftrids now fubjed to him into fhires
or counties ; which was afterwards improved and en¬
larged, as the extenfion of the Englifh fettlements and
the circumftances of the country required. Sheriffs
were appointed both for the counties and cities, with
itinerant judges, and other minifters of juftice, and
officers of ftate, and every appendage of Englifh go¬
vernment and law. To complete the whole fyftem, a
chief governor, or reprefentative of the king, was ap-
appointed. His bufinefs was to exercife the royal
authority, or fuch parts of it as might be committed
to him in the king’s abfence; and, as the prefent
ftate of Ireland, and the apprehenfions of war or in-
furredions, made it neceffary to guard againft hidden
accidents, it was provided, That in cafe of the death
of any chief governor, the chancellor, treafurer, chief-
juftices, and chief baron, keeper of the rolls, and
king’s ferjeant at law, fhould be empowered, with
confent of the nobles of the land, to eled a fucceffor,
who was to exercife the full power and authority of
this office, until the royal pleafure fhould be further
known.
But while Henry was thus regulating the govern- Hen*/
ment of his new dominions, he received the unwelcome obliged to
news, that two cardinals, Albert and Theodine, dele-leave Ire"
gated by the pope, had arrived in Normandy the yearland’
before, to make inquifition into the death of Becket;
that having waited the king’s arrival until their pa¬
tience was exhaufted, they now fummoned him to ap¬
pear without delay, as he would avert the dreadful
lenience of excommunication, and preferve his domi¬
nions
IRE t 3937 ] IRE
1 Ireland, nions from a general interdift. Such denunciations
were of too great confequence to admit of his longer
llay in Ireland ; he therefore ordered his forces and
the officers of his houfehold to embark without delay,
referving three ffiips for the conveyance of himfelf and
his immediate attendants. Having therefore but a
Ihort time to fecure his Iriffi interefts, he addreffed
himfelf to the original Englifla adventurers, and by
grants and promiles laboured to detach them from
Strongbow, and to bind them firmly to himfelf. To
make amends for what he had taken from Fitz-Ste-
phen, he granted him a confiderable diftrift in the
neighbourhood of Dublin, to be held by knight’s
fervice; at the fame time entrufting the maritime
towns to his own immediate dependants. Waterford
was committed to Humphrey de Bohun, Robert Fitz-
Bernard, and Hugh de Gundville, with a train of 20
knights. In Wexford were (lationed William Fitz-
Andelm, Philip of Haftings, and Philip de Braofa,
with a like number of attendants. Hugh de Lacy
had a grant of all the territory of Meath, where there
was no fortified place, and where ofconfequence no par¬
ticular refervation was necefiary, to be held of the king
and his heirs, by the fervice of 50 knights, in as full a
manner as it had been enjoyed by any of the Irilh
princes. He alfo conftituted him lord governor of
Dublin, with a guard of 20 knights. Robert Fitz-
Stephen and Maurice Fitz-Gerald were appointed his
coadjutors, with an equal train; and thefe, with others
of the firft adventurers, were thus obliged, under the
the pretence of an honourable employment, to refide
at Dublin, fubjeft to the immediate infpe&ion of de
Lacy, in whom Henry feems to have placed his chief
confidence. Lands were affigned in the neighbour¬
hood of each city for the maintenance of the knights
and foldiers. Orders were given to build a caftle in
Dublin, and fortrefles in other convenient places; and
to John de Courcey, a baron diftinguilhed by bis en-
terprifing genius and abilities for war, was granted
the whole province of Ulfter, provided he could reduce
it by force of arms.
>iformers Henry was no fooner gone, than his barons began
iifiie on to contrive how they might beft ftrengthen their own
he king’s interefts, and the Irifti how they might beft ffiake off
ieparture. ^ y.0jJC t0 which they had fo readily fubmitted. De
Lacy parcelled out the lands of Meath to his friends
and adherents, and began to ereft forts to keep the
old inhabitants in awe. This gave offence to O’Ruarc,
who ftill enjoyed the eaftern part of this territory as a
tributary prince. He repaired to Dublin, in order to
obtain redrefs from Lacy for fome injuries real or pre¬
tended ; but, as the parties could not come to an agree¬
ment, another conference was appointed on a hill
called Both parties came with a confiderable
train of armed followers; and the event was a feuffle,
in which O’Ruarc and feveral of his followers were
killed, and which ferved to render the Englifh not a
little odious to the natives.
This fpirit of difaffeftion had foon after an oppor¬
tunity of (hewing itfelf on the rebellion of king
Henry’s fons, of which an account is given under the
article England, n° 119^ ^ feq- The king had been
obliged to weaken his forces in Ireland, by withdraw¬
ing feveral of his garrifons. The foldiers who re¬
mained were alfo difeontented with their general
Vol. V.
Hervey of Mountmorres, on account of his feverity in Ireland,
difeipline, and reftraining them from plunder, to which
they imagined themfelves intitled on account of the
deficiencies of their pay. Raymond le Gros, the fc-
cond in command, was much more beloved by the
foldiery: and to fuch a height had the jealoufies be¬
tween the commanders arifen, that all effe&ual op-
pofition to the Irifh chieftains was prevented ; and
the event might have been fatal to the Englifh inte- ZJ
reft, had not Henry found out a remedy. He fum- strongbow
moned earl Richard to attend him at Rouen in Nor- the firft go-
mandy, and communicated his intentions of commit-vernor of
ting the affairs of Ireland to his foie direftion. f f,e Irsh*011'
ear) expreffed the utmoft readinefs to ferve his mafter;
but obferved, that he had already experienced the envy
and malignity of his fecret enemies; that if he fhould
appear in fuch a diftinguifhed charafter as that of the
king’s deputy in Ireland, their infidious praftices
would be renewed, and his condudl mifreprefented.
He therefore requefted that a colleague might be ap¬
pointed in the commiffion; and recommended Ray¬
mond as a perfon of approved loyalty and abilities, as
well as highly acceptable to the foldiery. The king
replied, with an affefted air of regard and confidence,
that he had his free confent to employ Raymond in
any fervice he fhould deem necefiary; not as a col¬
league, but as an affifiant; but that he relied entirely
on the earl himftlf, and implicitly trufted every thing
to his direftion. To reward his fervices, he granted
him the town of Wexford, together with a fort ere&ed
at Wicklow; and then difmiffed him with the moil
gracious expreffions of favour.
The earl landed at Dublin, where he was received
with all the refpeft due to the royal commiffion. He
fignified the king’s pleafure, that Robert Fitz-Bernard,
with the garrifon of Waterford, fhould inftantly em¬
bark and repair to Normandy; that Robert Fitz-
Stephen, and Maurice Pendergaft, fhould attend the
fervice of their fovereign in England; and, agreeably
to the king’s inftruftions, took on him the cuftody of
the cities of Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Hugh
de Lacy, and Milo de Cogan, were, with the other
lords, commanded to repair to England for the fervice
of the king; by which the earl’s forces were confide-
rably weakened, and he foon found himfelf under a
neceffity of appointing Raymond to the chief com¬
mand. The new general proved fuccefsful in fome
enterprizes againft the rebellious Ififii; but having
prefumed upon his merits to demand in marriage Ba-
iilia the earl’s fifter, Richard refufed his confept, and
Raymond retired into Wales.
Thus the fupreme command again devolved upon
Flervey of Mountmorres; who, being fenfible that his
chara&er had fuffered much from a comparifon with
that of Raymond, determined to emulate his fucceffes
by fome bold attempt againfl; the rebels. A detach¬
ment of 400 of his men, however, had the misfortune
to be furprized and cut off by the enemy; and this
fuccefs ferved as a fignal for a general revolt. Several a neifera*
of the Leinfter chieftains, v/ho had lately made their revolt of
fubmiffions, and bound themfelves to the fervice ofthelrift1.
king Henry, now openly declaimed all engagements.
Even Donald Kevanagh, fon to the late king Dermod,
who had hitherto adhered to the Englifh in their
greateft difficulties, now declared againft them, and
22 L claimed
IRE [ 3938.] I R E
Ireland, claimed a right to the kingdom of Leinfter ; while
   Roderic, on his part, was aftive in uniting the princes
of Ulfter, the natire lords of Meath, and other chiefs,
againft their common enemy. This produced the
immediate recall of Raymond; and Richard no longer
refufed his confent to the marriage with his filler,
which was fokmnized immediately on Raymond’s
arrival. The very next morning, the bridegroom was
obliged to take'the field againit Roderic, who had
committed great devafiations in Meath. By the vi¬
gorous conduct of the Englilh commander, however,
he was not only prevented from doing farther mifehief,
Roderic ^ut at ^ conv‘nced of the folly of relifiance ; and
fubmits therefore determined to make a final fubmiffion. Yet,
to king confcious of his dignity, he difdained to fubmit to a
Henry. fubjedl; and therefore, inllead of treating with earl
Richard, he fent deputies dire&ly to the king. The
deputies were, Catholicus archbilhop of Tuam, the
abbot of St Brandan, and Mqfter Lawrence, as he is
l8 ftyled, chancellor to the king of Connaught.
Terms of The terms of this fubmillion, by which Henry be-
his fubmif-came foie monarch of Ireland, were as follow: Ro-
lr«n. deric confented to do homage and pay tribute, as
liege-man to the king of England; on which condi¬
tion he was allowed to hold the kingdom of Con¬
naught, as well as his other lands and fovereignties, in
as ample a manner as he had enjoyed them before the
arrival of Henry in Ireland. His vaflals were to hold
under him in peace, as long as they paid their tribute
and continued faithful to the king of England; in
which Roderic was to enforce their due obedience,
and for this purpofe to call to his affiftance the Eng-
lilh government, if necefiary. The annual tribute to
be paid was every 10th merchantable hide, as well
from Connaught, as from the reft of the ifland; ex¬
cepting thofe parts under the immediate dominion of
the king of England and his barons, viz. Dublin and
Meath with their appurtenances, Wexford and all
Leinfter, and Waterford with its lands as far as
Dungarvan inclufive; in all which diftri&s Roderic
was not to interfere, nor claim any power or autho¬
rity. The Irilh who had fled from thefe diftridls were
to return, and either pay their tribute, or perform the
fervices required by their tenures, at the option of
their immediate lords; and, if refradtory, Roderic, at
the requifition of their lords, was to compel them to
return. He was to take hoftages from his vaflals,
fuch as he and his liege-lord fhould think proper; and
on his part to deliver either thefe or others to the
king, according to the royal pleafure. His vaflals
were to furnifh hawks and hounds annually to the
Englifh monarch; and were not to detain any tenant
of his immediate demefnes in Ireland, contrary to his
royal pleafure and command. This treaty was fo-
lemnly ratified in a grand council of prelates and tem¬
poral barons, among whom we find the archbifhop of
Dublin one of the fubferibing witnefles. As metro¬
politan of Leinfter, he was now become an Englifli
fubjedl, and was probably fummoned on this occafion
as one obliged to attend, and who had a right to aflift
in the king’s great council. It is alfo obfervable,
that Henry now treated with Roderic not merely as
a provincial prince, but as monarch of Ireland. This
is evidently implied and fuppofed in the articles ; al¬
though his monarchical powers and privileges were
little more than nominal, frequently dilregarded and Ireland.
opppfed by the Irifti toparchs. Even by their fub-   
miflions to Henry, many of them in effedl difavowed
and renounced the fovereignty of Roderic; but now
his fupremacy feems to be induftrioufly acknowledged,
that the prefent fnbmifiion might appear virtually the
fubmiffion of all the fubordinate princes, and thus the
king of England be inverted with the fovereignty of
the whole ifland. The marks of fovereignty, however,
were no more than homage and tribute: in every other
particular, the regal rights of Roderic were left invio¬
late. The Englifli laws were only to be enforced in
the Englifli pale: and, even there, the Irirti tenant
might live in peace, as the fubjed of the Irirti mo¬
narch ; bound only to pay his quota of tribute, and not
to take arms againft the king of England.
But though the whole ifland of Ireland thus be- Canfes of
came fubjedl to the king of England,, it was far from t! e
being fettled in tranquillity, or indeed from having.ai:
the fituation of its inhabitants mended almoft in any 1^'^°*
degree. One great occafion of difturbance was, that
the Englifh laws were confined only to thofe parts
which had been fubdued by force of arms; while the
chieftains that had only fubmitted to pay tribute, were
allowed to retain the ancient Irifti laws within the
limits of their own jurifdi&ions. By thefe old Irifn
laws, many crimes accounted capital with us, fuch as
robbery, murder, &c._ might be compenfated by a fum
of money. Hence it happened, that very unequal
punifliments were inflided for the fame offence. If
one Engliftiman killed another, he was puniftied with
death; but if he killed an Irifliman, he was puniftied
only by a fine. If an Iviftiman, on the other hand,
killed an Engliftiman, he was certainly puniftied with
death : and as in times of violence and outrage, the
crime of murder was very frequent, the circumftance
juft mentioned tended to produce an implacable hatred
between the original inhabitants and the Englifli. As
the Irifti laws were thus more favourable to the bar¬
barity natural to the tempers of fome individuals, many
of the Englift were alfo tempted to lay afide the man ¬
ners and cuftoms of their countrymen altogether, and
to affociate themfelves with the Irifti, that, by becoming
fubjed to their laws, they might thus have an oppor¬
tunity of gratifying their brutal inclinations with left
controul than formerly; and in procefs of time, thefe
degenerate Engltjh, as they were called, proved more
bitter enemies to their countrymen than even the Irifti
themfelves.
Another caufe of the diftrefles of Ireland was, the
great power of the Englifli barons, among whom,
Henry had divided the greateft part of his Irifti domi¬
nions. The extent of their authority only inflamed
them with a defire for more; and, inftead of contri¬
buting their^endeavours to increafe the power of their
fovereign, or to civilize the barbarous people over
whom they were placed, they did every thing in their
power to counterad and deftroy each other. Henry
himfelf, indeed, feepis to have been infeded with a
very fatal jealoufy in this refped ; for, though the
abilities and fidelity of Raymond had abundantly ma-
nifefted themfelves, the king never could allow himfelf
to continue him in the government of the ifland: and
the confequence of degrading him never failed to be a
feene of uproar and confufion. To thefe two reafon*
IRE [ 39,39 1 IRE
Ireland, we muft likewife add another; namely, that in thofe
’ parts of the kingdom where the Irifh chieftains en¬
joyed the fovereignty, they were at full liberty to
make war upon each other as formerly, without the
lead reftraint. This likewife induced many of the
Englrlh to degenerate, that they might have an op¬
portunity of (haring the plunder got by thefe petty
wars; fo that on the whole, the iljand was a perpe¬
tual fcene of horror, almoft unequalled in the hiftory
?0 of any country.
fiu An- After the death of earl Richard, Raymond was im-
lelm’s bad mediately ele&ed to fucceed him; but was fuperfeded
ncntn" ky ^ie who appointed William Fitz-Andelm, a
nobleman allied to Raymond, to fucceed in his place.
The new governor had neither inclination nor abilities
to perform the talk afiigned to him. He was of a
rapacious temper, fenfual and corrupt in his manners;
and therefore only ftudied td enrich himfelf. The
native Irilh, provoked by fome depredations of the
Englilh, • commenced hoftilities ; but Fitz-Andelm,
inilead of repreffing thefe with vigour in the be¬
ginning, treated the chieftains with affeded courtefy
and flattery. This they had fuffipient difcernroent to
fee, and to defpife; while the original adventurers had
the burden of the whole defence of the Englijh pale,
as the Englilh territories were called, thrown upon
them, at the fame time that the bad condud of the
governor was the caufe of perpetual diforders. The
confequence of this was, that the lords avowed their
hatred of Fitz-Andelm: the foldiers were mutinous,
ill-appointed, and unpaid: and the Irilh came in
crowds to the governor with perpetual complaints
againft the old adventurers, which were always decided
Iagainft the latter; and this decifion increafed their
confidence, without leffening their difaffedion.
In this unfavourable ftate of affairs, John de Cour-
cey, a bold adventurer, who had as yet reaped none
of the benefits he expeded, refolved to undertake an
expedition againft the natives, in order to enrich him¬
felf with their fpoils. The Irilh at that time were gi¬
ving no offence ; and therefore pleaded the treaty
lately concluded with King Henry: but treaties were
of little avail, when put in competition with the ne-
ceffities of an indigent and rapacious adventurer. The
confequence was, that the flame of war was kindled
through the whole ifland. The chieftains took ad¬
vantage of the war with the Englilh, to commence
hoftilities againft each other. Defmond and Tho-
mond, in the fouthern province, were diftraded by the
jealoufies of contending chiefs, and the whole land was
wafted by unnatural and bloody quarrels. Treachery
and murder were revenged by pradices of the fame
kind, in fuch a manner as to perpetuate a fucceflion of
outrages the moft horrid, and the molt difgraceful to
humanity. The northern province was a fcene of the
like enormities; though the new Englilh fettlers, who
were confidered as a common enemy, ought to have
united the natives among themfelves. All were equally
ftrangers to the virtues of humanity ; nor was reli¬
gion, in the form it then affumed, capable of reftrain-
ing thefe violences in the lead.
[Ie is fuper- Ireland was thus in,a fhort time reduced to fuch a
feded by ftate, that Henry perceived the neceflity of recalling
Hugh de Fitz-Andelm, and appointing another governor. He
was recalled accordingly; and Hugh de Lacey ap¬
pointed to fucceed him. He left his government with- Irela,lcI-
out being regretted, and is faid by the hiftorians of '
thofe times to have done only one good a&ion during
the whole courfe of his adminiftration. This aCliou
was nothing more important, than the removing of a
relic, called the theJlaff of Jefus, from the cathedral
of Armagh to that of Dublin ; probably that it might
be in greater fafety, as the war raged violently in
Ulfter. De Lacey, however, -was a man of a quite
different difpofition, and every way qualified for the
difficult government with which he was inverted : but
at the fame time, the king, by inverting his fon John Prince John
with the lordftiip of Ireland, gave occafion to greater di- m^e lord
fturbances than even thofe whichhad already happened. 0 re,ai
The nature of this lordfhip hath been much difputed ;
but the moft probable opinion is, that the king’s fon
was now to be inverted with all the rights and powers
which had formerly belonged to Roderic, who was
allowed the title of king of Ireland. It doth not ap¬
pear, indeed, that Henry had any right to deprive
Roderic of thefe powers, and ftill lefs had he to dif-
pofe of any of the territories of thofe chieftains who
had agreed to become his tributaries; which never-
theleis he certainly did, and which failed not to be
produ&ive of an immediate war with thefe chiefs.
The new governor entered on his office with all that
fpirit and vigour which was neceffary ; but being mif-
reprefented to the king by fome fa&ious barons, he
was in a ftiort time recalled, and two others, totally
unfit for the goverment, appointed in his room. This
error was foon corre&ed, and Lacey was replaced in
three months. The famejealoufy which produced his
firft degradation, foon produced a fecond ; and Philip
de Braofa, or Philip of Worcefer, as he is called, a
man of a moft avaricious difpolition, was appointed to
fucceed him. This governor behaved in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fuperftitious fubje&s expe&ed every mo¬
ment that the vengeance of heaven would fall upon
him, and deliver them from his tyranny. His power,
however, was of ftiort duration ; for now prince John
prepared to exercife the authority with which his father
had invefted him in Ireland. He was attended by a
confiderable military force': his train was formed of a
company of gallant Normans in the pride of youth ;
but luxurious, infolent, and followed by a number of
Engliftimen, ftrangers to the country they were to vi-
fit, defperate in their fortunes, accuftomed to a life of
profligacy, and filled with great expe&ations of ad¬
vantage from their prefent fervice. The whole affem-
bly embarked in a fleet of 6o (hips ; and arrived at
Waterford after a profperous voyage, filling the whole
country with the greateft furprife and expectation.
The young prince had not yet arrived at the years His
of difcretion ; nor indeed, from his fubfequent con- cretion.
du&, doth it appear that his difpofition was fuch as-
qualified him in the leaft for the high dignity to which
he was raifed. The hardy WeHhmen who firft mi¬
grated into Ireland, immediately waited upon him to
do him homage; but they were difagreeable to the
gay courtiers, and to the prince himfelf, who minded
nothing but his pleafures. The Irifli Lords were at
firft terrified by the magnificent reprefentation of the
force of the Englifti army ; and being reconciled to
fubmiffion by the dignity of the prince’s ftation, ha-
ftened in crowds to Waterford to do him homage.
22 L 2 They
IRE [ 3940 ] IRE
Jrelund. They exhibited a fpeftacle to the Norman courtiers,
which the latter did not fail to treat with contempt
and ridicule. The Irifli Lords, with uncouth attire,
thick bufhy beards, ami hair {landing on end, ad¬
vanced with very little ceremony; and, according to
their own notions of refpeft, offered to kifs the young
prince. His attendants ftepped in, and prevented
this horrid violation of decorum by thrutting away the
Irifhmen. The whole affembly burft into peals of
laughter, pulled the beards, and committed feveral
other indignities on the perfons of their guerts; which
were immediately and feverely refented. The chief¬
tains left the court, boiling with indignation; and
3* meeting others of their countrymen haitening to do
A general homage to the prince, they informed them of the re-
revolr. ception they themfclvcs had met with. A league was
initantly formed to extirpate the Englifli, and the
whole nation flew to arms; while John and his cour¬
tiers, inftead of oppofing the enemy, employed them-
felves in harraffing and opprefiing thofe who were un¬
der their immediate jurifdidlion. The country was
therefore over-run by the barbarians, agriculture en¬
tirely neglefted, and a dreadful famine threatened to
follow the calamities of war.
This terrible devaftation had continued for eight
months before the king was fully acquainted with it.
He then determined to recal his fon ; but was at alofs
whom he fhould name for his fucceffor. Lacey had
been murdered by an Irifti peafant, and the king was
at laft obliged to have recourfe to John de Courcey,
whofe boilterous valour feemed now to be abfolutely
neceffary to prevent the Englilh from being totally ex¬
terminated. The new governor was obliged at firft to
Supprcffed a& on defenfive; but as his enemies foon forgot
by John de their league, and began their ufual hoftilities againft
Courcey. each other, he was at hft enabled to maintain his au¬
thority of the Englilh government, and to fupport
their acquifitions in Ireland, though not to extend
*6 them-
Mifcrible ibis fituation were the affairs of Ireland when
ftate of Ire-Henry II. died, and was fucceeded by his fon Rich-
under ar(j J, The new king was determined on an expedition
' to the holy land, which left him no leifure to attend to
the affairs of Ireland. John, by virtue of the powers
granted him by his father, took upon him the ma¬
nagement of Ififli affairs ; and immediately degraded
de Courcey from his government, appointing in his
place Hugh de Lacey the younger. De Courcey,
provoked at this indignity, retired into Ulfter, where
he was immediately engaged in a furious war with the
natives, and at laft almoft entirely detached himfelf
from the Englifh government. The greateft confufion
enfued ; Hugh de Lacy was recalled from his govern¬
ment, and William Petit, earl marfhal of England,
appointed in his place. Petit's adminiftration proved
more unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors.
Confederacies every where took place againft the Eng¬
lifh; the latter were every where defeated, their towns
taken ; and their power would certainly have been anni¬
hilated, had not the Irifh, as ufual, turned their arms
againft each other.
Somewhat ^is defperate fituation matters continued during
betterunderthe whole reign of king Richard, and part of the reign
John. of John, while the diftreffes of the country were in-
crcafed by the diffentions and difaffedtion of the Eng-
Richard I.
lifh lords, who afpired at independency, and made Ireland.
war upon each other like Irifh chieftains. The pru- “j
dent conduit of a governor named Meiler Fitz-Hen¬
ry, however, at laft put an end to thefe terrible com¬
motions ; and about the year 1208, the kingdom was
more quiet than it had been for a long time before.
In 1210, John came over to Ireland in perfon with
an army, with a defign, as he faid, to reduce his re¬
fractory nobles to a fenfe of their duty. More than
20 Irifh chiefs waited upon him immediately to do him
homage; while three of the Englifh barons, Hugh
and Walter de Lacy, and William de Braofa, fled to
France. The king, at the defire of his Irifh fubjeits,
granted them, for their information, a regular code
and charter of laws, to be depofited in the exchequer
of Dublin, under the king’s feal. For the regular
and effectual execution of thefe laws, befidts the efta-
blifhment of the king’s courts of judicature in Dublin,
there was now made a new and more ample divifion of
the king’s lands of Ireland into counties, where fhe-
riffs, and many other officers, were appointed. Thefe
counties were, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Argial, now
called LorJJth, Katherlagh, Kilkenny, Wexford, Wa¬
terford, Cork, Kerry, Limeric, Tipperary; which
marks the extent of the Englifh dominions at this time
as confined to a part of Leinfter and Munfter, and to thofe
parts of Meath and Argial which lie in the province
of Ulfter, as now defined. Before his departure, the
king gave liberty to John de Grey, bifhop of Nor¬
wich, whom he appointed governor, to coin money of
the fame weight with that of England ; and which,
by royal proclamation, was made current in England
as well as Ireland.
This ecclefiaftical governor is faid to have managed
affairs fo happily, that, during the violent contefts be¬
tween John and his barons, Ireland enjoyed an unu-
fual degree of tranquillity. We- are not to imagine,
however, that this unhappy country was at this or
indeed any other period, till the end of Queen Elifa-
beth’s reign, perfeCMy free from diforders, only they
were confined to thofe diftriCls moft remote from the -g
Englifh government. In 1219, the commotions were Relapfes
renewed, through the immeafurable ambition and f >r'
contentions of the Englifli barons, who defpifed all ^er ^'a.
controul, and oppreffed the inhabitants in a terrible ry m.
manner. The disorders in England during the reign
of Henry III. encouraged them to defpife the royal
authority ; they were ever the fecret enemies, and
fometimes the avowed adverfaries, of each other ; and
in many places where they had obtained fettlcments,
the natives were firft driven into infurrcCiions by their
cruelty, and then punifhed with double cruelty for their
refiftance. The Englifli laws, whicli tended to punifh
the authors of thefe outrages, werefcorned by an im¬
perious ariftocratic fci&ion, who, in the phrenzy of
rapine and ambition, trampled on the moft falutary
inftitutions. In 1228, a remonftrance was prefented
to the king againft this dangerous negleft and fufpen-
fion of the laws ; which he anfwered by a mandate to
the chief governor, directing that the whole body of
nobility, knights, free tenants, and bailiffs of the fe¬
veral counties, fhould be convened; that the charter
of Englifli laws and cuftoms received from king John,
and to which they'were bound by oath, fhould be read
over in their prefence; that they fhould be direfted
IRK [ 3941 ] IRE
31 Ireland, for the future ftridly to obferve and adhere to thefe ;
” and that proclamation fhould be made in every county
of Ireland, ftri&ly enjoining obedience, on pain of
forfeiture of lands and tenements. How little efftdl
was produced by this order, we may learn from ano¬
ther, dated in 1246; where the 'barons are com¬
manded, for the peace and tranquillity of the land, to
permit it to be governed by the laws of England.
idMIxcelTive Nothing indeed can be conceived more terrible than
Kjdepravation the date of Ireland during the reign of Henry III.
in ;f manners. People of all ranks appear to have been funk in the
lowed degree of depravity. The powerful Englilh
lords not only fubverted the peace and fecurity of the
people, by refufmg to admit the falutary laws of their
own country, but behaved with the utmoft. injuftice
and violence to the natives who did not enjoy the be¬
nefits of the Englilh conftitution. The clergy appear
to have been equally abandoned with the reft: nor in¬
deed could it be otherwife ; for, through the partia¬
lities of Henry himfelf, the negle&ed, the worthlefs,
and the deprefled among the Englifh clergy, found re¬
fuge in the church of Ireland. What were the man¬
ners of thefe clergy, will appear from the following
petition of a widow to king Edward I.
“ Margaret le Blunde, of Calhel, petitions our
lord the king’s grace, that fhe may have her inheri¬
tance which Ihe recovered at Chonmell before the
king’s judges, &c. againll David Macmackerwayt bi-
fhop of Calhel.
“ Itetn, the faid Margaret petitions redrefs on ac¬
count that her father was killed by the faid bifhop.
“ Item, for the impriibnment of her grandfather and
mother, whom he (hut up and detained in prifon until
they perilhed by famine, becaufe they attempted to
feek redrefs for the death of their fon* father of your
petitioner, who had been killed by the faid bilhop.
“ Item, for the death of her fix brothers and fifters,
who were ftarved to death by the faid bilhop, becaufe
he had their inheritance in his hands at the time , he
killed their father.
“ And it is to be noted, that the faid bilhop had
built an abbey in the city of Calhel, on the king’s
Sands granted for this purpofe, which he hath filled
with robbers, who murder the Englilh, and depopu¬
late the country ; and that when the council of our
I lord the king attempts to take cognizance of the of¬
fence, he fulminates the fentence of excommunication
againll them.
“ It is to be noted alfo, that the faid Margaret has
five times crofled the Irilh fea. Wherefore, fhe peti-
titions for God’s fake, that the king’s grace will have
compaffion, and that ftie may be admitted to take
poffclfion of her inheritance.
“ It is further to be noted, that the aforefaid bi-
' Shop hath been guilty of the death of many other
Englishmen befides that of her father ; and that the a-
forefaid Margaret hath many times obtained writs of
our lord the king, but to no effeft, by reafon of the
influence and bribery of the faid bifhop.
“ She further petitions, for God’s fake, that fhe
40 may have cofts and damages, &c.”
iLittle al:e- Matters continued in the fame deplorable ftate du¬
ration im- ring the reign of Edward I. with this additional grie-
wartfl" vance> ^iat l^e kingdom was infefted by invafions of
u ' the Scots. The Englifh monarch indeed poffefied all.
that prudence and valour which were neceftary to have Ireland
reduced the ifland to a ftate of tranquillity ; but his ” ‘
proje£l of conquering Scotland left him but little lei-
fure to attend to the diftratted ftate of Ireland. Cer¬
tain it is, however, that the grievous diftrefs of that
country gave him great uneafinefs ; fo that he tranf-
mitted his mandate to the prelates of Ireland, requi¬
ring them to interpofe their fpiritual authority for
compofing the public diforders. About the fame time,
the Irilh who lay contiguous to the Englifh, and who
dwelt among them, prefented a petition to the king,
offering to pay him 8000 merks, upon condition that
they were admitted to the privileges of Englilh fub-
jedls. To this petition he returned a favourable an-
fwer; but his good intentions were defeated by the li¬
centious nobility, who knew that thefe laws would
have circumfcribed their rapacious views, and con-
trouled their violence and opprefiion. Petitions of the
fame kind were feveral times repeated during this
reign, but as often defeated ; though fome means were
ufed for the peace of the kingdom, fuch as the fre¬
quent calling of parliaments, appointing Iheriffs in
fome new counties, &c.
Thefe means were not altogether without effedi.
They ferved to give fome check to the diforders of the
realm, though by no means to terminate or fubdue
them. The incurfions of the natives were repreffed,
and the Englilh lords began to live on better terms
with each other; and, in 1311, under Edward II.
the moft powerful of them were reconciled by the mar¬
riage of Maurice and Thomas Fitz-John, afterwards
the heads of the illuftrious houfes of Defmond and
Kildare, to two daughters of the earl of Ulfter. But jnva^n oi1
juft at this happy period, when the nation feemed to the Scots
have fome profpedf of tranquillity, more dreadful cala- in the
mities than any hitherto related were about to take reiSn °[it
place. The Scots had juft recovered their liberty un- Edwar<1" ■
der Robert Bruce, and were now in no.danger of be-
ing again enflaved by a foreign power. Edward, the
king’s brother, as a recompence for his fervices, de¬
manded a lhare of the royal authority. This was refu-
fed by Robert, and Edward was for the prefent fatisfied
by being declared heir apparent to the crown. But the
king, wifely confidering the necefiky of finding out
fome employment for a youth of fuch an afpiring and
ambitious difpofition, pointed out to his brother the
ifland of Ireland, the conqueft of which would be
eafy, on account of the diftra£ted ftate in which it al-
molt always was, and which would make him an in¬
dependent fovereign. This propofal was eagerly em¬
braced by Edward, and every thing neceffary for the
expedition immediately got ready. On the 25th of
May 1315, he landed on the north-eaftern coaft of
Ireland with 6000 men, to affert his claim to the fo-
vereignty of this kingdom. The Irilh lords of Ulfter,,
who had invited and encouraged him to this enter-
prize, were now prepared to receive their new mo¬
narch, flocked with eagernefs to his ftandard, and pre¬
pared to wreak their vengeance on the common enemy.
Their progrefs was marked by defolation and carnage.
The Englilh fettlers were flaughtered, or driven from
their poffeffions, their caftles levelled with the ground,
and their towns fet on fire. The Englilh lords were
neither prepared to refift the invafion, nor fufficiently
united among themfelves. The confequence was, that
IRE [ 3942 ] IRE
Ireland, the enemy for fome time met with no interruption.
“ An intolerable fcarcity of provifions, however, pre¬
vented Bruce from purfuing his advantages; and tho’
his brother landed ill Ireland with a powerful army,
the famine prevented him from being of any effen-
tial fervice. The forces which he left behind him,
however, proved of confiderable advantage ; and by
means of this reinforcement, he was enabled to take
the city of Carrickfergus.
The terrible devaftations committed by Bruce and
his afibciates, now induced fome Englilh lords to en¬
ter into an aflbciation to defend their poffeflions, and
repel thefe invaders. For this purpofe, they railed
a confiderable body of forces; which coming to an
engagement with Fedlim prince of Connaught, one
of Bruce’s principal allies, entirely defeated and killed
him with 8000 of his men. This defeat, however,
had very little effeft on the operations of Bruce him-
felf. Fie ravaged the country to the walls of Dublin,
traverfed the diitrift of OfTory, and penetrated into
Muniter, deftroying every thing with fire and fword.
The Engliih continued to augment their army, till at
lad it amounted to 30,000 men ; and then Bruce, no
longer able to oppofe fuch a force, found it neceflary
to retire into the province of Ulfter. His retreat was
efleded with great difficulty; and during the time of
his ina&ivity, the diftrdles of his army increafed to
fuch a degree, that they are faid to have fed upon the
bodies of their dead companions. At lad an end was
41 put to the fufferings and the life of this adventurer in
They are the battle of Dundalk, in 131^, where he was defeated
totally de- and killed by the Englifh under Sir Robert Birming-
ftatcd. ham. A brave Englilh knight, named Maupasy had
rufhed forward to encounter Bruce himfelf, and both
antagOnifts had killed each other ; the body of Mau-
pas being found, after the battle, ftretched upon that
of Bruce. The king of Scotland had been advancing
with powerful fuccours to his brother: but Edward,
confident of victory, refufed to wait his arrival; and
Robert, on hearing of his brother’s death, inflantly
retired.
The defeat of the Scottifh invaders did not put an
end to the difturbances of this unhappy country. The
contentions of the Englilh with one another, of the
Irilh with the Englilh, and among themfelves, Hill
kept the ifland in a Hate of the utmoft barbarity and
confufion. An attempt was made indeed, in the reign
of Edward II. to eftablilh an univerfity in Dublin ;
but for want of proper encouragement the inftitution
43 for fome time languilhed, and then expired amidft
Miferies of the confufion and anarchy of the country. The reign
the Irilh 0f Edward III. proved not much more favourable than
wardin**" Precedi"g f*11163 ^iad been. He was too much taken
war ' up with the idea of conquering France, to pay much
regard to the interefts of Ireland. The unhappy
people, indeed, fenfible of their own miferies, peti¬
tioned the king to admit all his fubje&s in Ireland to
a participation of the Englilli laws; but the petition
being delivered as ufual to the chief governor, and
laid before the parliament, it was either clandellinely
defeated or openly reje&ed. A new fcene of tumult
and bloodlhed immediately enfued; which at laft pro¬
duced an order from the king, prohibiting all Irilh-
men, or Englilhmen married and having eftates in
Ireland, from bearing any public office whatever.—
This, inftead of having a tendency to promote peace, Ireland',
made the diforders much greater than before ; and at ”
laft produced a remonftrance from the ftates met at
Kilkenny, in which they grievoufly complain not only
of the diforders of the kingdom, but alfo of the con-
dudl of the king himfelf in the edidt abovementioned :
and to this remonftrance the king thought proper to
give a gracious and condefcending anfwer, in order
to procure from Ireland the fuccours he wanted in his
expedition again!! France.
It is not be fuppofed, that mere promifes, unafixfted
by any vigorous exertion, could make the leaf! alte¬
ration in the ftate of a kingdom involved in fo much
mifery. The diforders, however, at laft became in-
fupportable to the inhabitants themfelves; and a par¬
liament was fummoned in 1367, the refult of which
was the famous ftatute of Kilkenny. The preamble statute of
to this aft recites, that the Englifh had become mere Kilkenny.
Ir:lh in their language, names, apparel, and manner
of living ; had rejefted the Englilh laws, and fub-
mitted to thofe of the Irilh, with whom they had
united by marriage-alliance, to the ruin of the com¬
mon-wealth.—It was therefore enafted, that marriage,
nurture of infants, &c. with the Irilh, Ihould be con-
fidered and punilhed as high treafon.—Again, if any
man of Englilh race lhall ufe an Irilh name, the Irilh
language, or the Irilh apparel, or any mode or cuf-
tom of the Irilh, the aft provides, that he lhal] forfeit
lands and tenements, until he hath given fecurity in
the court of chancery to conform in every particular
to the Englilh manners; or if he have no lands, that
he lhall be imprifoned till the like fecurity be given.
The Brehon law was pronounced to be a pernicious
cuftom and innovation lately introduced among the
Englilh fubjefts; and it was therefore ordained, that
in all their controverfies they Ihould be governed by
the common law of England ; and that whoever Ihould
fubmit to the Irilh jurifdiftion, Ihould be adjudged
guilty of high treafon. As the Englilh had been ac-
cuftomed to make war or peace with the bordering
Irilh at pleafure, they were now exprefsly prohibited
from levying war without fpecial warrant fr#m the
ftate.—It was alfo made highly penal for the Englilh
to permit their Irilh neighbours to graze their lands,
to prefent them to ecclefiaftical benefices, or to receive
them into monafteries or religious houfes; to enter¬
tain their bards, who perverted their imaginations by
romantic tales; or their news-tellers, who feduced them
by falfe reports.-—It was made felony to impofe or
cefs any forces upon the Englilh fubjeft againft his will.
And as the royal liberties and franchifes were become
fanftuaries for malefaflors, exprefs power was given
to the king’s Iheriffs to enter into all franchifes, and
there to apprehend felons and traitors.—Laftly, be-
caufe the great lords, when they levied forces for the
public fervice, afted with partiality, and laid unequal
burthens upon the fubjefts, it was ordained that four
wardens of the peace in every county Ihould adjudge
what men and armour every lord or tenant Ihould
provide.—The ftatute was promulged with particular
Solemnity ; and the fpiritual lords, the better to enforce
obedience, denounced an excommunication on thofe
who Ihould prefume to violate it in any inftance.
This ftatute, it is evident, could not tend to pro¬
mote the peace of the kingdom. This could only
have
I R E
IRE [ 3933 ]
/)$ TrdanJ. liave been done by removing the aniiriofity between the reftored and confirmed, and the rebellions vigoroufiy
"•I native Irifli and Englifli; but fo far was the ftatute of oppofed and fupprefied. The feignory of the Britilh “
Kilkenny from having any tendency of this kind, that
it manifeflly tended to increafe the hatred between
them. During the whole of this reign, therefore, the
ftate of the Irilh government continued to be greatly
crown over the whole body of the Irifh, which in for¬
mer reigns feemed to have been totally forgotten, was
now formally claimed and afferted, and tome of the
mod ferocious chieftains by their marriage-conneflions
difordered and embroiled. The Englifli intereft gra- became the avowed friends of the Englifli power.' An
dually declined ; and the connexions of the king’s fub- ignominious tribute, called t\\e Black Rent, was in¬
jects with the original inhabitants, occafioned by their deed (till paid to fome chieftains ; but their hoftilities
vicinity and neceffary intercourfe, in defpite of all legal were oppofed and chaftifed, and even in their own di-
injundions, obliged the king to relax the feverity of the ftriXs they were made to feel the fuperiprity of Eng-
itatutes of Kilkenny, in cafes where they proved im* lifli government.
praXicable, or oppreffive in the execution. The per¬
petual hoftiiity, however, in which the different par-
During the reign of Henry VIIT. the Irifli affairs
were negleXed; and the diforders, which had only been
ies lived, proved an effeXual bar to the introduXion checked, and never thoroughly eradicated, returned as
of thofe arts which contribute to the comfort and re- ufual. They were further promoted by the innovations
finement of mankind. Even foreign merchants could in religion which the king introduced, and which were
not venture into fuch a dangerous country without par- exceedingly difagreeable both to Englifli and Irifh.
ticuiar letters of proteXion from the throne. The per- The Reformation, however, continued to make fome
petual fucceffion of new adventurers from England, led progrefs, though flowly, during the reign of Edw. VI.
by intertft or neceffity, ferved only to inflame diffen-
tion, inftead of introducing any effential improvement.
Lawyers fent from England were notorioufly infuffl-
in the reign of queen Mary; for as the per-
fecution did not reach thither, many Proteftants fled
to Ireland in order to avoid the queen’s cruelty. The
cient, if not corropt; and, as fuch, had frequently machinations of the Spaniards again ft quecif Elizabeth diforders-
been the objeXs of complaint. The clergy w
mean grovelling race, totally influenced by the crown,
excited the Irifli to frefti infurreXions. The king of ended in
Spain, indeed, not only encouraged the natives in thofe **1® re'^
Even prelates were commonly made the inferior agents infurreXions, but aXually fent over troops to affift Eq^beth.
of government in colleXing forces, and raifing war a- them in driving out the Englifti altogether. This they
gainft the Irifli enemy ; but were not to be enticed in- had well nigh effeXed; but the Spaniards, upon fee-
*k:» cing an array of Irifli defeated by an handful of their
to thisfervice, except by remittances from the exche¬
quer. Attendance in parliament they dreaded as the
greateft hardfliip ; and either recurred to mean excufes
enemies, were fo much provoked, that they furrendered
all the places they had made themfelves mafters of,
to avert the penalty of abfence, or fued to the king and even offered to affift the Englifli in reducing the
rebels; though it was not thought proper to accept of
their afiiftance. The confequence of this was, that
the Irifli, abandoned by thefe allies, were unable to
to be exempted by patent from contributing or af-
fenting to thofe laws by which they w'ere to be go¬
verned.
Power of t*1's deplorable fituation the kingdom continued carry on the war; and the grand rebel O’Neal of Tir-
the Englifh till the time of Henry VII. who laid the foundation owen, or Tirone, after much treachery, evalion, and
revives in - of the future civilization of the Irifti, as he alfo did of many pretended fubmiflions, was at laft obliged to fub-
der Henry the Englifti nation. This he effeXed by enaXing fome r 11  1  L-r
falutary laws, and appointing faithful and aXive go¬
vernors to fee them put In execution. Of thefe go-
mit in good earneft. He fell upon his knees before
the deputy, and petitioned for mercy with an air and
afpeX of diftrefs. He fubferibed his fubmiflion in the
vernois Sir Edward Poynings contributed more ,than moft ample manner and form. He implored the queen’s
any other to the tranquillity of the ftate. During his
adminillration was enaXed the law known by the name
of Poyning’j Law, and which hath fince been the fub-
1 jeX of much political debate. The purport of it was,
That no parliament (houldbeheld in that ifland with¬
out firft giving notice to the king of England, and ac¬
quainting him with the aXs to be paffed in that par¬
liament; neither ftiould any aX paffed, or any parlia¬
ment held, without the approbation of the king and
council, be deemed valid. Thus was the power of the
turbulent barons greatly broken; and the governor, not
gracious commiferation; and humbly fued to be refto¬
red to his dignity, and the ftate of a fubjeX, which he
had juftly forfeited. He utterly renounced the name
of O'Neal, which he had affumed on account of the
great veneration in which it was held among the Iriih..
He abjured all foreign power, and all. dependency ex¬
cept on the crown of England ; refigned all claim to
any lands excepting fuch as ftiould be conferred upon
him by letters patent; promifing at the fame time to
affift the ftate in abolifhing all barbarous cuftoms, and
eftabliftiing law and civility among his people. The
having it in his power to affemble parliaments when lord deputy, on the part of the queen, promifed a full
he pleafed, became a perfon of much lefs confequence.
The whole Irifti legiflation alfo became dependent on
that of England, and hath ever fince continued to be
fo.
From this time we may date the revival of the Eng¬
lifli power in Ireland; which from the Scottifti war in
the time of Edward II. had gradually declined into a
miferable and precarious ftate of weaknefs. The au¬
thority of the crown, which had at laft been defied, in-
fuJted, and rejeXed, even in the Englifli territory, was
pardon to him and all his followers; to himfelf the r
ftoration of his blood and honours, with a new patent
for his lands, except fome portions referved for certain
chieftains received into favour, and fome for the ufe of
Englifli garrifons.
No infurgent now remained in this kingdom who
had not obtained or fued for mercy. Many, indeed,
were driven by neceflity to the continent, and earned a
fubfiftence by ferving in the armies of Spain; and thus
a race of Irilh exiles was trained to arms, filled with a,
IRE [ 3944 ] IRE
lTelan<*« malignant refentment againft the Englilh. Thus the
honour of reducing all the enemies of the crown of
England in this ifland, after a continued conteft for
440 years, was referved for the arms of Elizabeth.
The ghaftlinefs of famine and defolation was now fome-
what enlivened by the reftoration of tranquillity. In-
Exorbitant deed, from the molt authentic accounts, the prices of
prices of provifions were fo high, that, confidering the value of
provifions m0ney at that time, it is furprifing how the inhabi-
at tants could fubfift. From an account of the rates of
provifions taken by the mayor of Dublin in 1602, it
appears, That wheat had rifen from 36 s. to 9 1.
the quarter; barley-malt from 10s. to 43s. the bar¬
rel; oat-mait from 5s. to 22s. the barrel; peafe from
5 s. to 40s. the peck ; oats from 3 s. 4d. to 20s. the
barrel; beef from 26s. 8d. to 81. the carcafe ; mut¬
ton from 33. to 26s. the carcafe; veal from 10s. to
29s. the carcafe; a lamb from t2 d. to 6s.; a pork
from 8 s. to 20 s.
The Irifii Under James I. Ireland began to aflume a quite dif-
•civilized by ferent appearance. That monarch valued himfelf upon
James I. promoting the arts of peace, and made it his ftudy to
civilize his barbarous Irifii fubjeefs. By repeated con-
fpiracies and rebellions, a vaft tratt of land had efehea-
ted to the crown in fix northern counties, Tyrconnel,
now called Dcnnegal, Tirone, Derry, Farmanagh, Ca¬
van, and Armagh, amounting to about 500,cooacres;
a traft of country covered with woods, where rebels
and banditti found a fecure refuge, and which wasde-
llined to lie vvafte without the timely interpofition of
government. James refolved to difpofe of thefe lands
in fuch a manner as might introduce all the happy con-
fequences of peace and cultivation. He caufed furveys
to be taken of the feveral counties where the new fet-
tlements were to be eftabliflied ; deferibed particularly
the ftate of each ; pointed out the fituations proper
for the ere&ions of towns and caftles ; delineated the
chara&ers of the Irifii chieftains, the manner in which
they fliould be treated, the temper and circumftances
of the old inhabitants, the rights of the new pur-
chafers, and the claims of both; together with the
impediments to former plantations, and the methods of
removing them.
At his inftances it was refolved, that the perfons to
whom lands were afiigned fliould be either new under¬
takers from Great Britain, efpecially from Scotland,
or fervitors, as they were called; that is, men who
had for feme time ferved in Ireland, either in civil or
military offices ; or old Irifii chieftains or captains.
Among the laft were included even thofe Irifii who had
engaged in the rebellion of Tirone, and ftill harbour¬
ed their fecret difeontents. To gain them, if pof-
fible, by favour and lenity, they were treated with
particular indulgence. Their under-tenants and fer-
vants were allowed to be of their own country and reli¬
gion ; and, while all the other planters were obliged
to take the oath of allegiance, they were tacitly ex¬
cepted. The fervitors were allowed to take their te¬
nants either from Ireland or Britain, provided no Po-
pifli recufants were admitted. The BritKh underta¬
kers were confined to their own countrymen.
In the plantations which had been formerly attemp¬
ted, the Irifii and Englifli had been mixed together,
from a fond imagination that the one would have learn¬
ed civility and induftry from the other. But expe¬
rience had now difeovered, that this fntercourfe ferved IreUmf,
only to make the Irifii envy the fuperior comforts of
their Englifli neighbours, and to take the advantage
of a free accefs to their houfes to fteal their goods
and plot againft; their lives. It was therefore deemed
necefiary to plant them in feparate quarters; and in
the choice of thefe fituations, the errors of former
times were carefully corrected. The original Englifti
adventurers, on their firft fettlement in Ireland, were
captivated by the fair appearance of the plain and open
diftridts. Here they eredted their caftles and habita¬
tions ; and forced the old natives into the woods and
mountains, their natural fortrefies. There they kept
themfelves unknown, living by the milk of their kine,
without hufbandry or tillage; there they increafed to
incredible numbers by promifeuous generation ; and
there they held their aflemblies, and formed their con-
fpiracies without difeovery. But now the northern
Irifli were placed in the moft open and acceffible parts
of the country, where they might lie under the clofe
infpedtion of their neighbours, and be gradually habi¬
tuated to agriculture and the mechanic arts. To the
Britifli adventurers were affigned places of thegreateft
ftrength and command ; to the fervitors, ftations of
the greateft danger, and greateft advantage to the
crown : but as this appeared a peculiar hardfhip, they
were allowed guards and entertainment, until the coun¬
try fiiould be quietly and completely planted.
The experience of ages had fhewn the inconvenience
of enormous grants to particular lords, attended with
fuch privileges asobftru&ed the adminiftration of civil
government: and, even in the late reign, favourite un¬
dertakers had been gratified with fuch portions of land
as they were by no means able to plant. But, by the
prefent fcheme, the lands to be planted were divided
in three different proportions ; the greateft to confift
of 2000 Englifh acres, the leaft of 1000, and the
middle of 1500. One half of the efeheated lands in
each county was afiigned to the fmalleft, the other
moiety divided between the other proportions; and the
general diftributions being thus afeertained, to pre¬
vent all difputes between the undertakers, their fettle-
ments in the refpeftive diftridls were to be determined
by lot. Eftates were afiigned to all, to be held of
them and their heirs. The undertakers of 2000 acres
were to hold of the king in capite ; thofe of 1500 by
knights fervice; thofe of 1000 in common foccage.
The firft were to build a caftle, and inclofe a ftrong
court-yard, or baun, as it was called, within four
years ; the fecond, to finirti an houfe and bawn within
two years; and the third, to inclofe a bawn ; for even
this rude fpecies of fortification was accounted no in-
confiderable defence againft an Irifii enemy. The firft:
were to plant upon their lands, within three years, 48
able men of Englifti or Scottifii birth, to be reduced to
20 families; to keep a demefne of 600 acres in their
own hands; to have four fee-farmers on 120 acres
each; fix leafe-holders, each on too acres; and on
the reft, eight families of bufiiandmen, artificers, and
cottagers. The others were under the like obligations
proportionably. All were, for five years after the date
of their patents, to refide upon their lands either in
perfon, or by fuch agents as ftiould be approved by
the ftate, and to keep a fufficient quantity of arms for
their defence. The Britifti and fervitors were not to
alienate
IRE [ 3949 ] IRE
alienate their lands to mere Iriih, or to demife any
poriions of them to fuch perfons aS fhould refufe to
take the oaths to government; they were to let them at
determined rents, and for no fhorter term than 21 years
or three lives. The houfesof their tenants were to be
built after the Englifh fafhion, and united together in
towns or villages. They had power to eredl manours,
to hold courts baron, and to create tenures. The old
natives, whofe tenures were granted in fee-fimple, to
be held in foccage, were allowed the like privileges.
They were enjoined to fet their lands at certain rents,
and for the like terms as the other undertakers; to take
no Irilh exaftions from their inferior tenants, and to
oblige them to forfake their old Scythian cuftom of
wandering with their cattle from place to place forpa-
fture, or creagkting, as they called it; to dwell in
towns, and conform to the Englifh manner of tillage
and hufbandry. An annual rent from all the lands
was referved to the crown for every 60 Englifh acres,
fix (hillings and eight pence from the undertakers, ten
/hillings from fervitors, and 13 (hillings and four pence
from Irifh natives. But for two years they were ex¬
empt from fuch payments, except the natives, who
were not fubjeft to the charge of tranfportation. What
gave particular credit to this undertaking, was the ca¬
pital part which the city of London was perfuaded
to take in it. The corporation accepted of large
grants in the county of Derry ; they engaged to ex¬
pend L. 20,000 on the plantation, to build the cities
of Derry and Colerain, and ftipulated for fuch privi¬
leges as might make their fettlements convenient and
refpeftable. As a competent force was neceffary to
proteft this infant plantation, the king, to fupport
the charge, inftituted the order of baronets, an here¬
ditary dignity, to be conferred on a number not
exceeding 200; each of whom, on pafling his patent,
was to pay into the exchequer fuch a fum as would
maintain 30 men in Ulfter, for three years, at 8^.
daily pay.
But fcarcely had the lands been allotted to the dif¬
ferent patentees, when confiderable portions were re¬
claimed by the clergy as their rightful property. And
fo far had the ellates of the northern bi/hoprics been
embarrafled, both by the ufurpations of the Iri(h lords,
and the claims of patentees, that they fcarcely afford¬
ed a competent, much lefs an honourable provifion for
men of worth and learning, while the (late of the pa¬
rochial clergy was ftill more deplorable. Moft of the
northern churches had been either deftroyed in the late
wars, or fallen to ruin : the benefices were fmall, and
either (hamefully kept by the bifhops in the way of
commendam or fequeftration ; or filled with minifters
as fcandalous as their income. The wretched flock
was totally abandoned; and for many years Divine
Service had not been ufed in any parifh-church of Ul¬
fter, except in cities and great towns. To remedy
thefe abufes, and to make fome proper provifion for
the inrtruftion of a people immerfed in lamentable ig¬
norance, the king ordained, that all ecclefiaftical lands
(hould be reftored to their refpedtive fees and churches,
and that all lands (hould be deemed ecclefiaftical from
which bifhops had in former times received rents or
penfions: that compofitions (hould be made with the
patentees for the (ite of cathedral churches, the refi-
dences of bifhops and dignitaries, and other church-
Vot. V.
lands which were not intended to be conveyed to them;
who were to receive equivalents if they compounded
freely ; or elfe to be deprived of their patents as the
king was deceived in his grant, and the poffeffions re¬
ftored to the church. To provide for the inferior
clergy, the bifhops were obliged to refign all their im¬
propriations, and relinquifti the tythes paid them out
of parifties, to the refpeflive incumbents; for which
ample recompence was made out of the king’s lands.
Every proportion allotted to undertakers was made a
parifh, with a parochial church to each. The incum¬
bents, befides their tythes and duties, had glebe-lands
afligned to them of 60, 90, or 120 acres, according to
the extent of their parifties. To provide fora fuccef-
fion of worthy paftors, free-fchools were endowed in
the principal towns, and oonfiderable grants of lands
conferred on the univerfity of Dublin, which had
been re-eftabli(hed by queen Elizabeth, together with
the advowfon of fix parochial churches, three of the
larged, and three of the middle proportion in each
county.
Such was the general fcheme of this famous northern
plantation, fo honourable to the king, and of fuch
confequence to the realm of Ireland. Its happy ef¬
fects were immediately perceived, although the execu¬
tion by no means correfponded with the original idea.
Buildings were (lowly erefted ; Britifh tenants were
difficult to be procured in fufficient numbers; the old
natives were at hand, offered higher rents, and were
received into thofe diftrifts from which it was intend¬
ed to exclude them. In this particular, the London¬
ers were accufed of being notorioufly delinquent. They
afted entirely by agents; their agents were interefted
and indolent, and therefore readily countenanced this
dangerous intrufion of the natives ; an error of which
fufficient caufe was afterwards found to repent. For
the prefent, however, a number of loyal and indu-
ftrious inhabitants was poured into the northern coun¬
ties, confiderable improvements made by the planters,
and many towns erefted. To encourage their indu-
ftry, and advance his own projedt, the king was
pleafed to incorporate feveral of thefe towns, fo that
they had a right of reprefentation in the Irifli parlia¬
ment.
The only difturbance that now enfued was from the
Popilh party, who never could bear to fee the Prote-
ftant religion eftablKhed in preference to their own,
while they had power to refift. After numberlefs in-
effe&ual machinations and complaints, their fury broke
out in a terrible maffacre of the new Englifh fettlers in
the year 1641 *. The affairs of Britain were at that
time in fuch confufion, that the rebellion could not be
quelled in lefs than ten years ; during which time the
country was reduced to a moft deplorable fituation. It
recovered again under Cromwell, Charles II. and the
(hort reign of James II. On the acceffion of Wil¬
liam III. matters were once more thrown into confu¬
fion by an attempt made in favour of the exiled mo¬
narch, who came over thither in perfon, and whofe
bad fuccefs is related under the article Britain,
n° 309.—325. Since that time, Ireland hath re¬
covered from the miferable fituation to which it was
fo long reduced. As yet, however, it is far from be¬
ing in fuch a flouriftiing (late as either South or North
Britain. The great obftacle to the improvement of
22 M the
Ireland.
49
State of Ire¬
land fmee
that time.
* See Bri¬
tain, neioj,
—toU.
IRE [ 3950 ]
liiclahd. the kingdom is the extreme poverty and oppreffion of We may
I R E
" the common people. The produce of the kingdom,
either in corn or cattle,, is not above two thirds at
moft of what by good cultivation it might yield. The
high roads throughout the fouthern and weftern parts
are lined with beggars, who live in huts or cabbins
without chimnies, or any covering capable of defend¬
ing the wretched inhabitants from the cold, wind, and
rain. “ It is a fcandal (fays a judicious traveller,
who lately vifited Ireland,) to the proprietors of this
fertile country, that there is not the greateft plenty of
good corn and hay in it; but fome of the bell land in
the king’s dominions is fuffered to be torn in pieces,
and cultivated in the vilell manner, by a fet of abjeil
miferable occupiers; who are abfolutely no better than
flaves to the defpicable, lazy, and opprefiive fubordi-
J(S nate landlords.”
-Climate, Ireland enjoys a peculiar blefiing in not producing
See. of Ire-or nourifliing any venomous creature. Mr O’Halloran
land, fays, that even frogs were never known to live there
before the reign of William III. Indeed, it is not im¬
probable but the breed of them might have come from
France in the fuite of James II.
The climate of Ireland would almoft perfeftly agree
with that of England, were the foil equally improved,
being abundantly fruitful both in corn and grafs, efpe-
cially the latter; in confequence of which, an infinite
number of black cattle and Iheep are bred, particularly
in the province of Connaught. Few countries produce
finer grain than that which grows in the improved
parts of this kingdom. The northern and eaftern
counties are bed cultivated and inclofed, and the mod
populous.
Ireland is known to have many rich mines; and
there is no inconfiderable profpeft of gold and filver in
fome parts of the kingdom. No country in the world
abounds more in beautiful lakes, both frefii and falt-
water ones; and it is alfo plentifully watered with many
beautiful rivers. The commodities which Ireland ex¬
ports, as far as her prefent trade will permit, are hides,
tallow, beef, butter, cheefe, honey, wax, hemp, metals,
and fi(h: wool and glafs were, till December 23, 1779,
prohibited ; but her linen trade is of late grown of
very great confequence. England, in the whole, is
thoughttogainyearly by Ireland upwardsof 1,400,000!.
and in many other refpedls fhe mud be of very great
advantage to that kingdom. Formerly, indeed, fhe
was rather a burden to her elder fider, than any bene¬
fit; but the times are changed now, and improve every
51 day.
Xinen ma- Mr O’Halloran fays, the linen mamifa&ure was car-
nufafhire rjecj Qn jn jre]anj jn very early days, to a great ex-
duced. tent; and Gratianus JLucius quotes a deicnption or
the kingdom, printed at Leyden in 1627, in which the
author tells us, “ That this country abounds with flax,
which is fent ready fpun in large quantities to foreign
nations. Formerly, (fays he), they wove great quan¬
tities of linen, which was modly confumed at home,
the natives requiring above 30 yards of linen in a fiiirt
or drift.” So truly expenfive was the Irifii fafhion of
making up fliirts, on account of the number of plaits
and folds, that, in the reign of Henry VIII. a datute
pafled, by which they were forbidden, under a fevere
penalty, to put more than feven yards of linen in a
fhirt cr fiiift.
fome idea of what the trade of Ire- Irtlaii
land mud have been in former times, when, fo late as
the reign of Brien Boru, who died in 10x4, notwith-
danding the ravages aijd didrefies which a Danifii war,
of above 200 years continuance, mud have produced
throughout the kingdom, the annual duties arifing
from goods imported into the fingle port of Limerick,
and paid in red wine, amounted to 365 pipes ! Even
fo lately as the lad century, it is fcarcely credible
what riches this city derived from the bare manufac¬
ture of flioes, which were exported in amazing quan¬
tities ; whereas now, indead of does and boots, we
fee the raw hides dipped off for foreign markets.
No country in the world feems better fituated for a
maritime power than Ireland, where the ports are con¬
venient to every nation in Europe, and the havens
fafe and commodious. The great plenty of timber,
the fuperior excellence of the oak, and the acknow¬
ledged /kill of her ancient artizans, in wood-works,
are circumdances clearly in her favour. That the
Irid formerly exported large quantities of timber, is
manifed from the churches of Glouceder, Wedmin-
der-monadery and palace, &c. being covered with I-
rid oak. j*.
The government of the kingdom is in the hands of Govern-
a viceroy, or lord-lieutenant, who lives in very great ment> P0*
fpendor. In his abfence there are lords-judices, (dyled P^atlon*
their excellencies') generally three in number, viz. lord
primate, lord high chancellor, and the fpeaker of the
houfe of commons. The parliament of Ireland meet
every other Winter, or oftener, according to exigencies.
Their only power confids in propofing bills, which are
fubjedl to the privy-council of England, and in a ne¬
gative voice to any amendments. As to civil magi-
drates and the didribution of judice, they are here on
the fame footing as in England.
Ireland is divided into four large provinces, and
thofe again into 32 counties, as follows:
I. ULSTER.
Counties. Houfes. Extent, &c.
1. Antrim 20738 Length 68 7 C^bocir-
2. Armagh 13125 BreadthpS J™1 es^cumfer.
3. Cavan 9268 Irid plantations.
4. Down 26090 Acres 2836837 4496205
5. Donnegal 12357 Parides, 365 [Englid
6. Fermanagh 5^74 Boroughs, 29
7. Londonderry 14528 Baronies, 55
8. Monaghan 26637 Archbidopric, 1
9. Tyrone I^545 Bidoprics, 6
Market-towns, 58
II. LEINSTER.
1. Caterlogh, or Car-Leng. 104 7 m|]es? S^ocir-
low 5444 Bread. 55 3 ' 3 cumf.
2. Dublin 24145 I.acr. 2642958,0^281155
3. Kildare 8887 Parides, 858 [Englid.
4. Kilkenny 3231 Boroughs, 53
5. King’s-county 9294 Baronies, 99
6. Longford 6057 Market-towns, 63
7. Lowth 8150 Arehbidopric, 1
8. Meath (Ead) 14000 Bidoprics, 3
9. Queen’s-coun- The rivers are, the Boyne,
ty J 1226 Barrow, Liffy, Noir, and
ro. Wedmeath 9621 the May.
11. Wexford 13015
12. Wicklow 7781
IIL MUN-
III.
Counties.
1. Clare
2. Cork
3. Kerry
4. Limerick
5. Tipperary
6. Waterford
[
I R E
MUNSTER.
Houfes. Extent, See.
'6t5ocir-
11381 Leng. 100?
)')
47334 Bread.1073 n
miles ^ r
L cumter.
11653 Acres 3289932, 5329146,
^ miles ^oomr
03 3 cumter-
19380 Pariihes, 740 [Engliih
18325 Boroughs, 26
9485 Baronies, 63
Houfes, 117197
Archbilhopric, 1
Biihops, 6
IV. CONNAUGHT.
1. Galway 15576 Length 90
Breadth8o_
2. Leitrim 5156 Acres 2272915, 3681746,
Parifhes, 330 [Engliih
3. Mayo 15089 Boroughs, 10
Baronies, 43
4. Rofcommon 8780 Archbiihopric, 1
Biihop, 1
5. Sligo 597° Houfes, 49966
Rivers are the Shannon,
May, Suck, and Gyll.
In 1731, while the duke of Dorfet was lord-lieute¬
nant, the inhabitants were numbered, and it was found
that the four provinces contained as follows :
Connaught 2i6o4'| r 221780')
Leinfter 203087 1 1 447916 j
vCr
7°°453J O309768J
3951 ] R E
merly; for on the wild mountains between Ardmach IielanA
and Dundalk, are obfervable the marks of the plough, *
as they are alfo on the mountains of Altmore. The
fame has been obferved in the counties of Londonderry
and Donnegal. Mountains that are now covered with
bogs have been formerly ploughed ; for when you dig
five or fix feet deep, you difeover a proper foil for ve¬
getation, and find it ploughed into ridges and furrows:
a plough was found in a very dead bog near Donne¬
gal ; and an hedge, with fome wattles, itanding under
a bog that was five or fix feet in depth. The flump
of a large tree was found in a bog ten feet deep at
Caftle-ForbeS; the trunk had been burnt, and fome
of the cinders and allies ftill were lying on the flump.
Mr Molyneaux further fays, that on the top of an high
mountain, in the north, there were then remaining
the ftreets and other marks of a large town. jj
Beauty feems to be more diffufed in England, a- Appear-
mong the lower ranks of life, than in Ireland; which ance and
may, however, be attributed to the mere modes of li-
ving. In England, the meaneft cottager is better fed, tants,
better lodged, and better drefled, than the moft opur
lent farmers here, who, unaccuftomed to what our
peafants reckon the comforts of life, know no luxury
but in deep potations of aquavitas.
From this circumftance, we may account for a faft
reported by the officers of the army here. They
fay, that the young fellows of Ireland, who offer to
Cnlift, are more generally below the given height, than
in England. There can be no appeal from their tefti-
mony; for they were Irilh, and the ftandard is an in¬
fallible left. No reafon, indeed, can be given why
the caufes which promote or prevent the growth of o-
ther animals, Ihould not have fimilar effects upon the
human fpecies. In England, where there is no flint
There are 44 charter working-fchools at prefent in of provifions, the growth is not checked; but, on the
Ireland, wherein 2025 boys and girls are maintained
and educated. Thefe fchools are maintained by an an¬
nual bounty of 1000I. byatax upon hawkers and ped¬
lars, and by fubferiptions and legacies. The children
admitted, are thofe born of Popifh parents, or fuch as
would be bred Papifts if negle&ed, and are of found
limbs. Their age muft be from fix to ten ; the boys at
16, and the girls at 14, are apprenticed into Prote-
flant families. The firft fchool was opened in 1734.
Five pounds are given to every perfon educated in thefe
contrary, it is extended to the utmoft bound of na¬
ture’s original intention : whereas, in Ireland, where
food is neither in the fame quantity nor of the fame
quality, the body cannot expand itfelf, but is dwarfed
and ftunted inks dimenfions. The gentlemen of Ire¬
land are full as tall as thofe of England; the difference
then, between them and the commonalty, can only
proceed from the difference of food.
The inhabitants, in general, of this kingdom, arc
very far from what they have too often and unjuftly
fchools, upon his or her marrying a Proteftant. An been reprefented by thofe of our country who never
Englifli aft of parliament, lately tolerated the Catholic
religion in Ireland, and by that means has relieved
thoufands of ufeful fubjefts.
The return of houfes in Ireland for the year 1754,
was 395,439; and for the year 1766, it was 424,046.
Suppofing therefore the numbers to have increafed at
the fame rate, the number of hotifes now cannot belefs
than 454,130 ; which, allowing five perfons to a fa¬
mily, will make the number of inhabitants 2,260,650 :
but as the return of houfes by hearth-colleftors is ra¬
ther under than above the truth, and as there are many
families in every pariih, who are by law excufed from
that tax, and therefore not returned, the number on a
moderate eftimate will be 2,500,000. Sir W. Petty
reckoned 160,000 cabins without a chimney ; and if
there be an equal number of fuch houfes now, the
faw them, a nation of wild Iriih. Miferable and op-
preffed, as by far too many of them are, an Engliih-
man will find as much civility in general, as amongft
the fame clafs in his own country; and, fora fmall pe¬
cuniary confideration, they will exert themfelves to
pleafe you as much as any people, perhaps, in the
king’s dominions. Poverty and oppreffion will natu¬
rally make mankind four, rude, and unfociable, and
eradicate, or at lead fupprefs, all the more amiable prin¬
ciples and palfions of humanity. But it fhould feem
unfair and ungenerous to judge of, or decide againft,
the natural difpofition of a man reduced by indigence
and oppreffion almoft to defperation. Let commerce,
agriculture, and arts, but call forth the dormant afti-
vity of their genius, and rouze the native fpirit of en-
terprize, which now lies torpid within them ; let libe-
ber of people will be above 3,000,000. Mr Molyneux ral laws unfetter their minds, and plenty cheer their
fays, “ Ireland has certainly been better inhabited for- tables, they will foon /hew themfelves deferving to rank
21 M 2 with
IRE [ 39J
Ireland, witli the moft refpeftable focieties in Europe.
The bogs wherewith Ireland is in fome places over-
Account of grown> are not injurious to health, as is commonly ima-
the bogs in gined ; the watery exhalations from thefe are neither
Ireland. fo abundant, nor fo noxious, as thofe from marfhes,
which become prejudicial from the various animal and
vegetable fubllances which are left to putrify as foon
as the waters are exhaled by the fun. Bogs are not,
as one might fuppofe from their blacknefs, mafles of
putrefaftion; but on the contrary, they are of fuch a
texture, as to refill putrefa&ion above any other fub-
ftanee we know of. A Ihoe, all of one piece of leather,
very neatly Hitched, was taken out of a bog fome
years ago, yet entirely frelh;—from the very falhion
of which, there is fcarce room to doubt, that it had
lain there fome centuries. Butter, called rou/kin, hath
been found in hollowed trunks of trees, where it had
been hid fo long, that it was become hard and almoft
friable, yet not devoid of un&uofity ; that the length
of time it had been buried was very great, we learn
from the depth of the bog, which was ten feet, that
had grown over it. But the common phenomenon of
timber-trees dug out of thefe bogs, not only found,
but alfo fo embalmed as afterwards to defy the injuries
®f time, demonftrate the antifeptic quality of them.
The horns of the moofe-deer mud have lain many
centuries in a bog; for the Irilh hillories do not re¬
cognize the exillence of the animal whereon they
grew. Indeed, human bodies have, in many places,
been dug up entire, which mull have lain there for
ases-
The growth of bogs, however, is variable in diffe¬
rent places, from the variety of conditions in the fitua-
tion, foil, humidity, and quantity of vegetable food ;
in fome places it is very rapid, in others very flow;
and therefore their altitudes cannot afford any certain
meafure of time.
In the manufacturing counties of the north, peat-
fuel has become fo fcarce, that turburies lett from five
to eight guineas an acre. In fome places they are
fo eradicated, there does not remain a trace of them,
the ground being now converted into rich meadows
s* and fweet pallures.
Ireland^on ^ we tru^ t0 aut^or‘t*es» we mu^ conclude that
theincreafe. Ireland was not originally inferior to England, either
in the fertility of the foil, or falubrity of the climate.
When this country lhall have felt the happy effe6ls of
the late indulgences of the Britilh parliament, by re¬
pealing feveral a£ts which reftrained the trade of this
kingdom with foreign ports, and allowing the expor¬
tation of woollen manufa&ures and glafs, and (hall
have received further indulgences from the fame au¬
thority ; and when the fpirit of indullry fliall be infu-
fed, in confequence of it, into the common people ;
their country will not be inferior to any other on the
globe, under the fame parallel. It is very difficult to
fay, whether foreign or domeftic caufes have operated
mod powerfully in laying wafte this fruitful country ;
which, by being relieved from their late unnatural
prohibitions, will be enabled to furnilh a grand pro¬
portion of fupplies to Great Britain, and will unavoid¬
ably become of vaft importance by its reciprocal trade,
in reftraining the increafeof that of France, who can¬
not carry on this important branch of traffic without
the alfiiUnce of Irilh wool. The wool of France is
2 ] i R i
Ihort and coarfe, being, in the language of the manu- Irensus
fafturers, neither fine in the thread nor long in the Ij
ftaple. This obliges them to have recourfe to the ris‘
wool of Ireland, which poffeffes both thefe qualities.
Affilled by a pack of Irilh wool, the French are ena¬
bled to manufadlure two of their own ; which they
will no longer be able to procure, as the Irilh will now
work up their own wool, which they ufed to export;
great part of which found its way to France, and en¬
abled them to fupply other markets to the great pre¬
judice of Britain. The happy effedls of it have been al¬
ready felt; for, notwithllanding it was fo late as De¬
cember 23. 1779', that the royal affent was given to
the taking off their reftraints on woollen exports, it
appears, that on January 10, following, an export-
entry was made at the cuftom-houfe of Dublin, of
1300 yards of ferge for a foreign market, by William
Worthington, Efq.
IRENiEUS (St), bilhop of Lyons, was born in
Greece about the year 120. He was the difciple of
Pappias and StTolycarp, by whom, it is faid, he was
fent into Gaul in 157. He Hopped at Lyons, where
he performed the office of a prietl; and in 178 was fent
to Rome, where he difputed with Valentinus, and his
two difciples Florinus and BlaHus. At his return to
Lyons, he fucceeded Photinus, bilhop of that city; and
fuffered martyrdom in 202, under the reign of Severus.
He wrote many works in Greek, of which there only
remains a barbarous Latin verfion of his five books a-
gainfl heretics, fome Greek fragments in different au¬
thors, and pope Vidor’s letter mentioned by Eufebius.
The beff editions of his works are thofe of Erafmus,
in 1526; of Grabe, in 1702; and of Father Maffuet, in
1710.’ St Irenseus’s Hyle is clofe, clear, and flrong,
but plain and fimple. Dodwell has compofed fix cu¬
rious differtations on the works of St Irenaeus.
He ought not to be confounded with St Irenaeus the
deacon, who in 275 fuffered martyrdom in Tufcany,.
under the reign of Aurelian ; nor with St Ineneus,.
bilhop of Sirmich, who fuffered martyrdom on the
25th of March 304, during the perfecution of Dio-
clefian and Maximianus.
IRENE, emprefs of the eafl, celebrated for her va¬
lour, wit, and beauty; but deteHable for her cruelty,
having facrificed her own fon to the ambition of reign¬
ing alone. She died in 803.
IRIS, the rainbow. See Rainbow.
Iris, in anatomy. See there, n° 406, m.
Iris, the Flower de Luce, or Flag-flower, &c. in
botany, a genus of the monogynia order, belong¬
ing to the hexandria clafs of plants.
There are 2 1 fpecies, all herbaceous flowering pe¬
rennials, both of the fibrous, tuberous, and bulbous
rooted kind, producing thick annual Halks from 3 or
4 inches to a yard high, terminated by large hexqpe-
talous flowers, having three of the petals reflexed
quite back and three ered; mofl of which are very
ornamental, appearing in May, June, and July.
Culture. All the fpecies are eafily propagated by
offsets from the roots, which Ihould be planted in
September, O&ober, or November, though almoft
any time from September to March will do. They
may alfo be railed from feed, which is the beH method
for procuring varieties. It is to be fown in autumn,
foon after it ripens, in a bed or border of common,
earth,
I R 0 [ 395.3 ] ISA
f Iron
p roquois.
iPhU. Tran.
,XIX. 35.
Wctfei.
earth, and raked in. The plants will rife in the
fpting, and are to be tranfplanted next autumn.
Properties. The roots of the Florentine white iris,
when dry, are fuppofed to have a pe&oral virtue. They
have an agreeable fmell, refembling that of violets ;
and hence are ufed in perfumes, and in flavouring of
liquors. When recent, they have a bitter, acrid,
naufeous tafte ; and when taken into the body, prove
ftrongly cathartic ; on which account they have been
recommended in dropfies, in the dofe of three or four
fcruples.—The juice of the fpecies called bajiard
acorus, or yellow flag-flower, is alfo very acrid, and
hath been found to produce plentiful evacuations from
the bowels when other means had failed. For this
purpofe, it may be given in dofes of 80 drops every
hour or two ; but the degree of its acrimony is fo
uncertain, that it can hardly ever come into general
ufe. The frefh roots have been mixed with the food
of fwine bitten by a mad-dog, and they efcaped the
difeafe, when others, bitten by the fame dog, died
raving mad. Goats eat the leaves when frefh ; but
cows, horfes, and fwine, refufe them. Cows will eat
them when dry. The roots are ufed in the ifland of
Jura for dying black.
IRON, a metal of a white, livid, greyifh colour; ex¬
tremely hard ; and, next to platina, the moft difficult
to befufed.. See Metal; Metallurgy; and Che¬
mistry, n° 145, 202, 242, 279, 382. See alfo
Qo-loxsv.-Making, n° 13, 32 ; and Dyeing, n° 17.
From fome obfervations made by Mr King on a pe-
trifa&ion found on the coaft of Eaft Lothian in Scot¬
land, he hath concluded, that iron greatly promotes
petrifa&ion *. He hath likewife obferved, that folu-
tions of iron may be of confiderable efficacy in pre¬
venting the deftru&ion of ftones by the fun and air.
See the articles Stone, Petrifaction ; alfo Rock,
Marble, Mountain^, &c.
iRON-S/ci, in the fea-language, is faid of a fhip or
boat, when her bolts or nails are fo eaten with ruff,
and fo worn away, that they occafion hollows in the
planks, whereby the veffel is rendered leaky.
iKoti-lVood, in botany. See the article Sideroxy-
lum.
Iron-#V?, in botany. See the article Sideritis.
IRONY, in rhetoric, is when a perfon fpeaks con¬
trary to his thoughts, in order to add force to hisdif-
courfe ; whence Quintilian calls it diveyfdoquium.
Thus, when a notorious villain is fcornfully com¬
plimented with the titles of a very honeft and excellent
perfon ; the charafter of the perfon commended, the
air of contempt that appears in the fpeaker, and the
exorbitancy of the commendations, fufficiently difeo-
ver the diffimulation of irony.
Ironicalexhortation is a very agreeable kind of trope;
which, after hvving fet the inconveniences of a thing
in the cleareft light, concludes with a feigned encou¬
ragement to purfue it. Such is that of Horace, when,
having beautifully deferibed the noife and tumults of
Rome, he adds ironically,
“ Go now, and ftudy tuneful verfe at Rome !”
IROQUOIS, the name of five nations in North
America, in alliance with the Britilh colonies. They
are bounded by Canada on the north, by the Britifh
plantations of New York and Penfilvania on the eaft
and fouth, and by the lake Ontario on the weft.
IRRADIATION, the aft of emitting fubtile ef- Irradiation
fluvia, like the rays of the fun, every way. See Ef- il
fluvia.
IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from the
common forms or rules: thus, we fay an irregular for¬
tification, an irregular building, an irregular figure,
&c. See the articles Fortification, &c.
Irregular, in grammar, fuch infleftions of words-
as vary from the general rules ; thus we fay, irregular
nouns, irregular verbs, &c.
The diftindlion of irregular nouns, according to Mr
Ruddiman, is into three kinds, viz. variable, defeftive,
and abundant; and that of irregular verbs into anoma¬
lous, defeftive, and abundant.
IRROMANGO, or Erramongo, one of the new
Hebrides iflands, is about 24 or 25 leagues in circuit;
the middle of it lies in E. Long. 169. 19. S. Lat. 18.
54. The inhabitants are of the middle fize, and have
a good lhape and tolerable features. Their colour is
very dark; and they paint their faces, fome with black,
and others with red pigment: their hair is curly and
crifp, and fomewhat woolly. Few women were feen;
and thofe very ugly : they wore a petticoat made of
the leaves of fome plant. The men were quite naked,
excepting a belt tied about' the waift, and a piece of
cloth, or a leaf, ufed for a wrapper. No canoes were
feen in any part of the ifland. They live in houfes
covered with thatch; and their plantations are laid out
by line, and fenced 'round. An unlucky feuffle be¬
tween the Britiih failors and thefe people, in which
four of the latter were defperately wounded, prevented
captain Cook from being able to give any particular
information concerning the produce, &c. of this ifland.
IRTIS, a large river of Afia, in Siberia, which
rifes among the hills of the country of the Kalmucks,
and, running north-eaft. falls into the Oby near To-
bolfk. It abounds with fifh, particularly fturgeon,
and delicate falmon.
IRVIN, a fea-port town of Scotland, in the bai-
liewick of Cunningham ; feated at the mouth of a river
of the fame name on the Frith of Clyde; in W. Long..
2.55. N. Lat. 55. 36.
ISAAC, the Jewifh patriarch, and example of fi¬
lial obedience, died 1716, B, C. aged 18a.
ISAIAH, the firft of the four greater prophets,
was the fon of Amos; and was of royal blood, his fa¬
ther being brother to Azariah king of Juda. He
prophefied under the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, ,
and Hezekiah, from the 785th to the 681ft year be¬
fore the Chriftian sera; when king Manaffeh caufed
him to be put to death in a very advanced age. His
prophecies are in Hebrew; his ftyle is noble, fub-
lime, and florid: he fpeaks fo clearly of Chrift, and
of the. great circumftances of his life and death, that
he appears to be rather an evangelift and an hiftorian
who relates what has already happened, than a man
who foretels what was not to be accompliftied till feve-
ral ages were palled.
ISiliUS, a Greek orator, born at Colchis, in Sy¬
ria, was the difciple of Lyfias, and the mailer of De-
mofthenes; and taught eloquence at Athens, about
344 years B. C. Sixty-four orations are attributed
to him ; but he compofed no more than 50, of which
only 10 are now remaining. He took Lyfias for his
model,, and fo well imitated his ftyl? and elegance,
that.
ISA [ 3954 1 ISA
that we might eafily confound the one with the other,
were it not for the figures which Ifaeus firft introduced
into frequent ufe. He was alfo the firft who applied
eloquence to politics, in which he was followed by his
difciple Demofthenes.
He ought not to be confounded with Ifaeus, ano¬
ther celebrated orator, who lived at Rome in the time
of Pliny the Younger, about the year 97.
ISATIS, wo ad ; a genus of the filiquofa order,
belonging to the tetradynamia clafs^of plants. There
are four fpecies ; but the only one worthy of notice is
the tindloria, or Common woad, which is cultivated in
feveral parts of Britain for the purpofes of dyeing ;
being ufed as a foundation for many of the dark co¬
lours. See CohovK-Making, n° 37 ; and Woad.
The plant is biennial; the lower leaves are of an ob¬
long oval figure, and pretty thick confiftence, ending in
obtufe roundilh points ; they are entire on their edges,
and of a lucid green. The ftalks rife four feet high,
dividing into feveral branches, garnilhed with arrow-
fhaped leaves fitting clofe to the ttalks; the branches
are terminated by fmall yellow flowers, in very clofe
clufters, which are compofed of four fmall petals,
placed in form of a crofs, which are fucceeded by pods
fliaped like a bird’s tongue, which, when ripe, turn
black, and open with two valves, having one cell, in
which is fituated a fingle feed.
This fort is Town upon freih land which is in good
heart, for which the cultivators of woad pay a large
rent. They generally choofe to have their lands fituated
near great towns, where there is plenty of dreffing ;
but they never flay long on the fame fpot: for the
beft ground will not admit of being fown with woad
more than twice; and if it is oftener repeated, the
crop feldom pays the charges of culture, &c. Thofe
who cultivate this commodity have gangs of people
who have been bred to the employment; fo that whole
families travel about from place to place, wherever
their principal fixes on land for the purpofe. As the
goodnefs of woad confifts in the fize and fatnefs or
thicknefs of the leaves, the only method to obtain this,
is by fowing the feed upon ground at a proper feafon,
and allowing the plants proper room to grow ; as alfo
to keep them clean from weeds, which, if permitted to
row, will rob the plants of their nourifhment. After
aving made choice of a proper fpot of land, which
Ihould not be too light and fandy, nor over ftiff and
moift, but rather a gentle hazel loam, whofe parts
will eafily feparate, the next is to plough this up juft
before winter, laying it in narrow high ridges, that
the froft may penetrate through the ridges to mellow
and foften the clods; then in the fpring plough it
again croffwife, laying it again in narrow ridges.
After it has lain for ibme time in this manner, and the
weeds begin to grow, it ftiould be well harrowed to
deftroy them: this ftiould be repeated twice while the
weeds are young; and, if there are any roots of large
perennial weeds, they muft be harrowed out, and car¬
ried off the ground. In June the ground fliould be a
third time ploughed, when the furrows fhould be nar¬
row, and the ground ftirred as deep as the plough
will go, that the parts may be as well feparated as
pofiible; and when the weeds appear again, the ground
Ihould be well harrowed to deftroy them. Toward
the end of July, or the beginning of Auguft, it Ihould
be ploughed the laft time, when the land Ihould be Ifa
laid fmooth; and when there is a profpeft of fliowers,
the ground muft be harrowed to receive the feeds,
which Ihould be Town in rows with the drill-plough,
or in broad-caft after the common method ; but it will
be proper to fteep the feeds one night in water before
they are fown, which will prepare them for vegeta¬
tion : if the feeds are fown in drills, they will be co¬
vered with an inftrument fixed to the plough for that
purpofe, but thofe which are fown broad-caft in the
common way muft be well harrowed in. If the feeds
are good, and the feafon favourable, the plants will
appear in a fortnight, and in a month or five weeks
will be fit to hoe ; for the fooner this is performed
when the plants are diftinguirtiable, the better they
will thrive, and the weeds being then young will be
foon deftroyed. The method of hoeing thefe plants
is the fame as for turneps : with this difference only,
that thefe plants need not be thinned fo much ; for at
the firft hoeing, if they are feparated to the diftance
of four inches, and at the laft to fix inches, it will be
fpace enough for the growth of the plants ; and if this
is carefully performed, and in dry weather, moft of the
weeds will be deftroyed: but as fome of them may
efcape in this operation, and young weeds will rife,
fo the ground ftiould be a Tecond time hoed in the
beginning of Oftober, always choofing a dry time for
this work ; at this fecond operation, the plants fliould
be fingled out to the diftance they are to remain.
After this, if carefully performed, the ground will be
clean from weeds till the fpring, when young weeds
will come up : therefore about the middle of March
will be a good time to hoe the ground again ; for
while the weeds are young, it may be performed in
lefs than half the time it would require if the weeds
were permitted to grow large, and the fun and wind
will much fooner kill them : this hoeing wull alfo ftir
the furface gf the ground, and greatly promote the
growth of the plants; if this is performed in dry
weather, the ground will be clean till the firft crop of
woad is gathered, after which it muft be again well
cleaned ; if this is carefully repeated after the gather¬
ing each crop, the land will always lie clean, and the
plants will thrive the better. The expence of the firft ’
hoeing will be about fix {hillings per acre, and for the
after hoeings half that price will be fufficient, pro¬
vided they are performed when the weeds are young,
for if they are fuffeted to grow large, it will require
more labour, nor can it be fo well performed.
If the land, in which this feed is fown, fliould have
been in culture before for other crops, fo not in good
heart, it will require dreffing before it is fown, in
which cafe rotten ftable-dung is preferable to any other;
but this ftiould not be laid on till the laft ploughing,
juft before the feeds are fown, and not fpread till the
land is ploughed, that the fun may not exhale the
goodnefs of it, which in fummer is foon loft when
fpread on the ground. The quantity ftiould not be
lefs than 20 loads to each acre, which will keep the
ground in heart till the crop of woad is fpent.
The time for gathering of the crop is according to
the feafon : but it (hould be performed as foon as the
leaves are fully grown, while they are perfeftly green;
for when they begin to change pale, great part of
their goodnefs is over, for the quantity will be lefs,
and
ISA [ 3955 ] ISA
Kjhfatis and the quality greatly diminiflied.
B 'I. If the land is good, and the crop well hufbanded,
it will produce three or four gatherings ; but the two
firft. are the beft. Thefe are commonly mixed toge¬
ther in the manufa&uring of it: but the after crops
are always kept feparate; for if thefe are mixed with
the other, the whole will be of little value. The two
firft crops will fell from 25 to 301. a ton; but the
latter will not bring more than 7 or 8 1. and fometimes
not fo much. An acre of land will produce a ton of
vvoad, and in good feafons near a ton and an half.
When the planters intend to fave the feeds, they
cut three crops of the leaves, and then let the plants
(land till the next year for feed ; but if only one crop
is cut, and that only of the outer leaves, letting all
the middle leaves ftand to hourifh the ftalks, the plants
will grow ftronger, and produce a much greater quan¬
tity of feeds.
Thefe feeds are often kept two years, but it is al¬
ways beft to fow new feeds when they can be obtained.
The feeds ripen in Auguft ; and when the pods turn to
a dark colour, the feeds fhould be gathered. It is beft
done by reaping the ftalks in the fame manner as wheat,
fpreading the ftalks in rows upon the ground: and in
four or five days the feeds will be fit to threlh out,
provided the weather is dry ; for if it lies long, the
pods will open and let out the feeds.
There are fome of the woad planters, who feed
down the leaves in winter with /heep; which is a very
bad method : for all plai ts which are to remain for a
future crop, Ihould never be eaten by cattle, for that
greatly weakens the plants ; therefore thofe who eat
down their wheat in winter with Iheep are equally
blameable.
Isatis, in zoology, a fynonime of the Lagopuj.
See Canis.
ISAURA, (anc. geog.), a ftrong city at mount
Taurus, in Ifauria: twice demolilhed: firft by Per¬
il diecas, or rather by the inhabitants, who, through
defpair, deftroyed themfelves by fire, rather than fall
into the hands of the enemy ; again, by Servilius, who
thence took the furname Ifauricus. Strabo fays,
there were two Ifaurus, the old and the new, but fo
. near, that other writers took them but for one.
ISAURIA, (anc. geog.) a country touching Pam-
phylia and Cilicia on the north, rugged and moun¬
tainous, fituate almoft in mount Taurus, and taking
its name from Ifaura.
ISCHIUM, in anatomy, one of the bones of the
pelvis. See Anatomy, n° 40,
ISCHURY, a difeafe confifting of an entire fup-
preflion of urine. See (the Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
ISCLASTICS, a kind of games, or combats, ce¬
lebrated in Greece and Afia, in the time of the Ro¬
man emperors.
The viftor at thefe games had very confiderable
privileges conferred on him, after the example of Au-
guftus and the Athenians, who did the like to con¬
querors at the Olympic, pythian, and ifthmian games.
They were crowned on the fpot immediately after their
vi£tory, had penfions allowed them, were furnilhed
with provifions at the public coft, and were carried in
triumph to their country.
ISCHIA, an Ifland of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, about 15 miles in circumference, lying on the
coaft of the Terra di Lavoro, from which it is three
miles diftant. It is full of agreeable valleys, which
produce excellent fruits. It hath alfo mountains on
which grow vines of an excellent kind: likewife
fountains, rivulets, and fine gardens.
Ischia, a town of Italy, and capital of an ifland of
the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee, and a ftrong fort.
Both the city and fortrefs ftand upon a rock, which is
joined to the ifland by a ftrong bridge; the rock is
about feven furlongs in circumference. The city is
like a pyramid of houfes piled upon one another,
which makes a very Angular and ftriking appearance.
At the end of the bridge next the city are iron gates,
which open into a fubterraneous pafiage, through
which they enter the city. They are always guarded
by fiddlers who are natives of the ifland. E. Long*
13. 55. N. Lat. 40. 50.
ISENACH, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, from whence one of the Saxon
princes takes the title of duke. There are iron
mines in the neighbourhood. E. Long. 9. 17. N.
Lin. yi. o.
ISENBURG, a large town of Germany, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a handfome
caftle, feated on the river Seine, in E. Long. 7. 14.
N. Lat. 50. 28. The county belongs to the eleftor
of Treves.
ISENGHEIN, a town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, with the title of a principality, feated on the
river Mandera, in E. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat. 50. 44.
ISH, in Scots law, fignifies expiry. Thus we
fay “ the ijh oi * leafe.” It fignifies alfo to go out;
thus we fay “ free ijh and entry” from and to any
place.
ISIA, feafts and facrifices anciently folemnized in
honour of the goddefis Ills.
The ijta were full of abominable impurities ; and
for that reaion, thofe who were initiated were obliged
to take an oath of fecrecy: they were held for nine
days fucceflively; but were fo abominable, that the
fenate aboliftied them at Rome, under the confulfliip
of Pifo and Gabinius.
ISENARTS, or Eisenarts, a confiderable town
of Germany in Auftria, and in Styria; famous for its
iron mines. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 46. 56.
ISERNIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the county of Molife, with, a bifhop’s
fee. It is feated at the foot of the Appenines, in
E. Long. 14. 20.
ISIDORUS, called Damiatensis, orPEtusiOTA,
from his living in a folitude near that city, was one of
the moft famous of all St Chryfoftom’s difciples, and
ftourifhed in the time of the general council held in
421. We have 2012 of his epiftles in five books.
They are fliort, but well written in Greek. The beft
edition is that of Paris, in Greek and Latin, printed in
1638, in folio.
ISIGNI, a town of France, in Lower Normandy,,
with a fmall harbour, and well known on account of
its fait-works, its cyder, and its butter. W. Long,
o. 50. N. Lat. 49. 20.
ISIS, an Egyptian goddefs, whofe worlhip was fo
infamous, that the priefts were forbid to fpeak any
thing of it; and the fenate did often prohibit its
praftice
I S I
Iftngkfs, praftice in Rome. She is pi&ured with aJiJlrum in
1^:uid- her hand, a mufical inftrument not much unlike a
~ cymbal; and was often called Terra, from whence
(he is reprefented as having many breafts. Some hi-
ftorians fay fhe was queen of Egypt, and reigned there
with her hufband OGris, A. M. 2500.
ISINGLASS. See Ichthyocolla.
ISLAND, a traft of dry land encompaffed with
water; in which fenfe it Hands contradiftinguiihed from
Continent, or Terra Firma.
Several naturaliils are of opinion, that the iflands
were formed at the deluge; others think, that there
have been new iflands formed by the catting up of vaft
heaps of clay, mud.fand, &c. 5 others think they have
been feparated from the continent by violent ftorms,
inundations, and earthquakes. Thefe laft have ob-
ferved, that the Eaft.-Indies, which abound in iflands
more than any other part of the world, are likewife
more annoyed with earthquakes, tempefts, lightnings,
volcanos, &c. than any other part. Others again
conclude, that iflands are as ancient as the world, and
that there were fome at the beginning; and, among
other arguments, fupport their opinion from Gen. x. 5.
and other paflages of Scripture.
Varenius thinks that there have been iflands pro¬
duced each of thefe ways. St Helena, AfcenGon,
and other fleep rocky iflands, he fuppofes to have be¬
come fo by the fea’s overflowing their neighbouring
champaigns: but by the heaping up huge quantities
of fand, and other terrettrial matter, he thinks the
iflands of Zealand, Japan, &c. were formed. Suma¬
tra and Ceylon, and moft of the Eaft-India iflands,
he thinks, were rent off from the main land; and con¬
cludes, that the iflands of the Archipelago were
formed in the fame way, imagining it probable that
Deucalion’s flood might contribute towards it. The
ancients had a notion that Delos, and a few other
iflands, rofe from the bottom of the fea; which, how
fabulous foever it may appear, agrees with later ob-
fervations. Seneca takes notice, that the ifland The-
rafla rofe thus out of the iEgean fea in his time, of
which the mariners were eye-witneffes.
It is indeed very probable, that many iflands have
exifted not only from the deluge, but from the crea¬
tion of the world; and we have undoubted proofs of
the formation of iflands in all the different ways above-
mentioned. Another way, however, in which iflands
are frequently formed in the South Sea, is by the
coralline infedts: (See Corallina.) On this fubjeft
the following curious differtation by Alexander Dal-
rymple, Efq; hath appeared in the Philofophical Tranf-
adions for the year 1767.
“ Thefe iflands are generally long and narrow:
they are formed by a narrow bar of land, incloflng
the fea within it; generally, perhaps always, with
fome ingrefs at lealt to the tide; commonly with an
opening capable of receiving a canoe, and frequently
fufficient to admit even larger veffels.
“ The origin of thefe iflands will explain their na¬
ture. What led me Grft to this dedudion was an ob-
fervation of Abdul Roobin, a Sooloo pilot, that all
the iflands lying off the north-eaft coaft of Borneo had
fhoals to the eaftward of them.
“ Thefe iflands being covered to the weftward by
Borneo, the winds from that quarter do not attack
I S L
them with violence. But the north-eaft winds, turn- Iflan4.
bling in the billows from a wide ocean, heap up the ~
coral with which thofe feas are Glled. This, obvious
after ftorms, is perhaps at all other times imperceptibly
effeded.
“ The coral banks, raifed in the fame manner, be¬
come dry. Thefe banks are found of all depths, at
all diftances from fhore, entirely unconneded with the
land, and detached from each other: although it often '
happens that they are divided by a narrow gut with¬
out bottom.
“ Coral banks alfo grow, by a quick progreffion,
towards the furface ; but the winds, heaping up the
coral from deeper water, chiefly accelerate the forma¬
tion of thefe into fhoals and iflands. They become
gradually fhallower ; and, when once the fea meets
with reflftance, the coral is quickly thrown up by the
force of the waves breaking againft the bank; and
hence it is, that, in the open fea, there is fcarce an in-
ftance of a coral bank having fo little water that a
large fhip cannot pafs over, but it is alfo fo fhallow
that a boat would ground on it.
“ I have feen thefe coral banks in all the ftages;
fome in deep water, others with few rocks appearing
above the furface; fome juft formed into iflands, with¬
out the leaft appearance of vegetation; and others
from fuch as have a few weeds on the higheft part, to
thofe which are covered with large timber, with a bot-
tomlefs fea at a piftol-fhot diftance.
“ The loofe coral, rolled inward by the billows in
large pieces, will ground ; and the reflux being
unable to carry them away, they become a bar to
coagulate the fand, always found intermixed with
coral; which fand, being eafieft raifed, will be lodged
at top. When the fand-bank is raiftd by violent
ftorms beyond the reach of common waves, it becomes
a refting-place to vagrant birds, whom the fearch of
prey draws thither. The dung, feathers, &c. increafe
the foil, and prepare it for the reception of accidental
roots, branches, and feed, caft up by the waves, or
brought thither by birds. Thus iflands are formed;
the leaves and rotten branches intermixing with the
fand, form in time a light black mould, of which in
general thefe iflandsconflft; more fandy as lefs woody;
and, when full of large trees, with a greater propor¬
tion of mould.
“ Cocoa nuts, continuing long in the fea without
loflflg their vegetative powers, are commonly to be
found in fuch iflands; particularly as they are
adapted to all foils, whether fandy, rich, or rocky.
“ The violence of the waves within the tropics,
muft generally be direfted to two points, according to
the monfoons.
“ Hence the iflands formed from coral banks muft
be long and narrow, and lie nearly in a meridional
dire&ion. For even fuppoflng the banks to be round,
as they feldom are when large, the fea, meeting moft
reflftance in the middle, muft heave up the matter in
greater quantities there than towards the extremities;
and, by the fame rule, the ends will generally be open,
or at leaft lowed. They will alfo commonly have
foundings there, as the remains of the bank, not accu¬
mulated, will be under water.
“ Where the coral banks are not expofed to the
common monfoon, they will alter their direftion ;
and
[ 3956 ]
IRE [ 3957 1 IRE
A|j and be either round, extend in the parallel, or be
T' ^ of irregular forms, according to accidental circum-
flances.
“ The interior parts of thefe iflands being fea,
fometimes form harbours capable of receiving vefl’els
of fome burthen, and, I believe, always abound greatly
with fiih; and, fuch as I have feen, with turtle-grafs
and other fea-plants, particularly one fpecies, called
by the Sooloos gammyt, which grows in little glo¬
bules, and is fomewhat pungent, as well as acid, to
the tafte.
“ It need not be repeated, that the ends of thofe
iflands only are the places to expedt foundings ; and
they commonly have a fliallow fpit running out from
each point.
“ Abdul Roobin’s obfervation points out another
circumftance, which may be ufeful to navigators; by
confideration of the winds to which any iflands are
moll expofed, to form a probable conjedtnre which
fide has deepeft water; and from a view which fide
has the fhoals, an idea may be formed which winds rage
with moft violence.”
Iflands from their fituation enjoy many great advan¬
tages, the principal of which are thefe. In the firlt
place, many benefits are derived to the inhabitants of
an ifland from its unity. The very lar^eft country on
a continent is ftill but a part, which implies depen-
dance, and is neceflarily attended with a train of im-
perfe&ions; from all of which, by the unerring and
unalterable laws of nature, the people who live in an
ifland are or may be entirely free. All countries on
the continent are expofed to continual dangers, againft
which their inhabitants muft be perpetually upon their
guard. This renders a large military force requifite.
It involves them in continual negotiations, leagues, and
alliances; all of which, however, cannot exempt them
from frequent wars, or the miferies that attend them,
and which have commonly bad effedls on their inter¬
nal policy. In the next place, the climate is general¬
ly mild and falubrious from the vapours of the furround¬
ing fea, which according to the latitude abates the
violence of heat, and moderates the rigour of cold,
both which are fenfibly and conftantly lefs than on
I continents under the fame elevation of the pole. We
have a remarkable inftance of this, in the iflands call¬
ed anciently Stxchades, in the modern Latin Injulce
Arearum, by us the iflands of Hieres. They are three
in number, lying in 430 north latitude, before the
port of Toulon. In them, the fruits of France and I-
taly arrive at the higheft perfeflion, and all the medi¬
cal herbs of Italy, Greece, and Egypt, grow wuld.
Yet the climate is wonderfully temperate and pleafant
* See in all feafons *.—There is alfo commonly a greater va-
Amerka, riety, and always a greater fertility, in the foil, occa-
ii° 6. ij. f10ne(j chiefly by the warmth of the circumambient air,
frequent fliowrers, and, in confequence of both, being
continually impregnated with vegetable falts. Another
confiderable advantage arifes from its acceflibility on
every fide, by which it is open to receive fupplies from
other countries, and has the conveniency of exporting
its commodities and manufa&ures to all markets, and,
in comparifon of the continent, at all feafons. The op-
pofite fides of an ifland may in regard to commerce be
confidercd as two countries; each has its ports, its pro¬
per commodities, its proper correfpondencies ; in con-
Vol. V.
fcquence of which, it promotes the cultivation, and Ifland.
procures vent for the manufa&ures, of a large diflrict
behind it; while the intermediate midland fpace finds
a profit in that inland trade, which thefe two diftridls
fupply. The winds contrary on one fide are favour¬
able on the other; and the fea, the common road to
both coafts, is continually ploughed by veficls out¬
ward and homeward bound, which keeps up that ac¬
tive and enterprizing fpirit which chara&erizts iflan-
ders. An ifland has at once the moft extenfive and
the moft effedfual frontier, and this on all fides, fub-
fifting for ever, without repairs, and without expence:
and, which is ftill more, derives from this very frontier
a great part of the fubfiftence of its inhabitants, and
a valuable article in its commerce, from its fiftieries. It
is commonly faid the fea is a mine, but in truth it is
better; its treafures are more lading and more certain,
procured by labour folely, and fit for ufe or for fale as
foon as procured, quickly confumed, and thereby the
fource of continual employment to a ftout, hardy, la?
borious race of men, who likewife find employment for
numbers, and are in various refpefls othervvife benefi¬
cial members of the community. The defence of this
natural barrier, which, as we have faid, cods nothing;
but on the contrary yields much, is not only perma¬
nent, but in every refpedl more to be relied on than
any that could be raifed by the /kill and induftry of
men at the greateft expence. All thefe bleflings and
benefits are infured by the leflbn that Nature didates,
fome would fay the law which (he preferibes, to the in¬
habitants of every ifland, to place all their hopes in the
afiiduous cultivation of their own country, to bend all
their endeavours to raifing and extending their com¬
merce, and to put their truft in Providence, and in
the fafeguard which ftie dire&s ; men accuftomed to
robuft and hardy exercifes, and in what neceflarily ari¬
fes from their way of life, a naval force. The firft in¬
habitants come in veflels, are for a time dependent on
the country from whence they came, arrive at inde¬
pendence by enlarging their correfpendence : and thus
commerce is natural and efiential to the people of an
ifland ; which is the reafon that they thrive fo long as
they poflefs it, and gradually decline in the fame pro¬
portion in which that decays.
Island of Ice. See lcz-IJland.
Islands. Hiftories are full of accounts
of floating iflands ; but the greateft part of them are
either falfe or exaggerated. What we generally fed
of this kind is no more than the concretion of the
lighter and more vifeous matter floating on the furface
of the water in cakes; and, with the roots of the
plants, forming congeries of different fizes, which, not
being fixed to the fliore in any part, are blown about
by the winds, and float on the furface. Thefe are ge¬
nerally found in lakes, where they are confined from
being carried too far ; and, in procefs of time, fome
of them acquire a very confiderable fize. Seneca tells
us of many of thefe floating iflands in Italy ; and fome
later writers have delcribed not a few of them in other
places. But, however true thefe accounts might have
been at the time when they were written, very few
proofs of their authenticity are now to be found ; the
floating iflands having either difappeared again, or
been fixed to the fides in fuch a manner as to make a
part of the fhore. Pliny tells us of a great ifland
22 N which
I S N [ 3985 ] ISP
I(land which at one time fwam about in the lake Cutilia in
!l. the country of Reatinum, which was difcovered to the
lmc' old Romans by a miracle; and Poraponius tells ns,
that in Lydia there were feveral iflands fo loofe in their
foundations, that every little accident Ihook and remo¬
ved them.
Island (orIceland) Graftal, abody famousamong the
writers on optics, for its property of a double refra&ion;
but named very improperly, as it has none of the diftin-
guifhing properties of cryftal, and is plainly a body
of another clafs. Dr Hill has determined it to be a
genus of fpars, which he has called, from their figure,
parallellopipedia, and of which he hasdefcribed feveral
ipecies ; all of which, as well as fome other bodies of
a different genus, have the fame properties. It is al¬
ways found in form of an oblique parallellopiped with
fix fides ; and is found of various fizes, from a quarter
of an inch to three inches or more in diameter. It is
pellucid, and not much lefs bright than the pureft
cryftal; and its planes are all tolerably fmooth, tho%
when nicely viewed, they are found to be waved with
crooked lines made by the edges of imperfed plates.
What appears very Angular in the ftru&ure of this bo¬
dy is, that all the furfaces are placed in the fame man¬
ner, and confequently it will fplit off into thin plates
either horizontally or perpendicularly; but this is
found, on a iriicrofcope examination, to be owing to
the regularity of figure, fmoothnefs of furface, and
nicenefs of joining, in the fmall parallellopiped concre¬
tions of which the whole is compofed. It is very foft,
and eafily fcratched with the point of a pin. It will
not give fire on being ftruck againft fteel; and fer¬
ments and is totally diffolved in aquafortis. It was
firft difcovered in Iceland, from whence it has its
name; but has been found in France, Germany, and
many other places. In England, fragments of other
fpars are often miftaken for it; many of them having
in fome degree the fame properties. For an account of
the Angular refradive property of this fubftance, fee
(the Index fubjoined to) Otrics.
ISLE-adam, a town of France, with a handfome
eaftle, and the title of a baron ; feated on the river
Oife, three miles from Beaumont, and 20 from Paris.
E. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat. 49. 7.
IsLE-i/e-D/V«, a fmall ifland of France in the fea of
Gafcony, and on the coaftof Poitou, from which it is
14 miles. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. 45.
\s\.v-de-France, is one of the 12 general govern¬
ments of France ; bounded on the north by Picardy;
on the weft by Normandy, on the fouth by the go¬
vernment of Orleannois, and on the eaft by that of
Champagne. It is about 90 miles in length, and as
much in breadth; and is watered by the rivers Seine,
Marne, Oife, and Aifne. The air is temperate, and
the foil fertile ; and it abounds in wine, corn, and
fruits. In contains 10 fmall diftrids, and Paris is the
capital city.
ISNY, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia,
and in Algow ; feated on the river Ifny, in E. Long.
9. to- N. Lat. 47. 33.
ISNIC, a town of Turky in Afia, and in Natolia,
with a Greek archbilhop’s fee. It is the ancient Nice,
famous for the firft general council held here in 325.
There is now nothing remaining of its ancient fplendor
but an aquedud. The Jews inhabit the greateft part
of it ; and it is feated in a country fertile in corn and Ifochronal
excellent wine. E. Long. 30.9. N. Lat. 47. 15. || 1
ISOCHRONAL, is applied to fuch vibrations of ^P^an.
a pendulum, as are performed in the fame fpace of
time ; as all the vibrations orfwings of the fame pen¬
dulum are, whether the arches it defcribes are Ihorter
or longer.
Isochronal-Z/w, that in which a heavy body is
fuppofed to defcend without any acceleration.
ISOCRATES, one of the greateft orators of
Greece, was born at Athens, 436 B. C. He was the
fon of Theodoras, who had enriched himfelf by ma¬
king mufical inftruments, and gave his fon a liberal
education. Ifocrates was the difciple of Prodicus,
Gorgias, and other great orators. He endeavoured
at firft to declaim in public, but without fuccefs; he
therefore contented himfelf with inftruding his fcho-
lars and making private orations. He always (hewed
great love for his country ; and being informed of the
lofs of the battle of Cheronea, he abftained four days
from eating, and died, aged 98. There are ftill ex¬
tant 21 of his difcourfes or orations, which are excel¬
lent performances, and have been tranllated from the
Greek into Latin by Wolfitis. Ifocrates particularly
excelled in the juftnefs of his thoughts, and the ele¬
gance of his expreffions. There are alfo nine letters
attributed to him.
ISOLA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Farther Calabria, with a bifhop’s
fee. It is a fea-port town, and is feated 15 miles
fouth-eaft of St Severina. E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat.
39-T-
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in geometry,
are fuch as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOSCELES triangle, in geometry, one that
has two equal fides,
ISPAHAN, or, as the Perfians pronounce it, Spati-
kawn, the capital of Perfia, is fituated in the province
of Irac, Agemi, or Perfia Proper, upon the ruins, as
generally fuppofed, of the ancient Hecatompylos, or,
as others think, of the Afpa of Ptolemy. Molt of the
Eaftern aftronomers and geographers place it in N. Lat.
32. 25. E. Long. 86. 40. It ftands in a very ex-
tenfive plain, furrounded by mountains; and has eight
diftrifts belonging to it, that contain about 400 towns
and villages. The fertility of the foil, the mildnefs of
the feafons, and the fine temperature of the air, all
confpire to render Ifpahan one of the moft charming
and delightful cities in the world. It is nnanimoufiy
agreed, that the prefent city is of no great antiquity;
and the two parts into which it is divided, preferve the
names of two contiguous towns, from the jundion of
which it was formed. The inhabitants of thefe, not-
withftanding their neighbourhood, bear an inveterate
antipathy to each other; which they difcover on all
public occafions. Spauhawn owes the glory it now
poffefles to the great Shah Abas; who, after the con-
queft of. the kingdoms of Lar and Ormus, charmed
with the fituation of this place, made it the capital
of his empire, between the years 1620 and 1628.
The mountains, with which this city is furrounded*
defend it alike from the fultry heats of fummer, and
the piercing winds of the winter-feafon; and the plain
on which it ftands, is watered by feveral rivers, which
contribute alike to its ornament and ufe. Of thefe rivers,
the.
ISP t 3959 J I S R
Ifpahan. the Zenderoud, after being joined by the Mahmood,
    paifes by Spaubawn; where it has three fine bridges
over it, and is as broad as the Seine at Paris. The wa¬
ters of thefe united ftreams are fweet, pleafant, and
wholefome, almoft beyond comparifon ; as, indeed, are
all the fprings found in the gardens belonging to the
houfes of Spauhawn. The extent of Spauhawn is very
great ; not iefs, perhaps, than 20 miles within the
walls, which are of earth, poorly built, and fo covered
with houfes and (haded with gardens, that in many
places it is difficult to difcover them. The Perfians
are wont to fay, Spauha^wn nifpigehon, i. e. Spauhawn
is half the world. Sir John Chardin fays, that tho’
fome reckoned 11,000,000 of inhabitants in it, he did
not himfelf look upon it as more populous than Lon¬
don. At a diftance, the city is not eafily diftinguifh-
edj for many of the ftreets being adorned with plan¬
tains, and every houfe having its garden, the whole
looks like a wood. The ftreets in general are neither
broad nor convenient; there being three great evils
which attend them : the firft is, that being built on
common fewers, thefe are frequently broke up, which
is very dangerous, confidering that mod people are on
horfeback; the fecond is, that there are many wells
or pits in them, which are not lefs dangerous; the third
arifes from the people’s emptying all their ordure from
the tops of their houfes: this laft, indeed, is in fome
meafure qualified by the drynefs of the air, and by its
being quickly removed by the peafants, who carry it
away to dung their grounds. Some reckon eight, and
others ten gates, befides pofterns ; but all agree that
there is no difficulty of entering at any hour of the
day or night. The three principal fuburbs annexed to
it are, Abbas-abad, built by Shah Abas, and belong¬
ing to the people of Tauris; Julfa, inhabited by a co¬
lony of Armenians, called by fome New Julfa, to di-
ftinguifh it from the ancient city of that name, fitua-
ted in Armenia, upon the Araxes, whence the origi¬
nal inhabitants of New Julfa were brought; and Ghebr-
Abad, or, as the Arabs pronounce it, Kebr-Abad,
the ftreet of the ftiagians, occupied entirely by the pro-
feflbrs of magifm, or the religion of the ancient Per¬
fians. The river Zenderoud feparates the city of If¬
pahan and Abas-Abad, from Julfa and Ghebr-Abad.
This city has fuffered greatly fince the commencement
of the dreadful rebellion in 1721 ; the whole kingdom
from that period, till a few years ago, having been al¬
moft a continued fcene of blood, ravages, and confu-
fion. A celebrated modern traveller, who was on the
fpot, tells us, that the inhabitants of Julfa, not many
years before the above revolution happened, amounted
to 30,000 fouls; had 13 churches; and above too
priefts; and paid the Perfian court 200 tomans yearly
for the free exercife of their religion: that fome of the
ftreets were broad and handfome, and planted with
trees, with canals and fountains in the middle; others
narrow and crooked, and arched a top ; others again,
though extremely narrow, as well as turning and
winding many ways, were of an incredible length, and
refembled fo many labyrinths: that, at a fmali diftance
from the town, there were public walks, adorned with
rows of plane-trees on each fide, ways paved with
ftones, fountains, and cifterns: that there were above
100 caravanferas for the ufe of merchants and travel¬
lers, many of which were built by the kings and prime
nobility of Perfia : that, as little rain fell there, the bhahan
ftreets were frequently full of dull, which rendered the H
city difagreeable during a confiderable part of the fnm- I1'rae,•
mer ; that the citizens, however, to make this incon-
vience more tolerable, ufed to water them when the
weather was warmer than ufual: that there was a
caftle in the eaftern part of the town, which the ci¬
tizens looked upon as impregnable, in which the public
money, and moft of the military ftores, were faid to
be kept: that, notwithftanding the baths and caravan¬
feras were almoft innumerable, there was not one pub¬
lic hofpital : that moft of the public buildings were
rather neat than magnificent, though the great mey-
dan or market-place, the royal palace (which is three
quarters of a league in circumference), and the alley
denominated Toher-bag, adjoining to it, made a very
grand appearance : that the former contained the roy¬
al mofque; the building denominated layferich, where
all forts of foreign commodities were expofed to fale;
and the mint, ftyled by the Perfians ferraa-khonek,
where the current-money of the kingdom was coined :
that, befides the native Perfians, there were then in
Ifpahan above 10,000 Indians, all fupported by trade;
20,000 Georgians, Circaffians, and Tartars of Dag-
heftan or Lefgees, with a confiderable number of Eng-
lifh, Dutch, Portuguefe, and a few French: that
the Capuchins, difcalceated or bare-footed Carmelites,
Jefuits, Dominicans, and Auftin friars, had likewife
their convents here, though they were unable to make
any converts; and that there were above too mofques
and public colleges. But fince the fatal period above-
mentioned, the fuburb of Julfa was almoft totally a-
bandoned by the Armenians. The government of If¬
pahan, 23 leagues long and as many broad, compre¬
hending feveral diftrufts, moft of them formerly well peo¬
pled, appeared not many years ago little better than
a defart; moft of the inhabitants of that fertile and de¬
lightful trad being fled and difperfed. Multitudes of
them had taken a precarious refuge in the mountains
of Loriftan, lying between Ifpahan and Sufter, whofe
lands were left untilled, and their houfes mouldered
into ruins. In (hort, all the diftrefles of an unfuccefs-
ful war, or the invafion of a barbarous enemy, could
not have plunged the people of Ifpahan into greater
mifery than the vidories of their tyrannical king, Na¬
dir Shah, who feemed more folicitous to humble his
own fubjeds than his enemies. As this was the cafe
before the death of that ufurper, in what condition
muft we fuppofe Ifpahan and the reft of Perfia to be
in now, as the kingdom hath been ever fince, till very
lately, defolated by a civil war occafioned by feveral
competitors for the crown ? Whoever defires to be more
fully informed in relation to the ftate of the city be¬
fore the troubles, may^onfult Sir John Chardin, Mr
Tavernier, M. le Brun, and Dr Kasmpfer, who is much
later than the others.
ISPIDA, in ornithology. See Alcedo.
ISRAEL, a name given by the Deity to -the pa¬
triarch Ifaac, and often ufed for the whole nation of
the Jews.
Kingdom e/Israel, that of the ten tribes after
their revolt from the houfe of David ; called alfo the
kingdom of Ephraim and of Samaria; extending
both on this and on the other fide of Jordan ; and from
Syria, thro’ Galilee, to the borders of Benjamin; com-
Iffachar
I S S [ i960 ] I s s
pnTing tlie tribes of Dan and Simeon, and the weft of
Judah, quite to the borders of Egypt.
_ ISSACHAR, one of the divifions of Paleftine by
tribes; lying to the fouth of Zabulon, fo as by a nar¬
row flip to reach the Jordan, between Zabulon and
Manafleh, Jofh. xix. But whether it reached to the
fea, is a queftion; fome holding that it did: an afler-
tion not eafy to be proved, as Jolhua makes no men¬
tion of the fea in this tribe, nor does Jofephus extend
it farther than to mount Carmel; and in Jolh. xvii. 10.
Afher is faid to touch Manafleh on the north, which
could not be if Iflachar extended to the fea.
ISSOUDUN, a confiderable town of France, in
Berry. It carries on a great trade in wood, cattle,
cloth, hats, and (lockings; is feated partly on a plain,
and partly on an eminence. E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat.
46. 57.
ISSUE, in law. See Plea andIjjue.
ISSUES, in furgery, are little ulcers made defign-
edly by the furgeon in various parts of the body, and
kept open by the patient, for the prefervation and re¬
covery of his health.
ISSUS, now Ajazo, a town of Cilicia in Natolia,
with a harbour on the Levant Sea, a little to the north
©f Scanderoon. E. Long. 36. 25. N. Lat. 36. 56.
Near this place, in a difficult pafs between the
mountains and the fea, Alexander the Great fought
his fecond battle with Darius. One great caufe
of the defeat which the Perfians received here was
the bad conduit of their monarch, who led his nu¬
merous forces into a narrow place, where they had
not room to ail. Alexander was fo much furprifed
when he firft received the news that Darius was be¬
hind him, that he could fcarce believe it to be true:
but when he was thoroughly fatisfied of the fait, and
that Darius had again pafled the river Pinarus, he
called a council of war, wherein, without afking any
body’s advice, he only told them, that he hoped they
would remember their former aitions; and that they,
who were always conquerors, were about to fight
people who were always beat. He further obferved,
that Darius feeraed to be infatuated, fince he had with
fuch expedition quitted an open and champaign coun¬
try, where his numbers might have ailed with advan¬
tage, to fight in a place inclofed, where the Macedo¬
nian phalanx might be well drawn up, and where his
numbers could only incommode him. He then made
the neceflary difpofitions for repalfing the mountains,
polled guards where he found them neceflary, and then
commanded his troops to refrelh themfelves, and to
take their reft till morning.
At break of day he began to repafs the mountains,
obliging his forces to move in clofe order where the
road was narrow, and to extend themfelves as they
had more room; the right wing keeping always clofe
to the mountain, and the left to the fea-fhore. On
the right there was a battalion of heavy-armed troops,
befides the targeteers under the command of Nicanor
the fon of Parmenio. Next thefe, extending to the
phalanx, were the corps of Coenus and Perdiccas; and
on the left, the refpeitive bodies commanded by A-
myntas, Ptolemy, and Meleager. The foot appointed
to fupport them were commanded by Craterus; but
the whole left wing was committed to Parmenio, with
ftrift orders not to decline from the fea-lhore, left the
Perfians fhculd iurround them. Darius ordered Iflos.
20,000 foot and 30,000 horfe to tetire, finding that  
he already wanted room to draw up the reft. His
firft line confifted of 30,000 Greek mercenaries, having
on their right and left 60,000 heavy-armed troops,
being the utmoft the ground would allow. On the
left, towards the mountain, he polled 20,000 men,
which, from the hollow fituation of the place, were
brought quite behind Alexander’s right wing. The
reft of his troops were formed into clofe and ufelefs
lines behind the Greek mercenaries, to the number in
all of 600,000 men. When this was done, he fud-
denly recalled the horfe who had retired, fending part
of them to take poll on his right againft the Mace¬
donians commanded by Parmenio ; and the reft he
ordered to the left towards the mountain: but, finding
them unferviceable there, he fent the greateft part of
them to the right; and then took upon himfelf, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the Perfian kings, the com¬
mand of the main body. As foon as Alexander per¬
ceived that the weight of the Perfian horfe was dif-
pofed againft his left wing, he difpatched, with as
much fecrecy as he could, the Theflalian cavalry
thither, and fupplied their places on the right
by fome brigades of horfe from the van, and light-
armed troops. He alfo made fuch difpofitions, that,
notwithflanding the mighty advantage of the hollow
mountain, the Perfians could not furround him. But,
as thefe precautions had confiderably weakened the
centre of his army, he ordered thofe advanced polls
on the enemy’s left, of which he was mod apprehen-
five, to be attacked at the very beginning of the
fight; and, when they were eafily driven from them, he
recalled as many troops as were neceflary to (Lengthen
his centre.
When all things were in order, Alexander gave ftridl
command, that his army (hould march very (lowly.
As for Darius, he kept his troops fixed in their pods,
and in fome places threw up ramparts; whence the
Macedonians rightly obferved, that he thought himfelf
already a prifoner. Alexander at the head of the
right wing engaged firll, and without any difficulty
broke and defeated the left wing of Darius. But,
endeavouring to pafs the river Pinarus after them, his
troops in fome meafure lofing their order, the Greek
mercenaries fell upon them in flank, and made them
fight, not only for victory, but for their lives. Pto¬
lemy the fon of Seleucus, and 120 Macedonians of
fome rank, were killed upon the fpot. But the foot
next to Alexander’s right wing coming in feafonably
to its relief, fell upon the mercenaries in flank, amongft
whom a dreadful carnage was made; they being in a
manner furrounded by the horfe and light-armed troops,
which at firft purfued the left wing, and the foot that
had now pafled the river. The Perfian horfe on the
right dill fought gallantly ; but, when they were
thoroughly informed of the rout of their left wing, of
the deftru&ion of the Greek mercenaries, and that
Darius bimfelf was fled, they began to break, and be¬
take themfelves to flight alfo. The Theflalian cavalry
purfued them clofe at the heels ; the narrow craggy
roads incommoded them exceedingly, fo that vaft num¬
bers of them perifhed. As for Darius, he fled, foon
after the left wing was broken, in a chariot with a
few of his favourites: as far as the country was plain
1ST [ ] I T A
and Open, he efcaped well enough ; but, when the
roads became rocky and narrow, he quitted it, and,
mounting an horfe, rode all the night: his chariot, in
which were his cloak and his bow, fell into the hands
of Alexander, who carried them back to his camp.
In refpe£Vto the battle of Iflus, Diodorus informs
us, that Alexander looked erery-where about for Da¬
rius ; and, as foon as he difcovered him, with his
handful of guards attacked him-and the flower of the
Perfian army which was about him; being as defirous
of obtaining this vidlory by his perfonal valour, as of
fubduing the Perfian empire by the courage of his
foldiers. But when Oxathres, the brother of Darius,
faw Alexander’s defign, and how fiercely be fought
to accomplilh it, be threw bimfelf, with the horfe who
were about him, between his brother’s chariot and the
enemy, where an obftinate fight was maintained, till
the dead bodies rofe like an entrenchment about the
chariot of Darius. Many of the Perfian nobility
were flain, and Alexander bimfelf was wounded in the
thigh. At laft, the horfes in the chariot of Darius
ftarted, and became fo unrnly, that the king himfelf
was forced to take the reins ; the enemy, however,
prefled fo hard upon him, that he was conftrained to
call for another chariot, and mounted it in great dan¬
ger. This was the beginning of the rout, which foon
after became general. According to this author, the
Perfians loft 200,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe; the
Macedonians 300 foot, and 150 horfe.
Juftin informs us, that the Perfian army confifted
of 400,000 foot, and 100,000 horfe. He fays, that
the battle was hard fought, that both the kings were
wounded, and that the Perfians ftill fought gallantly
when their king fled, but that they were afterwards
fpeedily and totally routed : he is very particular as to
their lofs, which he fays amounted to 61,000 foot,
Jo,"ooo horfe, and 40,000 taken prifoners ; of the
Macedonians he fays there fell no more than 130 foot,
and 150 horfe. Curtins fays, that of the Perfians
there fell 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe : of Alex¬
ander’s army 504, he fays, were wounded; 32 foot
and 150 horfe killed. That we may not fufpeft any
error in tranfcribers, his own obfervation confirms the
fad : Tantulo impsndio ingens vittoria Jletit, “ So fmall
was .the coft of fo great a vidory.”
ISTHMIA, or Isthmian Games ; one of the four
folemn games which were celebrated every fifth year
in Greece. They had their name from the Ifthmus
of Corinth, where they were celebrated. In their firft
inftitution, according to Paufanias, they confifted only
of funeral rites and ceremonies in honour of Meli-
certes: but Thefeus afterwards, as Plutarch informs
qs, in emulation of Hercules, who had appointed
games at Olympia in honour of Jupiter, dedicated
thofe to Neptune, his reputed father; who was re¬
garded as the particular protedor of the Ifthmus and
commerce of Corinth. The fame trials of fkill were
exhibited here as at the other three facred games;
and particularly thofe of mufic and poetry. Thefe
games, in which the vidors were only rewarded with
garlands of pine-leaves, were celebrated with great
magnificence and fplendour as long as paganifm conti¬
nued to be the eftablifhed religion of Greece; nor
were they omitted even when Corinth was lacked and
burned by Mummius the Roman general; at which
time the care of them was transferred to the Sicyo- Ifthmus,
nians, but was reftored again to the Corinthians when II
their city was rebuilt.
ISTHMUS, a narrow neck, or flip of ground,
which joins two continents: or joins a peninfula to
the terra firma, and feparates two feas. See Penin¬
sula.
The moil: celebrated ifthmufes are thofe of Panama,
or Darien, which joins North and South America ;
that of Suez, which conneds Afia and Africa ; that
of Corinth, or Peloponnefus, in the Morea ; that of
Crim-Tartary, otherwife called Taurica Cherfonefus ;
that of the peninfula Romania, and Eriflb, or the
ifthmus of the Thracian Cherfonefus, 12 furlongs
broad, being that which Xerxes undertook to cut
through. The ancients had feveral defigns of cutting
the ifthmus of Corinth, which is a rocky hillock, about
ten miles over; but they were all in vain, the inven¬
tion of fluices being not then known. There have
been attempts too for cutting the ifthmus of Suez, to
make a communication between the Red fea and the
Mediterranean : but thefe alfo failed ; and in one of
them, a king of Egypt is faid to have loft 120,000
ISTRIA, a peninfula of Italy, in the territory of
Venice, lying in the north part of the Adriatic fea.
It is bounded by Carniola on the north ; and on the
fouth, eaft, and weft, by the fea. The air is un-
wholefome, efpecially near the coaft; but the foil pro¬
duces plenty of wine, oil, and paftures ; there are alfo-
quarries of fine marble. One part of it belongs to the
Venetians, and the other to the houfe of Auftria. Ca¬
bo d’lftria is the capital town.
ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy. See
the article Language.
This tongue is derived principally from the Latin ;
and of all the languages formed from the Latin, there
is none which carries with it more vifible marks of its
original than the Italian. It is accounted one of
the moft perfeft among the modern tongues, contain¬
ing words and phrafes to reprefent all ideas, to ex-
prefs all fentiments, to deliver one’s felf on all fubjeds,
to name all the inftruments and parts of arts, &c. It
is, however, complained, that it has too many dimi¬
nutives and fuperlatives, or rather augmentatives; but
without any great reafon : for if thefe words convey
nothing farther to the mind than the juft ideas of things,
they are no more faulty than our pleonafms and hy¬
perboles. The language correfponds to the genius of
the people: they are flow and thoughtful; and accor¬
dingly their language runs heavily, though fmoothly,
and many of their words are lengthened out to a great
degree. They have a great tafte for mufic; and, to
gratify their pafiion this way, have altered abundance
of their primitive words, leaving out: confonants, ta¬
king in vowels, foftening and lengthening out their
terminations for the fake of the cadence. Hence the
language is extremely mutical, and fucceeds better
than any other in operas, and fome parts of poetry ;
but it fails in ftrength and nerves: hence alfo a great
part of its words borrowed from the Latin became
fo far difguifed, that they are not eafily known again.
ITALY, one of the fineft countries of Europe, ly¬
ing between 7 and 10 degrees of E. Long, and be¬
tween 37 and 46 degrees of N. Lat. On the north,.
north--
I T A [ 3962 ] I T A
Italy. north-weft, and north-eaft, it is bounded by France,
Switzerland, the country of the Grifons, and Germa¬
ny ; on the eaft, by the Adriatic fea, or gulf of Ve¬
nice ; and on the fouth and weft, by the Mediterra¬
nean ; its figure bearing fome refemblance to that of
a boot. Its length from Aofta, at the foot of the
Alps in Savoy, to the utmoft verge of Calabria, is
about 600 miles ; but its breadth is very unequal,
being in fome places near 400 miles, in others not
! above 25 or 30.
Its different Italy was anciently known by the names of Satur-
names. n}aj Oenotria, Hefperia, and Aufonia. It was call¬
ed Saturnia from Saturn; who, being driven out of
Crete by his fon Jupiter, is fuppofed to have taken
refuge here. The names of Oenotria and Aufonia, it
borrowed from its ancient inhabitants the Oenotrians
and Aufones ; and that of Hefperia, or Wejleru, was
given it by the Greeks, from its fituation with refpeft
to Greece. The name of Italia, or Italy, which, in
procefs of time, prevailed over all the reft, is by fome
elerived from Italus, a king of the Siculi: by others,
from the Greek word Italos, fignifying an ox; this
country abounding, by reafon of its rich paftures, with
oxen of an extraordinary fize and beauty. All thefe
names were originally peculiar to particular provinces
of Italy, but afterwards applied to the whole coun¬
ty* . . . ' . .
IMvifion in This country was in ancient times, like moft
ancient others, divided into a great number of petty ftates
-times. and kingdoms. In after-times, when the Gauls fet¬
tled in the weftern, and many Greek colonies in the
eaftern parts, it was divided, with refpeft to its in¬
habitants, into three great parts, viz. Gallia Cifalpi-
na, Italy properly fo called, and Magna Grecia.
The moft weftern and northern parts of Italy were in
great part poffeffed by the Gauls : and hence took the
name of Gallia, with the epithets of Cifalpina and
Citerior, becaufe they lay on the fide of the Alps next
to Rome; zvidTogata, with relation to the Roman
gown or drefs which the inhabitants ufed ; but this laft
epithet is of a much later date than the former. This
appellation was antiquated in the reign of Auguftus,
when thedivifion of Italy into eleven provinces, intro¬
duced by that prince, took place. Hence it is that
the name of Cifalpine Gaul frequently occurs in the
authors who flouriihed before, and fcarce ever in thofe
who wrote after the reign of Auguftus. This country
extended from the Alps and the river Varus, parting
if from Tranfalpine Gaul, to the river Aefus ; or, as
•Pliny will have it, to the city of Ancona, in the an¬
cient Picenum. On the north, it was divided from
Rhaetia by the Alps, called Alpes Rbaticts ; and from
Illyricum by the river Formio: but on this fide, the
borders of Italy were, in Pliny’s time, extended to the
river Arfia in Iftria. On the fouth, it reached to the
Liguftic fea, and the Apennines parting it from E-
truria ; fo that under the common name of Cifalpine
Gaul were comprehended the countries lying at the
foot of the Alps, called by Pliny and Strabo the Sub-
alpine countries, Liguria, Gallia Cifpadana, and
Tranfpadana. Italy, properly fo called, extended* on
the coaft of the Adriatic, from the city of Ancona to
the river Trento, now the Fortore ; and, on the Me¬
diterranean, from the Macra to the Silarus, now the
Sele. Magna Grsecia comprifed Apulia, Lucania,
and the country of the Brutii. It was called Greece, Ita*y*
becaufe moft of the cities on the coaft were Greek *
colonies. The inhabitants gave it the name of Great,
not as if it was larger than Greece, but merely out of
oftentation, as Pliny informs us.
All thefe countries were inhabited by a great num¬
ber of different nations fettled at different times, and
from many different parts. The names of the moft
remarkable of them were the Aborigines, or thofe
whofe origin was utterly unknown, and confequently
were thought to have none ; the Sabines, Hetrurians
or Tufcans, the Vmbri, Sammies, Campani, Apulii,
Calabrii, Lucanii, \\\<t Brutii, and iht Itatins. From
a colony of the latter proceeded the Romans, who j
gradually fubdued all thefe nations one after another, Subdued by
and held them in fubjeftion for upwards of 700 years, the Roman
All thefe nations were originally brave, hardy, tem¬
perate, and well (killed in the art of war ; and the Ro¬
mans much more fo than the reft. Their fubjeftion to
Rome, however, inured them to flavery ; their op-
preffion by the emperors broke their fpirit; and the
vaft wealth which was poured into the country from
all parts of the world, during the time of the Roman
profperity, corrupted their manners, and made them
degenerate from their former valour. Of this dege¬
neracy the barbarous nations of the north took the ad¬
vantage to invade the empire in innumerable multi¬
tudes. Though often repelled, they nfever failed to
return ; and it was found neceffary to take great num¬
bers of them into the Roman fervice, in order to de¬
fend the empire againft the reft of their countrymen.
In the year 476, the Heruli, prefuming on the fervi- the He-
ces they had done the empire, demanded a third part ruli.
of the lands of Italy; and being refufed, chofe one
Odoacer, a man of low birth, but of great valour and
experience, for their king ; and having totally de-
ftroyed the remains of the Roman empire, proclaimed
Odoacer king of Italy. The new monarch, howe¬
ver, did not think proper to alter the Roman form of
government, but fuffered the people to be governed
by the fenate, confuls, &c. as before. He enjoyed
his dignity in peace till the year 488, when Zeno,
emperor of Conftantinople, being hard preffed by
Theodoric king of the Oftrogoths, advifed him to turn
his arms againft Odoacer, whom he could eafily over¬
come, and thus make himfelf fovereign of one of the
fined countries in the world. {
Theodoric accepted the propofal with great joy, invaded by
and fet out for Italy, attended by an infinite number Theoderic
of people, carrying with them their wives, children, ^Oftro-
and effedls, on waggons. Several Romans of great Sot *
diftin&ion attended him in this war; while, on the
other hand, many of his countrymen chofe to remain
in Thrace, where they became a feparate nation, and
lived for a long time in amity with the Romans. The
Goths, being deftitute of (hipping, were obliged to
go round the Adriatic. Their march was performed
in the depth of winter; and, during the whole time, a
violent famine and plague raged in their army. They
were alfo oppofed by the Gepidse and Sarmatians ; but
at laft, having defeated thefe enemies, and overcome
every other obftacle, they arrived in Italy in the year
489. Theodoric advanced to the river Sontius, now
Zonzo, near Aquileia, where he halted for fome time
to refrelh his troops. Here he was met by O loacer
at
I T A [ 3963 ] I T A
Italy, at the head of a very numerous army, but compofed
 of many different nations commanded by their refpec-
tive chiefs, and confequently without fufftcient union
6 br zeal for the common caufe. Theodoric therefore
oarer de-gained an eafy viftory, cut many of his enemies in pie-
ted. ces, and took their camp. Odoacer retired , to the
plains of Verona, and encamped there at a fmall di-
ftance from the city ; but Theodoric purfued him clofe,
and foon forced him to a fecond engagement. The
Goths obtained another vidtory ; but it coft: them dear.
Odoacer’s men made a much better refiftance than
before, and great numbers fell on both fides. The
vidtory, however, was fo far decifive, that Odoacer
was obliged to fhut himfelf up in Ravenna ; fo that
Theodoric having now no enemy to oppofe him in the
field, befieged and took feveral important places, and
among the reft Milan and Pavia. At the fame time,
Tufa, commander in chief of Odoacer’s forces, de-
ferted to the enemy with the greateft part of the
troops he had with him, and was immediately employ¬
ed in conjundlion with a Gothic officer in purfuit of
his fovereign. Odoacer had left that city, and was
advanced as far as Faenza, where he was clofely be¬
fieged by Tufa ; but the traitor, declaring again for
his old mafter, joined him with all his troops, and de¬
livered up feveral officers that had been appointed by
Theodoric to ferve under him. Thefe were fent in
irons to Ravenna ; and Odoacer being joined by Fri-
deric, one of Theodoric’s allies, with a confiderable
body of troops, once more advanced againft his ene¬
mies. He recovered all Liguria, took the city of
Milan, and at laftbefiged Theodoric himfelf in Pavia.
The Goths, having brought all their families and ef¬
fects along with them, were greatly diftreffed for want
of room ; and muft have undoubtedly fubmitted, if
their enemies had continued to agree among themfelves.
The quarrels of his followers proved the ruin of Odoa¬
cer. Theodoric, finding that the enemy remitted the
vigour of their operations, applied for fuccours to Ala-
ric king of the Vifigoths, who had fettled in Gaul.
As the Vifigoths and Oftrogoths were originally one
and the fame nation, and the Vifigoths had received
among them, fome years before, a great number of
Oftrogoths, under the conduft of Videmir, coufin-ger-
man to Theodoric, the fupplies were readily granted.
The ina&ion of the enemy gave thefe fuccours time to
arrive; upon which Theodoric inftantlyjoined them,
and, marching againft his enemies, gave them a total
overthrow. Odoacer again took refuge in Ravenna, but
was clofely befieged by Theodoric in 490. The fiege
lafted three years; during which Odoacer defended
himfelf with great bravery, and greatly annoyed the
befiegers with his fallies. Theodoric, however, im¬
patient of delay, leaving part of his army to blockade
the city, marched with the reft againft the ftrong
holds which Odoacer had garrifoned. All thefe he
reduced with little difficulty.; and in 492 returned to
the fiege of Ravenna. The befieged were now redu¬
ced to great ftraights both by the enemy without and
a famine within, the price of wheat being rifen to fix
pieces of gold per bulhel. On the other hand, the
Goths were quite worn out with the fatigues of fuch
a long fiege ; fo that both parties being willing to put
an end to the war, Odoacer fent John biftiop of Ra¬
venna, to Theodoric with terms of accommodation.
Jornandes informs us, that Odoacer only begged his Italy,
life; which Theodoric bound himfelf, by a folemn
oath, to grant him : but Procopius fays, that they submits
agreed to live together on equal terms. This laftanjjs pUi
feems very improbable : but whatever were the terms to death,
of the agreement, it is certain that Theodoric did not
keep them ; for having a few days after invited Odoa¬
cer to a banquet, he difpatched him with his own
hand. All his fervants and relations were mafiacred
at the fame time; except his brother Aonulphus, and
a few more, who had the good luck to make their
efcape, and retired beyond the Danube. 8
Thus Theodoric became mafter of all Italy, and Theodor'c
took upon himfelf the title of king of that country, as proclaimed
Odoacer had done before ; though, with, a pretended
deference to the emperor of Conftantinople, he fent powe/4
meffengers aftcing liberty to afiume that title after he with mode-
had a&ually taken it. Having fecured his newkingdom ration,
as well as he could by foreign alliances, Theodoric next
applied himfelf to legiflation, and ena&ed many falu-
tary laws befides thofe of the Romans which he retained.
He chofe Ravenna for the place of his refidence, in
order to be near at hand to put a (top to the incur-
fions of the barbarians. The provinces were governed
by the fame magiftrates that had prefided over them
in the times of the emperors, viz. the confulares, cor-
reclores, and prajides. But befides thefe, he fent, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the Goths, inferior judges, di-
ftinguifhed by the name of counts, to each city. Thefe
were to adminifter juftice, and to decide all contro-
verfies and difputes. And herein the polity of the
Goths far excelled that of the Romans. For in the
Roman times a whole province was governed by a
confularis, a correftor, or a prsefes, who refided in
the chief city, and to whom recourfe was to be had, at
a great charge, from the moft remote parts: but Theo¬
doric, befides thefe officers, appointed, not only in the
principal cities, but in every, fmall town and village,
inferior magiftrates of known integrity, who were to-
adminifter juftice, and by that means fave thofe who
had law-fuits the trouble and expence of recurring to
the governor of the whole province ; no appeals to di-
ftant tribunals being allowed, but in matters of the
greateft importance, or in cafes of manifeft injuftice.
Under the adminiftration of Theodoric Italy enjoy¬
ed as great happinefs as had been experienced under the
very.heft emperors. As he had made no alteration in
the laws except that abovementioned, fo he contented
himfelf with the fame tributes and taxes that had been
levied by the emperors; butwas, on all occafionsof pub¬
lic calamity, much more ready to remit them than moft
of the emperors had been. He did not treat the na¬
tives as thofe of the other Roman provinces were treat¬
ed by the barbarians who conquered them. Thefe
ftripped the ancient proprietors of their lands, eftates,
and poffeffions, dividing them among their chiefs ; and
giving to one a province with the title of duke, to an¬
other a frontier country with the title of marquis ; to
fome a city with the title of count, to others a caftle
or village with the title of baron. But Theodoric, who
piqued himfelf upon governing after the Roman man¬
ner, and obferving the Roman laws and inftitutions,
left every one in the full enjoyment of his ancient pro¬
perty. As to religion, though he himfelf, like moft
of his countrymen, profefled the tenets of Arius, he
I T A
[ 3964 ]
I T A
Beheads
Boethius
and Sytn-
machus,
and dies of
grief.
Amalafmi-
tha Regent;
Is treacher-
oufly impri-
foned, and
put to death
^allowed his fubjefls to profefs the orthodox do£lrine fured her of his protedlion. But before this letter Italy.
without moleftation, giving liberty even to the Goths to could reach her, the unhappy princefs was ftrangled in 
renounce the do&rines in which they had been educa- the bath by the friends of thofe whom in the reign of
ted, and embrace the contrary opinions. In (liort, her fon /he had defervedly put to death for raifing di-
his many virtues, and the happinefs of his fubje&s, are fturbances in the date. IJr
celebrated by all the hi/lorians of thofe times. The end On the news of Amalafuntha’s death, Juftinian re- For which
of his reign, however, was fullied by the death of the folved upon an immediate war with the Goths; and, to rea(Pn Ju*
celebrated philofopher Boethius, and his father-in-law facilitate the enterprize, ufed his utmoft endeavours to
Symmachus, They were both beheaded in Pavia, on induce the Franks to affift him. To his folicitations 0n the
an unjuft fufpicion of treafon ; and fcarce was the fen- he added a large fum of money; which laft was very Goths,
tence put in execution when the king repented, and a- acceptable to his new allies. They promifed to aflift
bandoned himfelf to the moft pungent forrow. The the emperor to the utmoft of their power; but, inftead
excefs of his grief affetfted his underftanding ; for, not of performing their promife, while Juftinian’s arms
long after, the head of a large fi/h being ferved up to were employed againft the Goths, Thierri, the eldeft
fupper, he fancied the head of the fi/h to be that of fon of Clovis, feized on feveral cities of Liguria, the
Symmacbus threateninghim ina ghaftly manner. Here- Alpes Cottite, and great part of the prefent territory
upon, feized with horror and amazement, he was carried of Venice, for htmfelf. Juftinian, however, found fuf-
to his bed-chamber, where he died in a few days, on the fictent refources in the valour of Belifarius, notwith-
zd of September 526. /landing the defe&ion of his treacherous allies. This
After the death of Theodoric, the kingdom devol- celebrated general was veiled with the fupreme com-
ved to Athalric his grandfon; who being at that time mand, and abfolute authority. His inftruflions were
only eight years of age, his mother Amalafuntha took to pretend a voyage to Carthage, but to make an at-
upon her the regency. Her adminiftration was equally tempt upon Sicily ; and, if he thought he could fuc-
upright with that of Theodoric himfelf: but the bar- ceed in the attempt, to land there ; otherwife to fail
barxans of whom her court was compofed, finding for Africa, without difeovering his intentions. Another
fault with the encouragement /he gave to learning, general, named Mundus, commander of the troops in
forced her to abandon the education of her fon, who Illyricum, was ordered to march into Dalmatia, which
thereupon plunged into all manner of wickednefs, and was fubjeft to the Goths, and attempt the reduction
behaved to his mother with the greateft arrogance; and of Salonae, the better to open a pa/Tage into Italy. This
the faflton finding themfelves thus /Lengthened, at laft he accomplilhed without difficulty, and Belifarius made
commanded the queen to retire from court. himfelf matter of Sicily fooner than he himfelf had ex-
Amalafuntha, exerting her authority, feized three of pe&ed. Theifland was reduced on the laft of Decem-
the ringleaders of the fedition, whom /he confined in ber 535 ; upon which Belifarius, without lofs of time,
the moft remote parts of Italy. But thefe maintaining paffed over to Reggio, which opened its gates to him.
a fecret correfpondence with their friends and rela- From Reggio he purfued his march to Rome, the pro-
tions, never ceafed to ftir up the people againft her; vinces of Abrutium, Lucania, Puglia, Calabria, and
infomuch, that the queen, apprehending that the fac- Samnium, readily fubmitting to him. The city of
tion might in the end prevail, wrote to the emperor Naples endured a fiege; but Belifarius entered in thro’
Juftinian, begging leave to take refuge in his domi- an aquedudt, and gave it up to be plundered by his
nions. The emperor readily complied with her requeft, foldiers.
offering a noble palace at Durazzo for her habitation; Theodotus, alarmed at thefe fucceffes, and having
but the queen having in the mean time caufed the three neither capacity nor inclination to carry on the war,
ringleaders to be put to death, and no new difturb- fent ambaffadors to Juftinian with propofals of peace,
ances arifing thereupon, /he did not accept of the em- He agreed to renounce all pretenfions to the i/land of
peror’s offer. In 533, Athalric having contrafted a Sicily ; to fend the emperor yearly a crown of gold
lingering diftemper by his riotous living and debauch- weighing 300 pounds; to fupply him with 3000 men
cries, Amalafuntha, to avoid the calamities with which whenever he /hould think proper to demand them.
Italy was threatened in cafe of his death, formed a de- Several other articles were contained in the propofal,
fign of delivering it up to Juftinian : but before her which amounted to the owning of Juftinian for his
fcheme was ripe for execution, Athalric died. Upon lord, and that he held the crown of Italy only through
which the queen took for her collegue one Theodotus his favour. As he apprehended, however, that thefe
her coufin; obliging him, however, to fwear that he offers might not yet be fatisfaftory, he recalled his
would fuffer her to enjoy and exercife her former power, ambaffadors for further orders. They were now de- ^
This he very readily did, but foon forgot his promife ; fired to inform Juftinian, that Theodotus was willing Theodotus
and, when /he took the liberty to remind him of it, to refign the kingdom to him, and content himfelf offers to re
cauftd her to be feized and confined in an i/land of the with a penfion fuitable to his quality. But he obliged f‘gn the ,
the lake Bolfena in Tufcany. But as Theodotus had them by an oath not to mention this propofal, till kin£ om‘
great reafon to believe that this condudl would be re- they found that the emperor would not accept of the
fented by Juftinian, he obliged her to write to him that other. The firft propofals were accordingly rejedled
no injury or injuftice had been done her. Along with as they had fuppofed ; upon which the ambaffadors
this letter he fent one written by himfelf, and filled produced the fecond, figned by Theodotus himfelf,
with heavy complaints againft Amalafuntha. Theem- who, in his letter to the emperor, told him among
peror, however, was fo far from giving credit to wbat other things, that being unacquainted with war, and
Theodotus urged againft her, that he openly efpoufed addi&ed to the ftudy of philofophy, he preferred his
her «aufe, wrote her a moft affeftionate letter, and af- quiet to a kingdom. Juftinian, tranfported with joy,
and
I T A [ 3965 ] I T A
and imagining the war already finiflied, anfwered the
— king in a moft obliging manner, extolling his wifdom,
and giving him, befides what he demanded, the greateft
honours of the empire. The agreement being con¬
firmed by mutual oaths, lands were afiigned to Theo-
dotus out of the king’s domain, and orders were dif-
patched to Belifarius to take poffefiion of Italy in his
name.
In the mean time a body of Goths having entered
Dalmatia, with a defign to recover the city of Salonae,
were encountered by an inferior army of Romans,
commanded by the fon of Mundus abovementioned.
The Goths proved vidtorious ; and the young general
I of the Romans was killed, and moft of his army
cut in pieces. Mundus marched againft the enemy to
revenge the death of his fon ; but met with no bet¬
ter fuccefs, his troops being defeated, and he himfelf
killed in the engagement. Upon this the Romans
abandoned Salonae and all Dalmatia ; and Theodotus,
14 elated with his fuccefs, refufed to fulfil the articles of
icodotus the treaty. Juftinian difpatchedCcnftantianus, an officer
f IfiUhe £rcat va*our and experience, into Illyricum, with
a ticles of or^ers to ra‘fe f°rces there, and to enter Dalmatia ;
: treaty, at the fame time he wrote to Belifarius to purfue the
war with the utmoft vigour.
The Goths were now reduced to the greateft ftraits.
Conftantianus drove them out of Dalmatia ; and Beli¬
farius having reduced all the provinces which compofe
the prefent kingdom of Naples, advanced towards
Rome. The chief men of the nation, finding their
king incapable of preventing the impending ruin, af-
fembled without his confent, and difpatched ambaf-
fadors to Belifarius with propofals of peace. Thefe
propofals were reje&ed ; and Belifarius returned for
anfwer that he would hearken to no terms, nor ftieath
,j his fword, till Italy was reannexed to the empire to
is de- which it belonged. The Goths finding Theodotus
>fed, and ft;]] Jna&ive, unanimoufly depofed him ; and chofe in
■'m his°' ^ea<* one Vitiges, a man of great valour, but of a
]. mean defcent. Theodotus fled to Ravenna ; but the
new king difpatched after him a meffenger, who foon
overtook him and cut off his head.
Vitiges began his government by writing a circular
letter, in which he exhorted his countrymen to exert
their ancient courage, and fight bravely for their lives
and liberties. He then marched with what forces he
could collect towards Rome ; but not thinking himfelf
able to defend that city againft the Roman forces, he
abandoned it to Belifarius, and arriving at Ravenna
was joined by the Goths from all parts, fo that he
foon found himfelf at the head of a confiderable army.
Belifarius in the mean time entered Rome without op-
pofition, on the 9th or 10th of December 537. The
Gothic garrifon retired by the Porta Flaminia, while
Belifarius entered by the Porta Afinaria. Leudaris,
governor of the city, who (laid behind, was fent, to¬
gether with the keys, to the emperor. Belifarius
immediately applied himfelf to the repairing of the
walls and other fortifications ; filled the granaries
with corn, which he caufed to be brought from Sicily;
and ftored the place with provificms, as if he had been
preparing for a fiege ; which gave no fmall uneafinefs
to the inhabitants, who chofe rather that their city
fhould lie open to every invader, than that they fhould
be liable to the calamities of a fiege. While Bdifa-
Vol. V.
rius was thus employed at Rome, the city of Bene- ha!y.
vento, with great part of the territory of Samnium,'
was delivered up to him: at the fame time the cities
of Narnia, Spoleto, and Perufia, revolting from the
Goths, received Roman garrifons ; as did moft of the
cities of Tufcany. lS
In the mean time, Vitiges having colle&ed an army He colkfts
of 150,000 men, refolved to march diredtly to Rome, a great
and engage Belifarius; or if he declined an engage- army-
ment, to lay fiege to the city. But apprehending
that the Franks, who were in confederacy with the em¬
peror, might fall upon him at the fame time, he fcnt
amhafladors to them, with offers of all the Gothic pof-
feffions in Gaul, befides a confiderable fum of money,
provided they joined him againft the emperor. The
Franks with their ufual treachery confented to the
propofal, received the money and the territories agreed
on, and then refufed to fulfill the terms of the treaty.
Vitiges, however, began his march to Rome, leaving
behind him all the fortified towns on the road, the
redu&ion of which he knew would coft him too much
trouble. Belifarius, whofe army, reduced by the
many towns he had garrifoned, did not now amount
to above 5000 men, difpatched meffengers to Con¬
ftantianus in Tufcany ; and to Beffas, by nation a Goth,
but of the emperor’s party, in Umbria, with orders
to join him with all poffible expedition ; writing at
the fame time to the emperor himfelf for fupplies, in
the moft preffing manner. Conftantianus joined him
purfuarK to his orders ; and foon after, Beffas, who, fall¬
ing in with part of the enemy’s vanguard, killed a
confiderable number of them, and put the reft to flight.
Belifarius had built a fort upon a bridge about a mile
from Rome, and placed a ftrong garrifon in it to dif-
pute the paffage with the enemy ; but the garrifon,
feized with a panic at the approach of the Goths,
abandoned their poll in the night, and fled into Cam¬
pania. Early in the morning, Vitiges paffed over great
part of his army, and marched on till he was met by
Belifarius, who, knowing nothing of what had hap¬
pened, came with 1000 horfe to view the ground jy
about the bridge. He was greatly furprifed when he Obftinate
beheld the enemy marching up againft him : however, *nSagemcnt
left he (hould heighten their courage by his flight or Goths "and6
retreat, he flood his ground, and received the enemy at Romans,
the head of his fmall body, expofing himfelf, without
his ufual prudence and difcretion, to the greateft dan¬
gers. Being known by fome fugitives, and difcovered
to the enemy, they all aimed at him alone, which
made his own men the more folicitous to defend him;
fo that the whole conteft was for fome time about his
perfon. At laft the Goths were driven back to their
camp, which the Romans with great temerity at¬
tempted to force. In this attempt, however, they
met with fuch a vigorous refiftance, that they foon
abandoned the enterprife, and retired with precipita¬
tion to a neighbouring eminence ; whence they were
forced down by the enemy, put to flight, and pur-
ftfcd to the very gates of the city. Here they were
in greater danger than ever; for thofe within, fearing
that the enemy might in that confufion enter with
them, refufed to admit them. The general himfelf
cried out earneftly to them, telling who he was, and
commanding them to open the gates ; but as they had
been informed by thofe who firft fled, that he was
22 O (lain.
I T A [ 3966 ] I T A
flain, and they could not didinguifli him on account
~ of the blood and dull with which his face was covered,
they gave no ear to what he faid. In this extremity,
having encouraged his men, who were now driven
into a narrow compafs, to make a laft effort, he put
himfelf at their head, and attacked the enemy with
fuch fury, that the Goths, imagining frefh troops were
fallying out upon them, began to give ground, and
at laft retired to their camp. The Roman general
did not purfue them ; but entered the city, where he
>8 was received with loud acclamations.
^ome^e* A few days after, the city was clofely invefted by
theGoths. Vitiges ; who, todiftrefs the inhabitants, pulled down
the aquedufts by which water was conveyed into the
city, and which had been built at an immenfe charge
by the Roman emperors. Belifarius on his part
omitted nothing for his defence ; infomuch that the
cowardly citizens affembled in a tumultuous manner,
and . railed at the general on account of his fuppofed
temerity. Vitiges, to encourage this mutinous difpo-
fition, difpatched ambaffadors to the fenate with pro-
pofals of peace. Thefe ambaffadors, however, were
difmiffed without any anfwer, and the fiege was be¬
gun with great vigour. Belifarius made a gallant
defence ; and in feven months is faid to have deftroyed
40,000 of the Goths. About this time he received a
fupply of 1600 archers from the emperor; and thefe, in
feveral fuccefsful fallies, are faid to have killed 4000
more of the enemy.
The Romans, elated with their fuccefles, now be¬
came impatient for an engagement; and at laft, not-
withftanding all the remonftrances of their general,
forced him to lead them out againft the enemy. The
fuccefs was anfwerable to the rafh attempt. The Ro¬
mans were defeated, with the lofs of fome of their
braveft officers, and a great many of their common
foldiers ; after which they contented themfelves with
fallying out in fmall parties, which they commonly
did with the greateft fuccefs.
But though the Romans had the fatisfaiftion ofthus
cutting off their enemies, they were moft grievoufly
affli&ed with a famine and plague ; infomuch that the
inhabitants, no longer able to bear their calamities,
were on the point of forcing Belifarius to venture a
fecond battle, when a feafonable fupply of troops, viz.
3000 Ifaurians, 800 Thracian horfe, and 1300 horfe
of other nations, together with 500 Italians who joined
them by the way, arrived at Rome. Belifarius imme¬
diately fallied out by the Flaminian gate, and fell
upon the Goths in order to give his allies time to
enter by the oppofite fide of the city, which they did
without the lofs of a man.—The Goths, hearing of the
arrival of thefe troops, and their numbers being
magnified as is ufual injsrtch cafes, began to de-
fpair of becoming mafters of the city; efpecially as
the famine and plague raged with great violence in
their camp, and their army was much reduced.
Ambaffadors were therefore difpatched to Belifarius
with propofals of peace ; but the only thing they could
obtain was a ceffation of arms for three months, du¬
ring which time they might fend ambaffadors to the
emperor. The negociations with the emperor, how¬
ever, proved unfuccefsful; and the fiege was purfued
with great vigour till Vitiges received the news of
the taking of Rimini by the Romans. As this city
was but a day’s journey from Ravenna, the Goths Italy. |
were fo much alarmed, that they immediately raifed 1
the fiege of Rome, after it had continued a year andTheIJ-® ]
nine days. Belifarius fell upon their rear as they raife^e^
paired the bridge of the Tiber, and cut great numbers
of them in pieces, while others, ft ruck with a panic,
threw themfelves into the river and were drowned.
The firft enterprize of Vitiges, after raifing the
fiege of Rome, was an attempt upon Rimini s but
while he was employed in this fiege, the Romans made
themfelves mafters of Milan; upon which a Gothic ge¬
neral named Uraia, was immediately difpatched with a
powerful army to retake it. In the mean time, how¬
ever, a fupply of 7000-Romans arrived from the em¬
peror, under the command of Narfes, a celebrated ge¬
neral. The immediate confequence of this was the
raifing of the fiege of Rimini; for Vitiges, perceiving
the two Roman armies coming againft him, and con¬
cluding, from the many fires they made, that they
were much more numerous than they really were, fled
in fuch hafte, that the greateft part of the baggage
was left behind. The confufion of the Goths was fo
great, that had not the garrifon been extremely feeble,
they might have eafily cut them off in their retreat,
and thus put an end to the war at once. The fuccefs
of the Romans, however, was now retarded by fome
mifunderftandings between the two generals; fo that,
though Belifarius made himfelf mafter of Urbinum
and Urbiventum, while Narfes reduced fome other 10 j
places; yet the important city of Milan was fuffered to Milan ta-
fall into the hands of the Goths, who maffacred all the |
inhabitants that were able to bear arms, to the number ° S'
of 300,000, and fold the women for flaves. The city
was alfo totally demolifhed ; and this difafter made
fuch an ijmpreffion on the mind of Juftinian, that he
immediately recalled Narfes, and gave the command
of his troops to Belifarius.
Vitiges, who had promifed himfelf great advantages
from the difagreement of the two generals, was much
difappointed by the recall of Narfes ; and therefore,
dreading the power of Belifarius when at the head of
a formidable army, thought of engaging in alliance
with fome foreign prince. In his choice, however, he
was fomewhat at a lofs. He knew the treachery of
the Franks, and therefore did not apply to them. He
applied to the Lombards; but, though tempted by
the offer of a large fum of money, they continued in¬
violably attached to the Roman intereft. At laft he
found means to perfuade Chofroes king of I’erfia to
make war upon Juftinian, which he thought would in¬
fallibly procure the recall of Brlifarius. But the
Roman general, underftanding his defign, pufhed on ^
the war in the moft vigorous manner; while in the jt, |y inVa-j
mean time, the treacherous Franks, thinking both na- ded by tha
tions fufficiently weakened by their mutual hoftilities, Franks, j
refolved to attack both, and feize upon the country
for which they contended. Accordingly, Theodebert,
unmindful of the oaths he had taken both to the
Goths and Romans, paffed the Alps at the head of
150,000, or, as fome will have it, 200,000 men, and
entered Liguria. As no hoftilities were committed
by them on their march, the Goths concluded that
they were come to their afliftance; and therefore took
care to fupply them with proyilions. Thus they
croffed thePo without oppofition; and having fecured.
I T A [ 3967 ] I T A
Italy, the bridge, marched towards the place where a body
of Goths were encamped ; who, looking upon them
as friends, admitted them without hefitation. But
they were foon convinced of their miflake ; for the
Franks falling unexpectedly upon them, drove them
out of the camp with great daughter, and feized on
their baggage and provifions. A body of Romans
that lay at a fmall diftance from the Goths, concluding
that they had been defeated by Belifarius, advanced
with great joy to meet him as they imagined; but the
Franks falling unawares upon them, treated them as
they had done the Goths, and made themfelves mafters
of their camp. Thus they acquired a very confide-
rable booty and (lore of provifions: but the latter be¬
ing foon confumed, and the country round about quite
exhaulted, vaft numbers of the Franks periftied; fo
that Theodebert at lait found himfelf obliged to re¬
turn. In his way he deftroyed Genoa, and feveral
other places, and arrived in his own dominions loaded
with booty.
iccefs of ln the mean time, Belifarius w^as making great
:hf*rius. pr0grefg# He took the cities of Auximum and Fae-
fulae, after an obllinate liege; the inhabitants of the
former having for fome time fed on grafs before they
would furrender. After this he invefted Ravenna,
the capital of all the Gothic dominions in Italy. The
place was defended by a very numerous garrifon, com¬
manded by the king in perfon, who exerted all his
bravery in the defence of his metropolis. As the
fiege, however, was pufhed on with great vigour, it
was evident that the city muft at laft fubmit; and the
great fucceffes of the Romans began to give jealoufy
to the neighbouring potentates. Theodebert king of
the Franks offered to afiilt Vitiges with an army of
500,000 men ; but Belifarius, being informed of this
negociation, fent ambaffadors to Vitiges, putting him
in mind of the treachery of the Franks, and affured
him that the emperor was ready to grant him very
honourable terms. The king, by the advice of his
counfellors, rejedled the alliance of the Franks, and
fent ambaffadors to Conftantinople; but in the mean
time, Belifarius, in order to bring the citizens to his
own terms, bribed one of them to fet fire to a maga¬
zine of corn, by which means the city was foon ftrai-
tened for want of provifion.s. But, notwithftanding
this difafter, they ftill continued to hold out, till the
arrival of the ambaffadors from Conftantinople, who
brought very favourable terms. Thefe were, That the
country beyond the Po, with refpeft to Rome, Ihould
remain to the Goths; but that the reft of Italy Ihould
be yielded to the emperor, and the royal treafure
of the Goths Ihould be equally divided between him
and the king. To thefe conditions, however, Belifa
rius pofitively refufed to affent; being defirous of lead¬
ing captive the king of the Goths, as he had formerly
done the king of the Vandals, to Conftantinople. He
therefore purfued the fiege with more vigour than
ever, without hearkening to the complaints of his fol-
diers and officers, who were quite tired out with the
length of the fiege: he only obliged fuch of the offi¬
cers as were of opinion that the town could not be
taken, to exprefs their opinion in writing, that they
might not deny it afterwards.
The Goths were as weary of the fiege as the Ro-
anans; but, fearing left Juftinian fhould tranfplant
them to Thrace, formed a refblution, without the con- Tuly*
fent of their king, of furrendering to Belifarius him¬
felf, and declaring him emperor of the weft. To this
they were the more encouraged by the refufal of Beli¬
farius to agree to the terms propofed by the emperor,
from whence they concluded that he defigned to re¬
volt, and make himfelf emperor of Italy. Of this,
however, Belifarius had no defign; but thought proper
to accept of the title, in order to accelerate the fur-
render of the city, after acquainting his principal
officers with what had paffed. Vitiges at laft difco-
vered the plot; but finding hrmfelf in no condition to
oppofe it, he commended the refolution of his people,
and even wrote to Belifarius, encouraging him to take
upon him the title of king, and affuring him of his
affiftance. Hereupon Belifarius preffed the Goths to
furrender; which, however, they ftill refufed, till he
had taken an oath that he would treat them with hu¬
manity, and maintain them in the poffeffion of all their
rights and privileges. Upon this he was admitted Ravenna
into the city, where he behaved with great moderation reduced,
towards the Goths; but feized on the royal treafure,
and fecured the perfon of the king. The Roman army,
when it entered Ravenna, appeared fo very iuconfide-
rable, that the Gothic women, on beholding it, could
not forbear fpitting in the faces of their hufbands, and
reviling them as cowards.
The captivity of Vitiges, and the taking of Ra¬
venna, did not put an end to the war. Belifarius was
foon after recalled to take the command of the army
in the eaft. The Goths were greatly furprifed that
he fhould leave his new kingdom out of regard to the
orders of the emperor; but, after his departure, chofe
one Udebald, a man of great experience in affairs both
civil and military, for their king. He revived the
drooping fpirits of his countrymen, defeated the Ro¬
mans, and reduced all the province of Venetia; but
was in a fhort time murdered, and Eraric, a Rugian,
fucceeded to the throne. He was fcarce invefted with
the fovereignty, when his fubjefts began to think of
depofing him, and raifingTotila to the throne; which
the latter accepted, upon condition that they previoufly
difpatched Eraric. This was accordingly done; after
which Totila was proclaimed king of Italy, in the
year 542. _ 14
The new king proved a very formidable enemy-to Succefs of
the Romans, who now loft ground every-where. They Totila a-
made an attempt on the city of Verona; in which ga5nft the
they mifearried through their own avarice, having dif- omans-
puted about the divifion of the plunder till the op¬
portunity of taking the town was paft. They were
next defeated in two bloody.engagements; the confe-
quence of which was, that the Goths made themfelves
mafters of all the ftrong places in Tufcany. From
thence marching into Campania and Samnium, they
reduced the ftrong town of Beneventum, and laid fiege
to Naples. During the fiege of this laft place, fe¬
veral detachments were fent from the king’s army,
which took Cumae, and recovered all Brutia, Lucania,
Apulia, and Calabria, where they found confiderable
fums which had been gathered for the emperor’s ufe.
The Romans, in the mean time, difheartened by their
Ioffes, and deprived of thofe fums which fhould have
paid their wages, rtfufed to take the field. A confi¬
derable fleet was therefore fent by Juftinian to the re-
22 O 2 lief
I T A [ 3968 ] I T A
Italy, lief of Naples: but Totila, having timely notice of
 “this defign, manned, with incredible expedition, a
great number of light veflels; which, falling unex¬
pectedly on the Roman fleet, took or funk every fhip,
and made prifoners of all on board, excepting a few
who efcaped in their boats. A fimllar fate attended
another fleet difpatched from Sicily for the fame pur-
pofe. They put to fea in the depth of winter? and,
meeting with a violent florin, were driven afhore near
the enemy’s camp ; who funk the fhips, and made
what (laughter they pleafed of the feamen and fold’ers.
Upon this fecond difafter, the Neapolitans, defpairing
of further relief, fubmitted to Totila; who granted
them honourable terms, and treated them with great
humanity. As they had been" long pinched with fa¬
mine, Totila, apprehending they might endanger their
lives by indulging their appetites too much at firfl,
placed guards at the gates to prevent their going out,
taking care at the fame time to fupply them fparingly
with provifions, but increaling their allowance every
day. Being thus by degrees reflored to their former
flrength, he ordered the gates to be fet open, and
gave every one full liberty to flay in the city, or re¬
move, as he thought fit. The garrifon he treated
with extraordinary kindnefs. They were firft fupplied
with fhips to carry them to Conftantinople; but the
king having difeovered that their real defign was to
fail to Rome, in order to reinforce the garrifon of that
city, (which they knew he was foon to beSege,) he
was fo far from punifhing them as they expeded, that
he furnifhed them with horfes, waggons, and provi¬
fions, and ordered a body of Goths to efcort them to
Rome by land, as the winds had proved unfavourable
for their paffage by fea.
Totila having thus become mailer of Naples and
moft of the other fortrefles in thefe parts, began to
think of reducing Rome alfo. He firft attempted to
perfuade the citizens to a furrender: but finding his
perfuafions ineffe&ual, he fent a detachment of his
army into Calabria to reduce Otranto, which had not
yet fubmitted; after which, he marched with the reft
of his forces againft the towns in the neighbourhood
of Rome. The city of Tibur, now Tivoli, about 18
miles from Rome, was betrayed to him, and all the
inhabitants, together with their bifhop, put to the
fword. Several other flrong holds in the neighbour¬
hood of that city he took by ftorm; fo that Rome was
in a manner blocked up by land, all communication
with the neighbouring country being cut off.
Juftinian, in the mean time, being greatly perplexed
by the bad news he every day received from Italy, re¬
called Bt’:farius from Perfia, notwithftanding the fuc-
cefs which attended him there. To fave Rome, how¬
ever, was now impoffible even for Belifarius himfelf.
As foon as he arrived in Italy, finding himfelf unable
either to relieve the towns which were befieged, or to
Hop the progrefs of the Goths, he difpatched letters
to Juftinian; informing him, that being deftitute of
men, arms, and money, it was impoffible for him to
profecute the war; upon which the emperor ordered
new levies to be made, all the veterans being engaged
in the Perfian war. In the mean time, however, To¬
tila purfued his good fortune; took the cities of Fir-
mum, Afculum, Auximum, Spoletum, &c. and at
length advanced to Rome, which he invefted on all
fides. As he drew near the city, two officers, whom
Belifarius had fent into the city, ventured to make a
fally, though contrary to the exprefs orders of their ge¬
neral, thinking they fhould furprife the Goths; but
they were themfelves taken in an ambufeade, and, moft
of their men being cut in pieces, narrowly efcaped fall¬
ing into the hands of the enemy. Belifarius made feveral
attempts to relieve the city : but all of them, however
well concerted, by fome accident or other proved un-
fuccefsfu!; which gave him fo much uneafinefs, that he
fell into a feverifh diforder, and , was for fome time
thought to be in danger of his life. The city was foon
reduced to great (traits : a dreadful famine enfued; and
the unhappy citizens having confumed every thing that
could be fuppofed to give them nourifhment, even the
grafs that grew near the walls, were obliged to feed
on their own excrements. Many put an end to their
lives, in order to free themfclves from the intolerable
calamities they fuffered. The reft addreflTed their go¬
vernor Beffas in the moft pathetic manner, intreating
him to fupply them with food ; or if that was not in
his power, either to give them leave to go out of the
town, or to put an end to their miferies by putting
them to death. Beflas replied, that to fupply them
with food was impoffible, to let them go unfafe, and
to kill them impious. In the end, however, he fuffered
thofe who were willing to retire, to leave the city, up¬
on paying him a fum of money; but moft of them ei¬
ther died on the road, or were cut in pieces by the
enemy. At laft, the befieged, unable to bear their mi¬
feries any longer, began to mutiny, and to prefs their
governor to come to an agreement with Totila. This,
however, he dill refufed; upon which, four of the Ifau-
riaqs who guarded one of the gates, went privately to
the camp of Totila, and offered to admit him into the
city. The king received this propofal with great joy;
and fending four Goths of great ftrength and intrepi¬
dity into the town along with them, he filently ap¬
proached the gates in the night-time with his whole
army. The gates were opened by the Ifaurians, as
they had promifed ; and upon the firft alarm, Beffas
with moft of the foldiers and officers, fled out of the
town. The inhabitants took fan&uary in the churches;
and only 60 of them and 26 foldiers were killed after
the town was taken. Tqjtila, however, gave his fol¬
diers full liberty to plunder the city : which they did
for feveral days together, ftripping the inhabitants of
all their wealth, and' leaving nothing in their houfes
but naked walls; by which means many perfons of di-
ftimSlion were reduced to beg their bread from door to
door. In the houfe of Beffas was found an immenfe
treafure, which he had fcandaloufly amaffed during the
fiege, by felling to the people, at an exorbitant price,
the corn which had been ftored up for the ufe of the
garrifon.
Totila, thus become mafter of Italy, fent ambaffa-
dors to Juftinian with very refpe&ful Utters, defiririg
to live on the fame terms with him that Theodoric had
done with his predeceffor Anaftafius, promifingin that
cafe to refpeft him as his father, and to affift him,
when he pleafed, with all his force, againft any other
nation whatever. On the contrary, if the emperor re-
jediedhis offers, he threatened to level Rome with the
ground, to put the whole fenate to the fword, and carry
the war into Illyricuia. The emperor returned no o-
Itdy.
*s <
Rome be-
i<S
And taken
I T A
Italy, ther anfwer, than that he referred the whole to Beli-
farius, who had full power to manage all things of that
nature. Upon this Totila refolved to deftroy the city;
and had aftually thrown down a third part of the wall,
when he received a letter from Belifarius, diffuading
him from his intention. After having ferioufly conli-
dered this letter, Totila thought proper to alter his
refolution with regard to the deftru&ion of the city;
but fent every one of the inhabitants into Lucania,
without leaving a Tingle perfon in the metropolis.
Belifarius hearing of this, immediately returned to the
capital, and undertook to repeople and.repair it. He
cleared the ditch which had been filled by Totila, but
was for the prefent obliged to fill up the breaches in
the walls with ftones loofely heaped upon orie another;
and in this fituation the city was again attacked by the
Goths. Belifarius, however, had taken care to fupply
the inhabitants with plenty of provifions, fo that they
were now in no danger of fuffering by famine; and the
afiaults of the enemy were vigoroufly repelled notwith-
ftanding the bad fuuation of the fortifications, fo that
27 Totila at laft abandoned the enterprize.
lifaries In the mean time the Perfians gained great advan-
alied. tages over the Romans in the Eaft, fo that there was a
neceflity for recalling Belifarius a fecond time. He was
no fooner gone, than Totila renewed his efforts with
greater vigour than ever; and at the fame time the
Franks, concluding that both Romans and Goths would
be much weakened by fuch a deftru&ive war, feized
upon Venetia which belonged to both nations, and
made it a province of the French empire. Totila did
not oppofe them; but having obtained a reinforcement
of 6000 Lombards, returned immediately before Rome,
fully intent on making himfelf mafler of that metro¬
polis. Having clofely invefted it by fea and land, he
hoped in a fhort time to reduce it by famine: but a-
gainft this the governor wifely provided, by caufing
corn to be fown within the walls; fo that he could pro¬
bably have defied the power of Totila, had not the city
been again betrayed by the Ifaurians, who opened one
of the gates, and admitted the enemy.
Thus the empire of the Goths was a third time efta-
blifhed in Italy; and Totila, immediately on his be¬
coming mafler of Rome, difpatched ambaffadors to
Juflinian, offering to alfilt him as a faithful ally a-
gainft any nation whatever, provided he would al¬
low him the quiet poffefiion of Italy. But Juftjnian
was fo far from hearkening to this propofal, that
he would not even admit the ambaffadors into his
prefence; upon which Totila refolved to purfue the
war with the utmoft vigour, and to make himfelf ma-
19 fler, not only of thofe places which the Romans poffef-
*'atf<j‘a!'ent fed in Italy, but in Sicily alfo. This he fully accom-
plifiied, when Narfes, who had formerly been joined in
the command with Belifarius, was appointed general,
with abfolute and uncontrouled authority. But while
this general was making the neceffary preparations for
his expedition, Totila, having equipped a fleet of 300
galleys, fent them to pillage the coafls of Greece,
where they got an immenfe booty. They made a de-
fcent on the ifland of Corfu ; and having laid it wafte,
they failed to Epirus, where they furprifed and plun¬
dered the cities of Nicopolis and Ancbialus, taking ma¬
ny fhips on the coaft, among which were fome laden
with provifions for the army of Narfes. After thefe
[ 3969 ]
I T A
fucceffes they laid fiege to Ancona in Dalmatia : but, haly.
being defeated both by fea and land, Totila once more
fem ambaffadors to Conflantinople, offering to yield
Sicily and all Dalmatia, to pay an annual tribute for
Italy, and to afiift the Romans as a faithful ally in all
their wars ; but Juflinian, bent upon driving the Goths
out of Italy, would not even fuffer the ambaffadors to
appear in his prefence.
Totila, finding that no terms could be obtained, be¬
gan to levy new forces, and make great preparations
by fea and land. He foon reduced the iflands of
Corfica and Sardinia; but this was the laft of his fuc¬
ceffes. Narfes arrived in Italy with a very formidable
army; and an immenfe treafure to pay the troops their
arrears, the w’ant of which had been one great caufe of
the bad fuccefs of Belifarius in his laft expedition. He
immediately took the road to Rome; while Totila af-
fembled all his forces, in order to decide the fate of
Italy by a general engagement. The battle proved who^de-
very obflinate ; but at laft the Gothic cavalry being feats and
put to the rout, and retiring in great confufion among kills Totila.
the infantry, the latter were thereby thrown into fuch
diforder, that they could never afterwards rally. Nar¬
fes, obferving their confufion, encouraged his men to
make a laft effort; which the Goths not being able to
withftand, betook themfelves to flight, with the lofs of
6000 men killed on the fpot. Totila finding the day
irrecoverably loft, fled with only five horfemen for his
attendants; but was purfued and mortally wounded by
a commander of one of the bodies of barbarians who
followed Narfes. He continued his flight, however,
for fome time longer; but was at laft obliged to halt
in order to get his wound dreffed, foon after which he
expired.
This difafter did not yet entirely break the fpirit of
the Goths. They chofe for their king one Teia, de-
fervedly efleemed one of the moft valiant men of their
nation, and who had on feveral occafions diftinguifhed
himfelf in a moft eminent manner. All the valour and
experience of Teia, however, were now infufficient to
flop the progrefs of the Romans. Narfes made him¬
felf mafter of a great number of cities, and of Rome
itfelf, before the Goths could affemble their forces.
The Roman general next proceeded to inveft Cumae,
which Teia determined at all events to relieve, as the
royal treafure was.lodged in that city. This brought
on an engagement, which, if Procopius is to be credit¬
ed, proved one of the mod bloody that ever was
fought. The Roman army confifted of vaft multi- 3°
tudes brought from different nations : the Goths were Allli reia*
few in comparifon; but, animated by defpair, and
knowing that all was at flake, they fought with the
utmoft fury. Their king placed himfelf in the firil
rank, to encourage his men by his example; and is
faid to have given fuch proofs of his valour and con¬
duct as equalled him to the moft renowned heroes of
antiquity. The Romans difeovering him, and know¬
ing that his death would probably put an end to the
battle, if not to the war itfelf, dire&ed their whole
force againft him, fome attacking him with fpears, and
others difeharging againft him Ihoweis of darts and
arrows. Teia maintained his ground with great in¬
trepidity, received the miflive weapons on his fhield,
and killed a great number of the enemy with his own
hand. When his ftiield was fo loaded with darts that
he
I T A [ 3970 ] I T A
Italy, he could not eafily wield it, he called for another.
* Thus he fhifted his fhield three times ; but as he at¬
tempted to change it another time, his bread being
neceffarily expofed for a moment, a dart (truck him in
that moment with fuch force, that he immediately fell
down dead in the place where he had ftood from the
beginning of the battle, and upon heaps of the enemy,
whom he had killed. The Romans, feeing him fall,
cut off his head and expofed it to the fight of the
Goths, not doubting but they would be immediately
difheartened and retire. In this, however, they were
difappointed. The Goths maintained the fight with
great vigour, till night put an end to the engagement.
The next day the engagement was renewed early in
the morning, and continued till night; but on the
third day, the Goths defpairing of being able to over¬
come an enemy fo much fuperior to them in numbers,
fent deputies to Narfes, offering to lay down their
arms, provided fuch of them as chofe to remain in I-
taly were allowed to enjoy their eftates and po(feffions,
without moleftation, as fubje&s of the empire, and
thofe who were willing to retire elfewhere, were fuf-
fered to carry with them all their goods and effeAs.
The end of To thefe terms Narfes readily affented ; and thus the
the entire empire of the Goths in Italy was finally dellroyed, the
Goths in count,7 now becoming a province of the eaftern Ro-
jujy> man empire.
In this conqueft, Narfes had been affifted, as al¬
ready obferved, by many barbarous nations, among
whom were the Lombards, at that time fettled in Pan-
nonia. On the conclufion of the war, they were dif-
mi(Ted with rich prefents, and the nation for fome time
continued faithful allies to the Romans. In the mean
time Julfinian dying, Narfes, who governed Italy with
an abfolute fway, was accufed to the emperor Ju-
ftin II. and to the emprefs Sophia, of afpiring at the
fovereignty of the country. Hereupon he was recall¬
ed, and Longinus fent to fncceed him. As Narfes
was an eunuch, the emprefs is reported to have faid,
that his employment at Conftantinople (hould be to
diftribute in the apartment of her women the portion
of wool which each was to fpin. Narfes, enraged at
31 this farcafm, replied, that he (hould begin fuch a
Narfes in- weij as (houIJ never be able to finifh ; and imme-
Lombards fi'ate'7 difpatched meflengers to Alboinus king of the
Lombards, inviting them into Italy. Along with the
meflengers he fent fome of the bed fruits the country
afforded, in order to tempt him the more to become
mafter of fuch a rich kingdom.
Alboinus, highly pleafed with the opportunity of
invading a country with which his fubje&s were already
well acquainted, began, without lofs of time, to make
the neceflary preparations for his journey. In the
month of April 568, he fet out with his whole nation,
men, women, and children; carrying with them all
their moveables. This promifcuous multitude arrived
by the way of Iftria; and advancing through the pro¬
vince of Venetia, found the whole country abandoned,
the inhabitants having fled to the neighbouring iflands
in the Adriatic. The gates of Aquileia were opened
by the few inhabitants who had courage to flay: mod
of them, however, had fled with all their valuable ef-
fefts; and among the red the Patriarch Paulinus, who
had carried with him all the valuable facred utenfils of
the churches. From Aquileia, Alboinus proceeded to
Forum Julii, of which he likewife became mader with- Italy,
out oppofition. Here he fpent the winter; during “*
which time he ere&ed Friuli into a dukedom, which
has continued ever fince. In 569, he made himfelf
mader of Trivigi, Oderzo, Monte Selce, Vicenza,
Verona, and Trent; in each of which cities he left a
drong garrifonof Lombards under the command of an
officer, whom he didinguifhed by the title of duke :
but thefe dukes were only officers and governors of ci¬
ties, who bore the title no longer than the prince
thought droper to continue them in their command
or government. Padua and fome other cities Al¬
boinus left behind him without attempting to re¬
duce them, either becaufe they were too well garri-
foned, or becaufe they lay too much out of his way.
In 570, he entered Liguria. The inhabitants were fo
terrified at his approach, that they left their habita¬
tions with fuch of their effeAs as they could carry off,
and fled into the mod mountainous and inacceffible 3*
parts of the country. The cities of Brelcia, Barga- Who re-
mo, Lodi, Como, and others quite to the Alps, being <luce t*?c
left almod without inhabitants, fubmitted of courfe ; j.
after which he reduced Milan, and was thereupon pro-taly,
claimed king of Italy.
But though the Lombards had thus conferred the
title of king of Italy on their fovereign, he was by no
means poffeffed of the whole country, nor indeed was
it ever in the power of the Lombards to get poffeffion
of the whole. Alboinus having made himfelf mafter
of Venetia, Liguria, ^Emilia, Hetruria, and Umbria,
applied himfelf to legiflation and the civilifation of his
fubjeAs. But before he could make any progrefs in
this work, he was taken off by the treachery of his
wife; and Clephis, one of the nobles, chofen king in
his (lead. Clephis rebuilt fome cities which had been
ruined during the wars between the Goths and Ro¬
mans, and extended his conquefts to the very gates of
Rome; but as he behaved both to the Romans and
Lombards with the greateft cruelty, he was murdered,
after a (hort reign of 18 months. His cruelty gave the
Lombards fuch an averfion againft regal power, that
they changed their form of government, being govern¬
ed only by their dukes for the fpace of ten years. Du¬
ring this interregnum, they proved fuccefsful in their
wars with the Romans, and made themfelves mailers
of feveral cities : but perceiving that their kingdom,
thus divided, could not fubfift, they refolved once
more to fubmit to the authority ot one man ; and
accordingly, in 585, Autharis was chofen king of the
Lombards.
The great objeA of ambition to the new race of
Lombard monarchs was the conqueft of all Italy; andgH(,due<i by
this proved at laft the ruin of their empire by Charles Charle-
the Great, as related under the article France, n° 21. magoe.
As the Lombards, however, had not been poffeffed of
the whole territory of Italy, fo the whole of it never
came into the pofleffion of Charlemagne: neither, fince
the time of the Goths, hath the whole of this country
been under the dominion of any fingle (late. Some of
the fouthern provinces were ftill poffeffed by the em¬
perors of Conftantinople; and the liberal grants of Pe¬
pin and Charlemagne himfelf to the pope, had invefted
him with a confiderable (hare of temporal power. The
territories of the pope indeed were fuppofed to be held
in vaffalage from France j but this the popes them¬
felves
I T A [ 3971 ] I T A
felves always ftiffly denied. The Indifputcd territory
of Charlemagne in Italy, therefore, was reftri&ed to
Piedmont, the Milanefe, the Mantuan, the territory
Italian Gk"03’ Parma, Modena, Tufcany, Bologna, the
dukedoms of Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento ; the laft
of which contained the greatelt part of the prefent
kingdom of Naples.
The feudal government which the Lombards had in¬
troduced into Italy, naturally produced revolts and
commotions, as the different dukes inclined either to
change their mafters, or to fet up for themfelves. Se¬
veral revolts indeed happened during the life of Char¬
lemagne himfelf; which, however, he always found
means to crufh : but after his death, the fovereignty
of Italy became ah objedt of contention between the
kings of France and the emperors of Germany. That
great monarch had divided his extenfive dominions a-
mong his children ; but they all died during his life¬
time, except Lewis, whom he affociated with himfelf in
the empire, and who fucceeded to all his dominions af¬
ter his death. From this time we may date the troubles
with which Italy was fo long overwhelmed; and of
which, as they proceeded from the ambition of thofe
called kings of Italy and their nobles, of the kings of
France, and of the emperors of Germany, it is difficult
to have any clear idea. The following fhort fketch,
however, may perhaps give fome fatisfadlion on this
3S perplexed fubje£t.
aiftory of tlie time Lewis the fon of Charlemagne was de-
ices ln^" clared emPeror °f the Weft, Italy was held by Ber-
iy after narc^ the fon of Pepin, brother to Lewis. Though this
-— of Bernard bore the title of king, yet he was only ac¬
counted a vafial of the emperor. His ambition, how¬
ever, foon prompted him to rebel againft his uncle;
but being abandoned by his troops, he was taken pri-
foner, had his eyes pulled out, and died three days
after. As the difturbances ftill continued, and the
nobles of Lombardy were yet very refradlory, Lo-
thaire, eldeft fon to the emperor, was, in the year
823, fent into Italy ; of which country he was firft.
crowned king at Rome, and afterwards emperor of
the Weft, during his father’s life-time. But though
his abilities were fufficient to have fettled every thing
in a ftate of tranquillity, his unbounded ambition
prompted him to engage in rebellion againft his father;
whom he more than once took prifoner; though in the
end he was obliged to fubmit, and afk pardon for his
offences, which was obtained only on condition of his
not 'palling the Alps without leave obtained from his
father.
In the mean time, the Saracens, taking advantage
of thefe inteftine wars, landed on the coaltsof Italy,
and committed fuch ravages, that even the biftiops
were obliged to arm themfelves for the defence of the
country. Lothaire, however, after returning from his
unnatural war with his father, was fo far from attemp¬
ting to put an end to thefe ravages, or to reftore tran¬
quillity, that he feized on fome places belonging to
the fee of Rome, under pretence that they were part
of his kingdom of Lombardy ; nor yvould he forbear
thefe encroachments, till exprefsly commanded to do
fo by his father. After having embroiled himfelf, and
almoft loft all his dominions, in a war with his brothers
after the death of Lewis, and declared bis fon, alfo
called Lewis, king of Italy, this ambitious prince
3harle-
5 nagnc.
died, leaving to Lewis the title of emperor, as well
as king of Italy, with which he had before invefted
him.
The new emperor applied himfelf to the reftoration
of tranquillity in his dominions, and driving out the
Saracens from thofe places which they had feized in I-
taly. This he fully accompliftied, and obliged the in¬
fidels to retire into Africa; but in 875, he died, with¬
out naming any fucceffor. After his death, fome of
the Italian nobles, headed by the duke of Tufcany,
reprefented to the pope, that as Lewis had left no
fucceffor, the regal dignity, which had fo long been
ufurped by foreigners, ought now to return to the I-
talians. The pope, however, finding that Charles
the Bald, king of France, had fuch an ambition for
the imperial crown, that he would ftick at nothing to
obtain it, refolved to gratify him, though at as high
a price as poffible. He accordingly crowned him em¬
peror and king of Lombardy, on condition of his own¬
ing the independency of Rome, and that he himfelf
only held the empire by the gift of the pope. This
produced a confpiracy among the difeontented nobles;
and at the fame time the Saracens, renewing their in-
curfioiis, threatened the ecclefiaftical territories with
the utmoft danger. The pope folicited the emperor’s
affiftance, with the greateft earneftnefs; but he died
before any thing effedual could be done: after which,
being diftreffed by the Saracens on one hand, and the
Lombard nobles on the other, the unhappy pontiffw'as
forced to fly into France. Italy now fell into the ut¬
moft confufion and anarchy; during which time many
of the nobles and Hates of Lombardy affumed an inde¬
pendence, which they have ever fince retained.
In 879, the pope was recondufted to Italy with an
army by Bofon fon-in-lawto Lewis II. of France; but-
though he inclined very much to have railed this prince
to the dignity of king of Italy, he found his intereft:
infufficient for that purpofe, and matters remained in
their former fituation. The nobles, who had driven
out the pope, were now indeed reconciled to him; but
notwithftanding this reconciliation, the ftate of the
country was worfe than ever; the great men renoun¬
cing the authority of any fuperior, and every one
claiming to be fovereign in his own territories. To
add to the calamities, which enfued through the am¬
bition of tbefe defpots, the Saracens committed every
where the moll terrible ravages; till at laft the Italian
nobles, defpifing the kings of the Carlovingian race,
who had weakened themfelves by their mutual diffen-
tions, began to think of throwing off even all nominal
fubmiffion to a foreign yoke, and retaining the imperial
dignity among themfelves. Thus they hoped, that, by
being more united among themfelves, they might be
more able to refill the common enemy. Accordingly,
in 885, they went to pope Adrian; and requefting him
to join them in afferting the independency of Italy,
they obtained of him the two following decrees, viz.
That the popes, after their election, might be confe-
crated without waiting for the prefence of the king or
his ambaffadors ; and that, if Charles the Grofs died
without fons, the kingdom of Italy, with the title of
emperor, ffiould be conferred on fome of the Italian
nobles.
Thefe decrees were produdlive of the word confe-
quences imaginable. The emperor complained of be-
ing.
Italy.
I T A [ 3972 ] I T A
Italy, ing deprived of his right; and the diffentions between
the Italian nobles themfelves became more fatal than
ever. The two moft powerful of thefe noblemen, Be-
rengarius duke of Friuli, and Guido or Vido duke of
Spoleto, entered into an agreement, that, on the death
of the emperor, the former (hould feize on the king*
dom of Italy, and the latter on the kingdom of
France. Berengarius fucceeded without oppofition,
but Vido was difappointed, the French having al¬
ready chofed Elides or Otho for their king. Up¬
on this he returned to Italy, and turned his arm*
againft Berengarius. Vido proved viftorious in
an engagement, and drove his rival into Germany;
where he fought the afliftance of Arnolphus, who had
fucceeded to the crown after the death of Charles.
Having thus obtained the kingdom of Italy, Vido em¬
ployed his time in reforming the abufes of the ftate,
and confirming the grants formerly given to the pope
out of gratitude for his having fandliiied his ufurpation
and declared him lawful king of Italy. This tran¬
quillity, however, was of fhort duration. Arnolphus
fent an army into Italy ; the Saracens from Spain ra¬
vaged the northern parts of the country, and, getting
pofTeffion of a caftle near the Alps, held it for many
years after, to the great diltrefs of the neighbouring
parts, which were expofed to their continual incur-
lions; and at the fame time Benevento was befieged
and taken by the forces of the eaftern emperor, fo that
Vido found his empire very confiderably circumfcribed
in its dimenfions.
The new king, diftrefied by fo many enemies, aflb-
ciated his fon Lambert with him in the government,
and bribed the Germans to return to their own coun¬
try. InSqj, however, they again invaded Italy ; but
were fuddenly obliged to leave the country, after ha¬
ving put Berengarins in poffefiion of Pavia. In the
mean time, Vido died, and his fon Lambert drove
out Berengarius: but having joined a faftion, head¬
ed by one Sergius, againft pope Formofus, the latter
offered the kingdom of Italy to Arnolphus; who there¬
upon entered the country with an army, befieged
and took Rome, maffacring the faflion of Sergius
with the moft unrelenting cruelty.
Arnolphus thus mafter of Italy, and crowned em¬
peror by the pope, began to form fchetties offtrength-
ening himfelf in his new acquifitions by putting out
eyes of Berengarius: but the latter, having timely no¬
tice of this treachery, fled to Verona; and the Italians,
were fo provoked at this and the other cruelties of Ar¬
nolphus, that they drove him out of the country. His
departure occafioned the greateft confufion at Rome.
Formofus died foon after; and the fucceffors to the
papal dignity, having now no army to fear, excited the
greateft diftuvbances. The body of Formofus was dug
up and thrown into the Tiber by one pope, while that
pope was ftrangled, and Formofus’s body buried again
in the Vatican, by order of another. At laft the co¬
ronation of Arnolphus was declared void, the Sergian
fa&ion entirely demolifhed, and the abovementioned
decrees of Adrian annulled; it being now determined
that the elefled popes (hould not be confecrated but
in prefence of the emperor or his ambaffadors.
During thefe confufions Lambert enjoyed the king¬
dom in quiet; but the nobles, hating him on account
of his arbitrary and tyrannical government, began
again to think of Berengarius. In the mean time, Italy,
however, another faction offered the crown to Lewis
king of Arles. This new competitor entered Italy
with an army in 899 ; but was forced by Berengarius
to renounce his claim upon oath, and to fwear, that
he would never again enter Italy, even though he
fhould be invited to be crowned emperor.—This oath,
however, was foon forgot. Lewis readily accepted
of another invitation, and was crowned king of Italy
at Pavia in 901. The following year he forced Be¬
rengarius to fly into Bavaria ; but having unadvifedly
difbanded his army, as thinking himfelf now fecurely
feated on the throne, Berengarius, who watched every
opportunity, furprifed him at Verona, and put out
his eyes.
Thus Berengarius at laft became king of Italy
without a rival; and held his kingdom for 20 years
afterwards, without any oppofition from his fubjedls,
who at laft became fenfible of the mifchiefs arifing
from civil difcords. He was not yet, however, with¬
out troubles. The Hungarians invaded Italy with a
formidable army, and advanced within a fmall diftance
of Pavia. Berengarius armed the whole force of his
dominions ; and came againft them with fuch a multi¬
tude, that the Hungarians retired without venturing
an engagement. A great many of their men were loft
in palling a river ; upon which they fent deputies to
Berengarius, offering to reftore all their booty, and
never to come again into Italy, provided they were
allowed a fafe retreat. Thefe conditions were im¬
prudently denied ; upon which the Hungarians at¬
tacked the army of Berengarius in defpair, and de¬
feated them with great (laughter. After this they
over-ran the whole country, and plundered the towns
of Trevifo, Vicenza, and Padua, without refiftance, the
inhabitants flying every where into fortified places.
This devaftation they continued for two years; nor
could their departure be procured without paying them
a large fum of money : which, however, proved of
little avail; for the following year they returned, and
ravaged the territory of Friuli without controul.
Scarcely were thefe invaders departed, when the Sa¬
racens, who had fettled at the foot of the Alps, in¬
vaded Apulia and Calabria, and made an irruption as
far as Acqui in the neighbourhood of Pavia ; while
the inhabitants, inftead of oppofing them, fled to
fome forts which had been erefted in the time of the
firft irruption of the Hungarians. In 912, however,
John, prelbyter of Ravenna, having attained the pa¬
pal dignity by means of Theodora, wife of Adelbert
count of Tufcany, applied himfelf to regulate the af¬
fairs of the church, and to reprefs the infults of the
Saracens. While he was confidering on the moft pro¬
per methods of effefting this, one of the Saracens, who
had received an injury from his countrymen, fled to
Rome, and offered to deliver the Italians from their
invafions, if the Pope would but allow him a fmall
body of men. His propofals being accepted, 60
young men were chofen, all well armed; who being
conduced by the Saracen into by-paths, attacked the
infidels as they were returning from their inroads, and
feveral times defeated great parties of them. Thefe
Ioffes affe&ing the Saracens, a general alliance was
concluded amongft all their cities ; and having forti¬
fied a town on the Garigliano, they abandoned the
I T A [ 3973 1 I T A
if Italy, reft, and retired thither. Thus they became much
more formidable than before $ which alarming the
pope, he confulted with Atenulphus prince of Bene-
vento and Capua, fending at the fame time ambafla-
dors to Conftantine the Greek emperor, inviting him
to an alliance againit the infidels. The Saracens, un¬
able to withftand fuch a powerful combination, were
befieged in their city: where being reduced to great
ftraits, they at laft fet fire to it, and fallied out into
the.woods; but being purfued by the Italians, they
were all cut off to a man.
In this expedition it is probable that Berengarius
gave great affiftance ; for this very year, 915, he was
crowned emperor by the pope. This gave difpleafure
to many of the ambitious nobles; confpiracies were
repeatedly formed againft him; in 922, Rodolphus
king of Burgundy was crowned alfo king of Italy;
and in 924, Beren^arius was treacheroufly affaffinated
at Verona; of which difturbances, the Hungarians
^ taking the advantage, plundered the cities of Mantua,
fvf Pavia plun-Brefcia, and Bergamo. Marching afterwards to Pa-
3 lered and via, they invefted it clofely on all fides; and about the
" 3Lirniby middle of March 925, taking advantage of the^frind,
« rians Un^a" they fct fire to the houfes next the walls, and during
the confufion broke open the gates, and, getting pof-
feffion of the city, treated the inhabitants with the
greateft barbarity. Having burnt the capital of the
kingdom, they next proceeded to Piacenza, where
they plundered the fuburbs; and then returned to Pan-
nonia, laden with booty.
The affairs of Italy now fell into the utmoft confu¬
fion. A fa&ion was formed againft Rodolphus in fa¬
vour of Hugh count of Arles. The latter prevailed,
and was crowned king at Pavia in 927. The Ita¬
lians, however, foon repented of their choice. The
Romans firft invited him to be their governor, and
then drove him out with difgrace ; at the fame time
choofing a conful, tribunes, &c. as if they had defigned
to affert their ancient liberty. One faftion, in the
mean time, offered the crown to Rodolphus, and the
other to Arnold duke of Bavaria, while the Saracens
took this opportunity to plunder the city of Genoa.
Hugh, in the mean time, was not ina&ive. Ha¬
ving collected an army, he marched dire&ly againft
Arnold, and entirely defeated him. Rodolphus deli¬
vered him from all apprehenfions on his part, by en¬
tering into an alliance with him, and giving his daugh¬
ter Adelaide in marriage to Lotharius, Hugh’s fon.
Being thus free from all danger from foreign enemies,
he marched againft the Romans; but with them he
alfo came to an agreement, and even gave his daugh¬
ter in marriage to Alberic, whom they had chofen
conful. In the mean time the country was infefted by
the Hungarians and Saracens, and at the fame time
depopulated by a plague. Endlefs confpiracies were
formed againft Hugh himfelf; and at laft, in 947, he
was totally deprived of the regal power by Berenga¬
rius, grandfon to the firft king of that name ; foon
after which he retired into Burgundy, and became a
monk.
Though Berengarius was thus poffeffed of the fu-
preme power, he did not affume the title of king till
after the death of Lotharius, which happened in 950;
but, in the mean time, Italy was invaded by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and the Hungarians. The former
* Vol. V.
took and plundered the city of Aquileia, and ravaged Italy,
the neighbouring country; after which he returned —1
without moleftation into Germany: the latter made a jtal _
furious irruption, and Berengarius being unable to
oppofe them, was at laft obliged to purchafe their de- the Hanga-
arture by money. In railing the fum agreed upon, rians an^
owever, Berengarius is faid to have been more op- t:erenga'
preflive than even the Hungarians themfelves. Every
individual, without diftinftion of age or fex, was obli¬
ged to pay fo much for their head ; not excepting
even the poor. The churches were likewife robbed;
by which means the king raifed an immenfe fum of
money, 10 bulhels of which he gave to the Hunga¬
rians, but kept the much greater part to himfelf.
Berengarius, not yet fatisfied, wanted to be put in
poffeffion of Pavia, which was held by Adelaide, the
widow of Lotharius. In order to obtain his purpofe,
he propofed a marriage between her and his fon Adel-
bert. This propofal was reje&ed; upon which Be¬
rengarius befieged and took the city. The queen was
confined in a neighbouring caftle, from whence (he
made her efcape by a contrivance of her confeffor.
With him, and one female attendant, flie concealed
herfelf for fome days in a wood; but, being obliged
to remove from thence for want of food, Ihe applied
for proteftion to Adelard bilhop of Reggio. By him
Ihe was recommended to his uncle Atho, who had a
ftrong caftle in the neighbourhood of Canoza. Here
(he was quickly befieged by Berengarius; upon which,
meffengers were difpatched to Otho king of Germany,
acquainting him, that, by expelling Berengarius, and
marrying Adelaide, he might eafily obtain the king¬
dom of Italy. This propofal he readily accepted,
and married Adelaide ; but allowed Berengarius to
retain the greateft part of his dominions, upon condi¬
tion of his doing homage for them to the kings of
Germany. He deprived him, however, of the duke¬
dom of Friuli, and marquifate of Verona, which he
gave to Henry duke of Bavaria.
Berengarius thus freed from allapprehenfion,not only ©tho
oppreffed his fubjefts in a molt tyrannical manner, but crowned
revolted againft Otho himfelf. This at laft procured king of
his ruin: for, in 961, Otho returned with an army into Italy an!l
Italy, where he was crowned king by the archbifhop
of Milan ; and the year following was crowned em¬
peror by the pope. On this occafion he received the
imperial crown from his holinefs, and kiffed his feet
with great humility : after which they both went to
the altar of St Peter, and bound themfelves by a folemn
oath, the pope to be always faithful to the emperor,
and to give no afliftance to Berengarius or Adelbert
his enemies; and Otho, to confult the welfare of the
church, and to reftore to it all its patrimony granted
by former emperors. Olho, befides this, beftowed
very rich prefents on the church of St Peter. He
ordained that the eledtion of popes ftiould be accord¬
ing to the canons; that the eledted pope (hould not be
confecrated till he had publicly promifed, in prefence
of the emperor’s commiffaric-s, to obferve every thing
formerly fpecified with regard to the rights of the em¬
perors; that thefe commiffaries ftiould conftantly refide
at Rome, and make a report every year how juftice
was adminiftered by the judges ; and, in cafe of any
complaints, the commiffaries ftiould lay them before
the pope; but if he negledted to intimate them, the
22 P imperial
I T A [ 3974 ] I T A
Italy, imperial commiflan'es might then do what they
pleafed.
Thus we fee that Otho, however much he might
allow the pope’s fupremacy in fpiritual matters, plainly
affumed the fovereignty in temporals to himfelf; and
thus Italy was for upwards of 300 years accounted a
part of the German empire. The popes, however, by
no means relifhed this fuperiority of the emperor.
The latter was hardly departed, when the pope
(John XII.) broke the oath which he had juft be¬
fore fworn with fo much folemnity; and entered firft
into an alliance with Adelbert count of Tufcany to
expel the Germans, and then folicited the Hungarians
to invade Italy. This treachery was foon punilhed
by Otho. He returned with part of his army, and
affembled a council of biihops. As the pope did not
appear, Otho pretended great concern for his abfence.
The bifhops replied, that the confcioufnefs of his guilt
made him afraid to fhew himfelf. The emperor then
inquired particularly into his crimes ; upon which
the bifhops accufed him of filling the palace with
lewd women, of ordaining a bifhop in a (table, ca-
5p ftrating a cardinal, drinking the devil’s health, &c.
Hedepofes As the pope ftill refufed to appear in order to juftify
the pope, himfelf from thefe charges, he was formally depofed;
and Leo the chief fecretary, though a layman, ele&ed
in his ftead.
The new pope, in compliment to the emperor,
granted a bull, by which it was ordained that Otho
and his fucceftbrs fhould have a right of appointing the
popes and invefting archbifhops and bifhops; and
that none fhould dare to confecrate a bifhop without
leave obtained from the emperor. Thus were the af¬
fairs of the Italians ftill kept in the utmoft confufion
even during the reign of Otho I. who appears to
have been a wife and adtive prince. He was no
fooner gone, than the new pope was depofed, all his
decrees annulled, and John replaced. The party of
Leo was now treated with great cruelty : but John
was foon flopped in his career; for about the middle
of May the fame year (964) in which he had been
reftored, being furprifed in bed with a Roman lady,
he received a blow on the head from the devil (accord¬
ing to the authors of thofe times) of which he died
eight days after. After his death a cardinal-deacon,
named Benedifl, was eledted by the Romans, but de¬
pofed by Otho, and banifhed to Hamburgh.
The^ta- emPeror was fcarce returned to Germany, when
!ians revolt, his fickle Italians revolted, and fent for Adlebert who
but are re- had fled to Corfica. But being foon reduced, they con¬
duced. tinued quiet for about a year; after which they re¬
volted again, and imprifoned the pope. Otho, how¬
ever, provoked at their rebellious difpofition, foon re¬
turned, and punifhed the rebels with great feverity ;
after which he made feveral laws for the better regu¬
lation of the city of Rome, granted feveral privileges
to the Venetians, and caufed his fon Otho, then only
13 years of age, to be crowned emperor.
This ceremony being over, Otho difpatched an
ambaffador to Nicephorus, emperor of Conftantinople,
demanding his (lep-daughter Theophania in marriage
for the young emperor; but upon this alliance being
rejedted, and that not without circumftances of the
moft atrocious perfidy, Otho inftantly invaded the
countries of Apulia and Calabria, and entirely defeated
the Greek army in thofe parts. In the mean time, Italy,
however, Nicephorus being killed, and his throne
ufurped by John Zimifces, Otho immediately entered
into an alliance with the latter, and eafily obtained
Theophania for his fon. She was crowned with great
folemnity on the 8th of April 969 : at the fame time
it is pretended by fome authors, that the Greeks re¬
nounced their rights to Calabria and Apulia ; though
this is denied by others. . After the celebration of this
marriage, the emperor undertook an expedition againft
the Saracens, who ftill refided at the foot of the Alps;
but being informed of the death of feveral nobles in
Germany, he thought proper to return thither, where
he died of an apoplexy in the year 973.
At the time of Otho’s death Italy was divided intestate of
the provinces of Apulia, Calabria, the dukedom of Italy at tl
Benevento, Campania, Terra Romana, the dukedom^'110*
of Spoleto, Tufcany, Romagna, Lombardy, and the °‘
marquifates of Acona,-Verona, Friuli, Trevifo, and
Genoa. Apulia and Calabria were ftill claimed by
the Greeks; but all the reft were either immediately
fubje&to, or held of, the kings of Italy. Otho con¬
ferred Benevento (including the ancient Samnium)
on the duke of that name. Campania and Lucania
he gave to the dukes of Capua, Naples, and Salerno.
Rome with its territory, Ravenna with the exarchate,
the dukedom of Spoleto, with Tufcany, andthemar-
quifate of Ancona, he granted to the pope ; and re¬
tained the reft of Italy under the form of a kingdom.
Some of the cities were left free, but all tributary.
He appointed feveral hereditary marquifates and coun¬
ties, but referved to himfelf the fovereign jurifdidlion
in their territories. The liberty of the cities confided
in a freedom to choofe their own magiftrates, to be
judged by their own laws, and to difpofe of their
own revenues, on condition that they took the oath
of allegiance to the king, and paid the cuftomafy
tribute. The cities that w'ere not free were governed
by the commiflaries, or lieutenants of the emperor ; but
the free cities were governed by two or more confuls,
afterwards called potejlates, chofen annually, who took
the oath of allegiance to the emperor, before the bi-
fhop of the city, or the emperor’s commiffary. The
tribute exacted was calledfodcrum,parata, et ?nanfiona~
ticum. By the foderum was meant a certain quantity
of corn which the cities were obliged to furnidi to the
king, when marching with an army, or making a
progrefs through the country; though the value of
this was frequently paid in money. By the parata
was underftood the expence laid out in keeping the
public roads and bridges in repair ; and the vianft'/na-
ticum included thofe expences which were required for
lodging the troops, or accommodating them in their
camp. Under pretence of this laft article the inhabi¬
tants were fometimes dripped of all they poffefled,
except their oxen, and feed for the land. Befides re¬
gulating what regarded the cities, Otho diftributed
honours and pofleflions to thofe who had ferved him
faithfully. The honours confided in the titles of duke,
marquis, count, captain,^ valvafor, and valvaftn; the
poffefiions were, befides land, the duties arifing from
harbours, ferries, roads, fifh-ponds, mills, falt-pits^
the ufes of rivers, and all pertaining to them, and
fuch like. The dukes, marquifes, and counts, were
thofe who received dukedoms, marquifates, and coun-
al Italy.
. I T A [ 3975 ] I T A
ties, from the king in fiefs; the captains had the com- found it necefiary to march intcMtaly againft Ardouia
mand of a certain number of men by a grant from the marquis of Ivrea, who had afiumed the title of King
king, duke, marquis, or count; the valvafors were
fubordinate to the captains, and the valvafins to them.
No fooner was the death of Otho I. known in Italy,
dt turbances than, as if they had been now freed from all reftraint,
q appen on the nobles declared war againft each other : fome ci-
01 uhoT1 °f lI'es rev°lted» and chofe to themfclves confuls; while the
' dominions of others were feized by the nobles, who
confirmed their power by eredling citadels. Rome
efpecially was harrafled by tumults, occafioned chiefly
by the feditious practices of one Cincius, who prefled
his fellow-citizens to reftore the ancient republic. As
the pope continued firm in the interefts of the em¬
peror, Cincius caufed him to be ftrangled by one
Franco a cardinal deacon; who was foon after re¬
warded with the pontificate, and took upon him the
name of Boniface VII. Another Pope was chofen by
the fa&ion of the count of Tufcany ; who being ap¬
proved by the emperor, drove Cincius and Boniface
out of the city. Difturbances of a fimilar kind took
place in other cities, though Milan continued quiet
and loyal in the midft of all this uproar and confu-
fion.
In the mean time Boniface fled for refuge to Con-
ftantinople, where he excited the emperor to make
war againft Otho II. In 979 an army was accordingly
fent into Italy, which conquered Apulia and Cala¬
bria ; but the next year Otho entered Italy with a
Rome
taken by
Olho III.
of Italy. Him he defeated in an engagement, and
was himfelf crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 1005 ;
but, a few years after, a new conteft arofe about the
papal chair, which again required the prefence of the
emperor. Before he arrived, however, one of the
competitors (Benedidl VIII.) had got the better of
his rival, and both Henry and his queen received the
imperial crown from his hands. Before the emperor en¬
tered the church, the pope propofed to him the follow¬
ing queftion : “ Will you obferve your fidelity to me
and my fuccefibrs in every thing i” To which, tho*
a kind of homage, he fubmitted, and anfwered in the
affirmative. After his coronation, he confirmed the
privileges beftowed on the Roman fee by his prede-
ceffors, and added fome others of his own ; ftill, how¬
ever, referving for himfelf the fovereignty and the
power of fending commifiaries to hear the grievances
of the people. Having repelled the incurfions of the
Saracens, reduced fome more rebellions of his fubjefls,
and reduced the greateft part of Apulia and Calabria,
he died in the year 1024.
The death of this emperor was, as ufual, followed
by a competition for the crown. Conrad being chofen
emperor of Germany, was declared king of Italy by
the archbilhop of Milan ; while a party of the nobles
made offer of the crown to Robert king of France,
or his fon Hugh. But this offer being declined, and
formidable army, and, having taken a fevere revenge likewife another to William duke of Guienne, Conrad
on the authors of the difturbances, drove the Greeks enjoyed the dignity conferred on him by thearchbilh-
entirely out of the provinces they had feized. Ha- op without moleftation. He was crowned king of
ving then caufed his fon Otho III. at that time a boy Italy at Monza, in 1026 ; and the next year he recei-
of ten years of age, to be proclaimed emperor, he ved the imperial crown from pope John XX. in pre¬
died at Rome in the year 983. Among the regula- fence of Canute the Great, king of England, Den-
tions made by this emperor, one is very remarkable, mark, and Norway, and Rodolph III. king of Bur-
and muft give us a ftrange idea of the inhabitants of gundy. His reign was fimilar to that of his prede-
Italy at that time. He made a law, That no Italian ceffors. The Italians revolted, the pope was expel-
Ihould be believed upon his oath ; and that in any led, the malcontents were fubdued, and the pope re-
difpute which could not be decided otherwife than by
witneffes, the parties fhould have recourfe to a duel.
Otho III. fucceeded to the empire at twelve years
of age ; and, during his minority, the difturbances i
ftored ; after which the emperor returned to Germany,
and died in 1039. 44
Under Henry III. who fucceeded Conrad, the di-TIle.diio>'-
fturbances were prodigioufly augmented. Pope Syl-^'
Italy revived. Cincips, called alfo Crefcentius, re- vefter II. was driven out by BenediA; who in his fjenry uj,
new’ed his fcheme of reftoring the republic. The turn was expeHed by John biihop of Sabinum, who
pope (John XV.) oppofing his fchemes, was driven allumed the title of ///. Three months af-
out of the city ; but was foon after recalled, on hearing ter, Benedict was reftored, and excommunicated his ri-
that he had applied to the emperor for affiftance. A vals; but foon after refigned the pontificate for a fum
few years after Crefcentius again revolted, and ex- of money. In a Ihort time he reclaimed it; and thus
pelled Gregory V. the fucceffor of John XV.; railing there were at once three popes, each of whom was
to the papal dignity a creature of his own, under the fupported on a branch of the papal revenue, while all
name of John XVI. Otho, enraged at this infult, of them made themfelves odious by the fcandalous lives
returned to Rome with a powerful army in 998, be- they led. At laft a prieft called Gratian put an end
fieged and took it by affault ; after which he caufed to this Angular triumvirate. Partly by artifice, and
Crefcentius to be beheaded, and the pope he had fet partly by prefents, he perfuaded all the three to
up to be thrown headlong from the caftle of St An- renounce their pretenfions to the papacy ; and the
gelo, after having his eyes pulled out, and his nofe people of Rome, out of gratitude for fo fignal a fer»
cutoff. Four years after, he himfelf died of the fmall- vice to the church, chofe him pope, under the name
pox; or, according to fome, was poifoned by the wi- " ~
dow of Crefcentius, whom he had debauched under a
promife of marriage, juft as he was about to punilh
the Romans for another revolt.
Otho was fucceeded in the imperial throne by Hen¬
ry duke of Bavaria, and grandfon to Otho II. Henry
had no fooner fettled the affairs of Germany, than he
of Gregory VI. Henry III. took umbrage at this
ele&ion, in which he had not been confulted, and
marched with an army into Italy. He depofed Gre¬
gory, as having been guilty of fimony ; and filled the
papal chair with his own chancellor, Htidiger, bilhop
of Bamberg, who affumed the name of Clement II.
and afterwards confecrated Henry and the emprefs
22 P 2 Agnes.
I T A [ 39'
liily. Agnes. This ceremony being over, and the Romans
having fworn never to ele£t a pope without the appro¬
bation of the reigning emperor, Henry proceeded to
Capua, where he was vifited by Diago, Rainulphus,
and other Norman adventurers; who, leaving their
country at different times, had made themfelves ma¬
tters of great part of Apulia and Calabria, at the ex-
He invefts pence of the Greeks and Saracens. Henry entered
she Nor into treaty with them ; and not only folemnly invetted
mans with them with thofe territories which they had acquired by
conqueft, but prevailed on the pope to excommuni-
Apulia and catc the Beneventines, who had refufed to open their
Calabria. gates to him, and beftowed that city and its depend¬
encies, as fiefs of the empire, upon the Normans, pro¬
vided they took poffefiion by force of arms. The em¬
peror was fcarce returned to Germany, when he re¬
ceived intelligence of the death of Clement II. He
was fucceeded in the apoftolic fee by Damafus II.;
who alfo dying foon after his elevation, Henry nomi¬
nated Bruno bifhop of Tool, to the vacant chair. This
Bruno, who was the emperor’s relation, immediately
affumed the pontificals ; but being a modeft and pious
prelate, he threw them off on his journey, by the per-
fuafion of a monk of Cluny, named Hildebrand, after-
Avards the famous Gregory VII. and went to Rome
as a private man. “ The emperor alone,” faid Hilde¬
brand, “ has no right to create a pope.” He accom¬
panied Bruno to Rome, and fecretly retarded his elec¬
tion, that he tpight arrogate to himfelf the merit of
obtaining it. The fcheme fucceeded to his wiih :
Bruno, who took the name of Leo IX. believing him¬
felf indebted to Hildebrand for the pontificate, fa¬
voured him with his particular friendlhip and confi¬
dence ; and hence originated the power of this enter-
prifing monk, of obfcure birth, but boundlefs ambi¬
tion, who governed Rome fo long, and whofe zeal for
the exaltation of the church occafioned fo many troubles
to Europe.
Leo, foon after his elevation, waited on the empe¬
ror at Worms, to crave alfiftance againft the Norman
princes, who were become the terror of Italy, and
treated their fubjefts with great feverity. Henry
furnilhed the Pope with an army ; at the head of which
be marched againft the Normans, after having excom¬
municated them, accompanied by a great number of
bilhops and other ecclefiaftics, who were all either
killed or taken prifoners, the Germans and Italians
being totally routed. Leo himfelf was led captive to
Benevento, which the Normans were now matters of,
and which Henry had granted to the pope in exchange
for the fief of Bamberg in Germany; and the apofto¬
lic fee is to this day in poffeffion of Benevento, by
virttie of that donation. The Normans, however, who
had a right to the city by a prior grant, reftored it,
in the mean time, to the princes of Lombardy; and
Leo was treated with fo much refpedl by the conquer-
. crs, that he revoked the fentenceof excommunication,
and joined his fan&ion to the imperial inveftiture for
the lands which they held in Apulia and Calabria.
45 Leo died foon after his releafe ; and the emperor,
ITenry IV. about the fame time, caufed his infant fon, afterwards
declared the famous Henry IV. to be declared king of the Ro-
king of the mans, a title ftill in ufe for the acknowledged heir of
Romans, the empire. Gebehard, a German bifliop, was eleft-
cd pope, under the name of Vidor II. and confirmed
76 ] _ I T A
by the addrefs of Hildebrand, who waited on the em- Italy. |
peror in perfon for that purpofe, though he difdained “ “i
to confult him beforehand. Perhaps Hildebrand
would not have found this talk fo eafy, had not Hen¬
ry been involved in a war with the Hungarians ; who
preffed him hard, but whom he obliged at laft to pay
a large tribute, and furnilh him annually with a certain
number of fighting men.
As foon as the emperor had finifhed this war, and
others to which it gave rife, he marched into Italy
to infpedl the condudl of his fitter Beatrice, widow
of Boniface marquis of Mantua, and made herprifon-
er. She had married Gozelo, duke of Lorrain, with¬
out the emperor’s confent; and contraded her daugh¬
ter Matilda, by the marquis of Mantua, to Godfrey
duke of Spoleto andT’ufcany, Gozelo’s fon by a for¬
mer marriage. This formidable alliance juftly alarm¬
ed Henry : he therefore attempted to diffolve it, by
carrying his fitter into Germany, where he died foon
after his return, in the 39th year of his age, and the
16th of his reign.
This emperor, in his laft journey to Italy, conclu¬
ded an alliance with Contarini, doge of Venice. That
republic was already rich and powerful, though it had
only been enfranchifed in the year 998, from the tri¬
bute of a mantle of cloth of gold, which it formerly
paid, as a mark of fubje&ion, to the emperors of Con-
ttantinople. Genoa was the rival of Venice in power
and in commerce, and was already in poffeflion of the
ifland of Corfica, which the Genoefe had taken from
the Saracens. Thefe two cities ingroffed at this time
almoft all the trade of Europe. There was no city in
any refpeft equal to them either in France or Germany. " 4T
Henry IV. was only five years old at his father’s Increafe of1 |
death. The popes made ufeK>f the refpite given them the pope’s j l 1
by his minority, to ftiake off in a great meafure their Power-
dependence upon the emperors. After a variety of con-
tefts about the pontificate, Nicholas II. a creature of
Hildebrand’s, was eledled; who, among others, paffed
the following celebrated decree, viz. That, for the fu¬
ture, the cardinals only ftiould cleft the pope; and that
the eleftion rtiould afterwards be confirmed by the reft
of the clergy and the people, “ faving the honour
(adds he) due to our dear fon Henry, now king; and
who, if it pleafe God, /hall be one day emperor, ac¬
cording to the right which we have already conferred
upon him.” After this he entered into a treaty with
the Norman princes above-mentioned ; who, though
they had lately fworn to hold their poffefiions from the
emperor, now fwore to hold them from the pope; and
hence arofe the pope’s claim of fovereignty over the
kingdom of Naples and Sicily.
Thus was the power of the German emperors in
Italy greatly dimini/hed, and that of the popes pro¬
portionally exalted; of which Henry foon had fuffi-
cient evidence. For, having affumed the government
into his own hands in the year 1072, being then 22
years of age, he was fummoned by Alexander II. to H.s |
appear before the tribunal of the holy fee, on account w;|[, |
of his loofe life, and to anfwer the charge of ha- emperor, n
ving expofed the inveftiture of bi/hops to fale; at the
fame time that the pope excited his German fubjefts
to rebel againft him. The rebels, however, were de¬
feated, and peace was rettored to Germany: but
foon after, Hildebrand above-mentioned, being elefted
to
I T A [ 3977 ] I T A
Si Italy, to the pontificate under the name of Gregory VII. o-
" “ penly affumed the fuperiority over every earthly mo¬
narch whatever. He began with excommunicating
every ecclefiaftic who fhould receive a benefice from
the hands of a layman, and every layman who (hould
take upon him to confer fuch a benefice. Henry, in-
ftead of refenting this infolence, fubmitled, and wrote
a penitential letter to the pope : who, upon this, con-
defcended to take him into favour, after having fevere-
ly reprimanded him for his loofe life; of which the em¬
peror now confeffed himfelf guilty.
The quarrel between the church and the emperor
was, however, foon brought to a crifis by the follow¬
ing accident. Solomon, king of Hungary, being de-
pofed by his brother Geyfa, had fied to Henry for
prote&ion, and renewed the homage of Hungary to
the empire. Gregory, who favoured Geyfa, exclaimed
againft this aft of fubmiffion, and faid in a letter to
Solomon, “ You ought to know that the kingdom of
Hungary belongs to the Roman church ; and learn
that you will incur the indignation of the holy fee, if
you do not acknowledge that you hold your domi¬
nions of the pope and not of the emperor.” Henry,
though highly provoked at this declaration, thought
proper to treat it with negleft; upon which Gregory
refumed the difpute about inveftitures. The prede-
ceffors of Henry had always enjoyed the right of no¬
minating bifiiops and abbots, and of giving them in-
vefliture by the crofs and the ring. This right they
had in common with almolt all princes. The prede-
ceflbrsof Gregory VII. had been accuftomed, on their
part, to fend legates to the emperors, in order to in¬
treat their affiftance, to obtain their confirmation, or
defire them to come and receive the papal fanftion ;
but for no other purpofe. Gregory, however, fent
, two legates to fummon Henry to appear before him as
a delinquent, becaufe he (till continued to beftow in¬
veftitures, notwithftanding the apoftolic decree to the
contrary; adding, that if he ihould fail to yield obe¬
dience to the church, he muft expeft to be excommu¬
nicated and dethroned. Incenfed at this arrogant
meffage from one whom he confidered as his valla!,
Henry difmilfed the legates with very little ceremony,
4p and in 1706 convoked an affembly of all the princes
iifrhe empe- and dignified ecclefiaftics at Worms ; where, after ma-
m or depofes ture deliberation, they concluded, that Gregory ha-
' ^ P0!56, ving ufurped the chair of St Peter by indireft means,
infefted the church of God with a great many novel¬
ties and abufes, and deviated from his duty to his fo-
vereign in feveral fcandalous attempts, the emperor, by
that fupreme authority derived from his predecefibrs,
ought to divert him of his dignity, and appoint ano¬
ther in his place. In confequence of this determina¬
tion, Henry fent an ambafiador to Rome, with a for¬
mal deprivation of Gregory ; who, in his turn, convo¬
ked a council, at which were prefent t to bilhops, who
unanimoufly agreed that the pope had juft caufe to
depofe Henry, to diffolve the oath of allegiance which
the princes and Hates had taken in his favour, and to
prohibit them from holding any correfpondence with
j0 him on pain of excommunication, which was immedi-
ifl&nd he the ately fulminated againft the emperor and his adhe-
jfcmperor. rents. “ In the name of Almighty God, and by our
authority, (faid Gregory), I prohibit Henry, the fon
©f our emperor Henry, from governing the Teutonic
kingdom, and Italy: I releafe all Chriftians from their Ita!y-
oath of allegiance to him; and ftriftly forbid all per-
fons from ferving or attending him as king!” The cir¬
cular letters w’ritten by this pontiff breathe the fame
fpirit with his fentence of depofition. He there re¬
peats, feveral times, that “ bilhops are fuperior to
kings, and made to judge them ?” expreflions alike art¬
ful and prefumptuous, and calculated for bringing in
all the churchmen of the world to his ftandard.
Gregory knew well what confequences would fol¬
low the thunder of the church. The German bilhops
came immediately over to his party, and drew along
with them many of the nobles: the flame of civil war
ftill lay fmothering, and a bull properly direfted was
fufficient to fet it in a blaze. The Saxons, Henry’s
old enemies, made ufe of the papal difpleafure as a
pretence for rebelling againft him. Even Guelfe, to
whom the emperor had given the duchy of Bavaria,
fupported the malcontents with that power which he
owed to his fovereign’s bounty: nay, thofe very princes
and prelates who had affifted in depofing Gregory,
gave up their monarch to be tried by the pope; and
his holinefs was folicited to come to Auglburg for that
purpofe.
Willing to prevent this odious trial at Auglburg,
Henry took the unaccountable refolution of fuddenly
palling the Alps at Tirol, accompanied only by a few
domeftics, to alk abfolution of pope Gregory his op-
preflbr; who was then in Canoza, on the Appennine
mountains; a fortrefs belonging to the countefs or
duchefs Matilda, abovementioned. At the gates of w
this place the emperor prefented himfelf as an humble ,e(j
penitent. He alone was admitted without the outer to fubmit.
court; where, being ftripped of his robes, and wrap¬
ped in fack-cloth, he was obliged to remain three days,
in the month of January, bare-footed and falling, be¬
fore he was permitted to kifs the feet of his holinefs;
who all that time was (hut up with the devout Matilda,
whofe fpiritual direftor he had long been, and, as fome
fay, her gallant. But be that as it may, her attach¬
ment to Gregory, and her hatred to the Germans, was
fo great, that Ihe made over all her eftates to the apo¬
ftolic fee; and this donation is the true caufe of all the
wars which fince that period have raged between the
emperors and the popes. She poireffed in her own
right, great part of Tufcany, Mantua, Parma, Reggio,
Placentia, Ferrara, Modena, Verona, and almoft the
whole of what is now called the patrimony of St Pe¬
ter, from Viterbo to Orvieto ; together with part of
Umbria, Spoleto, and the Marche of Ancona.
The emperor was at length permitted to throw him¬
felf at the pontiff’s feet; who condefcended to grant
him abfolution, after he had fworn obedience to him
in all things, and promifed to fubmit to his folemn de-
cifion at Auglburg : fo that Henry got nothing but
difgrace by his journey; while Gregory, elated by his
triumph, and now looking upon himfelf (not altoge¬
ther without reafon) as the lord and mailer of all tlie
crowned heads in Chriftendom, faid in feveral of his
letters, that it was his duty “ to pull down the pride
of kings.”
This extraordinary accommodation gave much dif-
guft to the princes of It|ly- They never could forgive
the infolence of the pope, nor the abjeft humility of
the emperor. Happily however for Henry, their in¬
dignation,
I T A
Italy, dignation at Gregory’s arrogance overbalanced their
* deteftation of his meannefs. He took advantage of this
temper; and by a change of fortune, hitherto unknown
to the German emperors, he found a ftrong party in
Italy, when abandoned in Germany. All Lombardy
took up arms againft the pope, while he was raifnig all
Germany againft the emperor. Gregory, on the other
hand, made ufe of every art to get another- emperor
ele&ed in Germany; and Henry, on his part, left no-
S1 thing undone to perfuade the Italians to eledl another
Rodolph pope. The Germans chofe Rhodolph, duke of Suabia,
chofen em- who was folemnly crowned at Mentz; and Gregory,
peror of hefitating on this occafion, behaved truly like the fu-
Germany. preme juc]ge 0f k;ngS, He had depofed Henry, but
ftill it was in his power to pardon that prince: he
therefore affefted to be difpleafed that Rodolph was
confecrated without his order ; and declared, that he
would acknowledge as emperor and king of Germany,
him of the two competitors who Ihould be moft fub-
mifiive to the holy fee.
Henry, however, trufting more to the valour of his
troops, than to the generofity of the pope, fet out im¬
mediately for Germany, where he defeated his enemies
in feveral engagements: and Gregory, feeing no hopes
of fubmiffion, thundered out a fecond fentence of ex-
communication againft him, confirming at the fame
time the eleftion of Rodolph, to whom he fent a gold¬
en crown, on which the following well-known verfe,
equally haughty and puerile, was engraved:
Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rodolpho.
This donation was alfo accompanied with a moft
enthufiallic anathema againft Henry. After depriving
him of Jlrength in combat, and condemning him never
to be vUlorious, it concludes with the following re¬
markable apoftrophe to St Peter and St Paul: “ Make
all men feniible, that as you can bind and loofe every
thing in heaven, you can alfo upon earth take from or
give to every one, according to his deferts, empires,
kingdoms, principalities—let the kings and the princes
of the age. then inftantly feel your power, that they
may not dare to defpife the orders of your church ;
let your juftice be fo fpeedily executed upon Henry,
that nobody may doubt but he falls by your means,
and not by chance.”
In order to avoid the effefts of this fecond excom¬
munication, Henry aflembled at Brixen, in the county
of Tirol, about 20 German bilhops : who afling alfo
for the bilhops of Lombardy, unanimoufly refolved,
that the pope, inftead of having power over the empe¬
ror, owed him obedience and allegiance; and that Gre¬
gory VII. having rendered himfelf unworthy of the
papal chair by his condudf and rebellion, ought to be
depofed from a dignity he fo little deferved. They ac¬
cordingly degraded Hildebrand ; and ele&ed in his
room Guibert, archbifiiop of Ravenna, a perfon of un¬
doubted naerit, who took the name of Clement III.
Henry promifed to put the new pope in pofleffion of
Rome; but he was obliged, in the mean time, to em¬
ploy all his forces againft his rival Rodolph, who had
S3 re-aflembled a large body of troops in Saxony. The
Defeated tvvQ arm;e8 met near Merfburg, and both fought with
and kille . great fury . jjut t{ie fortUne of the day feemed inclined
to Rodolph, when his hand was cut off by the famous
Godfrey of Bouillon, then in the fervice of Henry, and
afterwards renowned for his conqueft of Jerufalem.
1 T A
Difcouraged by the misfortune of their chief, the re- Italy. |
bels immediately gave way; and Rodolph perceiving *' 1
his end approaching, ordered the hand that was cut
off to be brought him, and made a fpeech to his offi¬
cers on the occafion, which could not fail to have an
influence on the emperor’s affairs. “ Behold, (faid
he), the hand with which I took the oath of allegi¬
ance to Henry; and which oath, at the inftigation of
Rome, I have violated, in perfidioufly afpiring at an
honour that was not my due.”
Thus delivered from this formidable antagonift,
Henry foon difperfed the reft of his enemies in Ger- 1
many, and fet out for Italy in order to fettle Clement
in the papal chair. But the gates of Rome being ftiut
againft him, he was obliged to attack it in form. The
fiege continued upwards of two years; Henry, daring £omse* (
that time, being obliged to quell fome infurreftions in taken by : ;
Germany. The city was at length carried by affault, Henry IV. if j
and with difficulty faved from being pillaged ; but
Gregory was not taken : he retired into the caftle of
St Angelo, and thence defied and excommunicated
the conqueror. The new pope was, however, confe¬
crated with the ufual ceremonies; and expreffed his gra¬
titude by crowning Henry, with the concurrence of
the Roman fenate and people. Mean while the fiege
of St Angelo was going on ; but the emperor being
called about fome affairs into Lombardy, Robert Guif-
card took advantage of his abfence to releafe Gregory,
who died foon after at Salerno. His laft words, bor¬
rowed from the Scripture, were worthy of the greateft
faint: “ I have loved juftice, and hated iniquity;
therefore I die in exile!”
Henry, however, did not enjoy all the advantages
which might have been expefted from the death of
Gregory. The fubfequent popes trod in the paths
of their predeceffor. In x 101, Pafcal II. excited young
Henry to rebel againft his father. The emperor did
all in his power to diffuade him from proceeding to
extremities, but in vain. The young prince perfifted in
his rebellious intentions; and having by feigned fubmif-
fions prevailed on the emperor to difband his army, he
treacheroufly feized and confinedhira. Henry,however,
found means to efcape from his confinement, and at¬
tempted to engage all the fovereigns of Europe in his
quarrel; but before any thing effe&ual could be done,
he died at Liege in the year 1106. a
The difpute about inveftitures w’as not terminated Difpme be-
by the depofition and death of Henry IV. His fon ;
Henry V. purfued the very fame conduft for which hepjgm-yy^ |
had depofed his father. Pafcal oppofed him with vio¬
lence : upon which Henry gave him an invitation into
Germany, to end the difpute in an amicable manner.
Pafcal did not think proper to accept of this invita¬
tion ; but put himfelf under the prote&ion of Philip I.
king of France, who undertook to mediate between
the - contending parties. His mediation, however,
proved ineffedtual, and Henry was prevented by the
wars in Hungary and Poland from paying any further
attention to the affair of inveftitures. At laft, having
fettled his affairs in Germany, he took a refolution of
going to Rome, in order to fettle the difpute perfo-
nally with the pope. To give his arguments the
greater weight, however, he marched at the head of
an army of 80,000 men. Pafcal received him with
great appearance of friendihip, but would not renounce
t 3978 ]
I T A [ 3979 ] I T A
4 Italy. the claim of inveflitures; and Henry finding himfelf
-  deceived in his expe&ations, ordered the pope to be
feized. The conful put the citizens in arms to defend
the pope, and a battle was fought within-the walls of
Rome. The daughter was fo great, that the waters
of the Tiber were tinged with blood. The Romans
were defeated, and Pafcal was taken prifoner. The
latter renounced his right of invdliture; folemnly
fwore never to refume it, and broke his oath as foon
as Henry was gone, by fulminating the fentence of
■excommunication againft him. In 1114 died the
countefs Matilda, who had bequeathed all her domi¬
nions to the pope, as we have already obferved ; but
Henry thinking himfelf the only lawful heir, alleged,
that it was not in Matilda’s power to alienate her
ellates, which depended immediately on the empire.
He therefore fet out for Lombardy, and fent ambaffa-
dors to the pope, befeeching him to revoke the fen¬
tence of excommunication abovementioned. Pafcal,
however, would not even favour the ambaffadots with
an audience ; but, dreading the approach of Henry
himfelf, he took refuge among the Norman princes in
Apulia. Henry arrived at Rome in 1117; but being
foon after obliged to leave it in order to fettle fome
affairs in Tufcany, the pope returned to Rome, but
died in a few days. On the third day after his de-
ceafe, cardinal Cajetan was ele&ed his fucceffor, with¬
out- the privity of the emperor, under the name of
Gelafius II. The new pope was inftantly depofed by
Henry; who fet up the archbifhop of Prague, under
the name of Gregory VIII. Gelafius, though fup-
ported by the Norman, princes, was obliged to take
refuge in France, where he died; and the archbifhop
of Vienna was eledted by the cardinals then prefent,
under the name of Calixtus II.
The new pope attempted an accommodation with
Henry ; which not fucceeding, he excommunicated
the emperor, the antipope, and his adherents. He
next fet out for Rome, where he was honourably re¬
ceived; and Gregory VIII. was forced to retire to
Sutri, a ftrong town garrifoned by the emperor’s
troops. Here he was befieged by Calixtus and the
Norman princes. The city was foon taken, and Gre¬
gory thrown into prifon by his competitor; but at
laft, the dates of the empire, being quite wearied out
with fuch a long quarrel, unanimoufly fupplicated
Henry for peace. He referred himfelf entirely to
their decifion; and a diet being affembled at Wurtz-
burg, it was decreed, that an embaffy fhould be im¬
mediately fent to the pope, defiring that he would
sg convoke a general council at Rome, by which all dif-
Jetermiiia-putes might be determined. This was accordingly
on of^the and the affair of inveftitures at length regulated
•ftitures*11" ,n f0^owing manner, viz. That the emperor fhould
leave the communities and chapters at liberty to fill
up their own vacancies, without beftowing inveftitures
with the crofs and ring; that he fhouid reftore all that,
he had unjuftly taken from the church ; that all elec¬
tions fhould be made in a canonical manner, in pre¬
fence of the emperor or his commiffaries; and what¬
ever difputes might happen, fhould be referred to the
decifion of the emperor, afiifted by the metropolitan
and his fuffragans; that the perfon eledled fhould
receive from the emperor the inveftiture of the fiefs
and fecular rights, not with the crofs, but with the
fceptre; and fhould pay allegiance to him for thefe Italy,
rights only.
After the death of Henry, the ufual diforders took
place in Italy ; during which, Roger duke of Apulia
conquered the ifland of Sicily, and affumed the right
of creating popes, of whom there were two at that
time, viz. Innocent II. and Anacletus. Roger drove
out the former, and Lothario emperor of Germany
the latter, forcing Roger himfelf at the fame time to
retire into Sicily. The emperor then conduced In¬
nocent back to Rome in triumph, and having fub-
dued all Apulia, Calabria, and the reft of Roger’s
Italian dominions, ere&ed them into a principality,
and bellowed it, with the title of duie, upon Renaud
a German prince, and one of his own relations.
In the reign of Conrad III. who fucceeded Lotha¬
rio, the celebrated faftions called the Guelphs and
Gibelins*, arofe, which for many years deluged the *Se:.
cities of Italy with blood. They took their origin
during a civil war in Germany, in which the enemies
of the emperor were ftyled Guelphs, and his friends
Gibelines ; and thefe names were quickly received in
Italy as well as other parts of the emperor’s dominions.
Of this civil war many of the cities in Italy took the ad¬
vantage to fet up for themfelves ; neither was it in the
power of Conrad, who during his whole reign was em¬
ployed in unfuccefsful crufades, to reduce them ; but, in jr
1158, Frederic Barbaroffa, fucceflbrto Conrad, entered Italy m*
Italy at the head of a very numerous and well difcip-
lined army. His army was divided into feveral co.- Brnbaroffa.
lumns for the conveniency of entering the country by
as many different routes. Having paffed the Alps,
he reduced the town of Brefcia ; where he made feve¬
ral falutary regulations for the prefervation of good
order and military difcipline. Continuing to ad¬
vance, he befieged Milan, udiieh furrendered at dif-
cretion. He was crowned king of Lombardy at
Monza; and having made himfelf matter of all the
other cities of that country, he ordered a minute
inquiry to be fet on foot concerning the rights of the
empire, and exa&ed homage of all thofe who held of
it, without excepting even the bifhops. Grievances
were redreffed ; magiftracies reformed; the rights of
regality difcuffed and afcertained ; new laws enadfed
for the maintenance of public tranquillity and the en¬
couragement of learning, which now began to revive
in the fchool of Bologna ; and, above all, fubvaffals
were not only prohibited from alienating their lands,
but alfo compelled, in their oath to their lords para¬
mount, to except the emperor nominally, when they
fwore to ferve and afiift them againft all their enemies.
The pope took umbrage at this behaviour towards the
ecclefiaftics : but Frederic juftified what he had done,
telling his deputies it was but reafonable they fhould
do homage for the fiefs they poffeffed; as Jefus Chrift
himfelf, though thelord of all the fovereigns upon earth,
had deigned to pay for himfelf and St Peter the tri¬
bute which was due to Caefar..
Frederic having fent commiffaries to fuperintend the
eledion of new magiftrates at Milan, the inhabitants
were fo much provoked at this infringement of their
old privileges, that they infulted the imperialifts, re¬
volted, and refufed to appear before the emperor’s tri¬
bunal. This he highly refented, and refolved to
chaffife them feverely : for which purpofe he fent
I T A [ 3980 ] I T A
ttaly, f0r a reinforcement from Germany, which foon after
' arrived with the emprefs, while he himfelf ravaged
Liguria, declared the Milanefe rebels to the empire,
and plundered and burnt the city of Crema which
was in alliance with that of Milan.
In the mean time, pope Adrian IV. dying, two
oppofite faftions eledfed two perfons known by the
names of Vidor II. and Alexander III. The empe¬
ror’s allies neceflarily acknowledged the pope chofen by
him; and thofe princes who were jealous of the em¬
peror, acknowledged the other. Vidor II. Frede¬
ric’s pope, had Germany, Bohemia, and one half of
Italy, on his fide; while the reft fubmitted to Alex-
jlc take5 ander III. The emperor took a fevere revenge on his
and de- enemies ; Milan was razed from the foundation, and
ftroys Mi- falt ftrewed on its ruins; Brefcia and Placentia were
lan, &c. djfmantled; and the other cities which had taken part
with them, were deprived of their privileges. Alexan¬
der III. however, who had excited the revolt, return¬
ed to Rome after the death of his rival; and at his re¬
turn the civil war was renewed. The emperor caufed
another pope, and after his death a third, to be elec¬
ted. Alexander then fled to France, the common a-
fylum of every pope who was opprefied by the empe¬
rors ; but the flames of civil difcord which he had rai¬
led, continued daily to fpread. In 1168, the cities
of Italy, fupported by the Greek emperor and the
king of Sicily, entered into an aflbciation for the de¬
fence of their liberties ; and the pope’s party at length
prevailed. In 1176, the imperial army, worn out by
fatigues and difeafes, was defeated by the confede¬
rates, and Frederic himfelf narrowly efcaped. About
the fame time, he was defeated at fea by the Vene¬
tians; and his eldeft fon Henry, who commanded his
fleet, fell into the hands of the enemy. The pope, in
honour of this viftory, failed out into the open fea,
accompanied by the whole fenate; and after having
pronounced a thoufand benedictions on that element,
threw into it a ring as a mark of his gratitude andaf-
fe&ion. Hence the origin of that ceremony which
is annually performed by the Venetians, under the no¬
tion of efpoufing the Adriatic. Thefe misfortunes dif-
pofed the emperor towards a reconciliation with the
pope : but, reckoning it below his dignity to make an
advance, he rallied his troops, and exerted himfelf with
fo much vigour in repairing his lofs, that the confede¬
rates were defeated in a battle ; after which he made
propofals of peace, which were now joyfully accepted,
and Venice was the place appointed for a reconcilia-
s ,s? tion. The emperor, the pope, and a great many
to thepone. princes and cardinals, attended; and there the emperor,
in 11 77, put an end to the difpute, by acknowledg¬
ing the pope, killing his feet, and holding his ftirrup
while he mounted his mule. This reconciliation was
attended with the fubmiffion of all the towns of Italy
which had entered into an aflbciation for their mutual
defence. They obtained a general pardon, and were
left at liberty to ufe their own laws and forms of go¬
vernment, but were obliged to take the oath of alle¬
giance to the emperor as their fuperior lord. Calix-
tus, the antipope, finding himfelf abandoned by the
emperor in confequence of this treaty, made alfo his
fubmiffion to Alexander, who received him with great
humanity ; and in order to prevent, for the future,
thofe difturbances which had fo often attended the e-
leftions of the popes, he called a general council, in Italy,
which it was decreed, that no pope (hould be deemed
duely elefted, without having two thirds of the votes
in his favour.
The affairs of Italy being thus fettled, Barbaroffa
returned to Germany; and having quieted fome di¬
fturbances which had arifen during his abfence in Ita¬
ly, at laft undertook an expedition into the Holy
Land; where having performed great exploits, he was
drowned as he was fwimming in the river Cydnus, in
the year 1190. He was fucceeded by his fon Hen- Fr£,d^®. , |
ry VI. who at the fame time became heir to the do- fucceeded’ I
minions of Sicily by the right of his wife, daughter of by Hen- j
William king of that country. After fettling the af- ry VI. |
fairs of Germany, the new emperor marched with an
army into Italy, in order to be crowned by the pope,
and to recover the fucceffion of Sicily, which was
ufurped by Tancred his wife’s natural brother. For this
purpofe, he endeavoured to conciliate the affe&ionsof
the Lombards, by enlarging the privileges of Genoa,
Pifa, and other cities, in his way to Rome; where
the ceremony of the coronation was performed bv Ce-
leftin III. on the day after Eafter in the year 1191.
The pope, then in the 86th year of his age, had not
fooner placed the crown upon Henry’s head than he
kicked it off again, as a teftimony of the power re-
fiding in the fovereign pontiff to make and unmake
emperors at his pleafure.
The coronation being over, Henry prepared for the
conqueft of Naples and Sicily ; but in this he was op-
pofed by the pope : for though Celeftin confidered
Tancred as an ufurper, and defired to fee him de¬
prived of the crown of Sicily, which he -claimed as
a fief of the fee, yet he was much more averfe
to the emperor’s being put in poffeffion of it, as
that would render him too powerful in Italy for the
intereft of the church. Henry, however, without
paying any regard to the threats and remonftrances of
his holinefs, took almoft all the towns of Campania,
Calabria, and Apulia ; invefted the city of Naples ; and
lent for the Genoefe fleet, which he had before enga¬
ged, to come and form the blockade by fea : but be¬
fore its arrival, he was obliged to raife the fiege, in
confequence of a dreadful mortality among his troops:
and all future attempts upon Sicily were ineffeftual du¬
ring the life of Tancred. tfr
The whole reign of Henry from this time feems to Per* 1
have been a continued train' of the moft abominable gruyej(” ;
perfidies and cruelties. Having treacheroufly feized !
and imprifoned Richard I. of England, in the manner
related under that article, n° 128,—130. he had no
fooner received the ranfom paid for his royal captive,
than he made new preparations for the conqueft of Si¬
cily. As Tancred died about this time, the emperor,
with the affiftance of the Genoefe, accompliftied his
purpofe. The queen dowager furrendered Salerno,
and her right to the crown, on condition that her fon
William fhould poffefs the principality of Tarentum ;
but Henry no fooner found himfelf mafter of the place,
than he ordered the infant-king to be caftrated, to
have his eyes put out, and to be confined in a dun¬
geon. The royal treafure was tranfported to Ger¬
many, and the queen and her daughter confined in a
convent.
In the mean time, the emprefs, though near the age
of
I T A [ 3981 ] I T A
l| I*aly- of 50, was delivered of a fon, named Frederic; and
'{T Heary foon after aflembled a diet of the princes of
Germany, to whom- he explained his intentions of ren¬
dering the imperial crown hereditary, in order to pre¬
vent thofe diflurbances which ufually attended the elec¬
tion of emperors. A decree pafled for this purpofe ;
and Frederic, yet in his cradle, was declared king of
the Romans. Soon after, the emperor being folicited
to undertake a crufade, obeyed the injun&ions of the
pope, but in fuch a manner as to make it turn out to
his own advantage. He convoked a general diet at
Worms, where he folemnly declared his refolution of
employing his whole power, and even of hazarding
his life, for the accompli(liment of fo holy an enter-
prife ; and he expatiated upon the fubjedl with fo
much eloquence, that almoft the whole affembly took
the crofs. Nay, fuch multitudes from all the provin¬
ces of the empire enlifted themfelves, that Henry di¬
vided them into three large armies one of which, un¬
der the command of the biihop of Mentz, took the
route of Hungary, where it was joined by Margaret,
queen of that country, who entered herfelf in this pi¬
ous expedition, and adually ended her days in Pale-
fline : the fecond was aflembled in Lower Saxony, and
embarked in a fleet furniflied by the inhabitants of Lu-
bec, Hamburg, Holftein, and Friezland: and the
emperor in perfon conduced the third into Italy, in or¬
der to take vengeance on the Normans in Naples and
Sicily, who had rifen again ft his government.
The rebels were humbled ; and their chiefs were
condemned to perifh by the moft excruciating tor¬
tures. One Jornandi, of the houfe of the Norman
princes, was tied naked on a chair of red-hot iron, and
crowned with a circle of the fame burning metal, which
was nailed to his head. The emprefs (hocked at fuch
cruelty, renounced her faith to her hufband, and en¬
couraged her countrymen to recover their liberties.
Refolution fprung from defpair. The inhabitants be¬
took themfelves to arms ; the emprefs Conftantia head¬
ed them ; and Henry, having difmified his troops, no
longer thought neceffary to his bloody purpofes, and
fent them to purfue their expedition to the Holy Land,
was obliged to fubmit to his wife, and to the condi¬
tions which (he was pleafed to impofe on him in fa¬
vour of the Sicilians. He died at Meflina in 1197,
foon after this treaty ; and, as was fuppofed, of poi-
6l fon adminiftered by the emprefs.
Di(turban- The emperor’s fon Frederic had already been de-
ces in the clared king of the Romans, and confequently became
beginning emperor on the death of his father; but as Frederic II.
reign of was Yet a m’nor> lke adminiftration was committed
rrccieric II. to his uncle the duke of Suabia, both by the will of
Henry and by an afiembly of the German princes. Ci¬
ther princes, however, incenfed to fee au eleAive em¬
pire become hereditary, held a new diet at Cologne,
and chofe Otho duke of Brunfwick, fon of Henry the
Lion. Frederic’s title was confirmed in a third aflem-
bly, at Arnlburg ; and his uncle, Philip duke of Sua¬
bia, was ele&ed king of the Romans, in order to give
greater weight to his adminiftration. Thefe two elec¬
tions divided the empire into two powerful fadtions,
and involved all Germany in ruin and defolation. In¬
nocent III. who had fucceeded Celeftin in the papal
chair, threw himfelf into the fcale of Otho, and ex¬
communicated Philip and all his adherents. This able
Vot. V.
and ambitious pontiff was a fworn enemy of the houfe
of Suabia ; not from any perfonal animofity, but out
of a principle of policy. That houfe had long been
terrible to the popes, by its continual pofleflion of the
imperial crown ; and the acceffion of the kingdom of
Naples and Sicily, made it ftill more to be dreaded :
Innocent, therefore* gladly feized the prefent favour¬
able opportunity for divefting it of the empire, by
fupporting the ele&ion of Otho, and fowing divifions
among the Suabian party. Otho was alfo patronifed
by his uncle, the king of England ; which naturally
inclined the king of France to the fide of his rival.
Fa&ion claftred with faftion ; friendlhip, with intereft :
caprice, ambition, or refentment, gave the fway; and
nothing was beheld on all hands, but the horrors and
the miferies of civil wars.
Meanwhile, the emprefs Conftantia remained in Si¬
cily, where all was peace, as regent and guardian for
her infant fon, Frederic II. who had been crowned
king of that ifland, with the confent of pope Cele¬
ftin III. But (he alfo had her troubles. A new in-
veftiture from the holy fee being neceffary, on the
death Celeftin, Innocent III. his fucceffor, took ad¬
vantage of the critical fituation of affairs for aggran¬
dizing the papacy, at the expence of the kings of Si¬
cily. They poffeffed, as has been already obferved,
the privilege of filling up vacant benefices, and of
judging all ecclefiaftical caufes in the laft appeal: they
were really popes in their own ifland, though vaffals of
his holinefs. Innocent pretended that thefe powers
had been furrepitioufly obtained ; and demanded, that
Conftantia (hould renounce them in the name of her
fon, and do liege, pure and Ample homage for Sicily.
But before any thing was fettled relative to this affair,
the emprefs died, leaving the regency of the kingdom
to the pope ; fo that he was enabled to preferibe what
conditions he thought proper to young Frederic. The
troubles of Germany ftill continued ; and the pope re¬
doubled his efforts, to detach the princes and prelates
from the caufe of Philip, notwithftanding the remon-
ftrances of the king of France, to whom he proudly
replied, “ Either Philip muft lofe the empire, or I
the papacy.” But all thefe diffentions and troubles in
Europe, did not prevent the formation of another cru¬
fade, or expedition into Afia, for the recovery of the
Holy Land. Thofe who took the crofs were princi¬
pally French and Germans : Baldwin, count of Flan¬
ders, was their commander; and the Venetians, as
greedy of wealth and power as the ancient Carthagi¬
nians, furnifhed them with (hips, for which they took
care to be amply paid both in money and territory.
The Chriftian city of Zara, in Dalmatia, had with¬
drawn itfelf from the government of the republic: the
army of the crofs undertook to reduce.it to obedience;
and it was befieged and taken, notwithftanding the
threats and excommunications of the pope.
While the crufaders were fpreading defolation thro’
the eaft, Philip and Otho were in like manner defola-
ting the weft. At length Philip prevailed ; and O-
tho, obliged to abandon Germany, took refuge in
England. Philip, elated with fuccefs, confirmed .his
election by a fecond coronation, and propofed an ac¬
commodation with the pope, as the means of fi¬
nally eftablKhing his throne; but before it could be
brought about, he fell a facrifice to private revenge,
22 being
I T A [ 3982 ] I T A
Italy- being aflaflinated by the count Palatine of Bavaria,
" '"’whofe daughter he had promifed to marry, and after¬
wards rejefted. Gtlid returned to Germany on the
death of Philip ; married that prince’s daughter ; and
was crowned at Rome |>y pope Innocent III. after
yielding to the holy fee the long difputed inheritance
of the countefs Matilda, and confftming the rights and
privileges of the Italian cities. But thefe concefiions,
as far at lead as regarded the pope, were only a facri-
fice to prefent policy : Otho, therefore, no fooner
found himfelf in a condition to aft pffenfively, than he
refumed his grant ; and, in 1210, not only recovered
the pofieffions of the empire, but made hoftile incur-
fions into Apulia, ravaging the dominions of young
Frederic, king of Naples and Sicily, who was under
the proteftion of the holy fee. For this reafon he was
excommunicated by Innocent, and Frederic, now 17
years of age, was elefted emperor by a diet of the
German princes. Otho, however, on his return to
Germany, finding his party ftill confiderable, and not
doubting but he (hould be able to humble his rival by
means of his fuperior force, entered into an alliance
with his uncle, John king of England, againft Philip
Auguftus king of Fiance, A. D. 1213. The unfor¬
tunate battle of Bouvines, where the confederates were
defeated, compleated the fate of Otho. He attempted
to retreat into Germany, but was prevented by young
Frederic; who had marched into the empire at the
bead of a powerful army, and was every where received
with open arms. Thus abandoned by all the princes
of Germany, and altogether without refonrce, Otho
retired to Brunfwick, where he lived four years as a
private man, dedicating his time to the duties of re¬
ligion.
Frederic II. being now univerfally acknowledged
emperor, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215,
with great magnificence ; when, in order to preferve
the favour of the pope, he added to the other folemni-
ties of his coronation, a vow to go in perfon to the
Holy Land.
The bad fuccefs of this expedition hath been already
taken notice of, under the article Croisade. The
emperor had, on various pretences, refufed to go into
H-s ^uarrel ^ie ’ an<^ 'n l225, the pope, incenfed at the lofs
with the Damietta, wrote a fevere letter to him, taxing him
pope. with having facrificed the interefls of Chriftianity by
delaying fo long the performance of his vow, and
threatening him with immediate excommunication if
he did not inftantly depart with an army into Afia.
Frederic, exafperated at thefe reproaches, renounced
all correfpondence with the court of Rome ; renewed
bis ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion in Sicily ; filled up vacant
fees and benefices; and expelled fome bifhops, who
were creatures of the pope, on pretence of their being
concerned in praftices againidthe ftate.
The'pope at firft threatened the emperor with tlie
thunder of the church, for prefuming to lift up his
hand againll the fanftuary ; but finding Frederic not
to be intimidated, be became fenfible of his own im¬
prudence in wantonly incurring the refentment of fo
powerful a prince, and thought proper to foothe him
by fubmiffive apologies and gentle exhortations. They
were accordingly reconciled, and conferred together at
Veroli in 1226; where the emperor, as a proof of his
fincere attachment to the church, publi/hed fome very
fevere edifts againft herefy, which feem to have an- Italy,
thorifed the tribunal of the inquifition. A folemn af-
fembly was afterwards held at Ferentino, where both
the pope and the emperor were prefent, together with
John de Brienne, titular king of Jerufalem, who was
come to Europe to demand fuccours againft the foldan
of Egypt. John had an only daughter, named To-
landa, whom he propofed as a wife to the emperor,
with the kingdom of Jerufalem as her dower, on con¬
dition that Frederic {hould, within two years, perform
the vow he had made to lead an army into the holy
land. Frederic married her on thefe terms, becaufe he
chofe to pleafe the pope ; and fince that time the kings
of Sicily have taken the title of king of yerufalcm.
But the emperor was in no hurry to go and conquer
his wife’s portion, having bufinefs of more import¬
ance on his hands at home. The chief cities of Lom¬
bardy had entered into a fecret league, with a view to
renounce his authority. He convoked a diet at Cre¬
mona, where all the German and Italian noblemen
were fummoned to attend. A variety of fubjefts were
there difeuffed ; but nothing of confequence was fet¬
tled. An accommodation, however, was foon after
brought about by the mediation of the pope who, as
umpire of the difpute, decreed, that the emperor
{hould lay afide his refentment againft the confederate
towns, and that the towns {hould furnifti and maintain
400 knights for the relief of the holy land.
Peace being thus concluded, Honorius reminded
the emperor of his vow: Frederic promifed com¬
pliance: but his holinefs died before he could fee the
execution of a projeft which he feemed to have fo
much at heart. He was fucceeded in the papal chair
by Gregory IX. brother of Innocent III.; who,
purfuing the fame line of policy, urged the departure
of Frederic for the holy land ; and finding the empe¬
ror ftill backward, declared him incapable of the im¬
perial dignity, as having incurred the fentence of ex-
communication. Frederic, incenfed at fuch infolence,
ravaged the patrimony of St Peter; and was aftually
excommunicated. The animofity between the Guelphs
and Ghibellines revived; the pope was obliged to quit
Rome ; and Italy became a feene of war and defola-
tion, or rather of an hundred civil wars ; which, by-
inflaming the minds and exciting the refentment of
the Italian princes, accuftomed them but too much
to the horrid praftices of poifoning and aflaffination.
During thefe tranfaftions, Frederic, in order to re¬
move the caufe of all thefe troubles, and gratify the
prejudices of a fuperftiu’ous a^e, by the advice of his
friends, refolved to perform his vow; and he accor-
dingly embarked for the Holy Land, leaving the affairs
of Italy to the management of Renaldo duke of Spo-the‘Hoiy
leto. The pope prohibited his departure before he Land,
fhould be abfolved from the cenfures of the church;
but Frederic went in contempt of the church, and fuc¬
ceeded better than any perfon who had gone before
him. He did not indeed defolate Afia, and gratify
the barbarous zeal of the times by fpiliing the blood
of infidels ; but he concluded a treaty with Miliden,
foldan of Egypt and mafter of Syria; by which the
end of his expedition feemed fully anfwered. The
foldan ceded to him Jerufalem and its territory, as far
as Joppa; Bethlem, Nazareth, and all the country
between Jerufalem and Ptolemais; Tyre, Sidon, and
the.
I T A [ 3983 1 r T A
Italy-, the neighbouring territories : in return for which, the
 emperor granted the Saracens a truce of ten years ;
and, in 1230, prudently returned to Italy, where his
prefence was much wanted.
Frederic’s reign, after his return from the eaft, was
one continued quarrel with the popes. The cities of
Lombardy had revolted during his abfence, at the in-
iligation of Gregory IX.; and before they could be
reduced, the fame pontiff excited the emperor’s fon
Henry, who had been elected king of the Romans, to
rebel againfl his father. The rebellion was fupprefs-
ed, the prince was confined, and the emperor obtain¬
ed a complete victory over the aflbciated towns. But
his troubles were not yet ended. The pope excom¬
municated him anew, and fent a bull, filled with the
moft abfurd and ridiculous language, into Germany,
in order to fow divifion between Frederic and the prin¬
ces of the empire.
Frederic retorted in the fame flrain, in his apology
to the princes of Germany, calling Gregory the Great
Dragon, Antichriji, &c. The emperor’s apology
was fuftained in Germany ; and .finding he had no¬
thing to fear from that quarter, he refolved to take
ample vengeance on the pope and his affociates. -For
that purpofe he marched to Rome, where he thought
his party was ftrong enough to procure him admiffion :
but this favourite fcheme was defeated by the activity
of Gregory, who ordered a crufade to be preached
againft the emperor, as an enemy of the Chriftian
faith ; a ftep which incenfed Frederic fo much, that
he ordered all his prifoners, who wore the crofs, to be
expofed to the moft cruel tortures. The two fa&ions
of the Guelphs and Ghibellines continued to rage with
greater violence than ever, involving cities, diftricts,
and even private families, in troubles, divifions, and
civil butchery ; no quarter being given on either fide.
Meanwhile Gregory IX. died, and was fucceeded in
the fee of Rome by Celeftin IV. and afterwards by
Innocent IV. formerly cardinal Fiefque, who had al¬
ways expreffed the greateft regard for the emperor and
his intereft. Frederic was accordingly congratulated
upon this occafion : but having more penetration than
thofe about him, he fagely replied, “ I fee little rea-
fon to rejoice; the cardinal was my friend, but the
pope will be my enemy.” Innocent foon proved the
juftice of this conjecture. He attempted to negociate
a peace for Italy ; but not being able to obtain from
Frederic his exorbitant demands, and in fear for the
depofed fafety 0f ^[5 own perfon, he fled into France, affem-
pj 6 bled a general council at Lyons, and, in 1245, ^e*
pofed the emperor.
Conrad, the emperor’s fecond fon, had already been
declared king of the Romans, on the death of his
brother Henry, which foon followed his confinement:
but the empire being now declared vacant by the pope,
the German bilhops, (for none of the princes were
prefent), at the inftigation of his holinefs, proceeded
to the ele&ion of a new emperor; and they chofe
Henry landgrave of Thuringia, who was ftyled in de-
rifion, The king of priejis. Innocent now renewed the
crufade againft Frederic. It was proclaimed by the
preaching friars, fince called Dominicans, and the mi¬
nor friars, known by the name of Cordeliers or Fran-
eifeans. The pope, however, did not confine himfelf
to thefe meafures only, but engaged in confpiracies
againft the life of an emperor, who had dared torefift I(a'y-
the decree.of a council, and oppofe the whole body of "
monks and zealots. Frederick’s life was feveral times
in danger from plots, poifonings, and aflafiinations;
which induced him, it is faid, to make choice of Ma¬
hometan guards, who, he was certain, would not be
under the influence of the prevailing fuperftition.
About this time the landgrave of Thuringia dying,
the fame prelates who had taken the liberty of creating
one emperor made another ; namely, William count
of Holland, a young nobleman of twenty years of
age, who bore the fame contemptuous title with his
predeceffor. Fortune, which had hitherto favoured
Frederic, feemed now to defert him. He was defeat¬
ed before Parma, which he had long befieged; and to
complete his misfortune, he foon after learned, that
his natural fon Entius, whom he had made king, of
Sardinia, was worfted and taken prifoner by the Bo-
lognefe.
In this extremity, Frederic retired to his kingdom
of Naples, in order to recruit his army; and there
died of a fever, in the year 1250. After his death,
the affairs of Germany fell into the utmoft confufion,
and Italy continued long in the fame diftradted ftate
in which he had left it. The clergy took arms againft
the laity ; the weak were oppreffed by the flrong ; and
all laws divine and human were difregarded. After
the death of Frederic’s fon Conrad who had affumed
the imperial dignity as fucceffor to his father, and the
death of his competitor William of Holland, a va¬
riety of candidates appeared for the empire, and feve¬
ral were eledled by different fadlions ; among whom
was Richard earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry IL
king of England : but no emperor was properly ac¬
knowledged till the year J273, when Rodolph, count
of Hapfburg, was unanimoufly raifed to the vacant
throne. During the interregnum which preceded the <js
election of Rodolph, Denmark, Holland, and Hun- Decline of
gary, entirely freed themfelves from the homage they
were wont to pay to the empire ; and much about the ^an
fame time feveral German cities erefted a municipal rors.
form of government, which ftill continues. Lubec,
Cologne, Brunfwic, and Dantzic, united for their
mutual defence againft the encroachments of the great
lords, by a famous affociation, called the Hanfeatic
league; and thefe towns were afterwards joined by
eighty others, belonging to different ftates, which
formed a kind of commercial republic. Italy alfo,
during this period, affumed a new plan of govern¬
ment. That freedom for which the cities of Lom¬
bardy had fo long ftruggled, was confirmed to them
for a fum of money : they were emancipated by the
fruits of their induftry. Sicily likewife changed its
government and its prince; of which revolution a par¬
ticular account is given under the article Sicily.
From the time of Frederic II. we may date the ruin
of the German power in Italy. The Florentines, the
Pifans, the Genoefe, the Luccans, &c. became inde¬
pendent, and could not again be reduced. The power
of the emperor, in Ihort, was in a manner annihilated,
when Henry VII. undertook to reftore it in the be- g7
ginning of the 14th century. For this purpofe a Expedition
diet was held at Francfort, where proper fupplies °f H®nr)r
being granted for the emperor’s journey, well known ln£0
by the name of the Roman expedition, he fet out for
2 2 Q 2 Italy,
I T A [ 3984 ] I T A
Italy. Italy, accompanied by the dukes of Auftria and Ba-
' varia, the archbifhop of Triers, the bifhop of Liege,
the counts of Savoy and Flanders, and other noble¬
men, together with the militia of all the imperial
towns. Italy was dill divided by the faftions of the
Guelphs and Gibelines, who butchered one another
without humanity or remorfe. But their conteft was
no longer the fame : it was not now a ftruggle be¬
tween the empire and the priefthood, but between
fa&ion and fadion, inflamed by mutual jealoufies and
animofities. Pope Clement V. had been obliged to
leave Rome, which was in the anarchy of popular go¬
vernment. The Colonnas, the Urfini, and the Ro¬
man barons, divided the city ; and this divifion was
the caufe of a long abode of the popes in France, fo
that Rome feemed equally loft to the popes and the
emperors. Sicily was in the poffeffion of thehoufeof
Arragon, in confequence of the famous maffacre called
the Sicilian vefpers, which delivered that ifland from
See Sicily, the tyranny of the French *. Carobert, king of
Hungary, difputed the kingdom of Naples with his
uncle Robert, fon of Charles II. of the houfe of An¬
jou. The houfe of Efte had eftabliflied itfelf at Fer¬
rara ; and the Venetians wanted to make themfelves
mafters of that country. The old league of the Ita¬
lian cities no longer fubfifted. It had been formed
with no other view than to oppofe the emperors: and
fince they had negledted Italy, the cities were wholly
employed in aggrandizing themfelves, at the expence
of each other. The Florentines and the Genoefe made
war upon the republic of Pifa. Every city was alfo
divided into factions within itfelf. In the midft of
thefe troubles Henry VII. appeared in Italy in the
year 1311, and caufed himfelf to be crowned king of
Lombardy at Milan. But the Guelphs had con¬
cealed the old iron crown of the Lombard kings,
as if the right of reigning were attached to a fmall
circlet of metal. Henry ordered a new crown to be
made, with which the ceremony of inauguration was
performed.
Cremona was the firft place that ventured to oppofe
the emperor. He reduced it by force, and laid it
under heavy contributions. Parma, Vicenza, and
Placentia, made peace with him on reafonable condi¬
tions. Padua paid 100,000 crowns, and received an
imperial officer as governor. The Venetians pre¬
sented Henry with a large fum of money, an imperial
crown of gold enriched with diamonds, and a
chain of very curious workmanfhip. Brefcia made
a defperate refiftance, and fultained a very fevere fiege;
in the courfe of which the emperor’s brother was flain,
and his army diminifhed to fuch a degree, that the
inhabitants marched out under the command of their
prefect, Thibault de Druflati, and gave him battle :
but they were repulfed with great lofs, after an obfti-
nate engagement ; and at laft obliged to fubmit, and
their city was difmantled. From Brefcia Henry
marched to Genoa, where he was received with ex-
preffions of joy, and fplendidly entertained. He next
proceeded to Rome ; where, after much bloodflied, he
received the imperial crown from the hands of the
cardinals. Clement V. who had originally invited
Henry into Italy, growing jealous of his fuccefs, had
leagued with Robert king of Naples, and the Urfini
faftion, to oppofe his entrance into Rome. He en¬
tered it in fpite of them, by the afliftance of the Co- haiy. j
lonnas. Now mafter of that ancient city, Henry ap- *
pointed it a governor ; and ordered, that all the cities
and ftates of Italy (hould pay him an annual tribute.
In this order he comprehended the kingdom of Naples,
to which he was going to make good his claim of fu-
periority by arms, when he died at Benevento in 1313,
as is commonly fuppofed, of poifon given him by a
Dominican friar, in the confecrated wine of the facra-
ment. gg
The efforts of Henry VII. were unable to reftore gtate 0f 1
the imperial power in Italy. From this time the au- Italy fince l
thority of the emperor in that country confided in a that time- |
great meafure in the conveniency which the Gibelines
found in oppofing their enemies under the fantftion of
his name. The power of the pope was much of
the fame nature. He was lefs regarded in Italy than in
any other country in Chriftendom. There was indeed
a great party who called themfelves Guelphs ; but they
affefted this diftindlion only to keep themfelves inde¬
pendent of the imperialids ; and the ftates and princes
who called themfelves Guelphs paid little more acknow¬
ledgement to his holinefs, than (heltering themfelves
under his name and authority. The molt defperate
wars were carried on by the different cities againlt each,
other ; and in thefe wars Caftruccio Caftraccani, and
Sir John Hawkwood an Englilhman, are celebrated
as heroes. A detail of thefe tranfa&ions would fur-
nilh materials for many volumes; and after all feems
to be but of little importance, fince nothing material
was effe&ed by the utmoft efforts of valour, and the
belligerant ftates were commonly obliged to make
peace without any advantage on either fide. By de¬
grees, however, this martial fpirit fubfided ; and in
the year 1492, the Italians were fo little capable of
refilling an enemy, that Charles VIII.'of France con¬
quered the whole kingdom of Naples in fix weeks,
and might eafily have fubdued the whole country had
it not been for his own imprudence. Another at¬
tempt on Italy was made by Lewis XII and a third
by Francis I. But for an account of the bad fuccefs
of thefe expeditions, fee the article France n° 68—
75. In the reigns of Lewis XIII. and XIV. an ob-
ftinate war was carried on between the French and
Spaniards, in which the Italian ftates bore a very con-
fiderable lhare. The war concluded in 1660, with
very little advantage to the French, who have been
always unfuccefsful in their Italian wars. The like
bad fuccefs attended them in that part of the world, in
the war which commenced between Britain and Spain
in the year 1740. But the particulars of thefe wars
with regard to the different ftates of Italy, naturally
fall to be confidered under the hiftory of thofe ftates
into which the country is now divided ; ,viz. Sardinia,
Milan or the Milanefe, Genoa, Venice, Tufcany or
Florence, Lucca, St Marino, Parma, Mantua, Modena,
Rorhe, and Naples.
The air of Italy is very different, according to the Air &c. of
different fituations of the feveral countries contained in Italy,
it. In thofe on north of the Apennines it is more
temperate, but on the fouth it is generally very warm.
The air of the Campania of Rome, and of the Ferra-
refe, is faid to be unhealthful ; which is owing to the
lands not being duly cultivated, nor the marfties drain¬
ed. That of the other parts is generally pure, dry.
I T A [ 3985 ] I T A
jj : Iul and healtliy. In fummcr, the heat is very great in the
kingdom of Naples ; and would be almoft intolerable,
if it was not fomewhat alleviated by the fea*breezes.
The foil of Italy in general is very fertile, being wa¬
tered by a great number of rivers. It produces a great
variety of wines, and the beft oil in Europe ; excellent
filk in abundance ; corn of all forts, but not in fuch
plenty as in fome other countries ; oranges, lemons,
citrons, pomegranates, almonds, raifins, fugar, mul¬
berry-trees without number, figs, peaches, neSarines,
apricots, pears, apples, filberts, chefnuts, &c. Mod
of thefe fruits were at firft imported by the Romans
from Afia Minor, Greece, Africa, and Syria, and
were not the natural products of the foil. The tender
plants are covered in winter on the north fide of the
Apennines, but on the fouth fide they have no need
of it. This country alfo yields good pafture ; and a-
bounds with cattle, Iheep, goats, buffaloes, wild boars,
mules, and horfes. The forefts are well ftored with
game ; and the mountains yield not only mines of iron,
lead, alum, fulphur, marble of all forts, alabafter,
jafper, porphyry, &c. but alfo gold and filver; with
a great variety of aromatic herbs, trees, fhrubs, and
ever-greens, as thyme, lavender, laurel, and bays,
wild olive-trees, tamarinds, juniper, oaks, and pines.
A very extenfive trade is carried on in many places
in Italy, particularly at Leghorn, Genoa, Bologna,
Venice, and Naples ; the country having a great va¬
riety of commodities and manufaftures for exportation,
efpecially wine, oil, perfumes, fruits, and filks. Tra¬
vellers alfo bring large fums of money into Italy, be-
fides what they lay out in pi&ures, curiofities, relics,
70 antiquities, &c.
tip refs, dif- The Italians are generally well proportioned, tho’
ofition, their complexions are none of the beft. As to drefs,
cc. of the tjjey f0jl0W the fafhions of the countries on which they
11a ltants* borcier> or to which they are fubjedt, namely, thofe
of France, Spain, and Germany. With refpeft to
their genius and tafte in architedfure, painting, car¬
ving, and mufic, they are thought to excel greatly,
and to leave the other nations of Europe far behind
them : but their mufic feems too foft and effeminate
to deferve all the praife beftowed on it ; and their hou-
fes are far inferior to thofe of England in refpedt of
convenience. No country hath produced better poli¬
ticians, hiftorians, poets, painters, and fculptors, we
mean fince the revival of the arts and fciences, exclu-
five of thofe of ancient times. The Italians are very
affable, courteous, ingenious, fober, and ready-wit¬
ted ; but extremely jealous, vindidtive, lafcivious, ce¬
remonious, and fuperftitious. In refpedt tojealoufy,
indeed, we are told, that a very extraordinary change
hath lately taken place and that the Italians are now
no lefs indulgent and complaifant to their wives, than
the moft polite hufbands in- France itfelf. In their
tempers, the Italians feem to be a good medium be¬
tween the French and Spaniards ‘r neither fo gay and
volatile as the one, nor fo grave and fotemn as the
other. Boiled fnails, ferved up with oil and pepper,
or fried in oil, and the hinder parts of frogs, are
reckoned dainty difhes. Kites, jackdaws, hawks,
and magpies, are alfo eaten, not only by the common
people, but the better fort. Wine is drank here both
in fummer and winter cooled by ice or fnow. The
women affeft yellow hair, as the Roman ladies and
courtezans formerly did. They alfo ufe paint and Itch
wafhes, both for their hands and faces. The day .11.
here is reckoned from fun-fet to fun-fet, as the Athe- lgl1’'
nians did of old.
ITCH, a cutaneous difeafe, appearing in fmall
watery puftules on the fkin ; commonly of a mild na¬
ture, though fometimes attended with obftinate and
dangerous fymptoms. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
iTCH-Infefl. See Acarus.
1TEA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There is
but one fpecies, a native of North-America. It grows
by the fides of rivers, and in other parts where the
ground is moift. It rifes to the height of eight or 10
feet, fending out many branches garniftied with fpear-
ftiaped leaves placed alternately, and (lightly fawed on
their edges, of a light green colour. At the extre¬
mity of the branches are produced fine fpikes of white
flowers three or four inches long, (landing ereft. When
thefe (hrubs are in vigour, they will be entirely covered
with flowers, fo that they make a beautiful appearance
during the flowering feafon, which is in July. They
are propagated by layers, and are not injured by the
cold of this climate;, but are apt to die in fummer, if
they are planted on a dry gravelly foil. The (hoots
(hould be laid down in autumn, and will be rooted in
one year.
ITHACA (anc. geogr.), an {(land in the Ionian
Sea on the coaft of Epirus; the country of Ulyffes
near Dulichium, with a town and port fituated at the
foot of mount Neius. According to Pliny, it is about
25 miles in compafs; according to Artemidorus, only
10; and is now found to be only eight miles round.
It is now uninhabited, and called Jathaco.
ITINERARY, Itinerarium ; a journal, or an
account of the diftances of places. The moft remark¬
able is that which goes under the names of Antoninus
and Mthicus ; or, as Barthius found in his copy, An¬
toninus JEthicus; a Chriftian writer, pofterior to the
times of Conftantine. Another, called Hierofolymi-
tunum, from Bourdeaux to Jerufalem, and from
Heraclea through Aulona and Rome to Milan,
under Conftantine. Itinerarium denotes a day’s
march.
FIT US portus (anc. geogr.), the crux geogra-
phorum, fuch being the difficulty of afeertaining its
pofition. It would be endlefs to recite the feveral
opinions concerning it, with the feveral reafons ad¬
vanced in fupport of them. Three ports are men¬
tioned by Csefar ; two without any particular name,
viz. the Higher and the Lower, with refped to the
Portus Itius. Calais, Boulogne, St Omer, and Whit-
fand, have each in their turn had their feveral advo¬
cates. Casfar gives two diftin&ive charaSers or marks
which feem to agree equally to Boulogne and Whit-
fand, namely, the (hortnefs of the paffage, and the
fituation between two other ports; therefore nothing
can with certainty be determined about the fituation of
the Portus Itius.
ITTIGIUS (Thomas), a learned profeflbr of di¬
vinity at Leipiic, and fon of John Ittigius, profeflbr
of phyfic in the fame univerfity. He firfi: publiftied
A treatife upon burning mountainsi after which he be¬
came a minifter, and exercifed that fun&ion in various
churches
J U A [ 3986 ] TUB
'Itzehoii, churches there. He furnirned feveral papers in the
Juan- Leipfic a£ls, befides publifhing fotne hiftorical works
and diflertations. He died in 1710.
ITZEHOA, an ancient and handfome town of
Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy
of Holftein. It belongs to the king of Denmark,
and is feated on the river Stoer, in E. Long. 9. 25.
N. Lat. 54. 8.
JUAN (St) de la Frontera, a town of South-
America, in Chili, in the province of Chiquito, near the
lake Guanacho. The territory of this town is inha¬
bited by 20,000 native Americans, who are tributary
to Spain. It contains mines of gold, and produces a
kind of almonds' that are very delicate. It is feated at
the foot of the Andes, in W. Long. 66. 35. S. Lat.
£3. 25.
Juan ds Porto Ricco, an ifland of America, and one
of the Caribbees, being 100 miles in length, and 50
in breadth. It belongs to the Spaniards; and is full
of very high mountains, and extremely fertile valleys,
interfperfed with woods, and well watered with fprings
and rivulets. It produces fugar, rum, ginger, corn,
and fruits; partly proper to the climate, and partly
introduced from Spain. Befides, there are fo many
cattle, that they often kill them for the fake of the
ikins alone. Here are a great number of uncommon
trees, and there is a little gold in the north part of the
ifland. It is commonly faid that the air is healthy;
and yet the earl of Cumberland, when he had taken
this ifland, loft moft of his men by licknefs, and for
that reafon was forced to abandon it.. This happened
in the reign of queen Elizabeth. It is fubjedl to
florms and hurricanes, like the reft of thefe iflands.
It lies to the eaft of Hifpaniola, at the diltance of 50
miles.
Juan de Porto Ricco, the capital town of the ifland
of Porto llicco, with a good harbour defended by fe¬
veral forts, and a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on the
north coaft of the ifland, in W. Long. 65. 35.
N. Lat. 18. 30.
Juan Fernandez, an ifland in the great South Sea,
in S. Lat. 33. 40. and W. Long. 78. 30. from Lon¬
don. It was formerly a place of refort for the bucca-
niers who annoyed the weftern coaft of the Spanifli
continent. They were led to refort hither from the
multitude of goats which it nouriftied; to deprive their
enemies of which advantage, the Spaniards tranfported
a confiderable number of dogs, which increafing great¬
ly, have almoft extirpated the goats, who now only
find fecurity among the fteep mountains in the northern
parts, which are inaccefiible to their purfuers. There
are inltances of two men living, at different times,
alone on this ifland for many years; the one a Muf-
quito Indian; the other Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch¬
man, who was, after five years, taken on board an
Englifli fhip, which touched here in about 1710, and
brought back to Europe. From the hiftory of this
reclufe, Daniel de Foe is faid to have conceived the
idea of writing the adventures of Robinfon Crufoe.
This ifland was very propitious to the remains of com¬
modore Anfon’s fquadron in 1741, after having been
buffeted with tempefts, and debilitated by an invete¬
rate fcurvy, during a three months paffage round Cape
Horn: they continued here three months; during
which time the dying crews, who on their arrival could
fcarccly with one united effort heave the anchor, were Ju™,
reftored to perfeft health. Captain Carteret, in the
Swallow, in 1767, having met with many difficulties
and impediments in his paffage into the South Sea,
by the Straits of Magelhaens, attempted to make this
ifland in order to recruit the health of his men ; but
he found it fortified by the Spaniards, and therefore
chofe rather to proceed to the ifland of Mafafuero.
But M. de Bougainville,, that fame year, is faid to
have touched here for refrefhments, although in the
narrative of the voyage the fad is cautioufly fuppreffed.
This ifland is not quite 15 miles long, and about fix
broad; its only fafe harbour is on the north fide. It
is faid to have plenty of excellent water, and to abound
with a great variety of efculent vegetables highly anti-
fcorbutic; befides which, commodore Anfon fowed a
variety of garden-feeds, and planted the ftones of
plums, apricots, and peaches, which he was many
years afterwards informed had thriven greatly ; and
now doubtlefs furnifh a very valuable addition to the
natural produ&ions of this fpot. Vaft fhoals of fifti
of various kinds frequent this coaft, particularly cod of
a prodigious fize; and, it is faid, in not lefs abundance
than on the banks of Newfoundland. There are but
few birds here, and thofe few are of fpecies well known
and common.
Juan Blanco. See Platina.
JUBILEE, a time of public and folemn feftivity
among the ancient Hebrews. This was kept every
50th year: it began about the autumnal equinox, and
was proclaimed by found of trumpet throughout all
the country. At this time all flaves were releafed,
all debts annihilated, and all lands, houfes, wives and
children, however alienated, were reftored to their firll
owners. During this whole year all kind of agricul¬
ture was forbidden; and the poor had the benefit of
the harveft, vintage, and the other produdtions of the
earth, in the fame manner as in the fabbatic orfeventh
year. As this was defigned to put the Ifraelites in
mind of their Egyptian fervitude, and to prevent their
impofing the like upon their brethren, it was not ob-
ferved by the Gentile profelytes.
The Chriftians, in imitation of the Jews, have like-
wife eftabliftied jubilees, which began in the time of
pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1300, and are now
pradifed every 25 years : but thefe relate only to the
pretended forgivenefs of fins, and the indulgences
granted by the church of Rome ; together with the
privilege of performing a thoufand frolics in mafque-
rade. The ceremony of the jubilee obferved at
Rome, begins in the following manner: The pope
goes to St Peter’s church, to open the holy gate,
which is walled up, and opened only on this occafion;
and, holding a golden hammer in his hand, he knocks
at the gate three times, repeating thefe words, yperite
mihi portas jujlitiee, &c. “ Open to me the gates of
“ righteoufnefs; I will go into them, and I will praife
“ the Lord, (Pfal. cxviii. 19-)” Upon which the ma-
fons fall to work, and break down the wall that flops
up the gate: which done, the pope kneels down be¬
fore it, and the penitentiaries fpvinkle him with holy
water. Then, taking up the crofs, he begins to fing
Te Deum; and enters the church, followed by the
clergy. In the mean time, three cardinal-legates are
fent to open the three other holy gates which are in
J U D [ 3987 ] J u 1)
the churches of St John of Lateran, St Paul, and St
Mary the Greater. When the holy year is expired,
the holy gates are fhut in this manner: The pope, after
lie has blefled the ftones and mortar, lays the firft
Hone, and leaves there 12 boxes of gold and filver
medals; after which the holy gates are walled np as
before, and continue fo till the next jubilee.
JUCATAN, or Yucatan, a large province of
North-America, in New Spain, which is a peninfula.
It is over-againft the ifland of Cuba, and contains a
large quantity of timber, proper for building (hips; as
alfo fugar, caffia, and Indian corn. The original in¬
habitants are few, they having been very ill ufed
by the Spaniards. Merida is the capital town. It is
aflat, level country; and is very unhealthy, which
may be owing to the frequent inundations.
JUDAH, the fourth fon of Jacob, and father of
the chief of the tribes of the Jews, diftinguilhed by
his name, and honoured by giving birth to the Meffiah,
died 1636 B. C.
Judah HakkaJq/h, or the Saint, a rabbi celebrated
for his learning and riches, lived in the time of the
emperor Antoninus, and was the friend and preceptor
of that prince. Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice,
tells us, that rabbi Judah, who was very rich, collefted
about 26 years after the deftruftion of the temple, in
a book which he called the Mifna, the conftitutions
and traditions of the Jewifh magiftrates who preceded
him. But as this book was fhort and obfcure, two
Babylonilh rabbis, Rabbena and Afe, collefted all the
interpretations, difputes, and additions, that had been
made until their time upon the Mifna, and formed the
book called the Babylonijh Talmud or Gemara; which
is preferable to the Jerufalem Talmud, compofed fome
years before by rabbi Jochanan of Jerufalem. The
Mifna is the text of the Talmud; of which we have a
good edition in Hebrew and Latin by Surenhufms,
with notes, in 3 vols folio. It were to be wilhed the
fame had been done to the Gemara.
The kingdo7n ^Judah was of fmall extent, compa¬
red with that of the kingdom of Ifrael; confiding only
of two tribes, Benjamin and Judah: its ead boundary,
the Jordan; the Mediterranean its wed, in common
with the Danites, if we except fome places recovered
by the Philidines, and others taken by the kings of
Ifrael: on the fouth, its limits feem to have been con-
tradled under Hadad of the royal progeny of Edom,
(1 Kings xi. 14.)
Tribe of one of the 12 divifions of Paledine
by tribes, (Jodi, xv.) having Idumea on the fouth, from
the extremity of the Lacus Afphaltites, alfo the Wil-
dernefs of Zin, Cadefbarnea, and the brook or river of
Egypt ; on the ead, the faid lake ; on the w-ed, the
Mediterranean ; and on the north, the mouth of the
faid lake ; where it receives the Jordan, Bethfemes,
Thimna, quite to Ekron on the fea.
JUDEA, (anc, geog.) taken largely, either denotes
all Paleftine, or the greater part of it; and thus it is
generally taken in the Roman hidory: Ptolemy, Ru-
tilius, Jerome, Origen, and Eufebiu^ take it for the
whole of Paledine. Here we confider it as the third
part of it on this fide the Jordan, and that the
fouthern part, didinft from Samaria and Galilee;
under which notion it is often taken, not only in
Jofephus, but alfo in the New Tedament. It con¬
tained four tribes ; Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Si- Judaii'in
meon, together with Phiiidia and Idumea; fo as to S
be comprifed between Samaria on the north, Arabia -I0 £m
Petraea on the fouth, and to be bounded by the Medi¬
terranean on the wed, and by the Lacus Afphaltites,
with part of Jordan, on the ead. Jofephus divides it
into 11 toparchies; Pliny into 10; by which it has a
greater extent than that jud mentioned. See Pale¬
stine.
JUDAISM, the religious doftrines and rites of the
Jews.
JUDAS Maccabeus, a celebrated general of the
Jews, renowned for his many victories over his ene¬
mies, at lad flain in battle, 261 B. C. See [Hijlcry
of the) Jews, n° 13.
JUDE (St), brother of St James the younger, and
fon of Joftph, (Mat. xiii. 55.) He preached in Mefo-
potamia, Arabia, Syria, Idumea; and died in Berytus
for the confeffion of Chrid. He writ that epidle which
goes under his name, and after the death of mod of
the apodles. He was cruelly put to death for repro¬
ving the fuperdition of the Magi.
Jude, or the General Epijlle of Jude, a canonical
book of the New Tedament, written againd the here¬
tics, who, by their diforderly lives and impious doc¬
trines, corrupted the faith and good morals of the Chri-
dians. St Jude draws them in lively colours, as men
given up to their paffions, full of vanity, conducing
themfelves by worldly wifdom, and not by the fpirit of
God.
JDDENBURG, a handfomeand confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Audria, and capital of
Upper Styria, with a handfome cadle ; the public
buildings with the fquare are very magnificent. It is
feated on the river Meur. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat.
47. 20.
JUDEX (Matthew), one of the principal writers
of the centuries of Magdeburg, was born at Tipplef-
wolde in Mifnia, in 1528. He taught theology with
great reputation ; but met with many difquiets in the
exercife of his minidry from party-feuds. He wrote
feveral works, and died in 1564.
JUDGE, a chief magidrate of the law’, appointed
to hear caufes,. to explain the laws, and to pafs fen-
tence.
Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Te-
dainent, fo called from its relating the date of the If-
raelites under the adminidration of many illudrious
perfons who were called judges, from being both the
civil and military governors of the people, and who
were raifed up by God upon fpecial occafions, after the
death of Jolhua, till the time of their making a king.
In the time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral
remarkable occurrences, which are recorded in this
book. It acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a new
generation which fprung up after the death of Jofhua;
and gives us a (hort view of the difpenfations of heaven
towards this people, fometimes relieving and delivering
them, and at others feverely chadifing them by the
hands of their enemies.
JUDGMENT, among logicians, a faculty or rather
a£l of the human foul, whereby it compares its ideas,
and perceives their agreement or difagreement. See
Metaphysics, n° 242—245; and Logic, Part II.
Judgment, in law,- is the fentence pronounced by
the
J U D [ 3988 ] J U D
Judgment, court upon the matter contained in the record.
Judgments are of four forts. Find, where the fads are
confeffed by the parties, and the law determined by
the court; as in cafe of judgment upon demurrer:
fecondly, where the law is admitted by the parties,
and the fads difputed; as in a cafe of judgment on
verdift: thirdly, where both the fad and the law a-
rifing thereon arc admitted by the defendant; which
is the cafe of judgments by confejfion or default: or,
Jaflly, where the plaintiff is convinced that either fad,
or law, or both, are infufficient to fupport his a&ion,
and therefore abandons or withdraws his profecution;
which is the cafe in judgments upon a nonfuit or re¬
traxit.
The judgment, though pronounced or awarded by
the judges, is not their determination or fentence, but
the determination and fentence of the law. It is the
conclufion that naturally and regularly follows from
the premifes of law and fad, which ftand thus: Againft
him who hath rode over my corn, I may recover da¬
mages by law; but A hath rode over my corn; there¬
fore I (hall recover damages agatuft A. If the major
propolition be denied, this is a demurer in law: if the
minor, it is then an iffue of fad: but if both be con¬
feffed (or determined) to be right, the conclufion or
judgment of the court cannot but follow. Which
judgment or conclufion depends not therefore on the
arbitrary caprice of the judge, but on the fettled and
invariable principles of juftice. The judgment, in
fhort, is the remedy prefcribed by law for the redrefs
of injuries; and the fuit or adion is the vehicle or
means of adminiftering it. What that remedy may be,
is indeed the refult of deliberation and ftudy to point
out; and therefore the ftyle of the judgment is, not that
it is decreed or refolved by the court, for then the
judgment might appear to be their own; but, “ it is
confidered,” confideratum ejlper curiam, that the plain¬
tiff do recover his damages, his debt, his poffefiion,
and the like: which implies that the judgment is none of
their own ; but the ad of law, pronounced and decla¬
red by the court, after due deliberation and inquiry,
-ike Black]}. Comment, iii. 396.
Judgment, in criminal cafes, is the next ftage of
profecution, after trial and conviction are pafi, in
fuch crimes and mifdemeanors as are either too high
or too low to be included within the benefit of clergy.
For when, upon a capital charge, the jury have
brought in their verdict guilty in the prefence of the
prifoner ; he is either immediately, or at a convenient
time foon after, allied by the court, if he has any
thing to offer why judgment ftiould not be awarded a-
gainft him. And in cafe the-defendant be found guil¬
ty of a mifdemeanor, (the trial of which may, and does
ufually, happen in his abfence, after he has once ap¬
peared), a capias is awarded and iffued, to bring him
in to receive his judgment; and, if he abfconds, he
may be profecuted even to outlawry. But whenever
he appears in perfon, upon either a capital or inferior
conviftion, he may at this period, as well as at his ar¬
raignment, offer any exceptions to the indi&ment, in
arrejl or (lay of judgment: as for want of fufficient
certainty in fetting forth either the perfon, the time,
the place, or the offence. And, if the objeftions be
valid, the whole proceedings (hall be fet alide; but
the party may be indicted again. And we may take
notice, 1. That none of the ftatutes of jeofails t for Judgment,
amendment of errors, extend to indictments or pro- j
ceedings in criminal cafes; and therefore a defeftive in¬
dictment is not aided by a verdidt, as defective plead¬
ings in civil cafes are. 2. That, in favour of life, Bhckft. i
great ftridtnefs has at all times been obferved, in every Comment.
point of an indidtment. Sir Matthew Hale indeed
complains, “ that this ftridtnefs is grown to be a ble-
miih and inconvenience in the law, and the adminiftra-
tion thereof: for that more offenders efcape by the o-
ver eafy ear given to exceptions in indidtments, than by
their own innocence ; and many times grofs murders,
burglaries, robberies, and other heinous and crying
offences, remain unpunifhed by thefe unfeemly nice¬
ties : to the reproach of the law, to the fhame of the
government, to the encouragement of villany, and to
the diflionour of God.” And yet, notwithftanding
this laudable zeal, no man was more tender of life than
this truly excellent judge.
A pardon alfo may be pleaded in arreft of judg¬
ment : and it has the fame advantage when pleaded
here,, as when pleaded upon arraignment ; viz. the
having the attainder, and, of courfe, the corrup¬
tion of blood : which nothing can reftore but parlia¬
ment, when a pardon is not pleaded till after fentence.
And certainly, upon all accounts, when a man hath
obtained a pardon, he is in the right to plead it as foon
as poffible. See Pardon.
Praying the benefit of clergy may alfo be ranked a-
mong the motions in arreft of judgment. See Benefit
of Clergy.
If all thefe refources fail, the court muft pronounce
that judgment which the law hath annexed to the
crime. Of thefe fome are capital, which extend to
the life of the offender, and confift generally in be¬
ing hanged by the neck till dead; though in very
atrocious crimes other circumftances of terror, pain,
or difgrace, are fuperadded : as, in treafons of all kinds,
being drawn or dragged to the place of execution ; in
high treafon affedling the king’s perfon or govern¬
ment, embowelling alive, beheading, and quartering;
and in murder, a public diffeftion. And, in cafe of
any treafon committed by a female, the judgment is
to be burned alive. But the humanity of the Englifh
nation has authorifed, by a tacit confent, an almoft
general mitigation of fuch parts of thefe judgments as
favour of torture or cruelty : a fledge or hurdle being
ufually allowed to fuch traitors as are condemned to
be drawn ; and there being very few inftances (and
thofe accidental or by negligence) of any perfon’s be¬
ing embowelled or burned, till previoufly deprived of
fenfation by ftrangling. Some punifhments confift in
exile or banifhment, by abjuration of the realm, or
tranfportation to the American colonies: others in
lofs of liberty, by perpetual or temporary imprifon-
ment. Some extend to confifcation, by forfeiture of
lands, or moveables, or both, or of the profits of lands
for life: others induce a difability, of holding offices
or employments, being heirs, executors, and the like.
Some, though rarely, occafion a mutilation or dif-
membering, by cutting off the hand or ears : others
fix a lafting ftigmaon the offender, by flitting the no-
ftrils, or branding in the hand or face. Some are
merely pecuniary, by ftated or difcretionary fines :
and laftly, there are others, that confift principally in
their
I V E [ 3989 ] JUG
udgmeut their ignominy, though troft of them are mixed with
II feme degree of corporal pain ; and thefe are infiifted
_ chiefly for fuch crimes, as either arife from indigence,
or render even opulence difgraceful. Such as whipping,
hard labour in the houfe of cotredlion, the pillory, the
Hocks, and the ducking-ftool.
Difgufting as this catalogue may feem, it will afford
pleafure to a Britifh reader, and do honour to the Bri-
tilh laws, to compare it with that {hocking apparatus
of death and torment to be met with in the criminal
codes of almoft every other nation in Europe. And it is
moreover one of the glories of our law, that the nature,
tho’ not always the quantity or degree, of punifhment is
afeertained for every offence ; and that it is not left in
the bread; of any judge, nor even of a jury, to alter that
judgment, which the law has beforehand ordained, for
every fubjeft alike, without refpeft of perfons. For, if
judgments were to be the private opinions of the judge,
men would then be flaves to their magillrates ; and
would live in fociety, without knowing exaftly the
conditions and obligations which it lays them under.
And befides, as this prevents oppreffion on the one
hand ; fo, on the other, it flifles all hopes of impunity
or mitigation, with which an offender might flatter
himfelf if his punifhment depended on the humour or
diferetion of the court. Whereas, where an eftablifh-
ed penalty is annexed to crimes, the criminal may read
their certain confequence in that law, which ought to
be the unvaried rule, as it is the inflexible judge, of
his a&ions.
Judgment of God, (Judicium Dei), in law, a term
applied to the trial by combat, by ordeal, &c. See
the articles Duel, Combat, Ordeal, &c.
JUDICIAL combat. See Battel.
JUDOIGNE, a town of the Auflrian Netherlands,
in Brabant. Near this town the duke of Marlborough
gained that fignal vidfory over the French in 1706,
called \\\e battle of Ramilies. It is feated on the river
Gete, 13 miles fouth-eaft of Louvain, and 16 north
of Namur.
IVES, or Yves, (St.), a celebrated bifhop of
Chartres, born in the territory of Beauvais in the
1 ith century. His merit procured his ele&ion to the
fee of Chartres in 1092, or 1093, under the pontifi¬
cate of Urban II. who had depofed Geoffrey his pre-
deceffor forfundry accufations againfthim. Ives par¬
ticularly fignalized himfelf by his zeal againfl Philip I.
who had put away his wife Bertha of Holland, and
had taken Bertrade of Montford, wife of Fouques
count of Anjou. Afterward he devoted himfelf whol¬
ly to the funftions of his miniftry ; made feveral reli¬
gious foundations; and died in 1115. Pope Pius V.
permitted the monks of the congregation of Lateran,
to celebrate the feftival of St Ives on the 20th of May.
We have a colledtion of decrees of his compiling, Ex-
ceptiones ecclefiafticarum regulatum, a Chronicon, and
22 fermons ; all very valuable pieces, which were col-
lefted and publifhed in one volume folio, in 1647, by
John Baptifl Souciet, canon of Chartres.
Ives (St.), a fea-port town of Cornwall, in England,
feated on a bay of the fame name; which being unfafe,
it is only frequented by fifhermen, for the taking of
pilchards. However, it is a corporation, and fends
two members to parliament. W. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat.
Ives (St.), a town of Huntingdonfhire, in England. Ives
It is an ancient, large, and handfome place, feated |
on the river Oufe, over which is a fine ftone bridge. alH'
Plere was a priory, which is now in ruins. It has one
large church, two dilfenting, and a Popifh meeting,
with about 500 houfes ; the ftreets are pretty wide,
and tolerably well paved. W. Long. o. 7. N. Lat.
52. 20.
JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a fquare of 120
Roman feet ; its proportion to the Englifh acre being
as 10,000 to 16,097.
JUGLANS, a genus of the polyandria order, be-
longing to the moncecia clafs of plants. There are five
fpecies, the moft remarkable of which is the regia or
common walnut. This rifes 50 feet high or more,
with a large upright trunk, branching into a very large
fpreading head, with large pinnated leaves, of two or
three pair of oval, fmooth, fomewhat ferrated lobes,
terminated by an odd one; and monoecious flowers, fuc-
ceeded by chifters of large green fruit, inclofing fur¬
rowed nuts of different fliapes and fizesin the varieties,
ripening in September and O&ober. Other two fpe¬
cies, called the nigra and alba, or black and white
Virginian walnut, are alfo cultivated in this country",
though they are lefs proper for fruit, having very fmali
kernels.
Culture. All the forts are propagated by planting
their nuts, which will grow in any common foil. The
nuts, being procured in the proper feafon, in their
outer covers or hufks if pofHble, they fhould be pre-
ferved in dry fand until February, and then planted.
After two years growth in the feed-bed, they are to
be taken out, and planted in the nurfery, where they
muft remain till grown five or fix feet high, when they
muft be tranfplanted where they are finally to remain ;
but if intended for timber as well as fruit-trees, they
ought to be finally tranfplanted when they have attain¬
ed the height of three or four feet.
Ufes. The fruit is ufed at two different ftages of
growth ; when green to pickle; and, when ripe, to
eat raw. As a pickle, the nuts may be ufed when
about half or three-fourths grown, before the outer
coat or fhel! becomes hard ; fnch nuts fhould be chofen
as are mofl free from fpecks, and for this purpofe they
muft be gathered by hand. Walnuts are ready for
pickling in July and Aiiguft. They are fully ripe in
September and Odfober; and are then commonly beat
down with long poles, efpecially on large trees ; for,
as the walnuts grow moftly at the extremities of the
branches, it would be troublcfome and tedious to ga¬
ther them by hand. As foon as gathered, lay them in
heaps a few days to heat and fweat, to caufe their
outer hufks,twhich adhere clofely, to feparate from the
fhell of the nuts ; then clean them from the rubbifh,
and depofit them in fome dry room for ufe, covering
them over clofe with dry ftraw half a foot thick,
and they will keep three or four months. They arc
always readily fold at market, efpecially in London ;
where, at their firft coming in, they are fold with the
hufks on, by the fack or bufhel; but afterwards are
bought clean, and fold both by meafure and by the
thoufand. The wood of the walnut-tree is alfo very va¬
luable; not indeed where ftrength is neceffary, it being
of a very brittle nature ; but the cabinet-makers and
joiners efteem it highly for feveral forts of houfehold
22 R fur-
J u I [ 3990 1 J u I
Jugora furniture and other light works ; for, being beautiful-
lj ]y veined, it takes a tine polifh, and the more knotty
-9uice* it is, the more it is valued for particular purpofes.
Walnut-trees are alfo well adapted for planting round
the borders of orchards, where, by their large fpread-
ing heads, they will alfo guard the Idler fruit-trees
from boifterous winds. The kernels of the nuts are
iimilar in quality to almonds; but are not, like them,
ufed in medicine.
JUGORA, a confiderable province of Mufcovy,
depending on the government of Archangel. It has
the title of a duchy; and is inhabited by a kind of
Tartars, who are very favage, and much of the fame
difpoiition with the Samoiedes.
IVICA, or Yvica, the name of an ifland in the
Mediterranean. See Yvica.
JUICE, denotes the fap of vegetables, or the li¬
quors of animals. See Anatomy, Blood, Plants,
Sap, &c.
The juices of feveral plants are expreffed to obtain
their eflential falts, and for feveral medicinal purpofes,
with intention either to be ufed without further prepa¬
ration, or to be made into fyrups and extrafts. The
general method of extra&ing thefe juices is, by pound¬
ing the plant in a marble mortar, and then by putting
it into a prefs. Thus is obtained a muddy and green
liquor, which generally requires to be clarified, as we
fhall foon obferve. The juices of all plants are not
extra&ed with equal eafe. Some plants, even when
frefh, contain fo little juice, that water muft be added
while they are pounded, otherwife fcarcely any juice
would be obtained by expreffion. Other plants, which
contain a confiderable quantity of juice, furnifh by ex¬
preffion but a ftnall quantity of it, becaufe they con¬
tain alfo much mucilage, which renders the juice fo
vifcid that it cannot flow. Water mull alfo be added
to thefe plants to obtain their juice. The juices thus
obtained from vegetables by a mechanical method, are
not, properly fpeaking, one of their principles, but
rather a colle&ion of all the proximate principles of
plants which are foluble in water ; fuch as the fapona-
ceous extradlive matter, the mucilage, the odoriferous
principle, all the faline and faccharine fubftances ; all
which are dilfolved in the water of the vegetation of
the plants. Befides all thefe matters, the juice con¬
tains fomepart of therefinous fubftance,and the green
colouring matter, which in almoll all vegetables is of
a refinous nature. Thefe two latter fubftances, not
being foluble in water, are only interpofed between the
parts of the other principles which are diffolvedin the
juice, and eonfequently difturbs its tranfparency.
They neverthelefs adhere together in a certain degree,
and fo ftrongly in moft juices, that they cannot be fe-
parated by filtration alone. When therefore thefe jui¬
ces are to be clarified, forne previous preparations mull
be ufed by which the filtration may be facilitated.
Juices which are acid, and not very mucilaginous, are
fpontaneoufly clarified by reft and gentle heat. The
juices of moft antifcorbutic plants abounding in faline
volatile principles, may be difpofed to filtration mere¬
ly by immerfion in boiling water ; and as they may be
contained in clofed bottles while they are thus heated
in a water-bath, their faline volatile part, in which
their medicinal qualities chiefly confift, may thus be
preferved. Fermentation is alfo an effeftual method of
clarifying juices which are fufceptible of it; for all J
liquors which have fermented, clarify fpontaneoufly af- 
ter fermentation. But this method is not ufed to cla¬
rify juices, becaufe many of them are fufceptibletif on¬
ly an imperfed fermentation, and becaufe the qualities
of moft of them are injured by that procefs. The me¬
thod of clarification moft generally ufed, and indifpen-
fably neceflary for thofe juices which contain much
mucilage, is boiling with the white of an egg. This
matter, which has the property of coagulating in
boiling water, and of uniting with mucilage, does ac¬
cordingly, when added to the juice of plants, unite
with, and coagulate, their mucilage, and feparates it
from the juice in form of feum, together with the
greateft part of the refinous and earthy matters which
difturb its tranfparency. And as any of thefe refin¬
ous matters which may remain in the, liquor, after this
boiling with the whites of eggs, are no longer retain¬
ed by the mucilage, they may eafily be feparated by
filtration. See Filtration.
1'he juices, efpecially before they are clarified, con¬
tain almoft all the fame principles as the plant itfelf;
becaufe in the operation by which they are extrs&ed,
no decompofition happens, but every thing remains, as
to its nature, in the fame ftate as in the plant. The
principles contained in the juice are only feparated
from the grofler oily, earthy, and refinous parts,
which; compofe the folid matter that remains under the
prefs. Thefe juices, when well prepared, have there¬
fore the fame medicinal qualities as the plants from
which they are obtained. They muft evidently differ
from each other as to the nature and proportions of the
principles with which they are impregnated, as much
as the plants from which they are extraded differ from
each other in thofe refpedts.
Moft vegetable juices coagulate when they are ex-
pofed to the air, whether they are drawn out of the
plant by wounds, or naturally run out ; tho* what is
called naturally running out, is generally the effeftofa
wound in the plant, from a fort of canker, or fome 0-
ther internal caufe. Different parts of the fame plant
yield different juices. The fame veins in their courfe
through the different parts of the plant yield juices of
a different appearance. Thus the juice in the.root of
the cow parfnep is of a brimftone colour; but in the
ftalk it is white.
Among thofe juices of vegetables which are clam¬
my and readily coagulate, there are fome which readi¬
ly break with a whey. The great wild lettuce, with
the fmell of opium yields the greateft plenty of milky
juice of any known Britiih plant. When the ftalk is
wounded with a knife, the juice flows readily out like
a thick cream, and is white and ropy ; but if thefe
wounds are made at the top of the ftalks, the juice
that flows out of them is dallied with a purple tinge;
as if cream had been fpiinkled over it with a few
drops of red wine. Some little time after letting this
out, it becomes much more purple, and thickens;
and finally, the thicker part of it feparates, and the
thin whey fwims at top. The whey or thin part of
this feparated matter is eafily preffed out from the curd
by fqueezing between the fingers, and the curd will
then remain white ; and on walking with water, it be¬
comes like rags. The purple whey, for in this is con¬
tained all the colour, foon dries into a purple cake,,
and
TUI [ 3991 ] J U L
and may be crumbled between the fingers into a pow¬
der of the fame colour. The white curd being dried
and kept for fome time, becomes hard and brittle. It
breaks with aihining furface like refin, and is inflam¬
mable ; taking fire at a candle, and burning all away
with a llrong flame. The fame thick part being held
o^r a gentle heat, will draw out into tough long
threads, melting like wax. The purple cake made
from the whey is quite different from this; and when
held to a candle fcarce flames at all, but burns to a
black coal. The whole virtue of the plant feems alfo
to confifl in this thin part of itsjuice : for the coagu-
lum or curd, though looking like wax or refin, has no
tafte at all; whereas the purple cake made from the fe-
rum is extremely bitter, and of a tafte fomewhat re-
fembling that of opium.
Of the fame kind with the wild lettuce are the
throatwort, fpurge, and many other plants. Thefe
are all replete with a milky juice which feparates into
curds and whey like that already deferibed. But this,
though a common law of nature, is not univerfal; for
there are many plants which yield the like milky
juices, without any reparation enfuing upon their ex-
travafation. The white juice of the fonchus never fe¬
parates, but dries into an uniform cake : the common
red wild poppy bleeds freely with a milky juice; and
the heads or capfules of feed bleed not lefs freely than
the reft of the plant, even after the flower is fallen.
This juice, on being received into a fhell or other fmall
veffel, foon changes its white to a deep yellow colour,
and dries it into a cake which feems refinous and oily,
but no whey feparates from it. The tragopogon, or
goat’s-beard, when wounded, bleeds freely a milky
juice; it is at firft white, but becomes immediately
yellow, and then more and more red ; till at length it
is wholly of a dulky red. It never feparates, but
dries together into one cake; and is oily and refinous,
but of an infipid tafte. The great bindweed alfo bleeds
freely a white juice; the flowers, as well as the ftalks
and leaves, affording this liquor. It is of a {harp
tafte; and as many of the purging plants are of this
clafs, it would be worth trying whether this milk is
not purgative.
Thefe juices, as well as the generality of others
which bleed from plants, are white like milk; but
there are fome of other colours. The juice of the
great celandine is of a fine yellow colour; it flows
from the plant of the thicknefs of cream, and foon
dries into a hard cake, without any whey feparating
from it. Another yellow juice is yielded by the feed-
veffels of the yellow centaury in the month of July,
when the feeds are full grown. This is very clammy;
it foon hardens altogether into a cake without any
whey feparating from it. It flicks to the fingers like
birdlime, is of the colour of pale amber, and will ne¬
ver become harder than foft wax, if dried in the (hade;
but if laid in the fun, it immediately becomes hard like
refin. Thefe cakes burn like wax, and emit a very
pleafant fmell. The great angelica alfo yields a yel-
lowiftt juice on being wounded ; and this will not har¬
den at all, but if kept feveral years will ftill be foft
and clammy, drawing out into threads, or half melted
refin.
Another kind of juices very different from all thefe,
are thofe of a gummy nature. Some of thefe remain
liquid a long time, and are not to be dried without Juice
the afiiftance of heat; the others very quickly harden J
of themfelves, and are not inflammable. The gum of J1113”-
the juice of rhubarb-leaves foon hardens ; and is after¬
wards foluble in common water, and fparkles when put
into the flame of a candle. The clufters of the com¬
mon honeyfuckle are full of a liquid gum. This they
frequently throw out, and it falls upon the leaves,
where it retains its own form. The red hairs of the ros
fobs are all terminated by large bladders of a thin wa¬
tery fluid. This is alfo a liquid gum ; it flicks to the
fingers, draws out into long threads, and {lands the
force of the fun all day. In the centre of each of thefe
dew-drops there is a fmall red bladder, which Hands
immediately on the fummit of the red hair, and con¬
tains a purple juice which may be fqueezed out of it.
The pinguicula, or butter-wort, has alfo a gummy
matter on its leaves in much greater quantity than the
ros fobs.
Some plants yield juices which are manifeftly of an
oily nature. Thefe, when rubbed, are not at all of a
clammy nature, but make the fingers glib and flippe-
ry, and do not all harden on being expofed to the
air. If the ftalk of elecampane be wounded, there
flows out an oily juice fwimming upon a watery one.
The ftalks of the hemlock alfo afford a firnilar oily li¬
quor fwiming upon the other ; and in like manner the
white mullein, the berries of ivy, the bay, juniper*
dog-berry tree, and the fruit of the olive, when wound¬
ed, {hew their oil floating on the watery juice. Some
of thefe oily juices, however, harden into a kind of
refin. Our ivy yields fuch a juice very abundantly ;
and the juice of the fmall purple-berried juniper is of
the fame kind, being hard and fat, and not very gum¬
my. If the bark of the common ivy is wounded in
March, there will ooze out a tough and greafy matter
of a yellowiftt colour, which, taken up between the
fingers, feels not at all gummy or flicking, but melts
in handling into a fort of oil, which, in proccfs of
time, hardens and crufts upon the wounds, and looks
like brown fugar. It burns with a lading flame, and
fmells very ftrong. The tops of the wild lettuce, and
the leaves growing near the tops, if examined with a
magnifying glafs, {hew a great number of fmall blad¬
ders, or drops of an oily juice of a brownifti colour,
hardening into a kind of refin ; they are eafily wiped
off when of any fize, and are truly an oily juice a
little hardened. It is probable alfo, that the fine blue
flour or powder, called the bloom, upon the furface of
our common plums, is no other than fuch an oily
juice exfudating from their pores in fmall particles, and
hardening into a fort of refin.
JUJUBES, in the materia medica, the name of a
fruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Lin¬
naeus makes a fpecies of rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in
pedloral decodlions ; but they are now feldom ufed on
thefe occafions, and are fcarce at all heard of in pre-
feription, or to be met with in our {hops.
JULEP, in pharmacy, a medicine compofed of
fome proper liquor and a fyrup or fugar, of extempo¬
raneous preparation, without decodlion. See Phar¬
macy, n° 917, &c.
JULIAN, the famous Roman emperor, ftyled the
Apojlate, becaufe he profeffed the Chriftian religion
22 R 2 before
J U L [ 3992 ] I u L
jHlian. before he afcended the throne, but afterwards openly
” ~ embraced Paganifm, and endeavoured to abolilh Chri-
ftianity. He made no ufe of violence, however, for
this purpofe; for he knew that violent meafures had
always rendered it more flaurifhing : he therefore be¬
haved with a politic mildnefsto the Chriftians ; recall¬
ed all who had been banilhed on account of religion
under the reign of Conftantius ; and undertook to per¬
vert them by his carefies, and by temporal advantages
and mortifications covered over by artful pretences:
but he forbad Chriftians to plead before courts of
juftice, or to enjoy any public employments. He even
prohibited their teaching polite literature ; well know¬
ing the great advantages they drew from profane au¬
thors in their attacks upon Paganifm and irreligion.
Though he on all occahons (hewed a fovereign con¬
tempt for the Chriftians, whom he always called Gali¬
leans, yet be was fenfible of the advantage they ob¬
tained by their virtue and the purity of their manners ;
and therefore inceftanfly propofed their example to the
Pagan priefts. Attaft, however, when he found that
all other methods failed, he gave public employments
to the moft cruel enemies of the Chriftians, when the
cities in moft oi the provinces were filled with tumults
and feditions, and many of them were put to death :
Though it has been pleaded by Julian’s apologifts, that
the behaviour of the Chriftians furniftied fufficient pre¬
tence for moft of his proceedings againft them, and
the animofities among themfelves furniftied him with
the means; that they were continually prone to fedi-
tion, and made a merit of infulting the public worfliip ;
and, finally, that they made no fcruple of declaring,
that want of numbers alone prevented them from enga¬
ging in an open rebellion. Hiftorians mention, that
Julian attempted to prove the falfehood of our Lord’s
prediftion with refpeft to the temple of Jerufalem ;
and refolved to have that edifice rebuilt by the Jews,
about 300 years after its deftruftion by Titus : but
all their endeavours ferved only the more perfe&ly to
verify what had been foretold by Jefus Chrift ; for the
Jews, who had aflembled from all parts to Jerufalem,
digging the foundations, flames of fire burft forth, and
confumed the workmen *. However, the Jews, who
were obftinately bent on accomplifliing that work,
made feveral attempts ; bat it is faid, that all who en¬
deavoured to lay the foundations perifhed by thefe
flames, which at laft obliged them entirely to abandon
the work. Julian being mortally wounded in a battle
with the Perfians, it is faid, that he then catched in
his hand feme of the blood which flowed from his
wound, and throwing it towards heaven, cried, “Thou
Galilean haft conquered.” But notwithftanding this
popular report, Theodoret relates, that Julian difeo-
vered a different difpofition, and employed his laft
moments in converfing with Maximus the philofopher,
on the dignity, of the foul. He died the following
night, aged 32. For a particular account of his reign
and exploits, fee {Hijiory of) Constantinople,
n° 7- 33--70-
No prince was ever more differently reprefented by
different authors; on which account it is difficult to
form a true judgement of his real charafter. It muft,
however, be acknowledged, that he was learned, li¬
beral, temperate, brave, vigilant, and a lover of ju¬
ftice : but, on the other hand, he had apoftatized to
Paganifm ; was ah enemy to the Chriftian religion ; Julhs ., 1
and was, in fad, a perfecutor, though not of the moft Juliers- j
fanguinary clafs. We have feveral of his difeourfes or “
orations ; fome of his letters; a treatife, intitled Mi-
fopogon, which is a fatire on the inhabitants of An¬
tioch ; and fome other pieces, all written in an ele¬
gant ftyle. They were publifhed in Greek and Ba¬
tin by father Petau, in 1630, in quarto; and of which
Spanheimius gave a fine edition in folio, in 1696. His
moft famous work was that compofed againft the
Chriftians, of which there are fomc fragments in
Cyril’s refutation of it.
Julian Period, in chronology, a period fo called,
as being adapted to the Julian year.
It is made to commence before the creation of the
world. Its principal advantage lies here, that the
fame years of the cycles of the fun, moon, and indic¬
tion, of which three cycles it was made to confift by
Jofeph Scaiiger in 1580, belonging to any year of this
period, will never fall together again till after the ex¬
piration of 7980 years. There is taken for the firft
year of this period that which hath the firft of the
cycle of the fun, the firft of the cycle of the moon,
and the firft of the indidion cycle, and fo reckoning
on-
The firft year of the Chriftian sera is always, in our
fyftems of Chronology, the 4714th of the Julian pe¬
riod.
To find what year of the Julian period any given
year of Chrift anfwers to ; To the given year of Chrift
add 4713, becaufe fo many years of the Julian period
were expired A. D. 1 ; and the fum gives the year
of the Julian period fought.
On the contrary, having the year of the Julian pe¬
riod given, to find what year of Chrift anfwers there¬
to; From the year of the Julian period given fubftrad
4713, and the remainder will be the year fought.
Julian (St.), a harbour on the fouth of Patagonia,
in South America, where (hips ufually touch that are
bound to the fouth feas. S. Lat. 48. 15.
JULIERS, a duchy in the circle of Weftphalia, in
Germany, feated between the rivers Maefe and Rhine,
and bounded by Pruftian Guelderland on the north,
by the eledorate of Triers on the fouth, by the elec¬
torate of Cologne on the eaft, and by the Nether¬
lands on the weft. It is about 60 miles long, and 30
broad; and is a very plentiful country, abounding in
cattle, corn, and fine meadows, and is well fupplied
with wood; but it is moft remarkable for a fine breed
of horfes, and woad for dying, which is gathered here
in abundance. The chief towns are Juliers, Aix-la-
Chapelle, Duren, Munfter-Eifel, Bedbur, Wefin-
burgh, and Lafteren. It is fubjed to the eledor Pa¬
latine, w'ith the confent of the kings of Pruffia and
Poland.
Juliers, a city, capital of the duchy of Juliers in
Weftphalia ; fome think this city was founded by Ju¬
lius Caefar, or Julia Agrippina ; but this is much que-
ftioned by others, becaufe it is not n^ntioned before
Antoninus’s Itinerary and Theodofius’s Tables. The
town is fmall, but well fortified, and neatly built; the
houfes are of brick, and the ftreets broad and regular.
The citadel is large and very ftrong, containing a
palace of the ancient dukes, and a (pacious piazza.
In the fuburbs there is a monaftery of Carthufians,
TUN [ 3993 ] J U N
Julio nobly endowed by feveral dukts of Jullers. The town
fl is but poorly inhabited, though they have a fine wool-
^Hncus' len manufadoryin this country, and likewife another
of linen. It was taken by Prince Maurice of Naifau
in 1610, and by the Spaniards in 1622. It is feated
on the river Roer, in E. Lon. 6. 35. N. Lat. 50. 55.
JULIO romano. See Romano.
JULIUS c2esar. See Caesar.
Julius II. (Julian de la Rovere) pope, remarkable
for his warlike difpofition, and his political negocia-
~tions : by the latter, he engaged the principal powers
■of Europe to league with him again ft the republic
of Venice, called the league of Camhray, figned in
1508. The Venetians having purchafed peace by the
ceffion of part of Romania, Julius turned his arms
againft Louis XII. king of France, and appeared in
perfon, armed cap-a-pee, at the fiege of Mirandola;
which place he took by aflault in 1511. But proceed¬
ing to excommunicate Louis, the king wifely turned
his own weapons againft him, by calling a general
council at Pifa : at which the pope refufing to appear,
was declared to be fufpended from the holy fee; and
Louis, in his turn, excommunicated the pope, who
died foon after in 1512. He built the famous church
of St Peter at Rome, and was a patron of the polite
arts.
Julius Pollux. See Pollux.
JULY, the feventh month of the year; during
which the fun enters the fign Leo. The word is de¬
rived from the Latin Julius, the furname of C. Caefar
the diftator, who was born in it. Mark Antony
tirft gave this month the name July, which before was
called Quint Ms, as being the fifth month of the year
in the old Roman kalendar eftabliftied by Romulus,
which begun in the month of March. For the fame
reafon, Auguft was called Sextilis; and September,
Oitober, November, and December, Hill retain the
name of their firft rank :
Qit*fequitur, numero turba notatafuo. Ovid. Fad.
On the 19th day of this month the dog-days are
commonly fuppofed to begin ; when, according to
Hippocrates and Pliny, the fea boils, w ine turns four,
dogs go mad, the bile is increafed and irritated, and
all animals decline and languilh.
JUMIEGE, a town of Normandy, in Fi ance, and
in the territory of Caux, with a celebrated Benedic¬
tine abbey. It is feated on the river Seine, in E.
Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 49. 25.
JUNCTURE, in compofition, See Oratory,
ri° 46.
JUNCUS, the rush; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants.
There are many fpecies, which are univerfally known,
being very troublefome weeds, and difficult to be era-
cated. The pith of two kinds, called the conglormra-
tus and ejufus, or round-headed and foft rufhes, are
ufed for wicks to lamps and rufh-lights. The conglo-
ineratus, and aculus or marine rufti, are planted with
great care on the banks of the fea in Holland, in order
to prevent the water from wafliing away the earth;
which would otherwife be removed every tide, if it
were not for the roots of thofe rufhes, which fallen
very deep in the ground, and mat themfelves near
the furface in fuch a manner as to hold the earth
clofely together. Therefore, whenever the inhabitants
perceive that the roots of thefe rufhes are deftroyed, June
they are very afiiduous in repairing them. In the .11
fummer-time, when the rufhes are fully grown, they JuniPerUi’-
are cut and tied up in bundles, which arc dried, and
afterwards carried into the larger towns and cities,
where they are wrought into bafkets, and feveral other
ufeful things, which are frequently fent into England..
Thefe forts do not growfo lirong in this country as on
the Maefe, where they fometimes arrive at the height
of four feet and upwards.
A fpecies of rufh termed juncus odoratus, “ fweet
rufh, or camel’s hay,” is fometimes brought to us
from Turky and Arabia, tied up in bundles about a
foot long. The ftalk, in fhape and colour, fomewhat
refembles a barley-ftraw; it is full of fungous pith
like that of our common rufhes: the leaves are like
thofe of wheat, and furround the ftalk w-ith feveral
coats, as in the reed. The flowers are of a carnation
colour, flriped with a lighter purple. The whole
plant, when in perfedlion, has a hot, bitterifh, not
unpleafant, aromatic tafte, and a very fragrant fmell:
by long keeping it lofes greatly its aromatic fla¬
vour. Diftilled with water, it yields a confiderable
quantity of an efiential oil. It was formerly often
ufed in medicine as an aromatic, and in obftrudlions
of the vifeera, &c. but is very little employed at
prefent.
JUNE, the fixth month of the year, during which
the fun enters the fign of Cancer. The word comes
from the Latin Junius, which fome derive a Junons.
Ovid, in the 6th of his Fajli, makes the goddefs fay,
Junius a nojlro nomine nomen habet.
Others rather derive it a junioribus, this being for
young people, as the month of May was for old
ones. Junius cjl juvenum, qui fuit ante fenum.
In this month is the fummer folftice.
JUNGERMANNIA, a genus of the order of
algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
There are 29 fpecies, all natives of Britain, growing
in woods, fhady places, by the fides of ditches, &c.
Many of them are beautiful obje&s for the micro-
fcope.
JUN.IPERUS, the juniper tree ; a genus of
the monadelphia order, belonging to the dioecia clafs
of plants.
Species. I. The communis, or common juniper,
rows naturally in many parts of Britain, upon dry
arren commons, where it feldom rifes above the height
of a low fhrub. Mr Evelyn aflures us, that “ the
juniper, though naturally of the growth of England,
is very little known in many parts of the country: for
it grows naturally only in dry, chalky, or fandy land;
and, where the foil is oppofite to this, the plant is
rarely found. Thofe who have been ufed to fee it in
its wild ftate, on fandy barren commons, &c. will have
little inducement to plant it; as there they will fee it
procumbent, feldom ftiewing a tendency to afpire: but
when planted in a good foil, it will rife to the height
of 15 or 16 feet, and produce numerous branches from
the bottom to the top, forming a well-looking bulky
plant. Thefe branches are exceeding tough, and co¬
vered with a fmooth bark of a reddifli colour, having
a tinge of purple. The leaves are narrow and fharp-
pointed, growing by threes on the branches : their
upper furface has a greyilh ftreak down the middle;
TUN [ 3994 J J U N
Juniperus. but their under furface is of a fine green colour, and
~ they garnifh the fhrub in great plenty. The flowers
are fmall, and of a yellowifh colour. They are fuc-
ceeded by the l/erries, which are of a blueifli colour
when ripe.” Of this fpecies there is a variety called
Swedtjh juniper, which grows to or 12 feet high, very
branchy the whole length, with the branches grow¬
ing more ereft, and leaves, flowers, and fruit, like the
former. But Mr Miller affirms the Swedilh juniper
to be a diftinft fpecies. A proftrate and very dwarfifh
variety is mentioned by Mr Lightfoot, under the name
of dwarf Alpine juniper. It is frequently found in
the mountains in the Highlands of Scotland, and has
broader and thicker leaves than the former; the berries
are alfo larger, or more oval ihan fpherical. 2. The
oxycedrus, or Spanifh juniper, rifes from 10 to ij feet
high, clofely branched from bottom to top; having
Ihort, awl-ffiaped, fpreading leaves by threes, and fmall
dioecious flowers, fucceeded by large redd'iffi-brown ber¬
ries. 3. Theor blue-berried Spanifli juniper,
grows 20 feet high or more, branching in a conic form,
with acute imbricated leaves growing by fours, and
fmall dioecious flowers, fucceeded by large blue flowers.
4. The Virginiana, or Virginia cedar, grows 30 or 40
feet high, branching from bottom to top in a conic
manner, fmall leaves by threes adhering at their bafe;
the younger ones imbricated, and the old ones fpread¬
ing; with dioecious flowers, fucceeded by fmall blue
berries. 5. The Lycia, or Lycian cedar, grows 20
feet high, branching ere&; garniflred with fmall ob-
tufe oval leaves, every-where imbricated; having dioe¬
cious flowers, fucceeded by large oval brown berries,
It is a native of Spain and Italy. 6. The Phoenicia,
or Phenician cedar, grows about 20 feet high, branch-
ing pyramidally; adorned with ternate and imbri¬
cated obtufe leaves; and dioecious flowers, fucceeded
by fmall yellowiffi berries. It is a native of Portugal.
7. The Bermudiana, or Bermudian cedar, grows 20 or
30 feet high, has fmall acute leaves by threes below,
the upper ones awl-lhaped, acute, and decurrent, by
pairs or fours, fpreading outward, and dioecious flow¬
ers, fucceeded by purpliffi berries. It is a native of
Bermudas. 8. The Sabina, or favin tree; of which
there are the following varieties, viz. fpreading, upright,
and variegated favin. The firft grows three or four
feet high, with horizontal and very fpreading branches;
with ffiort, pointed, decurrent, ereft, oppofite leaves;
and dioecious flowers, fuccceded by blueilh berries,
but very rarely producing either flowers or fruit.
The fecond grows eight or ten feet high, with upright
branches, dark-green leaves like the former, and dioe¬
cious flowers, fucceeded by plenty of berries. The
third has the ends of many of the (hoots and young
branches variegated with white, and the leaves finely
ftriped; fo that it makes a beautiful appearance.
Culture. The propagation of all the junipers is by
feed, and of the favins by layers and cuttings: but
thefe laft may alfo be railed from the berries, if they
can be procured. They may all be fowed in beds of
common light earth; except the cedar of Bermudas,
which muft be fowed in pots, to have (belter in winter.
When the hardy kinds have had two or three years
growth in the feed-bed, they may be planted out in
autumn or in fpring, in nurfery-rows two feet afunder,
there to remain till of due fize for final tranfplantation Jumperc?,
into the (hrubbery. The Bermudas cedar muft be
(heltered under a frame for the firft year or two; when
they muft be feparated into fmall pots, to be (heltered
alfo in winter for three or four years, till they have
acquired fome fize and ftrength; then turned out into
pots in the full ground, where they are to remain in a
warm fituation; though a (belter of mats for the firft
winter or two during bard frofts will be of great fer-
vice. The feafon for tranfplanting all the forts is ei¬
ther in autumn, October or November, or in March,
ajid early in April.
Ufes, See. Juniper-berries have a ftrong, not dif-
agreeable fmell ; and a warm, pungent, fweet tafte ;
which, if they are long chewed, or previoufly well
bruifed, is followed by a bitteriflr one. The pungency
feems to refide in the bark ; the fweet in the juice ;
the aromatic flavour in oily veficles fpread through the
fubftance of the pulp, and diftinguiftiable even by the
eye ; and the bitter in the feeds. The frefti berriea
yield, on expreffion, a rich, fweet, honey-like aroma¬
tic juice; if previoufly pounded fo as to break the
feeds, the juice proves tart and bitter.—Thefe ber¬
ries are ufeful carminatives and ftomachics : for thefe
purpofes a fpirituous water and eflential oil are pre¬
pared from them, and they are alfo ingredients in
various medicines. The liquor remaining after the
diftillation of the oil pafied through a drainer, and
gently exhaled to the confidence a rob, proves like-
wife a medicine of great utility, and in many cafes is
perhaps preferable to the oil or the berry itfelf. Hoff¬
man is exprefsly of this opinion, and recommends the
rob of juniper in debility of the ftomach and inteftines,
and fays it is particularly ferviceable to old people who
are fubjeft to thefe diforders, or labour under a diffi¬
culty with regard to the urinary fecretion. This rob
is of a dark brownilh-yellow colour, a balfamic fweet
tafte, with a little of the bitter, more or lefs, accord¬
ing as the feeds in the berry have been more or lefs
bruifed. The Swedes prepare an extraft from the
berries, probably of the nature of the rob above men¬
tioned, which fome people eat for breakfaft. In Ger¬
many the berries are bruifed and put into the fauce
made ufe of for a wild boar; and are frequently alfo
eaten with other pork, to give it a wild-boar flavour.
In Carniola and fome other diftri&s, the inhabitants
make a kind of wine of them fteeped in water ; but it
is difficult to prevent this liquor from growing four.
Thrufties and grous feed on the berries, and diffemi-
nate the feed in their dung.—It is remarkable that
the berries of the juniper are two years in ripening.
They fometimes appear in an uncommon form ; the
leaves of the cup grow double the ufual fize, approach¬
ing, but not doling ; and the three petals fit exadtly
dofe, fo as to keep the air from the tipuU juniperi
which inhabit them.—The whole plant has a ftrong
aromatic fmell. The wood when burnt emits a fra¬
grant odour like incenfe. It is of a reddifti colour,
very hard and durable ; and, when large enough, is
ufed in marquetry and vaneering, and in making cups,
cabinets, See. From the clefts of the bark, in warm
climates, there fometimes exfudes a refinous gum called
by the Arabs Sandaracha *. This refin, or as it is * See San-
improperly called gum, is brought to us froip Africa, daracb.
where
J U N [ 3995 ] I V O
Junius, where the trees grow very large, and in great num- don, in Englilh. 2. An explication of the old Go- Junk
' bers.—Grafs will not grow beneath juniper, but this thic manufcript, called the Silver one, becaufe the II
tree itfelf is faid to be deftroyed by the meadow-oat. four Gofpels are there written in filver .Gothic letters; Ivory
The oil of juniper mixed with that of nuts makes
an excellent varnilh for pictures, wood-work, and
preferving iron from rufting. The refin powdered
and rubbed into paper prevents the ink from fink¬
ing through it, for which it is frequently ufed under
the name of Pounce.—The charcoal made from
this wood endures longer than any other, infomuch
that live embers are faid to have been found in the
afhes, after being a year covered.
JUNIUS (Adrian), one of the moft learned men
of the age in which he lived, was born at Horn in
Holland in 1511. He travelled into all parts of Eu¬
rope, and pra&ifed phyfic with reputation in Eng¬
land ; where, among other works, he compofed a
Greek and Latin Lexicon, to which he added above
6500 words ; an Epithalamium on the marriage of
queen Mary with king Philip of Spain ; and
Animadverfa & de Coma Commentarius, which is
the moft; applauded of all his works. He died in
I575*
Junius (Francis), profeffor of divinity at Leyden,
was born at Bourges in 1545, of a noble family, and
ftudied fome time at Lyons. Bartholomew Aneau,
who was principal of the college in that city, gave him
excellent inftru6tions with regard to the right method
of ftudying. He was remarkable for being proof
againft all temptations to lewdnefs; but a libertine fo
far overpowered him by his fophiftry, that he made
him an atheift : however, he foon returned to his firft
faith ; and, averfe as he was to unlawful love, he had
no averfion to matrimony, but was married no lefs
than four times. He was employed in public affairs
by Henry IV.; and at laft was invited to Leyden to
be profeffor of divinity, which employment he dif-
charged with honour, till he was fnatched away by
the plague in 1602. Du Pin fays, he was a learned
and judicious critic. He wrote, in conjunftion with
Emmanuel Tremellius, a Latin verfion of the Hebrew
text of the Bible. He alfo publifhcd Commentaries
on a great part of the Holy Scriptures; and many
other works, all in Latin.
Junius (Francis), or Francis du Jon, the fon
of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg, in
1589. He at firft defigned to devote himfelf to a
military life ; but after the truce concluded in 1609,
he applied himfelf entirely to ftudy. He came to
England in 1620, and lived 30 years in the earl of
Arundel’s family. He was greatly efteemed, not
only for his profound’crudition, but alfo for the purity
of his manners; and was fo paflionately fond of the
ftudy of the Northern languages, that, being informed
there were fome villages in Friefland where the ancient
language of the Saxons was preferved, he went and
lived two years in that country. He returned to Eng¬
land in 1675 * and after fpending a year at Oxford,
retired to Windfor, in order to vilit Vofiius, at whofe
houfe he died in 1677- Tta univerfity of Oxford, to
which he bequeathed his manufcripts, ere&ed a very
handfome monument to his memory. He wrote,
i. De Piftura Veterum, which is admired by all the
learned; the bed edition of it is that of Rotter¬
dam in 1694. He publilhed the fame work at Lon-
this was publilhed with notes by Thomas Marefchal,
or Marfhal. 3. A large Commentary on the Harmony
of the four Gofpels by Tatian, which is Hill in manu¬
fcript. 4. A Gloffary in five languages, in which he
explains the origin of the Northern languages ; pub-
lifhed at Oxford in 1745, in folio, by Mr Edward
Lee.
JUNK, in the fea language, old cables cut into
fhort pieces, and given to boatfvvains for making
fwabs, plats, and nippers; as alfo to the Ihip-carpen-
ters, and to poor people, to be pricked into oakum,
for caulking (hips, &c.
JUNO, in pagan worlhip, was the fifter and wife
of Jupiter, and the goddefs of kingdoms and riches;
and alfo ftyled the queen of heaven : flic prefided over
marriage and child-birth, and was reprefented as the
daughter of Saturn and Rhea. She married Jupiter;
but was not the moft complaifant wife; for, according
to Homer, that god was fometimes obliged to make
ufe of all his authority to keep her in due fubjeftion;
and the fame author obferves, that on her entering in¬
to a confpiracy againft him, he punilhed her by fuf-
pending her in the air with two anvils faftehed to her
feet, and golden manacles on her hands, which all the
other deities looked on without a poffibility of helping
her. However, her jealoufy made her frequently find
opportunities of interrupting her hufband in the courfe
of his amours, and prompted her to punilh with unre¬
lenting fury Europa, Semele, lo, Latona, and the reft
of his miftreffes. Jupiter himfelf having conceived
without any commerce with a female, Juno, in re¬
venge, conceived Vulcan by the wind, Mars by touch¬
ing a flower pointed out to her by the goddefs Flora,
and Hebe by eating greedily of lettuces..
Juno, as the queen of heaven, preferved great ftate:
her ufual attendants were Terror and Boldnefs, Caftor,
Pollux, and 14 nymphs ; but her moft faithful atten¬
dant was the beautiful Iris, or the rainbow. Homer
defcribes her in a chariot adorned with precious ftones,.
the wheels of which were of ebony, and which was
drawn by horfes with reins of gold. But fhe is more
commonly painted drawn by peacocks. She was re¬
prefented in her temple at Corinth, feated on a throne,
with a crown on her head, a pomegranate in one hand,
and in the other a fceptre with a cuckoo on its top.
This ftatue was of gold and ivory.
Some mythologifts fuppofe, that Juno fignifies the
air t others, that fte was the Egyptian Ifis; who being
reprefented under various figures, was by the Greeks
and Romans reprefented as fo many diftindt deities.
JUNTO, in matters of government, denotes a feledt
council for taking cognizance of affairs of great con-
fequence, which require fecrecy.
In Spain and Portugal, it fignifies much the fame
with convention, affembly, or board among us: thus we
meet with the junto of the three eftates, of commerce,
of tobacco, &c. See Board, &c.
IVORY, in natural hiftory, &c. a hard, folid, and
firm fubftance, of a white colour, and capable of a very
good polifh. It is the tulk of the elephant *; and is * See EU-
hollow from the bafe to a certain height, the cavity-f’***-
being filled up with a compaft medullary fubftance,
feeming
Ivory
A
J U R [ 3996 ] J U R
feemlng to have a great number of glands it it. It is
obfervetl, that the Ceylon ivory, and that of the ifland
of Achem, do not become yellow in the wearing, as
all other ivory does; for this reafon the teeth of thefe
•places bear a larger price than thofe of the coaft of
Guinea.
Hardening, Softening, and Staining, of Ivory. See
Bones and Horns.
JUPITER, in pagan worfhip, the greateft of their
deities, was the fon of Saturn and Rhea. That goddefs
perceiving that her hufband devoured her children as fail
as ihe brought them forth; and being in pain for Ju¬
piter, (he fubftituted a ftone in his room, which Sa¬
turn immediately fwallowed. He was educated on
mount Ida by the Corybantes. Virgil tells us, that he
was fed by the bees; out of gratitude for which, he
changed them from an iron to a golden colour. Some
fay, that his nurfes were Amalthaea and Melifla, who
gave him goats milk and honey; and others, that A-
malthsea was the name of the goat which nourifticd him,
and which, as a reward for her great fervices, was chan¬
ged into a conftellation. According to others, he was
fed by wild pigeons, who brought him ambrofia from
Oceanus; and by an eagle, who carried neftar in his
beak from a deep rock : for which he rewarded the
former, by making them the foretellers of winter and
fummer; and the laft, by giving him immortality, and
making him his thunderbearer. When grown up, he de¬
feated the Titans, dethroned his father Saturn, and di¬
vided his kingdom with his two brothers ; Jupiter had
the earth, Neptune the fea, and Pluto hell. Jupiter had
feveral wives: the firft of whom, named Metis, he is
faid to have devoured when big with child, by which he
himfelf became pregnant; and Minerva iffued out of his
head, completely armed and fully grown. His fecond was
Themis ; the name of his third is not known ; his
fourth was the celebrated Juno, whom he deceived un¬
der the form of a cuckoo, which to (hun the violence of
a ftorm fled for (belter to her lap. He was the father
of the Mufes and Graces; and had a prodigious num¬
ber of children by his miflrefles. He metamorphofed
himfelf into a fatyr to enjoy Antiope; into a bull, to
carry off Europa; into a fwan, to abufe Leda ; into a
(hower of gold, to corrupt Danae; and into feveral
other forms to gratify his paflions. He had Bacchus
by Semele, Pallas by Thetis, Diana and Apollo by
Latona; and was the father of Mercury and the other
gods.
He had a multiplicity of names, either from the
places where he was worfhipped, or the attributes af»
cribed to him ; and is ufually reprefented feated on a
throne of ivory or gold, furrounded with clouds, verted
in a purple robe, gtafping his thunder in the right hand
and holding a fceptre in his left, with the eagle at his
feet.
The ridiculous (lories which the poets had publifhed
concerning this god, ferved as a foundation to the re¬
ligion of the heathens ; but fome perfons of a graver
character endeavour to explain them, either by alle¬
gories, or the principles of natural philofophy.
JURA, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern Iflands of
Scotland, lying oppofite to Knapdale in Argyfelhire,
is fuppofcd to be about 34 miles long, and 10 broad.
It is the mod rugged of all the Hebrides; and is com-
pofed chiefly of vaft mountains, naked, and without a Jura.
poflibility of cultivation. Some of the fouth and wtftern   
fides only are improveable, and in good feafons as
much bear and oats are raifed as will maintain the in¬
habitants; though by the diftiliation, as Mr Pennant
fuppofes, of their grain, they fometimes want. Bear
produces four or five fold, and oats three fold. Sloes are
the only fruits of the ifland. An acid for punch is here
made from the berries of the mountain-afh ; and a kind
of fpirit is alfo ditlilled from them. Necefiity hath in-
ftru&ed the inhabitants in the ufe of native dyes.
Thus, the juice of the tops of heath boiled, fupplie*
them with a yellow; the roots of the white wato lily,
with a dark-brown ; thofe of the yellow water-iris,
with a black; and the galium verum, ru of the iflanders,
with a very fine red, not inferior to madder. On the
hills is fome pafture for cattle; and the produce, when
Mr Pennant vifited the ifland, amounted to about 300
or 400 head of black cattle, fold annually, at 3I. each,
to graziers who come for them; about 10b horfes, alfo
fold annually ; a few Iheep with fleeces of a mod ex¬
cellent quality, and great numbers of goats. The o-
ther animals of Jura are about 100 (lags; though thefc
mud formerly have been much more numerous, as the
original name of the ifland was Deir-ay, or the ife of
deer, fo called by the Norwegians o . account of the
abundance of deer found in it. Here alfo Mr Pennant
had fome obfcure account of a worm that, in a lefs per¬
nicious degree, refembles the furia infernalis * of Lin¬
naeus. The fillan, a little worm of Jura, fmall as a *See
thread, and not an inch in length, infinuates itfelf un-
der the (kin, caufes a rednefs and great pain, flies fwift-
ly from place to place; but is cured by a poultice of
cheefe and honey. Of the mountains of Jura, thofe from
their (hape called the paps, are the mod remarkable.
There are only three very large ones; the biggeft, called
Beinn-an-oir, or tke mountain of gold, lies fartheft to the
north ; the fecond is ca\\z6 Beinn-Jheunta, ox the ballooned
mountain; and the third, Beinn-a-chaolois, ox the moun¬
tain of the found, is the lead of the three. Mr Pennant
afcended the firft with great labour and difficulty. It is
compofed of vaft (lones, covered with modes near the
bafe; but all above, bare and unconnected with each
other. The whole, he fays, feems a cairn, the work of
the fons of Saturn. The grandeur of the profpeft
from the top abundantly made amends for the fatigue
of afcending the mountain. Jura itfelf afforded a rtu-
pendous fcene of rock, varied with innumerable little
lakes. From the weft fide of the hill ran a narrow
ftripe of rock terminating in the fea, and called the
fide of the old hag. To the fouth appeared Hay ex¬
tended like a map beneath his feet ; and beyond that
the north of Ireland ; to the eaft two other iflands, .
Cantyre, Arran, and the frith of Clyde bounded by
Ayrffiire ; an amazing traft of mountains to the north-
eaft as far as Ben-lomond; Skarha finiffied the northern
view ; and over the weftern ocean were fcattered Co-
lonfay and Oranfay, Mull, Iona, and its neighbouring
ides; and dill further, the long extents of Tirey and
Col, juft apparent. The other paps are feen verydi-
ftinftly, but all of them inferior in height. Mr Banks
and his friends mounted that to the fouth, and found
the height to be 2359 feet; but this is far overtop¬
ped \>y Beinn-an-oir. The (tones of this mountain are
white.
J U R [ 3997 ] J u R
Jura white, a few red, quartzy, and compofed of fmall
!l grains; but fome are breciated, or filled with cryfial-
urieu' line kernels of an amethyftine colour. The other (tones
of the ifland are, a cinereous flate, veined with red, and
ufed here as a whet-ftone; a micaceous fand-ftone;
and between the fmall ides and Ardfin, a micaceous
quartzy rock-ftone. On the weft fide of the ifland
there is an anchoring-place called Whitfarlan ; towards
the north end is a bay called Da'l yaul; and on the
fame coaft is formed another riding-place for vefiels
among fevcral fmall iflartds. Between the north end of
Jura and the fmall ifle of Skarba, there is a famous
whirlpool, called Cory-Vrekan, from Brecan, fon to a
king of Denmark, who perifhed in this gulph. His
body being caft. aftiore on the north fide of Jura, was
buried in a cave, and his grave is (till diftinguiflied
by a tombftone and altar. In this vortex, which ex¬
tends about a mile in breadth, the fea begins to boil
and ferment with the tide of flood, increafing gradually
to a number of whirlpools, which, in the form of py¬
ramids, fpout up the water with a great noife, as high
as the maft of a fmall veflel, agitated into fuch a foam
as makes the fea appear white even at the diftance of
two leagues. About half flood the violence begins to
decreafe, and continues to do fo till about half an hour
after high-water: then it boils as before, till within an
hour of low-water, when the fmalleft fifhing-boat may
crofs it without danger.
Jura is furniflied with many rivulets and fprings of
excellent water, and the air is remarkably healthy; its
falubrity being increafed by the high fituation,. perpe¬
tually fanned by breezes. It is, however, but ill-peo¬
pled ; and did not contain above 700 or 800 inhabi¬
tants at the time it was vifited by Mr Pennant. The
women are prolific, and very often bear twins. The
inhabitants live to a great age, and are liable to few
diftempers. Men of 90 can work; and there was then
living a woman of 80, who could run down a (heep.
Then inhabitants are all Proteftants, but addifted to
fome fuperftitions. The parifh is fuppofed to be the
largeft in Great Britain, and the duty the moft dan¬
gerous and troublefome: it confifts of Jura, Oranfay,
Colonfay, Skarba, and feveral little ifles divided by
narrow and dangerous founds; forming a length of
not lefs than 60 miles; fupplied by only one minifter
and an afliftant.
The very Old'clans of Jura are the Mac-ifvuys, and
the Mac-raines: but it feems to have changed mafters
more than once. In 1549, Donald of Cantyre, Mac-
guillayne of Doward, Mac-guillayne of Kinloch-buy,
and Mac-dufEe of Golonfay, were the proprietors:
Mac-lean of Mull had alfo a ftiare in 1586. At prefent
it belongs to the duke of Argyle, Mr Macneil of Co¬
lonfay, and Mr Campbell of Shawfield.
IVREA, an ancient and ftrong town of Italy, in
Piedmont, and capital of Canavez, with a ftrong fort,
a bifhop’s fee, the title of a raarquifate, and an ancient
caftle. It is fubjeft to the king of Sardinia, and feat-
ed on the river Doria between two hills, in E. Long.
7. 48. N. Lat. 45. 12.
JURIED (Peter), an eminent French Proteftant di¬
vine, called ironically by the papifts the Goliath of the
Proteftants, was born in 1637. He was educated in
England under his maternal uncle Peter du Moulin,
and took orders in theEnglifh church; but, returning
Von. V,
to fucceed his father as paftor of a reformed congre- J'ftifcon.ul-
gation at Mer in the diocefe of Blois, he was made U,|s
profeflbr of divinity and Hebrew at Sedan, where he jury.
acquired great reputation. This univerfity being taken  
from the Proteftants, a profeflbrftdp of divinity was
founded for him at Rotterdam ; and was alfo ap¬
pointed minifter of the Walloon church in the fame
town : being now in a place of liberty, he gave full
fcope to an imagination naturally warm, and applied
himfelf to ftudy the book of Revelation, of which he
fancied he had by a kind of infpiration difcovered the
true meaning; a notion that led him to many enthufi-
aftical conjedlures. He was moreover fo unfortunate
as to quarrel with his beft friends for oppofing his.vi-
fionary opinions, which produced violent difputes be¬
tween him and Meflrs Bayle and de Beauval. He died
in 1713 ; and left a great number of efteemed works
behind him.
JURISCONSULTUS, (ICtus,) among the Ro¬
mans, was a perfon learned in the law; a mafter
of the Roman jurifprudence ; who was confulted on
the interpretation of the laws and cuftoms, and on
the difficult points in law-fuits. The fifteen books
of the digefts were compiled wholly from the an-
fwers or reports of the ancient jurifconfulti. Tribonia-
nus, in deftroying the 2000 volumes from whence
the code and digeft were taken, has deprived the
public of a world of things, which would have given
them light into the ancient office of the jurifconfulti.
We fhould fcarce have known any thing beyo'nd their
bare names, had not Pornponius, who lived in the fe-
cond century, taken care to preferve fome circumftances
of their office.
The Roman jurifconfulti feem to have been the fame
with our chamber-counfellors, who arrived at the ho¬
nour of being confulted, through age and experience,
but never pleaded at the bar. Their pleading advo¬
cates, or lawyers, never became jurifconfulti. See Ad¬
vocate.
In the times of the commonwealth, the advocati had
by much the more honourable employment, as being
in the ready way to attain the. higheft preferments.
They then defpifgd the jurifconfulti, calling them in
derifion formularii and legulei, as having invented cer¬
tain forms and monofyllables, in order to give their
anfwers the greater appearance of gravity and myftery.
But in procefs of time they became fo much efteemed,
that they were called prudentes and fapientes, and the
emperors appointed the judges to follow their advice.
Auguftus advanced them to be public officers of the
empire ; fo that they were no longer confined to the
petty councils of private perfons.—Bern. Rutilius has
written the lives of the moft famous jurifconfulti who
have lived within thefe 2.000 years..
JURISPRUDENCE, the feience of what is juft or
unjuft; or the knowledge of laws, rights, cuftoms, fta-
tutes, &c. neceffary for the adminiilration of juftice.
See Law.
JURY, a certain number of men fworn to inquire
into and try a matter of faft, and to declare the truth
upon fuch evidence as (hall appear before them.
Juries are, in thefe kingdoms, the fupreme judges
in all courts and in all caufes in which either the life,
property, or reputation, of any man is concerned: this
is the diftinguilhing privilege of every Briton, and one
22 S of
JUS [ 39
Jury of tlie mod glorious advantages of our conftitution ;
li for as every one is tried by his peers, the meanefl: fub-
. jeft is as fafe and as free as the greateft. See the ar¬
ticle Trial.
whatever is fet up in room of a maft
that has been bft in a ftorm or in an engagement, and
to which a Ipfl'er yard, ropes, and fails, are affixed.
JUS corona. See Hereditaryand Suc¬
cession.
Jus Deliberandi, in Scots law, that right which an
heir has, by law, of deliberating for a certain time
whether he will reprefent his predeceflbr. See Law,
NJ clxxx. 23.
Jus Devolutum, in Scots law, the right of the church,
of prefenting a minifter to a vacant parifh, in cafe the
patron fliall negledl to ufe that right within the time
limited by law. See Law, N° clix. 9.
Jus Mariti, in Scots law, the right the hufband ac¬
quires to his wife’s moveable eftate, in virtue of the
marriage. See Law, N° clx. 7.—11.
Jus Relittx, in Scots law, the right the wife has in
the goods in communion, in cafe of the previous de-
ceafe of the huffiand. See Law, ibid.
Jus Preeventionis, in Scots law, the preferable right
of jtirifdiftion acquired by a court, in any caufe to
which other courts are equally competent, by having
exercifcd the firft aft of jurifdiftion. See Law,
N° clvi. 5.
JUST, a fpoitive kind of combat on horfeback, man
againft man, armed with lances. The word is by
fome derived from the French joujle, of the Latin juxta,
becaufe the combatants fought near one another. Sal-
roafius derives it from the modern Greek zoujlra, or
rather rjarf*, which is ufed in this fenfe by Nicepho-
rus Gregorius. Others derive it from jujla, which in
the corrupt age of the Latin tongue was ufed for this
exercife, by reafon it was fuppofed a more juft and
equal combat than the tournament.
The difference between jufts and tournaments con-
fifts in this, that the latter is the genus, of which the
former is only a fpecies. Tournaments included all
kinds of military fports and engagements made out
of gallantry and diverfion: Jufts were thofe particu¬
lar combats where the parties were near each other,
and engaged with lance and fword. Add, that the tour¬
nament was frequently performed by a number of ca¬
valiers, who fought in a body : The juft was a Jingle
combat of one man againft another.—Though the jufts
were ufually made in tournaments, after a general ren¬
counter of all the cavaliers, yet they were fometimes
fingly, and independent of any tournament. See Tour¬
nament.
He who appeared for the firft time at a juft, for¬
feited his helm or cafque, unlefs he had forfeited be¬
fore at a tournament.
JUSTEL (Chriftopher), a learned counfellor, and
fecretary to the French king, was born at Paris, in
1580, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of ecclefiaftical
hiftory. He maintained a correfpondence with the
moft learned men of his time, as archbifhop Uftier,
Sir Henry Spelman, Blondel, &c. till his death, which
happened in 1649. He wrote, 1. The code of the
canons of the church univerfal, and the councils of A-
ftica, with notes. 2. A genealogical hiftory of the
houfe of Auvergne. And, 3. Colleftions of Greek
>8 ] JUS
and Latin canons, from feveral manufcripts, which -Juftiee.'
formed the Bibliotheca juris canonici veteris, publifh-   
ed in 2 vols folio, by William Voet and our author’s
fon.
Justel (Henry), fon of the foregoing, was born at
Paris in 1620. He became fecretary and counfellor
to the king; and was as diftinguifhed for his own learn¬
ing, as remarkable for encouraging it in others. He
came to London in 1681, on the pcrfecution of the
Proteftants; and was made keeper of the royal library
at St James’s : which office he held till his death in
1693, when he was fucceeded by the famous Dr Bent¬
ley. He wrote feveral books, the titles of which may¬
be feen in the Catalogue of the Bodleian library.
JUSTICE, in a moral fenfe, is one of the four car¬
dinal virtues, which gives every perfon his due.
Justice, in a legal fenfe, a perfon deputed by the
king to adminifter juftice to his fubjefts, whofe autho¬
rity arifes from his deputation, and not by right of ma-
giftracy.
Fountain 0/Justice, ohc of the charafters or attri¬
butes of the king. See Prerogative.
By the fountain of juftice the law does not mean the
author or original, but only the diftrtbutor. Juftice is
not derived from the king, as from his free gift; but
he is the fteward of the public, to difpenfe it to whom
it is due. He is not the fpring, but the refervoir ;
from whence right and equity are condufted, by a
thoufand channels, to every individual. The original
power of judicature, by the fundamental principles of
fociety, is lodged in the fociety at large: but as it
would be imprafticable to render complete juftice to
every individual, by the people in their colleftive ca¬
pacity, therefore every nation has committed that
power to certain feleft magiftrates, who with more eafe
and expedition can hear and determine complaints ;
and in England this authority has immemorially been
exercifed by the king or his fubftitutes. He therefore
has alone the right of erefting courts of judicature :
for, though the conftitution of the kingdom hath en-
trufted him with the whole executive power of the
laws, it is impoffible, as well as improper, that he
Jhould perfonally carry into execution this great and
extenfive truft : it is confequently neceffary, that courts
Jhould be erefted, to affift him in executing this power;
and equally neceffary, that, if erefted, they Jhould be
erefted by his authority. And hence it is, that all
jurifdiftions of courts are either mediately or imme¬
diately derived from the crown, their proceedings run
generally in the king’s name, they pafs under his feal,
and are executed by his officers.
It is probable, and almofL certain, that in very ear¬
ly times, before our conftitution arrived at its full per-
feftion, our kings in perfon often heard and deter¬
mined caufes between party and party. But at pre-
fent, by the long and uniform ufage of many ages,
our kings have delegated their whole judicial power to
the judges of their feveral courts ; which are the grand
depofitary of the fundamental laws of the kingdom,
and have gained a known and Rated jurifdiftion, re¬
gulated by certain and eftablifhed rules, which the
crown itfelf cannot now alter but by aft of parliament. *
And, in order to maintain both the dignity and inde¬
pendence of the judges in the fuperior courts, it is en-
afted by the ftatute 13 W. III. c. 2. that their com-
miffions
jus [ 3999 ] JUS
uftice. iriiffions thall he made (not, as formerly, durante bene
"placito, but) quamdiu bene fe gejferint, and their fa-
laries afeertained and eftablifhed ; but that it may be
lawful to remove them on theaddrefs of both houfesof
parliament. And now, by the noble improvements cf
that law in the ftatute of I Geo. III. c. 23. enadted
at the earned recommendation of the king himfelf
from the throne, the judges are continued in their of¬
fices during their good behaviour, notwithftanding any
demife of the crown (which was formerly held imme-
mediately to vacate their feats), and their full falaries
are abfolutely fecured to them during the continuance
of their commifiions ; his majedy having been pleafed
to declare, that “ he looked upon the independence
and uprightnefs of the judges, as effential to the im¬
partial adminiftration of juftice ; as one of the bed
fecurities of the rights and liberties of his fubje&sj
and as mod conducive to the honour of the crown.”
In criminal proceedings, or profecutions for offen¬
ces, it would dill be a higher abfurdity, if the king
perfonally fat in judgment ; becaufe in regard to thefe
he appears in another capacity, that ofprofecutcr. All
offences are either againd the king’s peace, or his
crown and dignity; and are fo laid in every indift-
ment. For though in their confequences they gene¬
rally feem (except in the cafe of treafon and a very few
others) to be rather offences againd the kingdom than
the king ; yet, as the public, which is an invifible bo¬
dy, has delegated all its power and rights, with regard
to the execution of the laws, to one vifible magidrate,
all affronts to that power, and breaches of thofe rights,
are immediately offences againd him, to whom they
are fo delegated by the public. He is therefore the
proper perfon to profecute for all public offences and
breaches of the peace, being the perfon injured in the
eye of the law. And this notion was carried fo far in
the old Gothic conditution, (wherein the king was
bound by his coronation oath to conferve the peace),
that in cafe of any forcible injury offered to the perfon
of a fellow-fubjeft, the offender was accufed of a kind
of perjury, in having violated the king’s coronation
oath ; dicebatur fregijfe juramentum regie juratum.
And hence alfo arifes another branch of the preroga¬
tive, that of pardoning offences ; for it is reafonable,
that he only who js injured (liould have the power of
forgiving. See Pardon.
In this didinft and feparate exidence of thejudicial
power, in a peculiar body of men, nominated indeed,
but not removeable at pleafure, by the crown, confids
one main' prefervative of the public liberty ; which
cannot fubfid long in any date, unlefs the adminidra-
tion of common juftt.ee be in fame degree feparated
both from the legiflatiye and alfo from the executive
power. Were it joined with the legiflative, the life,
liberty, and property, of the fubjeft would be in the
hands of arbitrary judges, whofe decifions would be
then regulated only by their own opinions, and not
by any fundamental principles of law; which, though
Jrgifiators may depart from, yet judges are bound to
obferve. Were it joined with the executive, this union
might foon be an over-balance for the legidative. For
which reafon, by the ftatute of 16 Car. I. c. 10. which
aboliihed the court of ftar-chamber, effectual care is
taken to remove all judicial power out of the hands of
the. king’s privy-council; who, as then was evident
from recent inftances, might fqon be inclined to pro¬
nounce that for law, which was mod agreeable to the
prince or his officers. Nothing therefore is more to
be avoided in a free conftitution, than uniting the pro¬
vinces of a judge and a minifterof date. And indeed,
that the abfolute power, claimed and exercifed in a
neighbouring nation, is more tolerable than that of
the eaftern empires, is in a great meafure owing to
their having vefted thejudicial power in their parlia¬
ments, a body feparate and didinsSt from both the le¬
giflative and executive: and, if ever that nation reco¬
vers its former liberty, it will owe it to the efforts of
thofe affemblies. In Turky, where every thing is cen¬
tered in the fultan or his minifters, defpotic power is
in its meridian, and wears a more dreadful afpeft.
A confequence of this prerogative is the legal ubi¬
quity of the king. His majefty, in the eye of the law,
is always prefent in all his courts, though he cannot
perfonally diftribute juftice. His judges are the mir¬
ror by which the king’s image is refledted. It is the
regal office, and not the royal perfon, that is always
prefent in court, always ready to undertake profecu¬
tions, or pronounce judgment, for the benefit and
prote&ion of the fubjecl. And from this ubiquity it
follows, that the king can never be nonfuit; for a
nonfuit is the defertion of the fuit or adion by the non-
appearance of the plaintive in court. For the fame
reafon alfo, in the forms of legal proceedings, the
king is not faid to appear by his attorney, as other
men do ; for he always appears, in contemplation of
law, in his own proper perfon.
From the fame original, of the king’s being the
fountain of juftice, we may alfo deduce the preroga¬
tive of iffuing proclamations, which is vefted in the
king alone. See Proclamation..
JUSTICIA, malabar-nut ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the diandrS olafs of
plants. There are xqfpecies, all of them natives of
the Eaft Indies, growing many feet high; fome a-
dorned with fine large leaves, others with fmall nar¬
row ones, and all of them with monopetalous ringent
flowers. Only two fpecies are cultivated in our gar¬
dens, viz. the adhatoda or common Malabar-nut,
and the hyffopifolia or fnap-tree. The firft grows ten
or twelve feet high, with a ftrong woody ftem, branch¬
ing out widely all around ;, having large, lanceolate,
oval leaves, placed oppofite ; and from the ends of the
branches fhort fpikes of white flowers, with darkfpots,-
having the helmet of the corolla concave. ..The fecond
hath a flrrubby ftem branching from the bottom pyra¬
midally three or four feet high; fpear-fhaped, nar¬
row, entire leaves, growing oppofite; and white flowers,
commonly by threes, from the fides of the branches ;
fucceeded by capfules, which burft open with elaftic
force for the difeharge of the feeds ; whence the name
offnap'tree. Both fpecies flower here in fummer, but
never produce any fruit. They are propagated by
layers and cuttings, and require the fame treatment
with other tender exotics.
JUSTICIAR, in the old Englilh laws, an officer
inftituted by William the Conqueror, as the chief of¬
ficer'of ftate,. who principally determined in all cafes
civil and criminal. He was called in Latin Capitalis
JuJliciarius totius Anglix. For Justiciar in Scot¬
land, fee Law, N° clvi. 10.—12.
22 S 2 JU-
JUS [ 4000 ] JUT
Jufticiary JUSTICIARY, or Court of Justiciary, in Scot-
J|_ land. See Law, N° clvi. 10—12.
Juftinian. JUSTIN, a celebrated hiftorian, lived, according
to the molt probable opinion, in the fecond century,
under the reign of Antoninus Pius. He wrote, in
elegant Latin, an abridgement of the hiftory of Tro-
gus Pompeius; comprehending the a&ions of almoft
all nations, from Ninus the founder of the AfTyrian
empire, to the emperor Auguftus. The original
work, to the regret of the learned, is loft: this a-
bridgement, being written in a polite and elegant
ftyle, was probably the reafon why that age negleded
the original. The beft editions of Juftin are, ad ufum
- Delphini, in 4to, and cum noth variorum et Gronovii,
in 8vo.
Justin (St.) commonly called jfyfrfnfyr, one
of the earlieft and moft learned writers of the eaftern
church, was born at Neapolis, the ancient Sechem of
Paleftine. His father Prifcus, a Gentile Greek, brought
him up in his own religion, and had him educated in
all the Grecian learning. To complete his ftudies he
travelled to Egypt; and followed the feft of Plato,
with whofe intelledlual notions he was much pleafed.
But one day, walking by the fea-fide, wrapt in con¬
templation, he was met by a grave ancient perfon,
of a venerable afpedt; who, falling into difcourfe with
him, turned the converfation by degrees from the ex¬
cellence of Platonifm to the fuperior perfeftion of
Cbriftianity ; and reafoned fo well, as to raife in him
an ardent curiofity to inquire into the merits of that
religion; in conf'equence of which inquiry, he was
converted about the year 132. On his embracing
that religion, he quitted neither the profefiion nor the
habit of a philofopher: but a perfecution breaking
out under Antoninus, he compofed An apology for the
ChriJUans ; and afterwards prefented another to the
emperor Marcus Aurelius, in which he vindicated the
innocence and holinefs of the Chriftian religion, againft
Crefcens, a Cynic philofopher, and other calumnia¬
tors. He did honour to Chriftianity by his learning
and the purity of his manners ; and fuffered martyr¬
dom in 167. Bcfides his two Apologies, there are
ilill extant his Dialogue with Trypho, a Jew; two
treatifes addreffed to the Gentiles, and another on the
unity of God. Other works are alfo afcribed to him.
The beft editions of St Juftin are thofe of Robert
Stephens, in 1551 and 1571, in Greek and Latin:
that of Morel, in Greek and Latin, in 1656 ; and that
of Don Prudentius Marandus, a learned Benedi&ine,
in 1742, in folio. His llyle is plain, and void of all
ornament.
JUSTINIAN I. fon of Juftin the elder, was made
Csefar and Auguftus in 527, and foon after emperor.
He conquered the Perfians by Belifarius his general,
and exterminated the Vandals; regained Africa ; fub-
dued the Goths in Italy; defeated the Moors ; and
reftored the Roman empire to its primitive glory. See
(Hiftory of) Constantinople, n° 98,— IC2. and
Italy, n° 12. &c..
The empire being now in the full enjoyment of a
profound peace and tranquillity, Juftinian made the
beft; nfe of it, by colledling the immenfe variety and
number of the Roman laws into one body. To this
end, he feledled ten of the moft able lawyers in the
empire ; who, reviling the Gregorian, Theodoiian,
and Hermogenian codes, compiled one body, called JuftiuU *1
Codex JuJlinianus. This may be called thefiatute II
law, as confifting of the refcripts of the emperors. Jut and'
But the redu&ion of the other part was a much more
difficult talk : it was made up of the decifions of the
judges and other magiftrates, together with the au¬
thoritative opinions of the moft eminent lawyers ; all
which lay fcattered, without any order, in no lefs than
2000 volumes and upwards. Thefe were reduced to
the number of 50; but ten years were fpent in the re-
du&ion. However, the delign was completed in the
year 553, and the name of Digejis or Pandells given
to it. Befides thefe, for the ufe chiefly of young {In¬
dents in the law to facilitate that ftudy, Juftinian or¬
dered four books of inftitutes to. be drawn up, con¬
taining an abftradl or abridgement of the text of all
the laws : and, laftly, the laws of modern date, pofte-
rior to that of the former, were thrown into one vo¬
lume in the year 541, called the Novella, or New
Code.
This emperor died in the year 565, aged 83, in
the 39th of his reign, after having built a great num¬
ber of churches; particularly the famous San&a So¬
phia at Conftantinople, which is efteemed a mafter-
piece of architedlure.
JUSTINIANI (St Laurence), the firft patriarch
ofVenice, was born there, of a noble family, in 1381.
He was a very pious prelate, and died in 1485; he
left feveral pieces of piety, which were printed toge¬
ther at Lyons in 1568, in one volume folio, with his
life prefixed by his nephew. Clement VII. beatified
him in 1524, andhe was canonized by Alexander VIIL
in 1690.
Justiniani (Bernard), was born at Venice in
1408. He obtained the fenator’s robe at the age of
19, ferved the republic in feveral embaffies, and was
defied procurator of St Mark in 1474. He was a
learned man, and wrote the hiftory of Venice, with
fome other works of confidcrable merit; and died
in 1498.
Justiniani (Auguftin), bilhop of Nebo, one of
the moft learned men of his time, was defeended from
a branch of the fame noble family with the two fore¬
going; and was born at Genoa in 1480. He affilled
at the fifth council of Latcran, where he oppofed fome
articles of the concordat between France and the
court of Rome. Francis I. of France made him his
almoner; and he was for five years regius profeflbr of
Hebrew at Paris. He returned to Genoa in 1522,
where he difeharged all the duties of a good prelate;
and learning and piety flourilhed in his diocefe. He
perilhed at fea in his palfage from Genoa torNebbio,
in 1536. He compofed feveral pieces; themoftcon-
fiderable of which is, Pfalterium Hebraum, Gracum,
Arahicum, et Chaldaum, cu?n tribus Latinis inter-
pretationibus et gloffts. This was the firft pfalter
of the kind printed; and there is alfo afcribed to
the fame prelate a tranflation of Maimonides’s More
Nevochim.
JUTES, the ancient inhabitants of Jutland in
Denmark.
JUTLAND, a large peninfula, which makes the:
principal part of the kingdom of Denmark. It is
bounded on the fouth-eaft by the duchy of Holftein,
and is furrounded on the other fides by the German
ocean
J U V [ 4001 ] I X I
Juvenal, ocean and the Baltic fea. It is about 180 miles in
[uvencus. length from north to fouth, and 50 in breadth from
eaft to weft. The air is very cold, but wholefome ;
and the foil is fertile in corn and paftures, which feed
a great number of beeves, that are fent to Germany,
Holland, and elfewhere. This was anciently called
the Cimbrian Chsrfonefus, and is fuppofed to be the
country from whence the Saxons came into England.
It is divided into two parts, called North and South Jut¬
land : the latter is the duchy of Slefwick, and lies
between North Jutland and the duchy of Holftein ;
and the duke of that name is in poffeffion of part of
it, whofe capital town is Gottorp, for which reafon
the fovereign is called the duke of Hclftein Gottorp.
JUVENAL (Decius Junius), the celebrated Ro¬
man fatyrift, was born about the beginning of the
emperor Claudian’s reigri, at Aquinum in Campania.
His father was probably a freed-man, who, being
rich, gave him a liberal education, and, agreeably to
the tafte of the times, bred him up to eloquence ; in
which he made a great progrefs, iirft under Pronto
the grammarian, and afterwards, as is generally con-
je&ured, under Quintilian ; after which he attended
the bar, and made a diftinguilhed figure there for
many years by his eloquence. In the pra&ice of
this profelfion he had improved his fortune and intereft
at Rome before he turned his thoughts to poetry,
the very ftyle of which, in his fatires, fpeaks a long
habit of declamation fulattum redolent declaniatorem,
fay the critics. It is faid, he was above 40 years of
age when he recited his firft efiay to a fmall audience
of his friends; but, being encouraged by their ap-
plaufe, he ventured a greater publication: which
reaching the ears of Paris, Domitian’s favourite at
that time, though but a pantomime player, whom our
fatyrift. had feverely infulted, that minion made his
complaint to the emperor; who fent him thereupon
into banilhment, under pretence of giving him the
command of a cohort in the army, which was quar¬
tered at Pentapolis, a city upon the frontiers of E-
gypt and Libya.
After Domitian’s death, our fatirift returned to Rome,
fufficiently cautioned, not only againft attacking the
characters of thofe in power, under arbritrary princes,
but againft all perfonal reflections upon the great men
then living; and therefore he thus wifely concludes
the debate he is fuppofed to have maintained for a
while, with a friend, on this head, in the firft fatire,
which feems to be the firft that he wrote after his ba¬
nilhment :
Experiar quid concedatur in illos
Quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.
“ I will try what liberties I may be allowed with
tbofe whofe alhes lie under the Flaminian and Latin
ways,” along each fide of which the Romans of the
firft quality ufed to be buried.—It is believed that he
lived till the reign of Adrian, in 128. There are
ftill extant 16 of his fatires, in which he difeovers
great wit, ftrength, and keennefs in his language:
but his ftyle is not perfeftly natural, and the obfee-
nities with which thefe fatires were filled render the
reading of them dangerous to youth.
JUVENCUS (Caius Vedicus Aquilinus), one of
the firft of the Chriftian poets, was born of an illuft-
rious family in Spain. About the year 320 he put
the life of Jefus Chrift into Latin verfe, of which he Jnxoir,
compofed four books. In this work he followed al- Jxia‘
moft word for word the text of the four evanoelifts:
but his verfes are written in a bad tafte ; and bis La¬
tin is not pure.
JUXON (Dr William), born at Chicefter in 1682,
was"bred at Merchant-Taylor’s fchool, and from
thence eleCted into St John’s college, Oxford, of
which he became prefident. King Charles I. made
him bilhop of London; and, in 1635, promoted him
to the poll of lord high treafurer of England. The
whole nation, and efpecially the nobility, were greatly
offended at this high office being given to a clergy¬
man ; but he behaved fo well in the adminiftration, as
foon put a flop to all the clamour raifed againft him.
This place he held no longer than the 17th of May
1641, when he prudently refigned the ftaff, to avoid
the itorm which then threatened the court and the
clergy. In the following February, an aft paffed de¬
priving the bilhops of their votes in parliament, and
incapacitating them from any temporal jurifdiftion.
In thefe leading fteps, as well as the total abolition of
the epifcopal order which followed, he was involved
with his brethren ; but neither as bifhop nor as trea¬
furer was a Angle accufation brought againft him in
the long parliament. During the civil wars, he refided
at his palace at Fulham, where his meek, inoffenfive,
and genteel behaviour, notwithftanding his remaining
fteady in his loyalty to the king, procured him the vi-
fits of the principal perfons of the oppofite party, and
refpeft from all. In 1648, he attended on his maje-
fty at the treaty in the ifle of Wight; and, by his
particular defire, waited upon him at Cotton-houfe,
Weftminfter, the day after the commencement of his
trial; during which he frequently viiited him in the
office of a fpiritual father, and his majefty declared he
was thegreateft comfort to him in that affliftive fitua-
tion. He likewife attended his majefty on the fcaf-
fold, where the king taking off his cloak and George,
gave him the latter : after the execution, our pious
bifhop took care of the body, which he accompanied
to the royal chapel at Windfor, and flood ready with
the common-prayer book in his hands, to perform the
laft ceremony for the king ; but was prevented by co¬
lonel Whichcot, governor of the caftle.—He conti¬
nued in the quiet poffeffion of Fulham-palace till the
enfuing year 1649, when he was deprived, having been
fpared longer than any of his brethren. He then re¬
tired to his own eftate in Gloucefterftiire, where he li¬
ved in privacy, till the reftoration, when he was pre-
fented to the fee of Canterbury ; and in the little time
he enjoyed it, expended, in buildings and reparations
at Lambeth-palace and Croydon-houfe, near 15,000!.
He died in 1663 ; having bequeathed 7000I. to St
John’s college, and to other charitable ufes near
50001. He publiffied a Sermon on Luke xviiii. 31. and
Some conf derations upon the a£i of uniformity.
IVY, in'botany. See Hedera.
IXIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There are
feveral fpecies, confiftin'g of herbaceous, tuberous, and
bulbous-rooted flowery perennials, from one to two
feet high, terminated by hexpetalous flowers of diffe¬
rent colours. They are propagated by off-fets, which
ffiould be taken off in fummer at the decay of the
leaves:
J Y N [ 4002 ] J Y N
Ix’ion, leaves: but es all the plants of this genus are natives
Jy"*- of warm climates, f^w of them can bear the open air of
this country in winter.
IXION, in fabulous hiftory, king of the Lapithae,
married Dia the daughter of Deionius, to whom he
xefufed to give the cutlomary nuptial prefents. Deio-
nius in revenge took from him his horfes: when Ixion,
diffembling his refentment, invited his father-in-law to
a feaft, and made him fall through a trap-door into a
burning furnace, in which he was immediately con-
fumed. Ixion being afterwards (tung with remorfe
for his cruelty, ran mad; on which Jupiter, in com¬
panion, not only forgave him, but took him up into
heaven, where he had the impiety to endeavour to
corrupt Juno. Jupiter, to be the better aflured of
bis guilt, formed a cloud in the refemblance of the
goddefs, upon which Ixion begat the centaurs: but
boafting of his happinefs, Jove hurled him down to
Tartarus, where he lies fixed on a wheel encompaffed
with ferpents, which turns without ceafing.
JYNX, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of accipitres. Of this genus there is only
ene known fpecies,called,Trom its Angular manner of
twilting its head about, wry-neck. “ Nature, (fays Mr
Pennant), by the elegance of its penciling the colours
cf this bird, hath made ample amends for their want
of fplendor. Its plumage is marked with the plameft
kinds. A lift of black and ferruginous ftrokes divides
the top of the head and back. The fides of the head
and neck are alh-coloured, beautifully traverfed with
fine lines of black and reddifh brown. The quill-
feathers are dufky; but each web is marked with ruft-
coloured fpots. The chin and breaft are of a light yel- Jyn
lowilh brown, adorned with lharp pointed bars of black.*
The tail confifts of ten feathers, broad at their ends
and weak; of a pale alh colour, powdered with black
and red, and njarked with four equidiftant bars of black.
The tongue is long and cylindric; for the fame ufe as
that of the woodpecker. The toes are alfo difpofed
the fame way. The bill is Ihort, weak, and a little ar¬
cuate. The irides are of a yellowilh hazel.
“ The wry-neck we believe to be a bird of pafiage,
appearing here in the fpring before the cuckoo. The
Welfh confider it as the forerunner or fervant of that
bird, and call it G<was y gog, or the cuckoo’s attendant:
the Swedes regard it in the fame light. The food of
this fpecies is infefts ; but chiefly ants, for on exami¬
nation we found the ftomach of one filled with their
remains. As the tongue of this bird, like that of the
ant-bear or tamandria, is of an enormous length ; it
poffibly not only makes ufe of it to pick thofe infers
out of their retreat, but like that quadruped may lay
it zcrbfs their path, and when covered with ants draw
it into its mouth. Jts weight is one ounce and a quar¬
ter: the length feven inches; the breadth 1 J. It takes
its name from a manner it has of turning its head bapk
to the {boulders; efpecially when terrified: it has alfo
the faculty of ere&ing the feathers of the head like
thofe of the jay. Its note is like that of the keflril, a
quick-repeated fqueak. Its eggs are white, and have
fo thin a {hell that the yolk may be feen through it.
This bird builds in the hollows of trees, making its
neft of dry grafs, in which we have counted nine
young.
END OF THE FIFTH VOLUME.
Directions for placing the Plates in this Volume.
Number of
Plates.
129, or Plate CXV.
4-130
13*
132
-f 133
to
151
152
*53
154
155
156
157
158
159
Page 3222
3257
336°/'
3368
3372
342ox'
3468
3474
Number of
Plates.
160, or Plate CXLIV. To face
161 CXLV.
162 CXLVI.
163 CXLVII. - * -
164 CXLVIII.
165 CXLIX. 7
166 CL. 5
167 CLI.
168 2d CLI.
169
170
171
172
173
174
CLII.
CLIII.
CLIV.
CLV.
CLVI.
CLVII
Page J586
3588.
3594
3600
- 36°4
3610 "*
3612 -
3688
3784 "
3796.-
3836
In all, 46 Plates for this Volume,
N. B. Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX at the end ef theWork
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